Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Perth Airport (Schottland)

2011-09-26T22:09:47Z

Angusmclellan: link Air Service Training

{{Infobox airport
| name = Perth Airport
| nativename = Perth (Scone) Airport
| nativename-a =
| nativename-r =
| image = Perth_airport_1.jpg
| image-width =
| caption =
| IATA = PSL
| ICAO = EGPT
| type = Public
| owner =
| operator = ACS Aviation Ltd
| city-served = Perth, Scotland
| location =
| elevation-f = 397
| elevation-m = 121
| latd = 56 | latm = 26 | lats = 21 | latNS = N
| longd= 003 | longm= 22 | longs= 20 | longEW= W
| coordinates_type = airport
| coordinates_region = GB-PKN
| pushpin_map = Scotland Perth and Kinross
| pushpin_label = EGPT
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Perth and Kinross
| website = [http://www.perthairport.eu/ www.perthairport.eu/]
| metric-rwy = Y
| r1-number = 03/21
| r1-length-f = 2,799
| r1-length-m = 853
| r1-surface = [[Asphalt]]
| r2-number = 09/27
| r2-length-f = 1,998
| r2-length-m = 609
| r2-surface = Asphalt
| r3-number = 15/33
| r3-length-f = 2,034
| r3-length-m = 620
| r3-surface = [[Grass]]
| stat-year =
| stat1-header =
| stat1-data =
| stat2-header =
| stat2-data =
| footnotes = Sources: UK [[Aeronautical Information Publication|AIP]] at [[National Air Traffic Services|NATS]]<ref name="aip">[http://www.nats-uk.ead-it.com/public/index.php%3Foption=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=118&Itemid=167.html Perth/Scone - EGPT]</ref>
}}

'''Perth Airport''' {{airport codes|PSL|EGPT}} is a general aviation [[airport]] located at [[Scone, Scotland|New Scone]], {{convert|3|NM|abbr=on|lk=in}} northeast<ref name="aip"/> of [[Perth, Scotland]]. The airport used by private and business aircraft, and for [[flight training|pilot training]]. There are no commercial scheduled flights from the airport.

Perth Aerodrome has a [[Civil Aviation Authority (United Kingdom)|CAA]] Ordinary Licence (Number P823) that allows flights for the public transport of passengers or for flying instruction as authorised by the licensee (Morris Leslie Limited).<ref>[http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/375/srg_asd_ordinarylicences.pdf Civil Aviation Authority Aerodrome Ordinary Licences]</ref>

==History==
[[Image:G NFLC Taxying to its final resting place sized.jpg|thumb|left|Above a Jetsream, G-NFLC, arrives to be used as an instructional airframe by AST. In the background is the original hangar 1, which dates back to the 1930s.]]
The airport opened in 1936 as '''Scone Aerodrome'''. A flight training school, training military pilots, was established by [[Airwork Services|Airwork Ltd]] shortly after the airport was opened. Before the war a number of scheduled airline services operated from Perth to various domestic locations. After the war Airwork moved into [[Pilot licensing in the United Kingdom|civilian pilot training]].

By 1960 Airwork acquired [[Air Service Training]] (AST) an engineering training school, which it relocated from the south of England to the airport. The whole operation took on the AST name. AST gained a world wide reputation for aviation training, being known as Britain's Air University. Students of more than 100 countries have been trained at Perth. Following a worldwide downturn in aviation, AST pulled out of pilot training in 1996. The site was then bought by Morris Leslie Ltd.

Perth Airport remains Scotland's main airport for general aviation and is the base of the Scottish Aero Club which was founded in 1927. The airport is home to [[flight training]] organisations providing, private and commercial fixed and rotary winged flight training, micro light and autogyro training. The site is also home to an aircraft maintenance company and has numerous other non aviation related businesses.

AST, which is now part of [[Perth College]], retains a presence at the airport and continues to offer [[Aerospace engineering|aeronautical engineering]] courses. AST has recently announced a returned to Airline Pilot training in 2011.

[[Image:Scone 1.jpg|thumb|Perth Airport [[Air Traffic Control Tower]].]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
*Allan, James (2002). Wings Over Scotland. Tervor. ISBN 0-9538191-1-6
*[http://www.scottishaeroclub.org.uk Scottish Aero Club]
*[http://www.airservicetraining.co.uk Air Service Training]

==External links ==
*[http://www.perthairport.eu/ Perth Airport]
*[http://www.perthmet.net/html/summary.html Perth Airport Webcam and Weather]
*[http://acsflighttraining.co.uk/ Perth Airport Operator]

{{Airports in Scotland}}
{{Airports in the United Kingdom}}

[[Category:Airports in Scotland]]
[[Category:Perth, Scotland]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Perth, Scotland]]

[[pms:Perth Airport (Scòssia)]]

Kriegsroman

2011-06-10T19:25:21Z

Angusmclellan: Disambiguate If Not Now, When? to If Not Now, When? (novel) using popups

A '''war novel''' is a [[novel]] in which the primary action takes place in a field of armed [[combat]], or in a domestic setting (or [[home front]]) where the [[Fictional character|characters]] are preoccupied with the preparations for, or recovery from, [[war]]. It is sometimes referred to as '''military fiction'''.

==History of the war novel==
===Origins===
The war novel's main roots lie in the [[epic poetry]] of the [[Classics|classical]] and [[medieval]] periods, especially [[Homer]]'s ''[[The Iliad]]'', [[Virgil]]'s ''[[The Aeneid]]'', the [[Old English]] saga ''[[Beowulf]]'', and different versions of the legends of [[King Arthur]]. All of these epics were concerned with preserving the [[history]] or [[mythology]] of conflicts between different societies, while providing an accessible narrative that could reinforce the [[collective memory]] of a people. Other important influences on the war novel included the [[tragedies]] of such dramatists as [[Euripides]], [[Seneca the Younger]], [[Christopher Marlowe]], and [[Shakespeare]]. Shakespeare's ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' provided a model for how the history, [[military tactics|tactics]], and [[ethics]] of war could be combined in an essentially fictional framework. [[Romance (genre)|Romance]]s and [[satire]]s in [[Early Modern Europe]]--[[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' and [[Miguel de Cervantes]]'s ''[[Don Quixote]]'', to name two of many—also contained elements of military heroism and folly that influenced the later development of war novels. In terms of [[imagery (literature)|imagery]] and [[symbol]]ism, many modern war novels (especially those espousing an [[anti-war]] viewpoint) take their cue from [[Dante]]'s depiction of [[Hell]] in ''[[Divine Comedy|The Inferno]]'', [[John Milton]]'s account of the war in [[Heaven]] in ''[[Paradise Lost]]'', and the [[Apocalypse]] as depicted in the ''[[Book of Revelation]]''.

As the [[prose]] fiction novel rose to prominence in the seventeenth century, the war novel began to develop its modern form, although most novels featuring war were [[picaresque]] satires in which the [[soldier]] was rakish rather than realistic figure. An example of one such work is [[Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen]]'s ''[[Simplicissimus]]'', a semi-autobiographical account of the [[Thirty Years' War]].

===19th century war novels===
The war novel came of age during the nineteenth century. Works such as [[Stendhal]]'s ''[[The Charterhouse of Parma]]'', featuring the [[Battle of Waterloo]], [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[War and Peace]]'', about the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in [[Russia]], and [[Stephen Crane]]'s ''[[The Red Badge of Courage]]'', about the [[American Civil War]] established the conventions of the modern war novel as it has come down to us today. All of these works feature realistic depictions of major [[battle]]s, visceral scenes of wartime horrors and atrocities, and significant insights into the nature of [[heroism]], [[cowardice]], and [[morality]] in wartime.

An important sub-genre of war fiction included works about war between European settlers and [[Aboriginal Peoples]] in North America, seen for instance in the novels of [[James Fenimore Cooper]] and Major [[John Richardson (author)|John Richardson]]. In the late nineteenth century and into the twentieth, the war novel also entered the realm of [[popular fiction]] through the adventurous war novels of [[Ralph Connor]], [[G. A. Henty]], and [[Rudyard Kipling]]. These latter novelists emphasized the heroic and patriotic aspects of war. They were the last war novelists to write with a blatantly [[imperialist]] or [[Romanticism|romantic]] mindset, an outlook that became ever-harder to espouse in the wake of the industrial wars and [[genocide]]s of the twentieth century.

===World War I and after===
[[World War I]] produced an unprecedented number of war novels, by writers from countries on all sides of the conflict. One of the first and most influential of these was the 1916 novel ''Le Feu'' (or ''[[Under Fire (novel)|Under Fire]]'') by the [[France|French]] novelist and soldier [[Henri Barbusse]]. Barbusse's novel, with its open criticism of [[nationalist]] dogma and military incompetence, initiated the anti-war movement in literature that flourished after the war.

Of equal significance is the autobiographical work of Ernst Junger, "Storm of Steel". Distinctly separate from novels like Barbusse's and Remarque's, Junger instead writes of the war as a valiant hero who embraced combat and brotherhood in spite of the horror. The work not only provides for an under-represented perspective of the War, but it also gives insight into the German sentiment that they were never actually defeated in the First World War.

The post-1918 period produced a vast range of war novels, including such "home front" novels as [[Rebecca West]]'s ''[[The Return of the Soldier]]'', about a [[shell shock]]ed soldier's difficult re-integration into British society; [[Romain Rolland]]'s ''[[Clérambault (novel)|Clérambault]]'', about a grieving father's enraged protest against French [[militarism]]; and [[John Dos Passos]]'s ''[[Three Soldiers]]'', one of a relatively small number of [[American novel]]s about the First World War.

Also in the post–World War I period, the theme of war began to inhabit an increasing number of [[modernist]] novels, many of which were not "war novels" in the conventional sense, but which featured characters whose [[psychological trauma]] and [[Social alienation|alienation]] from society stemmed directly from wartime experiences. One example this type of novel is [[Virginia Woolf]]'s ''[[Mrs. Dalloway]]'', in which a key [[subplot]] concerns the tortuous descent of a young veteran, Septimus Warren Smith, toward insanity and [[suicide]].

The late 1920s saw the rise of the so-called "war book boom," during which many men who had fought during the war were finally ready to write openly and critically about their war experiences. In 1924, [[Laurence Stallings]] wrote, one of the first autobiographical war novels, [[Plumes]]. In 1929, [[Erich Maria Remarque]]'s ''Im Westen nichts Neues'' (''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'') was a massive, worldwide [[bestseller]], not least for its brutally realistic account of the horrors of [[trench warfare]] from the perspective of a [[Germany|German]] [[infantryman]]. Less well known but equally shocking in its account of the horrors of trench warfare is [[Stratis Myrivilis]]' Greek novel ''Life in the Tomb'', which was first published in serialised form in the weekly newspaper ''Kambana'' (April 1923 - January 1924), and then in revised and much expanded form in 1930. Also successful were [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'', [[William March]]'s ''[[Company K]]'', [[Richard Aldington]]'s ''[[Death of a Hero]]'', [[Arnold Zweig]]'s ''Der Streit un den Sergeanten Grischa'' (''[[The Case of Sergeant Grischa]]''), and [[Charles Yale Harrison]]'s ''[[Generals Die in Bed]]'' -- the latter one of the most bitter accounts{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} of war ever written.

Novels about World War I continued to trickle into print throughout the 1930s. One particular development during this decade was the rise in popularity of [[historical novel]]s about earlier wars. [[Margaret Mitchell]]'s ''[[Gone with the Wind]]'', which recalls the American Civil War, is an example of works of this type. The turn of the 20th and 21st centuries saw yet another resurgence of interest in novels of the First World War. [[Pat Barker]]'s trilogy: ''Regeneration'', ''The Eye in the Door'', and ''[[Ghost Road]]'' certainly illustrated the ongoing fascination with the "War to end Wars" as did more recent works such as ''[[Three to a Loaf]]'' by Canada's [[Michael Goodspeed]].

===World War II and after===
[[World War II]] gave rise to a new boom in contemporary war novels. Unlike World War I novels, a European-dominated genre, World War II novels were produced in the greatest numbers by American writers, who made war in the air, on the sea, and in key theatres such as the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Asia]] integral to the war novel. Among the most successful American war novels were [[Herman Wouk]]'s ''[[The Caine Mutiny]]'', [[James Jones (author)|James Jones]]'s ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'', and Hemingway's ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'', the latter a novel set in the [[Spanish Civil War]].
An exception to American writers was Pierre Boulle's ''[[The Bridge over the River Kwai|Le Pont de la rivière Kwaï]]'' (1952), translated as ''The Bridge over the River Kwai''. He served as a secret agent under the name Peter John Rule and helped the resistance movement in China, Burma and French Indochina.
More experimental and unconventional works in the post-war period included [[Joseph Heller]]'s satirical ''[[Catch-22]]'' and [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]'', an early example of [[postmodernism]]. Norman Mailer's ''[[The Naked and the Dead]]'', Irwin Shaw's ''[[The Young Lions]]'', William Woodruff's ''[[Vessel of Sadness]]'' and James Jones' ''[[The Thin Red Line (1962 novel)|The Thin Red Line]]'', all explore the personal nature of war within the context of intense combat.

The decades following World War II period also saw the rise in significant parallel genres to the war novel. One is the [[Holocaust]] novel, of which [[A.M. Klein]]'s ''[[The Second Scroll]]'', [[Primo Levi]]'s ''[[If This is a Man]]'' and ''[[If Not Now, When? (novel)|If Not Now, When?]]'', and [[William Styron]]'s ''[[Sophie's Choice (novel)|Sophie's Choice]]'' are key examples. Another is the novel of internment or persecution (other than in the Holocaust), in which characters find themselves imprisoned or deprived of their civil rights as a direct result of war. [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]'s ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]'' (about imprisonment in a Russian labor camp), and [[Joy Kogawa]]'s ''[[Obasan]]'' (about Canada's deportation and internment of its citizens of Japanese descent during World War II) are two examples of novels that address war from alternative perspectives.

Almost immediately following World War II was the [[Korean War]] (1950–1953). [[Richard Hooker (author)|Richard Hooker]]'s novel ''[[MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors]]'' was a black comedy set in Korea during the war; it was later made into a movie and a successful television series. Also about the Korean war is Canadian [[Herbert Fairlie Wood]]'s ''The Private War of Jacket Coates'', another comedic take on the war.

===Vietnam and after===
After World War II, the war that has attracted the greatest number of novelists is the [[Vietnam War]]. [[Graham Greene]]'s ''[[The Quiet American]]'' was the first novel to explore the origins of the Vietnam war in the French colonial atmosphere of the 1950s. [[Tim O'Brien (author)|Tim O'Brien]]'s ''[[The Things They Carried]]'' is a cycle of Vietnam [[vignette (literature)|vignettes]] that reads like a novel. ''[[The Sorrow of War]]'' by [[Bao Ninh]] is a poignant account of the war from the Vietnamese perspective. For a critical overview of the different Vietnam War novels written or translated into English, see the [[Malda College-Assistant Professor]] [[Pinaki Roy]]'s ''The Minds at War: Sensibilities in Select Vietnam War Novels'', published in ''The Atlantic Literary Review Quarterly International'' (Volume 9, Number 4, October–December 2008, pp. 121–37).

In the wake of [[postmodernism]] and the absence of wars equalling the magnitude of the two world wars, the majority of war novelists have concentrated on how [[memory]] and the ambiguities of time affect the meaning and experience of war. In her [[Regeneration Trilogy]], British novelist [[Pat Barker]] reimagines World War I from a contemporary perspective. [[Ian McEwan]]'s novels ''[[Black Dogs]]'' and ''[[Atonement (novel)|Atonement]]'' take a similarly retrospective approach to World War II, including such events as the British retreat from [[Dunkirk]] in 1940 and the [[Nazism|Nazi]] invasion of [[France]]. The work of [[W. G. Sebald]], most notably ''[[Austerlitz (novel)|Austerlitz]]'', is a postmodern inquiry into German's struggle to come to terms with its troubled past.

Some contemporary novels emphasize action and intrigue above thematic depth. [[Tom Clancy]]'s ''[[The Hunt for Red October]]'' is a technically detailed account of submarine [[espionage]] during the [[Cold War]], and many of [[John le Carré]]'s spy novels are basically war novels for an age in which bureaucracy often replaces open combat. Another adaptation is the apocalyptic [[Christian]] novel, which focuses on the final showdown between universal forces of good and evil. [[Tim LaHaye]] is the author most readily associated with this genre. Many [[fantasy novel]]s, too, use the traditional war novel as a departure point for depictions of fictional wars in imaginary realms.

The post–[[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] literary world has produced few war novels that address current events in the [[War on Terrorism]]. One example is [[Chris Cleave]]'s ''[[Incendiary (novel)|Incendiary]]'' (2005), which made headlines{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} after its publication, for appearing to anticipate the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]]. Another is ''Lone Survivor'' by Marcus Luttrell.

==Further reading==
===Other significant war novelists===
* [[Michael Shaara]] ("[[The Killer Angels]]" - [[Gettysburg: A Novel of the Civil War|Gettysburg]]- [[American Civil War]])
* [[Jeffrey Shaara|Jeff Shaara]] ("[[The Rising Tide (book)]]" - World War II and many other books)
* [[Elie Wiesel]] (''[[Night (book)|Night]]'' - Holocaust)
* [[Martin Amis]] (''[[Time's Arrow (novel)|Time's Arrow]]'' - Holocaust)
* [[David Bergen]] (''[[The Time In Between]]'' - Vietnam)
* [[Elias Canetti]] (''[[Auto da Fe]]'' - World War I)
* [[James Chapman (author)|James Chapman]] (''[[Glass (Pray the Electrons Back to Sand)]]'' - Gulf War)
* [[Charles Sheehan-Miles]] (''[[Prayer at Rumayla: A Novel of the Gulf War]]'' - Gulf War)
* [[Hugo Claus]] (''[[Sorrow of Belgium]]'' - World War I)
* [[Stuart Cloete]] (''[[Rags of Glory]]'' - South African War)
* [[F. M. Cutlack]] (''[[Breaker Morant]]'' - South African War)
* [[E. L. Doctorow]] (''[[The March (novel)|The March]]'' - US Civil War)
* [[William Faulkner]] (''[[Soldiers' Pay (novel)|Soldiers' Pay]]'' - World War I)
* [[Sebastian Faulks]] (''[[Birdsong (novel)|Birdsong]]'' - World War I)
* [[Frederic Manning]] (''[[Her Privates We]]'' - World War I)
* [[Timothy Findley]] (''[[The Wars]]'', ''[[Famous Last Words (book)]]'' - World War I/ II)
* [[Ford Madox Ford]] (''[[Parade's End]]'' - World War I)
* [[Charles Frazier]] (''[[Cold Mountain (novel)|Cold Mountain]]'' - US Civil War)
* [[Robert Graves]] (''[[I, Claudius]]'', et al. - Roman Wars)
* [[Gustav Hasford]] (''[[The Short-Timers]]'', ''[[The Phantom Blooper]]'' - US Vietnam War)
* [[Walter Dean Myers]] (''[[Fallen Angels (Myers novel)|Fallen Angels]]'' - US Vietnam War)
* [[Frances Itani]] (''[[Deafening]]'' - World War I)
* [[Ha Jin]] (''[[War Trash]]'' - Korean War)
* [[Thomas Keneally]] (''[[Schindler's Ark]]'' - Holocaust)
* [[William Woodruff]] (''[[Vessel of Sadness]]'' - World War II)
* [[D. H. Lawrence]] (''[[Kangaroo (novel)|Kangaroo]]'' - World War I)
* [[Robert Ludlum]] (''[[The Bourne Identity (novel)|The Bourne Identity]]'' et al. - Cold War)
* [[Emilio Lussu]] (''[[Sardinian Brigade]]'' - World War I)
* [[Józef Mackiewicz]] (''[[The Road to Nowhere]]'' - World War II)
* [[Colin McDougall]] (''[[Execution (novel)|Execution]]'' - World War II)
* [[Boris Pasternak]] (''[[Doctor Zhivago (novel)|Dr. Zhivago]]'' - Russian Revolution)
* [[Siegfried Sassoon]] (''[[Memoirs of an Infantry Officer]]'' - World War I)
* [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] (''[[The Trilogy]]'' - Polish historical)
* [[Kurt Vonnegut]] (''[[Slaughterhouse Five]]'' - Vietnam / World War II)
* [[Evelyn Waugh]] (''[[Sword of Honour]]'' - World War II)
* [[J. G. Ballard]] (''[[Empire of the Sun]]'' - World War II)
* [[Leon Uris]] (''[[Battle Cry (Leon Uris novel)|Battle Cry]]'' - World War II and [[Mila 18]] - Holocaust)
* [[Lothar-Guenther Buchheim]] (''[[Das Boot]]'' - World War II)
* [[Dalton Trumbo]] (''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]'' - World War I )
* [[James Michener]] (''[[The Bridges at Toko-Ri]]'' - Korean War )

===Critical studies of the war novel===
* Beidler, Philip D., ''American Literature and the Experience of Vietnam'' (U Georgia Press)
* Bergonzi, Bernard, ''Heroes’ Twilight: A Study of the Literature of the Great War'' (Macmillan).
* Buitenhuis, Peter, ''The Great War of Words: British, American and Canadian Propaganda and Fiction, 1914-1933'' (UBC Press).
* Casadei, Alberto, ''Romanzi di Finisterre: Narrazione della guerra e problemi del realismo'', Roma, Carocci, 2000.
* Cobley, Evelyn, ''Representing War: Form and Ideology in First World War Narratives'' (U of Toronto Press).
* Cooperman, Stanley, ''World War I and the American Novel'' (Johns Hopkins UP).
* Dawes, James, "The Language of War" (Harvard UP).
* [[Paul Fussell|Fussell, Paul]], ''The Great War and Modern Memory'' (Oxford UP), ''Wartime'' (Oxford UP).
* Craig, David and Michael Egan. ''Extreme Situations: Literature and Crisis from the Great War to the Atom Bomb'' (Macmillan).
* Friedman, Saul S. (Ed.) ''Holocaust Literature: A Collection of Critical, Historical, and Literary Writings'' (Greenwood Press)
* Harvey, A.D., ''A Muse of Fire: Literature, Art and War'', London, Hambledon Press, 1998.
* Horowitz, Sara R, ''Voicing the Void: Muteness and Memory in Holocaust Fiction'' (SUNY UP). ISBN 0-7914-3130-4
* Isnenghi, Mario, ''Il mito della grande guerra'' (Bologna, Il Mulino).
* Madison and Schaefer (Eds.), ''Encyclopedia of American War Literature'' (Greenwood Press). ISBN 0-313-30648-6
* Novak, Dagmar, ''Dubious Glory: The Canadian Novel and the Two World Wars'' (Peter Lang).
* Rossi, Umberto, ''Il secolo di fuoco: Introduzione alla letteratura di guerra del Novecento'', Roma, Bulzoni, 2008. ISBN 978-88-7870-320-9
* Roy, Pinaki, ''The Scarlet Critique'', New Delhi, Sarup Book Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2010, ISBN 978-81-7625-991-0
* [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson, Edmund]], ''Patriotic Gore: Studies in the Literature of the American Civil War'' (WW Norton).

==See also==
{{portal|Novels}}
* [[Epic poetry]]
* [[The Holocaust in Art and Literature]]
* [[Paul Fussell]]
* [[William March]]
* [[Ernest Hemingway]]
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
* [[Stendhal]]
* [[Leo Tolstoy]]
* [[Napoleonic Wars]]
* [[American Civil War]]
* [[World War I]]
* [[World War II]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[List of films based on war books]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:War Novel}}
[[Category:Adventure fiction]]
[[Category:Anti-war]]
[[Category:History of literature]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:Literary movements]]
[[Category:Military fiction]]
[[Category:War novels| ]]

[[nl:Oorlogsroman]]
[[ja:戦争文学]]
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Tigernán Ua Ruairc

2010-10-11T00:11:23Z

Angusmclellan: fix defaultsort

{{Unreferenced|date=March 2008}}

'''Tigernán Ua Ruairc''', alt. '''Ui Ruairc''', alt. '''Tigernán mór Ó Ruairc''', anglicized as '''Tiernán O'Rourke''' (d.1172) ruled (1124-1172) the [[Kingdom of Breifne|Kingdom of Bréifne]] as the 19th king in its Ó Ruairc (later O'Rourke) dynasty (964-1605 CE). He was one of the provincial kings in Ireland in the twelfth century, constantly expanding his kingdom through shifting alliances, of which the most long-standing was with [[Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair]] of [[Connacht]]. Ó Ruairc's wife, [[Derbforgaill]], was abducted in 1152 by King [[Diarmait Mac Murchada]], of Leinster,long a foe of Ó Ruairc. In 1166, Mac Murchada was driven from Leinster by the High King of Ireland and followed Henry to Aquitaine, seeking an audience. He asked [[Henry II]] to help him reassert control; Henry agreed and made footmen, knights and nobles available for the cause. These included Mac Murchada and [[Hugh de Lacy]].<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>

Ó Ruairc fought against the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]of 1169, at a time when Ó Ruairc lands included Meath. After the successful invasion, [[Henry II]]in 1172 granted [[Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath]] the lands of the Kingdom of Meath in recogonition of de Lacy's major role in the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]. Ó Ruairc refused to concede Meath but parlayed with de Lacy on the [[Hill of Tlachtga]],in Meath. After negotiations stalled, a dispute ensued in which an interpreter was killed by a blow aimed at De Lacy, who fled; Ó Ruairc was killed by a spear-thrust as he mounted his horse, and he was decapitated. His body was gibbeted, with the feet upwards, on the northern side of Dublin Castle. His head was impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle and later was sent to Henry II. The Annals of the Four Masters say that Ó Ruairc was treacherously slain. From the account given by Giraldus Cambrensis, it would appear that there was a plot to destroy Ó Ruairc.<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>
[[Giraldus Cambrensis]] described his death during negotiations with [[Hugh de Lacy]] as all part of a treacherous plan gone wrong.(citation needed) The Irish annalists record the incident as showing the duplicity of the English.(citation needed)

Tigernán had three children, Melaghlin, Aed and Dowchawley, all of whom predeceased him.(citation needed) He was also probably the foster-father of [[Brian Breifneach Ua Conchobair]], son of Toirdelbach, who was blinded by his own brother [[Ruaidri Ua Conchobair]] to disqualify him from fighting for the kingship after their father's death.(citation needed) Tigernán's daughter Dowchawley was Ruaidri's wife. (citation needed)

The [[Annals of Ulster]] record in 1128 his robbing and killing of some of the [[Archbishop of Armagh]]'s company, calling it 'A detestable and unprecedented deed of evil consequence'.(citation needed)

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

<references/>

<see also/>

<external links/>

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[[Category:Kingdom of Breifne]]
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[[Category:People from County Leitrim]]
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[[Category:12th-century rulers in Europe]]
[[Category:12th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:Murdered royalty]]
[[Category:Assassinated Irish politicians]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
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[[es:Tighearnán Ua Ruairc]]
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Tigernán Ua Ruairc

2010-10-11T00:05:53Z

Angusmclellan: Brian Breifneach Ua Conchobair

{{Unreferenced|date=March 2008}}

'''Tigernán Ua Ruairc''', alt. '''Ui Ruairc''', alt. '''Tigernán mór Ó Ruairc''', anglicized as '''Tiernán O'Rourke''' (d.1172) ruled (1124-1172) the [[Kingdom of Breifne|Kingdom of Bréifne]] as the 19th king in its Ó Ruairc (later O'Rourke) dynasty (964-1605 CE). He was one of the provincial kings in Ireland in the twelfth century, constantly expanding his kingdom through shifting alliances, of which the most long-standing was with [[Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair]] of [[Connacht]]. Ó Ruairc's wife, [[Derbforgaill]], was abducted in 1152 by King [[Diarmait Mac Murchada]], of Leinster,long a foe of Ó Ruairc. In 1166, Mac Murchada was driven from Leinster by the High King of Ireland and followed Henry to Aquitaine, seeking an audience. He asked [[Henry II]] to help him reassert control; Henry agreed and made footmen, knights and nobles available for the cause. These included Mac Murchada and [[Hugh de Lacy]].<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>

Ó Ruairc fought against the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]of 1169, at a time when Ó Ruairc lands included Meath. After the successful invasion, [[Henry II]]in 1172 granted [[Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath]] the lands of the Kingdom of Meath in recogonition of de Lacy's major role in the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]. Ó Ruairc refused to concede Meath but parlayed with de Lacy on the [[Hill of Tlachtga]],in Meath. After negotiations stalled, a dispute ensued in which an interpreter was killed by a blow aimed at De Lacy, who fled; Ó Ruairc was killed by a spear-thrust as he mounted his horse, and he was decapitated. His body was gibbeted, with the feet upwards, on the northern side of Dublin Castle. His head was impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle and later was sent to Henry II. The Annals of the Four Masters say that Ó Ruairc was treacherously slain. From the account given by Giraldus Cambrensis, it would appear that there was a plot to destroy Ó Ruairc.<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>
[[Giraldus Cambrensis]] described his death during negotiations with [[Hugh de Lacy]] as all part of a treacherous plan gone wrong.(citation needed) The Irish annalists record the incident as showing the duplicity of the English.(citation needed)

Tigernán had three children, Melaghlin, Aed and Dowchawley, all of whom predeceased him.(citation needed) He was also probably the foster-father of [[Brian Breifneach Ua Conchobair]], son of Toirdelbach, who was blinded by his own brother [[Ruaidri Ua Conchobair]] to disqualify him from fighting for the kingship after their father's death.(citation needed) Tigernán's daughter Dowchawley was Ruaidri's wife. (citation needed)

The [[Annals of Ulster]] record in 1128 his robbing and killing of some of the [[Archbishop of Armagh]]'s company, calling it 'A detestable and unprecedented deed of evil consequence'.(citation needed)

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

<references/>

<see also/>

<external links/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ua Ruairc, Tighearnan}}
{{Ireland-royal-stub}}

[[Category:1172 deaths]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Breifne]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]

[[Category:People from County Leitrim]]
[[Category:People from County Cavan]]
[[Category:12th-century rulers in Europe]]
[[Category:12th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:Murdered royalty]]
[[Category:Assassinated Irish politicians]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Ancient Irish dynasties]]

[[es:Tighearnán Ua Ruairc]]
[[ga:Tighearnán Ua Ruairc]]

Tigernán Ua Ruairc

2010-10-11T00:04:31Z

Angusmclellan: name to match page name; is in the ODNB so not hard to improve

{{Unreferenced|date=March 2008}}

'''Tigernán Ua Ruairc''', alt. '''Ui Ruairc''', alt. '''Tigernán mór Ó Ruairc''', anglicized as '''Tiernán O'Rourke''' (d.1172) ruled (1124-1172) the [[Kingdom of Breifne|Kingdom of Bréifne]] as the 19th king in its Ó Ruairc (later O'Rourke) dynasty (964-1605 CE). He was one of the provincial kings in Ireland in the twelfth century, constantly expanding his kingdom through shifting alliances, of which the most long-standing was with [[Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair]] of [[Connacht]]. Ó Ruairc's wife, [[Derbforgaill]], was abducted in 1152 by King [[Diarmait Mac Murchada]], of Leinster,long a foe of Ó Ruairc. In 1166, Mac Murchada was driven from Leinster by the High King of Ireland and followed Henry to Aquitaine, seeking an audience. He asked [[Henry II]] to help him reassert control; Henry agreed and made footmen, knights and nobles available for the cause. These included Mac Murchada and [[Hugh de Lacy]].<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>

Ó Ruairc fought against the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]of 1169, at a time when Ó Ruairc lands included Meath. After the successful invasion, [[Henry II]]in 1172 granted [[Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath]] the lands of the Kingdom of Meath in recogonition of de Lacy's major role in the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]. Ó Ruairc refused to concede Meath but parlayed with de Lacy on the [[Hill of Tlachtga]],in Meath. After negotiations stalled, a dispute ensued in which an interpreter was killed by a blow aimed at De Lacy, who fled; Ó Ruairc was killed by a spear-thrust as he mounted his horse, and he was decapitated. His body was gibbeted, with the feet upwards, on the northern side of Dublin Castle. His head was impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle and later was sent to Henry II. The Annals of the Four Masters say that Ó Ruairc was treacherously slain. From the account given by Giraldus Cambrensis, it would appear that there was a plot to destroy Ó Ruairc.<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>
[[Giraldus Cambrensis]] described his death during negotiations with [[Hugh de Lacy]] as all part of a treacherous plan gone wrong.(citation needed) The Irish annalists record the incident as showing the duplicity of the English.(citation needed)

Tigernán had three children, Melaghlin, Aed and Dowchawley, all of whom predeceased him.(citation needed) He was also probably the foster-father of [[Brian Bréifneach Ua Conchobair]], son of Toirdelbach, who was blinded by his own brother [[Ruaidri Ua Conchobair]] to disqualify him from fighting for the kingship after their father's death.(citation needed) Tigernán's daughter Dowchawley was Ruaidri's wife. (citation needed)

The [[Annals of Ulster]] record in 1128 his robbing and killing of some of the [[Archbishop of Armagh]]'s company, calling it 'A detestable and unprecedented deed of evil consequence'.(citation needed)

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

<references/>

<see also/>

<external links/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ua Ruairc, Tighearnan}}
{{Ireland-royal-stub}}

[[Category:1172 deaths]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Breifne]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]

[[Category:People from County Leitrim]]
[[Category:People from County Cavan]]
[[Category:12th-century rulers in Europe]]
[[Category:12th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:Murdered royalty]]
[[Category:Assassinated Irish politicians]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Ancient Irish dynasties]]

[[es:Tighearnán Ua Ruairc]]
[[ga:Tighearnán Ua Ruairc]]

Tigernán Ua Ruairc

2010-10-11T00:02:29Z

Angusmclellan: moved Tighearnán Ua Ruairc to Tigernán Ua Ruairc over redirect: Standard boring academic Middle Irish orthography

{{Unreferenced|date=March 2008}}

'''Tighearnán Ua Ruairc''', alt. '''Ui Ruairc''', alt. '''Tigernán mór Ó Ruairc''', anglicized as '''Tiernán O'Rourke''' (d.1172) ruled (1124-1172) the [[Kingdom of Breifne|Kingdom of Bréifne]] as the 19th king in its Ó Ruairc (later O'Rourke) dynasty (964-1605 CE). He was one of the provincial kings in Ireland in the twelfth century, constantly expanding his kingdom through shifting alliances, of which the most long-standing was with [[Toirdelbach Ua Conchobair]] of [[Connacht]]. Ó Ruairc's wife, [[Derbforgaill]], was abducted in 1152 by King [[Diarmait Mac Murchada]], of Leinster,long a foe of Ó Ruairc. In 1166, Mac Murchada was driven from Leinster by the High King of Ireland and followed Henry to Aquitaine, seeking an audience. He asked [[Henry II]] to help him reassert control; Henry agreed and made footmen, knights and nobles available for the cause. These included Mac Murchada and [[Hugh de Lacy]].<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>

Ó Ruairc fought against the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]of 1169, at a time when Ó Ruairc lands included Meath. After the successful invasion, [[Henry II]]in 1172 granted [[Hugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath]] the lands of the Kingdom of Meath in recogonition of de Lacy's major role in the [[Norman Invasion of Ireland]]. Ó Ruairc refused to concede Meath but parlayed with de Lacy on the [[Hill of Tlachtga]],in Meath. After negotiations stalled, a dispute ensued in which an interpreter was killed by a blow aimed at De Lacy, who fled; Ó Ruairc was killed by a spear-thrust as he mounted his horse, and he was decapitated. His body was gibbeted, with the feet upwards, on the northern side of Dublin Castle. His head was impaled over the gate of Dublin Castle and later was sent to Henry II. The Annals of the Four Masters say that Ó Ruairc was treacherously slain. From the account given by Giraldus Cambrensis, it would appear that there was a plot to destroy Ó Ruairc.<ref> http://ia331338.us.archive.org/3/items/anillustratedhis14754gut/14754-h/14754-h.htm#CHAPTER_XIV </ref>
[[Giraldus Cambrensis]] described his death during negotiations with [[Hugh de Lacy]] as all part of a treacherous plan gone wrong.(citation needed) The Irish annalists record the incident as showing the duplicity of the English.(citation needed)

Tighearnán had three children, Melaghlin, Aed and Dowchawley, all of whom predeceased him.(citation needed) He was also probably the foster-father of [[Brian Bréifneach Ua Conchobair]], son of Toirdelbach, who was blinded by his own brother [[Ruaidri Ua Conchobair]] to disqualify him from fighting for the kingship after their father's death.(citation needed) Tighearnán's daughter Dowchawley was Ruaidri's wife. (citation needed)

The [[Annals of Ulster]] record in 1128 his robbing and killing of some of the [[Archbishop of Armagh]]'s company, calling it 'A detestable and unprecedented deed of evil consequence'.(citation needed)

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

<references/>

<see also/>

<external links/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ua Ruairc, Tighearnan}}
{{Ireland-royal-stub}}

[[Category:1172 deaths]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Breifne]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]

[[Category:People from County Leitrim]]
[[Category:People from County Cavan]]
[[Category:12th-century rulers in Europe]]
[[Category:12th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:Murdered royalty]]
[[Category:Assassinated Irish politicians]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Ancient Irish dynasties]]

[[es:Tighearnán Ua Ruairc]]
[[ga:Tighearnán Ua Ruairc]]

Delgatie Castle

2010-09-09T14:04:48Z

Angusmclellan: update link for image moved to commons and renamed

[[File:Château de Delgatie.jpg|thumb|right|Delgatie Castle 2006]]
[[Image:Grampian Map Delgatie Castle.png|right|thumb|Location of Delgatie Castle within Aberdeenshire.]]
'''Delgatie Castle''' is a [[Scottish castles|castle]] near [[Turriff]], in [[Aberdeenshire]], [[Scotland]].

A castle has stood on the site of Delgatie Castle since the year 1030 [[AD]], although the earliest parts of the castle standing today were built between 1570 and 1579. Additional wings and a [[chapel]] were added in 1743.

The castle was stripped from the disgraced [[Henry de Beaumont]], [[Earl of Buchan]] after the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in 1314 and given to [[Clan Hay]] (later to become the [[Earl of Erroll|Earls of Erroll]]). [[Mary, Queen of Scots]], was a guest at the castle in 1562 after the [[Battle of Corrichie]].

[[Image:Delgatie Castle.jpg|thumb|left|Delgatie Castle]]Like many castles, Delgatie is rumoured to be haunted. A number of reports of a ghostly red-haired figure, supposedly one Alexander Hay, were made by soldiers posted there during the [[Second World War]].

Architecturally, the castle consists of a keep, adjoining house and two later wings. Notable features include a very wide [[turnpike stair]] and [[Scottish Renaissance painted ceilings|painted ceilings]] dating from the 16th century in some rooms.<ref>Michael Bath, ''Renaissance Decorative Painting in Scotland'', NMS (2003), 221-22</ref>

Today, the castle and its gardens are owned by the ''Delgatie Castle Trust''. They are open to the public throughout the summer months and suites within the castle itself and a number of cottages the estate are available to rent.

==External links==

{{Commonscat}}
* [http://www.delgatiecastle.com/ The Delgatie Castle web site]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Formartine, Aberdeenshire places|state = collapsed}}

{{coord|57.5443|-2.4120|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in Aberdeenshire]]
[[Category:Category B listed buildings]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in Aberdeenshire]]
[[Category:Historic house museums in Aberdeenshire]]

{{scotland-castle-stub}}

[[fr:Château de Delgatie]]
[[ru:Замок Делгати]]

Wanstead House

2010-09-08T10:50:06Z

Angusmclellan: switch to commons image

'''Wanstead Park''' is the name of a grade II listed municipal park covering an area of about 140 acres (57 hectares), located in [[Wanstead]], in the [[London Borough of Redbridge]]. It is bordered to the north by the A12 road, to the east by the [[River Roding]] and A406 North Circular Road, to the south by the [[Aldersbrook]] Estate and the [[City of London Cemetery and Crematorium]] and to the west by Wanstead Golf Course. It is administered as part of [[Epping Forest]] by the [[City of London Corporation]], having been purchased by the Corporation in 1880. Today's park once formed part of the deer park of the former manor house of ancient Wanstead [[Manorialism|Manor]], which included much of the urbanised area now known as Wanstead. In order to understand the history of today's municipal park of Wanstead, the history of the ancient manor of Wanstead needs to be examined. For this purpose the modern green spaces of the Park, golf course and Wanstead Flats should be considered as one entity.
[[Image:Wanstead House as built.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Palladian]] Wanstead House, commissioned in 1715 by Sir Richard Child from a design by [[Colen Campbell]]. By the time of its completion in 1722 Child had been created 1st Viscount Castlemain. Viewed across the Basin from due west standing at the entrance gates. Illustration from Nathaniel Spencer ''The Complete English Traveller,'' London 1771]]
[[File:William Havell - Wanstead House.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Pastoral]] scene before Wanstead House and Basin, by [[William Havell]], 1815]]

==History of the Manor of Wanstead==

===Roman Wanstead===
Ordnance Survey maps mark the site of a Roman Villa in present day Wanstead Park. Archaeological excavations carried out in 1985 indicated a Roman presence here from the 1st to the 5th century AD, but did not locate any specific site of a Roman villa.

===Saxon Wanstead===
The name Wanstead is probably of Saxon origin - indicating a possible continuity of settlement here since Roman times - and is accepted by the English Place-Names Society as derived from ''Wen'', signifying a hill or mound, and ''Stead'', a place. It is said that in Saxon times [[Ælfric of Eynsham |Abbot Aelfric]] granted the manor of Wanstead to the monks of [[Westminster Abbey]] yet this cannot be substantiated from any documentary evidence. However, the location was clearly a prized site on the east side of London.

===Norman Wanstead===
In 1086 the [[Domesday Book]] states that Wanstead Manor was held from the Bishop of London by one Ralph son of Brian. Wanstead was then densely wooded, being situated within the Forest of Essex. It was part of the forest [[bailiwick]] of [[Becontree]] during the middle ages and later of the [[Leyton]] "Walk".

===Tudor Wanstead===
[[File:Elizabeth I of England Marcus Gheeraerts the Elder.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Welbeck Abbey|''Welbeck'']] Elizabeth by [[Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger|Gheeraerts]], c. 1580. Said in Daniel Lysons' ''Environs of London'' (1796)<ref>Lysons, D. Environs of London, 1796, vol.4, pp.231-244, Wanstead.</ref> to show Old Wanstead House in the background]]
The manor house, known as Wanstead Hall, was probably quite a small building until the 14th century, but by 1499 it was large enough to serve as a royal hunting-lodge, when it was acquired by King [[Henry VII of England | Henry VII]], one of whose favourite resorts it was to become. <ref>Starkey (2008) p.195</ref> Henry had developed a taste for privacy towards the end of his reign, and acquired Wanstead as a ''maison de retraite'' in the vicinity of [[Palace of Placentia|Greenwich Palace]], laying out considerable sums on it. It was valued by him especially for its park, bringing the King much needed seclusion.<ref>Starkey (2008) p.239</ref>It is also interesting to note that Henry VII used Wanstead as a location for receiving payments from what the Tudor historian David Starkey calls his “slush fund” of extra-parliamentary taxation and fines, away from the eyes of the magnates in the formal royal palaces.<ref>Starkey (2008) p.247</ref> The young future [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] lived for a while at Wanstead and at the other ''maison de retraite'' of [[Hanworth]] in enforced proximity to his father Henry VII during the last years of his reign.<ref>Starkey (2008) p.329</ref> Both kings hunted within the manor. It was during Henry VIII's reign (1509-1547) that Wanstead Park was [[Enclosure|inclosed]], shortly before 1512, which probably involved the clearance of some wooded areas. At about this time neighbouring Aldersbrook became a separate manor. Wanstead remained a Royal manor for a number of years, its “keeper” being an office awarded to favoured royal courtiers, one after another. [[Hugh Denys of Osterley | Hugh Denys]](d.1511) [[Groom of the Stool]] to Henry VII was its keeper until 1511, being one of the King's key financial officers who often received the “slush fund” monies there on the King's behalf. On Denys's death in 1511 the keepership passed to [[Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk|Charles Brandon]], later Duke of Suffolk. <ref>L&P H VIII, I, p.340,cf.iii,p.479: appointment of Charles Brandon in succession to Hugh Denys</ref> Sir John Heron, another former financial officer within the [[Privy chamber|Privy Chamber]], was keeper of the park until his death in 1521. Heron also held lands in Aldersbrook and it is said that he brought [[heron]] birds to the area, as an amusing mark of his presence. (A heronry is shown on Lincoln Island on an OS map of 1919.) [[Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich|Lord Richard Rich]], High Chancellor of England, was keeper of the park in 1543, and in 1549 [[Edward VI of England |Edward VI]] granted him the lordship of the manor of Wanstead, complete with the park. In 1577 Rich's son Robert sold it to [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]], who purchased the nearby manor of Stonhall in [[Ilford]] at the same time. Thereafter a succession of owners kept the manor of Wanstead combined with Stonehall.

===Jacobean Wanstead===
[[File:WansteadPre1715.jpg|thumb|300px|Wanstead House pre 1715, the residence of Sir Josiah Child, 1st Baronet. Detail of a drawing by [[Jan Kip and Leonard Knyff]], c.1708]]
In 1619 Sir [[Henry Mildmay]] was in possession, but forfeited the manor to the Crown at the end of the [[English Civil War|Civil War]], in which he had fought for Parliament. [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] granted the estate to his brother, [[James II of England|James, Duke of York]], who sold it in about 1662 to Sir Robert Brooke(d.1693/4) 1st. [[Baronet]]. In 1673-4 the manor was purchased by [[Josiah Child]] (created 1st Baronet Child of Wanstead in 1678)' Governor of the [[East India Company]]. He spent much time and money in developing the estate according to the fashion of the time. When [[John Evelyn]], the diarist, visited Wanstead in March, 1683 he wrote: "I went to see Sir Josiah Child's prodigious cost in planting [[walnut]] trees about his seate, and making fish ponds many miles in circuit in Epping Forest, in a barren place." <ref> Evelyn, John. Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees, 1664.</ref> The ponds which he mentioned, although somewhat altered, are those in existence at the present day - a chain of ponds descending from the Shoulder of Mutton Pond, through Heronry Pond, Perch Pond, the Dell and into the Ornamental Waters. Child died in 1699, and was succeeded by his son - also Sir Josiah Child - who leased Wanstead and Stonehall to his half-brother, Richard Child. On Sir Josiah II's death in 1704, Richard Child became 3rd Baronet, having succeeded to his title and estates.<ref>Genealogical details of the Child family as recorded in Wanstead Church of the Virgin Mary parish records are printed in Lysons, Daniel. The Environs of London, 1796, vol.4: counties of Herts, Essex & Kent. pp.231-244, Wanstead.</ref>

===Georgian Wanstead===
====Construction of the Palladian Mansion====
[[Image:Wanstead - intended design.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The original design for the west front of Wanstead House by [[Colen Campbell]]. The upper stories on the wings were omitted in the completed building. The facade extended over 200 ft. (60 m). ]]
[[File:HogarthWanstead.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''The Assembly at Wanstead House'' by [[William Hogarth|Hogarth]] painted c.1728-1732. Earl Tylney & family seated in foreground in the Long Ballroom]]
[[File:WansteadSeat.jpg|thumb|200px|Giltwood scroll-foot seat, early Georgian, from Wanstead House, sold by Christie's in 2008 for £135,000. It may be of the set of the chair on which Earl Tylney is seated in the Hogarth painting]]

In 1715 Sir Richard Child commissioned the Scottish architect [[Colen Campbell]] to design a grand mansion in the then emerging [[Palladian architecture| Palladian]] style, to replace the former house, and to rival contemporary mansions such as [[Blenheim Palace]]. When completed it covered an area of 260 ft. by 70 ft., the facade having a [[portico]] with six [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns, the earliest in England.<ref>RIBA, Lost & Hidden Villas, www.architecture.com (June 2010) "the temple-like projecting portico with pitched roof continuing across the depth of the house, the first of its kind in England"</ref> The grounds were landscaped and planted with formal avenues of trees by [[George London (landscape architect)|George London]], one of the leading garden designers of his day. Child was created 1st Viscount Castlemaine 3 years later in 1718, the house being completed in 1722. Child had married in 1703 Dorothy Glynne, whose mother was of the Tylney family of Tylney Hall in Rotherwick, Hampshire. On the death of Ann Tylney, her cousin, in 1730, Dorothy and her husband Viscount Castlemain inherited the Tylney estates. Castlemain was created 1st Earl Tylney the following year (1731) and in 1734 obtained an Act of Parliament to change the name of his family, including his heirs, from the patronymic to Tylney, probably to meet a condition of his wife's inheritance. On the death of the Earl in 1750 he was succeeded by his 38 year old son [[Earl Tylney|John Tylney, 2nd Earl Tylney]], who continued the plantings, but in the then fashionable natural and non-formal style. The 2nd. Earl had no male issue and his estates passed on his death in 1784 to his elder sister Emma's son [[Sir James Tylney-Long, 7th Baronet | Sir James Long, 7th Baronet]], who being then in possession of the vast estates of the Longs, the Childs and the Tylneys, assumed the surname Tylney-Long for himself and his descendants, again probably in accordance with a requirement of the inheritance. On the death of the 7th Baronet in 1794 the combined estate passed to his one year old infant son Sir James Tylney-Long, 8th Baronet, who died in 1805 aged just 11. The estate then passed to his young sister, eldest of three, Catherine Tylney-Long, who thereby became the richest heiress in England.
<ref>Genealogical descent from the Tylneys of Tylney Hall, Hants. from: Victoria County History, Hampshire, vol.4, pp.99-101, Tylney in Rotherwick parish.</ref>

====Entree of William Pole-Wellesley====
[[Image:William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley, 4th Earl of Mornington.jpg|thumb|200px|William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley, c.1812.]]
In 1812 Catherine took the disastrous step of accepting the marriage proposal from the later-to-be notorious rake, [[William Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley, 4th Earl of Mornington |William Wellesley-Pole]], nephew of two famous uncles, Richard Wellesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington, eldest brother of his father William, and Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington from 1813, his father's younger brother. It is likely the influence of the Wellesleys played a part in securing the marriage into their family of this great heiress. Shortly before the wedding Catherine's husband had changed his family surname to Pole-Tylney-Long-Wellesley, probably as required by the marriage settlement trust, in which he was given a life interest. In 1814 Wellesley started his career of burdening the marriage settlement trust with debt by inviting the landscaper [[Humphrey Repton]] to improve the park, some of whose informal planting remains today.<ref>http://www.wansteadpark.org.uk/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=60&Itemid=103</ref>

====Demolition of the Palladian Mansion====
Wellesley was an MP initially from 1812-19 but was principally known for his dissipation and extravagance. On his marriage the estate had been conveyed to a trust from which Catherine would receive £4,500 per annum for life, with the rest to the use of Wellesley for his life. The remainder was to go to the sons produced from the marriage. To secure a debt of £250,000, he managed to mortgage this marriage settlement trust, which owned Wanstead House and contents, to his creditors. In 1822, to escape his creditors, he obtained the office of Usher to [[George IV of England | George IV]] (himself experienced in profligacy and evading creditors) which rendered him immune to arrest for debt, and later he fled his creditors abroad. In June 1822 the trustees of the settlement, under a power contained within the trust and having obtained the requisite agreement of the couple, auctioned off the house's contents in an auction lasting 32 days, in order to pay off the incumbrances on the settled estate, thereby protecting the son's future inheritance.<ref>Simons, Nicholas. Reports of Cases Decided in the High Court of Chancery. Vol. 6, London, 1836. pp.497-503, Wellesley v. Wellesley, 1834, in which his son obtained an injunction preventing his father from cutting down further trees in the park. The background to the injunction was recited in detail.</ref> In 1825, having found no buyers for Wanstead House, the trustees demolished it under the same powers and applied the proceeds from the sale of the resultant building materials in a similar fashion. The sum raised was only £10,000 whilst it had reputedly cost around £360,000 to build. Catherine, having been abandoned for another woman by her husband in 1823, died in 1825 of an intestinal illness, shortly after the demolition, no doubt a broken woman.

==Transformation into Municipal Park==
A life interest in Catherine's remaining lands, to the extent of 1400 acres, in surrounding Wanstead and the adjoining parishes of Woodford, Leyton, Little Ilford and Barking remained in the hands of her husband up to 1840. Before 1828 Wellesley in a search for money had cut down a great number of trees in the park, destroying many of the avenues, vistas and clumps so carefully planted earlier at such great expense by Sir Josiah Child and the Earls Tylney. He had marked a further 2,000 for felling when his son obtained an injunction in 1828 preventing him from proceeding, since it would damage the value of the land, his future inheritance. Wellesley challenged the injunction but it was confirmed against him in 1834. <ref>Simons, Nicholas. Reports of Cases Decided in the High Court of Chancery. Vol. 6, London, 1836. pp.497-503, Wellesley v. Wellesley, 1834, in which his son obtained confirmation of an injunction preventing his father from cutting down further trees in the park. </ref>Wellesley continued his parliamentary career between 1830-32 and inherited his father's title as 4th Earl of Mornington (his father having inherited from his elder brother) in 1845, dying in humble lodgings in 1857. The remnant of the manor of Wanstead was inherited by his son William, who had been protected from his father's designs on his maternal inheritance by the intervention of the Duke of Wellington, and he left it in trust for his father's cousin [[Henry Wellesley, 1st Earl Cowley]]. In 1880 the Earl sold 184 acres of Wanstead Park to the Corporation of London for preservation as a part of Epping Forest, and the resultant new municipal park of Wanstead was officially opened by the [[City of London Corporation]] in 1882. The Earl's family sold further land to Wanstead Sports Grounds Ltd. in 1920

===Site of the former Palladian Mansion===
[[File:RocquePark.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Wanstead House and grounds from [[John Rocque]]'s map printed in ''Environs of London,'' 1745. Today's Wanstead Park is shown in green]]
The site can best be studied by reference to a satellite photographic image, combined with the map of Wanstead House and grounds made by the landscaper [[John Rocque]], printed in ''Environs of London.'' Rocque had been commissioned in 1735 by 1st Earl Tylney to effect still further garden features aimed at turning Wanstead into a mini [[Versailles]]. The Palladian Mansion stood about 275 yards to the east of the large octagonal ornamental lake called the "Basin", due south of what is now the golf course club-house, built of brick and weather-boarded timber, a remnant of the 18th century stable-court. The present cricket ground would therefore effectively have been part of the front lawn to the west of the house. The approach was from the entrance gates 1/3 mile due west, the piers of which still survive standing either side of Overton Drive at its junction with Blake Hall Road. Carriages would have proceeded easterly along Overton Drive, thus skirting the north side of the Basin, then following the contour of the lake southwards to arrive at the western front of the house. The extensive fruit and vegetable gardens originally situated to the south-east of the Great House have all gone, these now forming the links of the Golf Course. Two Walnut trees which died in the 1980's, the largest 40 feet high and 7 ft. 6 ins. in girth, probably themselves planted by Sir Josiah Child, stood to the east of the Shoulder of Mutton pond. Thickets of Rhododendron recall the time when part of the Park was laid out as a shrubbery, traversed by the winding paths shown in Rocque's map. Remains of an impressive avenue of sweet-chestnuts, called Evelyn's Avenue, can still be traced in a south westerly direction from the basin, crossing Wanstead Flats and Bush Wood.

==Wanstead Park Today==
[[Image:The_Temple,_Wanstead_Park.jpg|thumb|300px|The Temple in Wanstead Park, built c.1760]]
The western boundary of the present municipal park, named Wanstead Park, therefore lies some 330 yards east of the site of the mansion house. The park still retains some of its layout as the former grounds of Wanstead House. In 1992 a Management Plan was initiated to try to re-establish something of the formality of the grounds of a "Great House". Apart from the lake system, the most evident survivals are the buildings known as the Temple and the [[Grotto]], both built in about 1760, (now listed buildings) and some “mounts” or artificial mounds. Less obvious, perhaps, is a group of islands known as the Fortifications, an [[amphitheatre]], an ornamental canal and remains of some avenues of trees.

===The Fortifications===
The Fortifications are situated on the Ornamental Waters about 800 yards east of the site of the mansion, to the south-east of the large Lincoln Island. They consist of eight small islands grouped in a circular pattern around a larger central island on which duck-shooting guns were formerly stored. The bridges by which they were once connected no longer exist. The islands are now somewhat overgrown, providing a sanctuary for water-birds.

===Ornamental Canal===
The wide Ornamental Canal forms a continuation on the eastern far side of the [[River Roding]], here called the Ornamental Waters, of the broad grassy ride cut through the woodland, known as the Glade, in a direct easterly line from Wanstead House. It therefore would have created a magnificent vista from the house, stretching 2/3rds. of a mile to the east. It was noted by Eric S. Wood F.S.A. (Collins Field Guide to Archaeology, Third Edition 1972) as being a "magnificent canal". (photo)

===Gateposts===
[[File:WansteadGate.jpg|thumb|200px|One of a pair of surviving piers of the entrance gate to Wanstead House, with monogram of Richard Child]]
One third of a mile due west of the site of Wanstead House stand two impressive stone [[Pier (architecture) |piers]], remnants of the gateway which formed the formal entrance to Wanstead House. They are embellished with the monogram of their builder, Sir Richard Child.<ref>For other examples of such 18th.c. monograms, designed for wrought-iron work, therefore to be seen from front and rear, see Fairburn's Crests of the Families of GB & Ireland, London, 1986, Plates.</ref> The piers stand either side of Overton Drive at its junction with Blake Hall Road. The view of the house published in 1771 in Spencer's work would have been drawn from this gate.

==Access to the Park==
The park is approached from Wanstead in the north via Warren Road. The road at the entrance to the Park is not under the management of the local council, and the un-surfaced section of it, which separates the park from the golf course, ends at a well known landmark by the Heron pond called the "Posts". Along the east side of the unmade road there are several entrances to the park. One leads to the [[Glade (geography) |Glade]], the broad grassy ride noted above, which extends due easterly five hundred yards down to the Ornamental Pond. The other main entrance for pedestrians is at the NE corner of the park from Wanstead Park Road south of [[Redbridge tube station]], the footpath crossing the busy [[A406 road|A406 North Circular Road]].

==Activities and Events==
In late April the Chalet Wood is awash with flowering bluebells. The Temple is open every weekend with displays on the history of Wanstead Park including finds excavated from the 18th century grotto and the 'Lost Roman Villa'. Entrance is free and there is also a shop offering free leaflets on Epping Forest, other guides and booklets as well as traditional toys and other attractive items. The City of London Corporation runs a programme of events at the Temple and its surrounds including family craft days, open-air theatre and musical performances. The City of London website provides further details. Another event is ''Music in Wanstead Park'', held at the beginning of summer. The event is organised by the Aldersbrook Families Association. Fishing is permitted on the Ornamental Waters and the Perch Pond, but only in season.

*Winter hours (October to March): 10.00 - 3.00 pm
*Summer hours (April-September): 12.00 - 5.00 pm

==Notes==
[[Wanstead Park railway station]] is a [[misnomer]] as it is not in fact located close to Wanstead Park. More accurate names might be either [[Wanstead Flats]] or [[Forest Gate]] North.

== Sources ==
*Wanstead House and the Parklands - a History, www.wansteadwildlife.org.uk. (June 2010). This article has drawn heavily from this source.
*Cornish, Alan. M.Sc. Wanstead Park - A Chronicle. (Originally published by the Friends of Wanstead Parklands in 1982, updated and republished by Wanstead Parklands Community Project in 2006.)
*Starkey, David. Henry: Virtuous Prince. London, 2008.(Tudor history of Wanstead)
*Ramsey, Winston G. & Fowkes, Reginald L. Epping Forest: Then and Now. Published by Battle of Britain Prints International Ltd., 1986.

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
{{commonscat|Wanstead House}}
City of London website http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/LGNL_Services/Environment_and_planning/Parks_and_open_spaces/Epping_Forest/EF_wanstead.htm

For events at The Temple and Epping Forest
http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/LGNL_Services/Environment_and_planning/Parks_and_open_spaces/Epping_Forest/EF_events.htm

*[http://www.wrengroup.org.uk/ Wren Conservation Group]
*[http://www.wansteadpark.org.uk/ Wanstead Parklands Project, a charity promoting the understanding of and concern for the historical and natural heritage of Wanstead Park and its future.]
*[http://www.follies.btinternet.co.uk/wanstead.html Follies and Monuments - Wanstead Park]

{{Green London}}

{{coord|51.5676|N|0.0403|E|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Parks and open spaces in Redbridge]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Redbridge]]
[[Category:Royal residences]]
[[Category:Royal residences in England]]
[[pt:Wanstead House]]

GWR-Klasse 5600

2010-09-04T10:27:37Z

Angusmclellan: switch to commons image

{{Infobox Locomotive
|name=Great Western Railway 5600 class<ref name="Obs1960">{{cite book
| last = Casserley
| first = H. C.
| authorlink = H. C. Casserley
| title = The Observer's Book of Railway Locomotives of Britain
| publisher = [[Frederick Warne & Co|Frederick Warne]]
| date = 1955 (Revised ed. 1960)
| location =
| page = 56
| pages =
| isbn =
| oclc = }}</ref>
|powertype=Steam
|image=6606 0-6-2T.jpg
|caption=No. 6606 at Swindon in 1963
|builder=GWR [[Swindon Works]] (150); [[Armstrong Whitworth]] (50)
|serialnumber=
|builddate=1924–1928
|whytetype=[[0-6-2]]T
|uicclass=C1'ht
|gauge={{RailGauge|ussg}}
|driverdiameter={{convert|4|ft|7+1/2|in|m|3|abbr=on}}
|trailingdiameter=
|fueltype=[[Coal]]
|fuelcap=3 tons 15 cwt
|watercap={{convert|1900|impgal|abbr=on}}
|boilerpressure={{convert|200|psi|MPa|2|abbr=on}}
|firearea=
|superheatertype=Yes
|valvegear=[[Stephenson valve gear|Stephenson's]]
|valvetype=Piston valves
|cylindercount=Two, inside
|cylindersize={{convert|18|x|26|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|tractiveeffort={{convert|25800|lbf|kN|1|abbr=on}}
|factorofadhesion=
|railroad=[[Great Western Railway]]; [[British Railways]]
|railroadclas=5600
|powerclass=GWR: D BR: 5MT
|axleloadclass=Red
|roadnumber=5600–5699, 6600–6699
|retiredate=1962–1965
|disposition=9 preserved, remainder scrapped
}}
[[Image:5637 east somerset railway 050507 d.adkins.jpg|thumb|No. 5637 awaiting its next duty on the [[East Somerset Railway]] on 5 May 2007]]
[[File:5600 class 5643 at Berwyn station Llangollen railway.JPG|right|thumb|5643 arriving at Berwyn]]
[[Image:6664 at Slough, October 1955.jpg|right|thumb|No. 6664 at [[Slough]], October 1955]]

The [[Great Western Railway|GWR]] '''5600 Class''' is a class of [[0-6-2]]T [[steam locomotive]] built between 1924 and 1928. They were designed by [[Charles Collett|C.B Collett]] for the [[Great Western Railway]] (GWR), and were introduced into traffic in 1924. Two hundred locomotives were built and remained in service until withdrawn by [[British Railways]] between 1962 and 1965. Nine of the class have survived into preservation.

==Background: Welsh 0-6-2T types==
The railways of [[South Wales]] seem to have had a particular liking for the 0-6-2T type. This was because the nature of the work they undertook demanded high adhesive weight, plenty of power with good braking ability, but no need for outright speed, nor large tanks or bunker as the distances from pit to port were short. These Welsh locomotives were taken over by the GWR at [[Railways Act 1921|The Grouping]] in 1923 and some were [[Remanufacturing|rebuilt]] with GWR [[taper boiler]]s. A number of them passed into [[British Railways]] (BR) ownership in 1948, including (with some gaps in numbering):

* [[Brecon and Merthyr Railway]], BR numbers 431-436
* [[Cardiff Railway]], BR number 155
* [[Rhymney Railway]], BR numbers 35-83
* [[Taff Vale Railway]], BR numbers 204-399

For further information on these pre-grouping locomotives see [[Locomotives of the Great Western Railway]].

==Origins==
When the GWR took over the Welsh valley lines, they discovered that the Welsh locomotive crews liked their 0-6-2T locomotives. Rather than a new design the 5600 Class was a "westernised" version of the [[Rhymney Railway M class]] and [[Rhymney Railway R class|R class]] locomotives. The 1904 M class (and the similar 1909 R class) were successful designs ideally suited to hauling heavy coal trains a relatively short distance.

The 5600 Class was specially designed for work in [[South Wales]], replacing the elderly, worn-out locomotives that had been 'inherited' in 1923, when the smaller railway companies were forcibly merged into the GWR at The Grouping. Contrary to this trend, the Rhymney Railway's more modern 0-6-2's were in generally good order and had proved successful. Thus they became the blueprint for the 56xx.

The first of five R class locos was re-boilered by the GWR in 1926 and a single M class was upgraded in 1930. In this form, both were visually almost indistinguishable from the 56 Class.

==Design==
The design of the 5600 Class followed Great Western Railway practice as far as possible, by utilising many [[standardization|standardized]] parts. Included in Collett's innovations was a Standard Number 2 [[boiler]] which was suitable for the 5600 Class, and the M and R class Rhymney locomotives, complete with the traditional brass GWR safety valve casing and copper-capped chimney.

They were substantial sized [[tank engine]]s, 37 ft 6ins in length and weighing 62 tons. The side tanks were capable of holding 1900 [[gallons]] of water. The high domed cab, bunker and tanks were closely related to the 31xx and 42xx classes. One hundred of the class were built at the GWR workshops in [[Swindon Works|Swindon]] from 1924-1927.

In 1927 another 100 similar engines were constructed – these were slightly heavier and numbered in the 66xx series. Nos 6600-6649 were Swindon-built in 1927-1928, but due to the pressure of work 6650-6699 were built by [[Armstrong Whitworth]] in 1928. This resulted in some minor design differences from the Swindon locomotives.

When the Welsh railwaymen discovered that the new [[GWR 5700 Class]] 0-6-0 [[GWR 0-6-0PT|pannier tank]] (introduced 1929) was even more suitable for the same work – being shorter and lighter, with roughly the same (slightly lower) tractive effort – no further Class 56xx/66xx were built.

The 5600 Class had the distinction of being the only locomotive of [[0-6-2]] wheel arrangement built new by the GWR. Nevertheless, there were just over 400 of the type in service from 1940–1945, demonstrating the large number acquired in 1923.

==Dimensions==
* Locomotive weight:
** All locos, 68 tons 12 cwt<ref>{{cite book |last=le Fleming |first=H.M. |editor-last=White |editor-first=D.E. |title=Part 5: Six-coupled Tank Engines |series=The Locomotives of the Great Western Railway |year=1958 |month=April |publisher=[[Railway Correspondence and Travel Society|RCTS]] |page=E75 |ref=harv }}</ref>
** 5600 Class, 68 tons 12 cwt{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
** 6600 Class, 69 tons 7 cwt{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}
** 5600 Class, 62 tons 18 cwt<ref name="Obs1960"/>
** 6600 Class, 15 cwt more than 5600<ref name="Obs1960"/>

==Service==
A fall in the South Wales coal trade in the 1930s saw many of the class re-allocated to other parts of the system.

All the 56xx/66xx locomotives passed into [[British Railways]] ownership at [[nationalisation]] in 1948, and all remained in service until 1962, at which time they were withdrawn from service quite rapidly, with the onset of [[diesel locomotive|diesel]] traction on BR gaining momentum. All had been retired by 1965.

== Preservation ==
[[Image:GWR 6619 in BR Black - geograph.org.uk - 1479727.jpg|right|thumb| 6619 in BR Black, Weybourne]]
Several ended up in [[Woodham Brothers]]' [[scrapyard]] in [[Barry, South Wales]], with eight of the nine preserved engines saved from Barry.

As the locomotives were operated mainly in South Wales, some [[railfan]]s know the Class by the nickname "Taffy Tank";<ref>{{cite web
| last = Morgan
| first = Keith
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Latest progress on GWR Taffy Tank No. 6695 at Herston Works, Swanage
| work = (Swanage Railway News Gallery - Page 118)
| publisher = [[Swanage Railway]]
| date = 2002-02-17
| url =
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 10 January 2010}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web
| title = Saved loco pulls passengers again
| work =
| publisher = BBC News
| date = 13 February 2006
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/dorset/4707756.stm
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate = 10 January 2010}}</ref>'Taffy' being a [[Taffy was a Welshman|derogatory term]] for someone of [[Welsh people|Welsh]] descent.

The following table lists the Preserved locomotives:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!Number
!Current Location
!Current Status
!Notes
|-
|5619
|{{nowrap|[[North Norfolk Railway]]}}
|In Service
|align="left"|In BR unlined Green, owned by the [[Telford Steam Railway]]
|-
|5637
|[[East Somerset Railway]]
|In Service
|align="left"|In BR lined Green
|-
|5643
|[[Llangollen Railway]]
|In Service
|align="left"|In BR lined Green, owned by Furness Railway Trust
|-
|5668
|[[Pontypool and Blaenavon Railway]]
|Under Restoration
|align="left"| 
|-
|6619
|[[North Yorkshire Moors Railway]]
|In Service
|align="left"|In BR unlined Black
|-
|6634
|[[Severn Valley Railway]]
|Under Restoration
|align="left"|Owned by [[Pete Waterman]]. Restoration to be completed by the [[Severn Valley Railway|SVR]]
|-
|6686
|[[Barry Island Railway]]
|{{nowrap|Awaiting Restoration}}
|align="left"|Owned by the Vale of Glamorgan Council as part of the [[Barry Ten]]
|-
|6695
|[[Swanage Railway]]
|In service
|align="left"|In BR lined Green
|-
|6697
|[[Didcot Railway Centre]]
|On Static Display
|align="left"|In GWR unlined Green, only member of the Class not to go through Woodham Brothers' scrapyard
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|GWR 5600 Class}}
* http://www.greatwestern.org.uk/m_in_062.htm
* [http://www.telfordsteamrailway.co.uk/56proj.php Telford Steam Railway 5619 project]
* [http://www.furnessrailwaytrust.org.uk/other5643.htm 5643]
* [http://www.swanagerailway.co.uk/6695/ 6695]

{{GWR Locomotives}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gwr 5600 Class}}
[[Category:Great Western Railway locomotives|5600 Class]]
[[Category:0-6-2 locomotives]]
[[Category:Armstrong Whitworth locomotives]]
[[Category:Railway locomotives introduced in 1924]]

Syrie Maugham

2010-09-04T00:08:48Z

Angusmclellan: moved Gwendoline Maud Syrie Barnardo to Syrie Maugham: move has been requested on talk page since 2006 with no objections and seems in line with policy on the matter

'''Syrie Maugham''' (née Gwendoline Maud Syrie Barnardo, 10 July 1879 – 25 July 1955) was a leading British interior decorator of the 1920s and 1930s and best-known for popularizing rooms decorated entirely in shades of white.

== Birth ==

She was born in [[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]], [[England]], a daughter of [[Thomas John Barnardo]], the founder of the [[Barnardo's]] [[Charitable organization|charity]] for [[destitute]] children, and his wife, the former Sarah Louise "Syrie" Elmslie.

== Career ==
In a career that lasted from 1922 until her death, Syrie Maugham became a legendary interior designer credited for designing the first all-white room. She established her own interior decorating business, Syrie LTD., at 85 Baker Street, London in 1922, and as her reputation grew, so did her business. She later opened shops in New York and Chicago, and designed homes in [[Palm Springs]] and cities all over America.

Syrie was born during the [[Victorian Era]], a time characterized by dark colors and small spaces. Syrie rejected these norms to create rooms filled with light and furnished in multiple shades of white and mirrored screens. In addition to mirrored screens, her trademark pieces included: books covered in white vellum, cutlery with white porcelain handles, console tables with plaster palm-frond, shell, or dolphin bases, upholstered and fringed sleigh beds, fur carpets, dining chairs covered in white leather, and lamps of graduated glass balls. Maugham also started the trend of stripping and repainting French provincial antiques with a secret craquelure technique. This technique remains a popular treatment seen in many modern interior designs.

Although it cannot be said that Syrie was in the first generation of interior designers, she did bring more freedom and creativity to the design profession. Elsie de Wolfe was quite formal, correct, and respectful, but Syrie drew from a various mixture of sources ranging from Picasso to baroque antiques. She reinvented classic furniture with crackled paint applications. She used strange colors. And she did the first all-white room.

She is most well known for the music room at her house at 213 King's Road in London and the salon at her villa at [[Le Touquet]], a society resort in [[France]]. The music room was actually the only room designed in all white, but many other rooms were primarily white with accents of color in the draperies or pillows. The salon was decorated entirely in shades of beige, relieved only by pale pink satin curtains. Although she made her fortune and fame with her white decors, by the mid 1930s she had largely given up the white decors to create interiors with baroque accessories and color schemes punctuated by bright green, shocking pink, and bold reds. [[Cecil Beaton]] remembered leaf-emerald wallpaper, magenta cushions, and Schiaparelli pink.

Her contemporaries included [[Elsie de Wolfe]] and Lady [[Sybil Colefax]]. Her clients included [[Wallis Simpson]], the [[Prince of Wales]], the actress [[Marie Tempest]], the Texas politician [[Oveta Culp Hobby]], the [[Reader's Digest]] founder [[DeWitt Wallace]], the couturier [[Elsa Schiaparelli]] and Capt. [[Edward Molyneux]], art patron [[Edward James]], American socialites such as [[Mona von Bismarck|Mona Williams]], [[Babe Paley]], and [[Bunny Mellon]], the playwright [[Clare Booth Luce]], and British socialites such as [[Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll]] and the Hon. [[Stephen Tennant]].

== Marriage to Henry Wellcome ==
In 1901, on a visit to [[Khartoum]] with her father, she met [[Henry Wellcome]], an American-born British industrialist who had made his fortune in [[pharmaceuticals]] (his firm became [[Burroughs Wellcome]]). She was 22 and he was 48, and they married soon after. In 1903 they had a son, Henry Mounteney Wellcome, who apparently had a learning disability that kept him apart from his family for most of his childhood and youth.

The Wellcomes' marriage was not happy, and Syrie reportedly had numerous affairs, including with the department store magnate [[Harry Gordon Selfridge]], Brig. Gen. [[Percy Desmond Fitzgerald]], and the novelist [[William Somerset Maugham]]. Eventually, after some years of separation, she became pregnant with Maugham's only child, [[Mary Elizabeth Maugham|Mary Elizabeth]], who was known as Liza.<ref>Her birth name is given as Mary Elizabeth Wellcome in the immigration and naturalization files of ellisisland.org, wherein she is listed, along with her mother, then Syrie Wellcome, on the 21 July 1916 manifest of the ''HMS Baltic''.</ref> When the child was born in [[Rome]], [[Italy]], she was given Wellcome's surname. Wellcome then publicly sued for divorce, naming Maugham as co-respondent.

== Marriage to W. Somerset Maugham ==
Syrie Wellcome and W. Somerset Maugham married in 1917 in [[New Jersey]], although he was predominantly [[homosexual]] and would spend much of his marriage apart from his wife. They divorced in 1928. Her divorce settlement from Maugham was their house at 213 [[Kings Road|King's Road]], fully furnished, a [[Rolls-Royce car|Rolls-Royce]], and 2,400 pounds a year for her and 600 pounds a year for Liza.

In his 1962 memoir ''Looking Back'' Maugham virulently criticised his former wife, which caused a public outcry. After Maugham's death in 1965 [[John Beverley Nichols|Beverley Nichols]], a former lover of Maugham's and a close friend of Syrie's, wrote in rebuttal a defence of her called ''A Case of Human Bondage'' (1966).

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* Encyclopedia of Interior Design. Banham,Joanna.,London and Chicago, 1997 pp 793–796
* Syrie Maugham: Famously White Rooms for An English Innovator. Lambert, Elizabeth., Architectural digest, January 2000
* "Syrie's Turn: Once, everyone read W. Somerset Maugham. But now his late ex-wife is the one selling books."
Robert Plunket. Sarasota Magazine, 2006, v. 10.

== Further reading ==
* Syrie Maugham. Fisher, Richard B., London: Duckworth, 1978. On page 6 the photograph of Syrie Maugham captioned "Syrie Maugham at a luncheon, 22 November 1936" is in fact the photograph of her friend, the opera singer Olga Lynn. This photograph is often thought to be of Syrie Maugham.
* The Scandal of Syrie Maugham. Gerald McKnight. ISBN 0-491-02761-3
* [http://www.syriemaugham.com www.syriemaugham.com]
* The Great Lady Decorators. Adam Lewis. Rizzoli 2010. The photograph from Richard B. Fisher's book is reproduced on page 165.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maugham, Syrie}}
[[Category:1879 births]]
[[Category:1955 deaths]]
[[Category:English designers]]
[[Category:English interior designers]]

KZ Jägala

2010-09-02T23:54:57Z

Angusmclellan: Remove link to dab page David Fraser using popups

'''Jägala concentration camp''' was a [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camp]] near the village of [[Jägala]], [[Estonia]]. It was established in 1942 and was commanded by [[Aleksander Laak]], an [[Estonians|Estonian]].<ref name="historycommission">[http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf Conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. Phase II - The German Occupation of Estonia, 1941 - 1944]</ref>

The camp was a processing camp for [[Jews]] deported to Estonia from other countries,<ref name="weiss" /> including
[[Lithuania]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Germany]] and [[Poland]]. About 3,000 arrived Jews not selected for work were shot in the near-by [[Kalevi-Liiva]] extermination site.<ref name="historycommission"/>

The camp never held more than 200 prisoners.<ref name="weiss" /> It was liquidated in the spring of 1943. Most of the inmates were shot.<ref name="historycommission"/>

The estimates for the number of killed at Jägala concentration camp vary. [[Holocaust trials in Soviet Estonia|Soviet investigators]] concluded that 2,000-3,000 were killed in Jägala and [[Kalevi-Liiva]] taken together, but the number 5,000 (as determined by the [[Extraordinary State Commission]] in 1944) was written into the verdict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kul.ee/index.php?path=40&DocID=215|title=Ülevaade juutide tapmisest Eesti territooriumil asunud laagrites|last=Hiio|first=Toomas|coauthors=Meelis Maripuu|publisher=[[Estonian Ministry of Culture]]|language=Estonian|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ekspress">{{cite news|url=http://www.ekspress.ee/news/paevauudised/valisuudised/juudid-pidasid-kalevi-liiva-koonduslaagri-komandandi-ule-omakohut.d?id=27679795|title=Juudid pidasid Kalevi-Liiva koonduslaagri komandandi üle omakohut|date=29 July 2008|work=[[Eesti Ekspress]]}}</ref>

In modern sources, the number 10,000 occurs<ref name="historycommission">{{cite web|url=http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf|title=PHASE II : THE GERMAN OCCUPATION OF ESTONIA IN 1941–1944|work=[[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]]|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="estonica">{{cite web|url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Holocaust_in_Estonia/|title=Holocaust in Estonia|last=Kaasik|first=Peeter|date=28.05.2010|work=[[Estonica]]|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vnl.ee/artikkel.php?id=1055|title=Komisjon: 20.000 juudi hukkamine Eestis pole tõendatud|date=2004-09-20|work=Virumaa Nädalaleht|language=Estonian|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref>. Michael Elkins and [[Jonathan Freedland]] give the figure of victims as up to 100,000<ref name="Elkins">{{cite book|last=Elkins|first=Michael|title= Forged in fury|url=|year=1981|publisher=Piatkus|isbn=9780861880980|page=13}}</ref><ref name="Freedland">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jul/26/second.world.war|title=Revenge|last=Freedland|first=Jonathan|date=26 July 2008|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>. David Fraser, Hershel Edelheit, and Abraham J. Edelheit<ref name="Fraser">{{cite book|last=Fraser|first=David|authorlink=David Fraser|title=Law after Auschwitz: towards a jurisprudence of the Holocaust|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=deOPAAAAMAAJ&q=jagala+concentration+camp&dq=jagala+concentration+camp&hl=en&ei=ImhlTNHfFcPflgeUu4zVDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFMQ6AEwCQ|year=2005|publisher=Carolina Academic Press|isbn=9780890892435|page=258}}</ref><ref name="Edelheit">{{cite book|last1=Edelheit|first1=Hershel|last2=Edelheit|first2=Abraham J.|title=Israel and the Jewish world, 1948-1993: a chronology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O4ltAAAAMAAJ&q=jagala+concentration+camp&dq=jagala+concentration+camp&hl=en&ei=AGplTMjfKIOglAfe3aGTDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAjgK|year=1995|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=9780313292750|page=111}}</ref> have given the figure 125,000; [[Warren Kinsella]] places the number at 300,000.<ref name="Kinsella">{{cite book|last=Kinsella|first=Warren|authorlink=Warren Kinsella|title=Web of hate: inside Canada's far right network|year=1994|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|isbn=9780002550741|page=180}}</ref> However, [[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]] and estimates of scholars place the number of total Jewish victims in Estonia during 1941-1944 around 8,500.<ref>e.g. [[Wolfgang Benz]] Handbuch des Antisemitismus: Judenfeindschaft in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Volume 1. 2008. S 111.</ref><ref name="weiss">{{cite book|last=Weiss-Wendt|first=Anton|title=Murder Without Hatred: Estonians and the Holocaust (Religion, Theology, and the Holocaust)|date=2009-06-30|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0815632283|page=351}}</ref> According to [[Anton Weiss-Wendt]], the total number of people murdered by Nazis in Estonia during the occupation was 31,028.<ref name="weiss"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Holocaust Estonia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jagala Concentration Camp}}
[[Category:The Holocaust in Estonia]]
[[Category:Nazi concentration camps]]
[[Category:Nazi extermination camps]]
[[Category:Jõelähtme Parish]]

{{nazi-stub}}
{{estonia-stub}}

[[et:Jägala koonduslaager]]

KZ Jägala

2010-09-02T23:54:04Z

Angusmclellan: Disambiguate Estonian to Estonians using popups

'''Jägala concentration camp''' was a [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camp]] near the village of [[Jägala]], [[Estonia]]. It was established in 1942 and was commanded by [[Aleksander Laak]], an [[Estonians|Estonian]].<ref name="historycommission">[http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf Conclusions of the Estonian International Commission for the Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity. Phase II - The German Occupation of Estonia, 1941 - 1944]</ref>

The camp was a processing camp for [[Jews]] deported to Estonia from other countries,<ref name="weiss" /> including
[[Lithuania]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Germany]] and [[Poland]]. About 3,000 arrived Jews not selected for work were shot in the near-by [[Kalevi-Liiva]] extermination site.<ref name="historycommission"/>

The camp never held more than 200 prisoners.<ref name="weiss" /> It was liquidated in the spring of 1943. Most of the inmates were shot.<ref name="historycommission"/>

The estimates for the number of killed at Jägala concentration camp vary. [[Holocaust trials in Soviet Estonia|Soviet investigators]] concluded that 2,000-3,000 were killed in Jägala and [[Kalevi-Liiva]] taken together, but the number 5,000 (as determined by the [[Extraordinary State Commission]] in 1944) was written into the verdict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kul.ee/index.php?path=40&DocID=215|title=Ülevaade juutide tapmisest Eesti territooriumil asunud laagrites|last=Hiio|first=Toomas|coauthors=Meelis Maripuu|publisher=[[Estonian Ministry of Culture]]|language=Estonian|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ekspress">{{cite news|url=http://www.ekspress.ee/news/paevauudised/valisuudised/juudid-pidasid-kalevi-liiva-koonduslaagri-komandandi-ule-omakohut.d?id=27679795|title=Juudid pidasid Kalevi-Liiva koonduslaagri komandandi üle omakohut|date=29 July 2008|work=[[Eesti Ekspress]]}}</ref>

In modern sources, the number 10,000 occurs<ref name="historycommission">{{cite web|url=http://www.mnemosyne.ee/hc.ee/pdf/conclusions_en_1941-1944.pdf|title=PHASE II : THE GERMAN OCCUPATION OF ESTONIA IN 1941–1944|work=[[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]]|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="estonica">{{cite web|url=http://www.estonica.org/en/Holocaust_in_Estonia/|title=Holocaust in Estonia|last=Kaasik|first=Peeter|date=28.05.2010|work=[[Estonica]]|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vnl.ee/artikkel.php?id=1055|title=Komisjon: 20.000 juudi hukkamine Eestis pole tõendatud|date=2004-09-20|work=Virumaa Nädalaleht|language=Estonian|accessdate=13 August 2010}}</ref>. Michael Elkins and [[Jonathan Freedland]] give the figure of victims as up to 100,000<ref name="Elkins">{{cite book|last=Elkins|first=Michael|title= Forged in fury|url=|year=1981|publisher=Piatkus|isbn=9780861880980|page=13}}</ref><ref name="Freedland">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/jul/26/second.world.war|title=Revenge|last=Freedland|first=Jonathan|date=26 July 2008|work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>. [[David Fraser]], Hershel Edelheit, and Abraham J. Edelheit<ref name="Fraser">{{cite book|last=Fraser|first=David|authorlink=David Fraser|title=Law after Auschwitz: towards a jurisprudence of the Holocaust|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=deOPAAAAMAAJ&q=jagala+concentration+camp&dq=jagala+concentration+camp&hl=en&ei=ImhlTNHfFcPflgeUu4zVDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CFMQ6AEwCQ|year=2005|publisher=Carolina Academic Press|isbn=9780890892435|page=258}}</ref><ref name="Edelheit">{{cite book|last1=Edelheit|first1=Hershel|last2=Edelheit|first2=Abraham J.|title=Israel and the Jewish world, 1948-1993: a chronology|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O4ltAAAAMAAJ&q=jagala+concentration+camp&dq=jagala+concentration+camp&hl=en&ei=AGplTMjfKIOglAfe3aGTDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAjgK|year=1995|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=9780313292750|page=111}}</ref> have given the figure 125,000; [[Warren Kinsella]] places the number at 300,000.<ref name="Kinsella">{{cite book|last=Kinsella|first=Warren|authorlink=Warren Kinsella|title=Web of hate: inside Canada's far right network|year=1994|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|isbn=9780002550741|page=180}}</ref> However, [[Estonian International Commission for Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity]] and estimates of scholars place the number of total Jewish victims in Estonia during 1941-1944 around 8,500.<ref>e.g. [[Wolfgang Benz]] Handbuch des Antisemitismus: Judenfeindschaft in Geschichte und Gegenwart, Volume 1. 2008. S 111.</ref><ref name="weiss">{{cite book|last=Weiss-Wendt|first=Anton|title=Murder Without Hatred: Estonians and the Holocaust (Religion, Theology, and the Holocaust)|date=2009-06-30|publisher=Syracuse University Press|isbn=978-0815632283|page=351}}</ref> According to [[Anton Weiss-Wendt]], the total number of people murdered by Nazis in Estonia during the occupation was 31,028.<ref name="weiss"/>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

{{Holocaust Estonia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Jagala Concentration Camp}}
[[Category:The Holocaust in Estonia]]
[[Category:Nazi concentration camps]]
[[Category:Nazi extermination camps]]
[[Category:Jõelähtme Parish]]

{{nazi-stub}}
{{estonia-stub}}

[[et:Jägala koonduslaager]]

Halcyon-Klasse

2010-07-25T20:09:33Z

Angusmclellan: /* Design */ tweak

{|{{Infobox Ship Begin}}
{{Infobox Ship Image
|Ship image=[[Image:HMS Britomart.jpg|300px|HMS ''Britomart'' (J22)]]
|Ship caption=[[HMS Britomart (J22)|HMS ''Britomart'']] secured to a buoy in Plymouth Sound
}}
{{Infobox Ship Class Overview
|Builders=
|Operators={{navy|UK}}
|Class before= [[Racecourse class minesweeper|Racecourse class]]
|Class after= [[Bangor class minesweeper|''Bangor'' class]]
|Subclasses= reciprocating / turbine-engined
|Built range=
|In commission range=
|Total ships building=
|Total ships planned=22
|Total ships completed=21
|Total ships cancelled=
|Total ships active=
|Total ships laid up=
|Total ships lost=9 (+1 [[Marine insurance#Actual Total Loss and Constructive Total Loss|constructive total loss]])
|Total ships retired=12
|Total ships preserved=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=for Reciprocating
|Ship type=fleet minesweeper
|Class name=''Halcyon''
|Ship displacement=815 [[long ton|tons]] (828 [[tonne]]s)
|Ship tons burthen=1,370 tons (1,391 tonnes)
|Ship length={{convert|245|ft|9|in|m|abbr=on}} [[Length overall|o/a]]ii
|Ship beam={{convert|33|ft|6|in|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship draught={{convert|9|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref>[http://www.halcyon-class.co.uk/Specifications/specifications.htm Specifications Halcyon Minesweepers]</ref>
|Ship propulsion=2 x Admiralty 3-drum [[water-tube boiler]]s, vertical compound [[steam engine|reciprocating steam engines]] on 2 shafts, 1,770 ihp
|Ship speed=16.5 to {{convert|17|kn|km/h|0|abbr=on}}
|Ship range={{convert|7200|nmi|km|-1|abbr=on}} at {{convert|10|kn|km/h|0}}
|Ship complement=80
|Ship sensors=
|Ship EW=
|Ship armament=<table>
* 2 x [[QF 4 inch Mk V naval gun|QF 4 inch Mk.V (L/45 102 mm) guns]]
** 1 x mounting CP Mk.II
** 1 x mounting HA Mk.III
* 8 x [[Lewis Gun|.303 inch (7.7 mm) Lewis machine guns]]
</table>
|Ship armour=
|Ship aircraft=
|Ship aircraft facilities=
|Ship notes=
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=(''Niger'', ''Salamander'')
|Ship displacement=
|Ship tons burthen= 1,330 tons (1,351 tonnes)
|Ship length={{convert|245|ft|3|in|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship propulsion=Vertical triple-expansion, 2,000 ihp
|Ship speed = {{convert|17|kn|km/h|0}}
|Ship armament=
<table>
* 2 x [[QF 4 inch Mk V naval gun|QF 4 inch Mk.V (L/45 102 mm) guns]], single mounts HA Mk.III
* 4 x [[Vickers .50 machine gun|.5 inch Mk.III (12.7 mm) Vickers machine guns]], quad mount HA Mk.I
* 8 x [[Lewis gun|.303 inch (7.7 mm) Lewis machine guns]]
</table>
|Ship notes= Other characteristics as per reciprocating ships
}}
{{Infobox Ship Characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=(turbine)
|Ship displacement= 815 - 835 tons (828 - 848 tonnes) / 1,290 - 1,350 tons (1,310 - 1,372 tonnes) full load
|Ship propulsion=
2 x Admiralty 3-drum water-tube boilers, [[Parsons Marine Steam Turbines|Parsons]] steam turbines, {{convert|1750|shp|kW|0|abbr=on}} on 2 shafts
|Ship speed = {{convert|16.5|kn|km/h|0}}
|Ship notes= Other characteristics as per ''Niger'' / ''Salamander''
}}
|}

The '''''Halcyon'' class''' was a [[ship class|class]] of 21 oil-fired [[Minesweeper (ship)|minesweepers]] (officially, "fleet minesweeping sloops") built for the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy]] between 1933 and 1939. They were given traditional small ship names used historically by the Royal Navy and served during [[World War II]].

==Design==
There were 21 ships in the ''Halcyon'' class, built in two groups; the first using reciprocating steam engines, with steam turbines in the latter. They were generally smaller versions of the [[Grimsby class sloop|''Grimsby'' class]] escort sloops. ''Niger'' and ''Salamander'' of the reciprocating group used vertical triple expansion engines, instead of the vertical compound engines of their sisters. As a result of the increased installed power they had a half knot speed advantage, even though they used slightly shorter hulls. The turbine ships used the same shorter hulls as ''Niger'' and ''Salamander'', but with lower installed power, speed dropped back to {{convert|16.5|kn|km/h|0}}.

''Gleaner'', ''Franklin'', ''Jason'' and ''Scott'' were completed as unarmed survey vessels, ''Sharpshooter'' and ''Seagull'' being converted to follow suit. They were all re-armed and deployed in their original role on the outbreak of war. ''Seagull'' had the first all-welded hull built for the Royal Navy<ref name="lenton">Lenton, p.252</ref>.

==Service history==
''Halcyons'' served in Home waters, at [[Dunkirk evacuation|Dunkirk]], on Arctic convoy duty, and in the [[Mediterranean]].

On 3 February 1940 [[HMS Sphinx (J69)|''Sphinx'']] (Cdr. J. R. N. Taylor, RN) was sweeping an area {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} north of [[Kinnaird Head]] when attacked by enemy aircraft. A bomb pierced the [[Forecastle|fo'c'sle]] deck and exploding destroying the fore part of the ship. She remained afloat and was taken in tow by [[HMS Halcyon (J42)|''Halcyon'']] but steadily flooded and capsized and sank. The wreck was later washed ashore north of [[Lybster]] and was sold for scrap. The Commanding Officer and forty of the men were killed in the explosion.

[[HMS Skipjack (J69)|''Skipjack'']] (Lt.Cdr. F. B. Proudfoot, RN) was attacked and sunk by a force of German dive-bombers off [[De Panne]], [[Belgium]] on 1 June 1940. On board ''Skipjack'' were between 250 and 300 soldiers just rescued from the [[Dunkirk]] beaches during [[Operation Dynamo]]. Eye witness William Stone said "she just disappeared"<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7084764.stm BBC NEWS | UK | Surviving WWI: Veterans' stories]</ref>.

''Halcyons'' were pressed into service as anti-submarine escorts; this task slowly decreasing as the ships specifically designed for this task, such as [[Flower class corvette]]s, came off the slips. ''Halcyons'' accompanied most of the [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic Convoys]], serving both as minesweepers and anti-submarine escorts. Several spent extended periods working out of Soviet naval bases in Northern Russia, such as [[Murmansk]]. Four ''Halcyons'' were lost during this period.

* [[HMS Gossamer (J63)|''Gossamer'']] (Lt.Cdr. T. C. Crease), having escorted the very first [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic Convoy]], attacked a German [[U-boat]] while escorting [[Convoy PQ-11]], and helped rescue the crew of [[HMS Edinburgh (C16)|HMS ''Edinburgh'']]. ''Gossamer'' dive-bombed and sunk on 26 June 1942 in the [[Kola Inlet]].
* [[HMS Niger (J73)|''Niger'']] (Cdr. A. J. Cubison, [[Distinguished Service Cross (United Kingdom)|DSC]] [[Medal bar|and Bar]]) was lost off [[Iceland]] on 5 July 1942 while escorting [[Convoy PQ-13]], when part of the convoy wandered into a British minefield.
*[[HMS Leda (J93)|''Leda'']] was torpedoed and sunk in the [[Greenland Sea]] on 29 September 1942 while escorting [[Convoy QP-14]].
*On 31 December 1943 during the [[Battle of the Barents Sea]], [[HMS Bramble (J11)|''Bramble'']] was attacked by the German surface raider [[German cruiser Admiral Hipper|''Admiral Hipper'']] on while escorting [[Convoy JW51B]]. After sustaining serious damage, ''Bramble'' was finished off by the German destroyer ''Eckholdt''.

[[HMS Hebe (J24)|''Hebe'']] and [[HMS Speedy (J17)|''Speedy'']] served in the Mediterranean as part of the [[14th/17th Minesweeper Flotilla]] based in [[Malta]]. The minesweepers saw action during the [[Malta Convoys]], [[Operation Torch]], and [[Operation Corkscrew]]. ''Hebe'' was lost to a mine off [[Bari]], [[Italy]] on 22 November 1943.

[[HMS Britomart (J22)|''Britomart'']] (Lt. Cdr. Nash, MBE, RNR) and [[HMS Hussar (J82)|''Hussar'']] (Lt.Cdr. A. J. Galvin, DSC, RNR) were sunk by aerial rockets fired from [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] [[Hawker Typhoon|Typhoons]] in a "[[friendly fire]]" incident on 27 August 1944 off [[Cap d'Antifer]], [[Le Havre]]. [[HMS Salamander (J86)|''Salamander'']] was badly damaged astern in the same incident and she was written off as a constructive total loss and eventually scrapped without repair. [[HMS Jason (J99)|''Jason'']] was attacked during the same incident but escaped major damage.

== Ships in class ==
=== Reciprocating group ===
*Ordered 1932
** [[HMS Halcyon (J42)|HMS ''Halcyon'']], built by [[John Brown & Company]], [[Clydebank]], sold for scrapping 1950
** [[HMS Skipjack (J38)|HMS ''Skipjack'']], built by John Brown, bombed and sunk off [[Dunkirk]] 1940-06-01
*Ordered 1933
** [[HMS Harrier (J71)|HMS ''Harrier'']], built by [[John I. Thornycroft & Company]], [[Woolston, Hampshire|Woolston]], sold for scrapping 1950
** [[HMS Hussar (J82)|HMS ''Hussar'']], built by Thornycroft, sunk in error by RAF aircraft off [[Cap d'Antifer]], 1944-08-27
*Ordered 1934
** [[HMS Speedwell (J87)|HMS ''Speedwell'']], built by [[William Hamilton & Company]], [[Port Glasgow]], sold out of service 1946, wrecked and scrapped 1954
*Ordered 1935
** [[HMS Niger (J73)|HMS ''Niger'']], built by [[J. Samuel White & Company]], [[Cowes]], mined off Iceland 1942-06-04
** [[HMS Salamander (J86)|HMS ''Salamander'']], built by White, damaged in RAF rocket attack off Cap d'Antifer August 27 1944 and written off as constructive total loss, sold for scrapping 1946

=== Turbine group ===
*Ordered 1936
** [[HMS Franklin (J84)|HMS ''Franklin'']], built by [[Ailsa Shipbuilding Company]], [[Troon]], sold for scrapping 1956
** [[HMS Gleaner (J83)|HMS ''Gleaner'']], built by [[William Gray & Company]], [[Hartlepool]], sold for scrapping 1950
** [[HMS Gossamer (J63)|HMS ''Gossamer'']], built by William Hamilton, bombed and sunk in [[Kola Inlet]] 1942-06-24
** [[HMS Hazard (J02)|HMS ''Hazard'']], built by William Gray, sold for scrapping 1949
** [[HMS Hebe (J24)|HMS ''Hebe'']], built by [[HMNB Devonport|HM Dockyard, Devonport]], mined and sunk off [[Bari]], 1943-11-22
** [[HMS Jason (J99)|HMS ''Jason'']], built by Ailsa, sold out of service 1946, sold for scrapping 1950
** [[HMS Leda (J93)|HMS ''Leda'']], built by HM Dockyard Devonport, torpedoed and sunk by [[German submarine U-435|''U-435'']] in [[Greenland Sea]] 1942-09-20
** [[HMS Seagull (J85)|HMS ''Seagull'']], built by HM Dockyard Devonport, sold for scrapping 1956
** [[HMS Sharpshooter (J68)|HMS ''Sharpshooter'']], built by HM Dockyard Devonport, renamed ''Shackleton'' 1953 and converted to survey vessel, sold for scrapping 1956
*Ordered 1937
** [[HMS Bramble (J11)|HMS ''Bramble'']], built by HM Dockyard Devonport, sunk by gunfire from German warships in [[Barents Sea]], 1942-12-31
** [[HMS Britomart (J22)|HMS ''Britomart'']], built by HM Dockyard Devonport, sunk in error by RAF aircraft off [[Cap d'Antifer]], August 27 1944
** [[HMS Scott (J79)|HMS ''Scott'']], built by [[Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company]], [[Dundee]], sold for scrapping 1965
** [[HMS Speedy (J17)|HMS ''Speedy'']], built by William Hamilton, sold out of service 1946, sold for scrapping 1957
** [[HMS Sphinx (J69)|HMS ''Sphinx'']], built by William Hamilton, bombed by German aircraft off [[Kinnaird Head]] 1940-02-03, later sank under tow and wreck washed ashore off [[Lybster]], salved and scrapped 1950

==See also==
{{Commonscat}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
* ''British and Empire Warships of the Second World War'', H. T. Lenton, Greenhill Books, ISBN 1-85367-277-7
* ''Warships of World War II'', by H. T. Lenton & J. J. Colledge, Ian Allen Ltd, ISBN 0-71100-202-9

== External links ==
* [http://www.halcyon-class.co.uk/ ''Halcyon'' class website]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/02/a3319102.shtml HMS ''Bramble'' "BBC People's War"]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/65/a7736565.shtml HMS ''Hussar'' "BBC People's War"]
{{Halcyon class minesweeper}}
{{WWIIBritishShips}}

[[Category:Mine warfare classes]]
[[Category:Halcyon class minesweepers| ]]
[[Category:World War II minesweepers of the United Kingdom| ]]

[[ms:HMS Gleaner]]

Molekulares Logikgatter

2010-07-25T16:09:08Z

Angusmclellan: switch to commons image

{{Nanoelec}}

A '''molecular logic gate''' is a molecule that performs a logical operation on one or more logic inputs and produces a single logic output. Much academic research is dedicated to the development of these systems and several prototypes now exist. Because of their potential utility in simple [[arithmetic]] these [[molecular machine]]s are also called '''moleculators'''.

Molecular logic gates work with input signals based on [[chemical process]]es and with output signals based on [[spectroscopy]]. One of the earlier water solution-based systems exploits the chemical behavior of compounds '''A''' and '''B''' in ''scheme 1'' {{Ref|Silva}}.

[[File:Moleculators de silva13 02.png|center|500px|Scheme 1. Molecular logic gates de Silva 2000]]

Compound A is a [[push-pull olefin]] with the top receptor containing four [[carboxylic acid]] anion groups (and non-disclosed counter cations) capable of binding to [[calcium]]. The bottom part is a [[quinoline]] molecule which is a receptor for hydrogen ions. The logic gate operates as follows.

Without any chemical input of Ca2+ or H+, the [[chromophore]] shows a maximum [[absorbance]] in [[UV/VIS spectroscopy]] at 390 [[nanometer|nm]]. When calcium is introduced a [[blue shift]] takes place and the absorbance at 390 nm decreases. Likewise addition of protons causes a [[red shift]] and when both cations are in the water the net result is absorption at the original 390 nm. This system represents a [[XNOR]] logic gate in absorption and a [[XOR]] logic gate in [[transmittance]].

In compound '''B''' the bottom section now contains a [[tertiary amine|tertiary amino]] group also capable of binding to protons. In this system [[fluorescence]] only takes place when both cations are present and therefore the system represents an [[AND gate|AND logic gate]].

With both systems run in parallel and with monitoring of transmittance for system A and fluorescence for system B the result is a [[half-adder]] capable of reproducing the equation 1+1=2.

In a modification of system B not two but three chemical inputs are simultaneously processed in an AND logic gate {{Ref|Silva2}}. An enhanced [[fluorescence]] signal from the compound depicted below is obtained only in the presence of hydrogen, zinc and sodium ions through interaction with respectively the [[amine]], [[carboxylate]] and [[crown ether]] receptors and this system can be potentially applied in disease screening (lab-on-a-molecule) because these ions are all [[physiology|physiologically]] relevant.

[[Image:LabOnAMolecule.png|center|400px|Scheme 2. Lab On A Molecule]]

In another XOR logic gate system the chemistry is based on the [[pseudorotaxane]] {{Ref|Credi}} depicted in ''scheme 3''. In organic solution the electron deficient [[pyrene|diazapyrenium]] salt (rod) and the electron rich 2,3-dioxy[[naphthalene]] units of the [[crown ether]] (ring) [[molecular self-assembly|self-assemble]] by formation of a [[charge transfer complex]].

An added [[tertiary amine]] like tributylamine forms a 1:2 adduct with the diazapyrene and the complex gets dethreaded. This process is accompanied by an increase in emission intensity at 343 nm resulting from freed crown ether. Added [[trifluoromethanesulfonic acid]] reacts with the amine and the process is reverted. Excess acid locks the crown ether by [[protonation]] and again the complex is dethreaded.

[[Image:RotaxaneLogicGate.png|center|300px|Scheme 3. Pseudorotaxane logic gate]]

A [[full adder]] system based on [[fluorescein]] {{Ref|Margulies}} is able to compute 1+1+1=3.

==See also==

[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v364/n6432/pdf/364042a0.pdf A Molecular Photoionic AND Gate Based on Fluorescent Signaling]

==References==
# {{Note|Silva}} ''Proof-of-Principle of Molecular-Scale Arithmetic'' A. Prasanna de Silva and Nathan D. McClenaghan [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]; '''2000'''; 122(16) pp 3965 – 3966; [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja994080m Abstract]
# {{Note|Silva2}} ''Communicating Chemical Congregation: A Molecular AND Logic Gate with Three Chemical Inputs as a "Lab-on-a-Molecule" Prototype'' David C. Magri, Gareth J. Brown, Gareth D. McClean, and A. Prasanna de Silva [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]; '''2006'''; 128(15) pp 4950 – 4951; (Communication) [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja058295+ Abstract]
# {{Note|Credi}} ''Logic Operations at the Molecular Level. An XOR Gate Based on a Molecular Machine'' Alberto Credi, Vincenzo Balzani, Steven J. Langford, and [[James Fraser Stoddart|J. Fraser Stoddart]] [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]; '''1997'''; 119(11) pp 2679 – 2681; (Article) [http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja963572l Abstract]
# {{Note|Margulies}} ''A Molecular Full-Adder and Full-Subtractor, an Additional Step toward a Moleculator'' David Margulies, Galina Melman, and Abraham Shanzer [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]]; '''2006'''; 128(14) pp 4865 – 4871; (Article) DOI: 10.1021/ja058564w

[[Category:Logic gates]]
[[Category:Molecular electronics]]
[[Category:Nanoelectronics]]
[[Category:Supramolecular chemistry]]
[[Category:Molecular machines]]

[[es:Compuerta lógica molecular]]
[[it:Porta logica molecolare]]

Butler

2010-07-25T12:14:03Z

Angusmclellan: switch to commons image

{{about|the type of household servant}}
{{redirect|Butlers|the community in Imperial County, California|Butlers, California}}

[[File:White House Butlers Pantry.jpg|thumb|right|A butler in the [[White House]] Butler's Pantry.]]
A '''butler''' is a [[domestic worker|servant]] in a wealthy, large [[household]]. In [[great house]]s, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the [[dining room]], [[wine cellar]], and [[pantries|pantry]]. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and [[Housekeeper (servant)|housekeepers]] caring for the entire house and its appearance.<ref name="emilypost">{{cite book | title=Emily Post's Etiquette| last=Post| first=Emily| year=2007| publisher=Echo Library| id=ISBN 1406812153}}</ref> A butler is usually male,<ref>http://www.butlersguild.com/index.php?subject=5</ref> and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, and in charge of female servants. Traditionally, male servants (such as footmen) were better paid and therefore rarer and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the senior male servant, has the highest servant status.

In modern usage, the butler is in charge of food service, wine, spirits, and [[silver (household)|silver]], supervises other servants, and may perform a wide array of household management duties. Butlers may also be titled ''majordomo'', ''butler administrator'', ''staff manager'', or ''head of household staff'', and in the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler.

==Background==
In modern houses where the butler is the most senior worker, titles such as ''[[majordomo]]'', ''butler administrator'', ''house manager'', ''manservant'', ''staff manager'', ''chief of staff'', ''staff captain'', ''estate manager'' and ''head of household staff'' are sometimes given. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, but perhaps more importantly in line with the requirements of the individual employer.

The earliest literary mention of a butler is probably that of the man whose release from prison was predicted by [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] in the [[biblical]] account of Joseph's interpretation of the dreams of the [[Pharaoh]]'s servants. The word "butler" derives from the [[Old French]] ''bouteleur'' (cup bearer), from ''bouteille'', (bottle), and ultimately from Latin. The role of the butler, for centuries, has been that of the chief steward of a household, the attendant entrusted with the care and serving of wine and other bottled beverages which in ancient times might have represented a considerable portion of the household's assets.

In Britain, the butler was originally a middle ranking member of the staff of a grand household. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,  the butler gradually became the usually senior male member of a household's staff in the very grandest households, though there was sometimes a steward who ran the outside estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household, and who was senior to the butler in social status into the nineteenth century. Butlers used to always be attired in a special uniform, distinct from the [[livery]] of junior servants, but today a butler is more likely to wear a [[Business attire|business suit]] or business casual clothing and appear in uniform only on special occasions.

A Silverman or Silver Butler has expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware and other paraphernalia for use at military and other special functions. See also [[Silver (household)]].

==Origin and history==
[[Image:Pincerna-roman.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A slave in charge of wine in ancient Rome. The garb indicates he was probably of [[Phrygian]] origin.]]
The modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages.

===Ancient through medieval eras===
From ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.

The biblical book of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] interpreted a dream of Pharaoh's שקה (shaqah) (literally "to give to drink"), which is most often translated into English as "chief butler" or "chief cup-bearer".<ref>Genesis 39-40.</ref>

In ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the [[Medieval Era]] the ''pincerna'', usually a [[serf]], filled the role within the noble court.
The English word "butler" itself derives from the [[Middle English]] word ''boteler'' (and several other forms), from [[Old French]] ''bouteillier'' ("bottle bearer"), and before that from [[Middle Latin]] ''butticula''. "Butticula", in turn, came down to English as "butt" from the [[Latin]] ''buttis'', meaning a large cask. The modern [[English language|English]] "butler" thus relates both to bottles and casks.
[[Image:Pincera-schenker.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A ''pincerna'' depicted in service to a noble court during the Medieval Era.]]
Eventually the European butler emerged as a middle-ranking member of the servants of a great house, in charge of the ''buttery'' (originally a storeroom for "butts" of liquor, although the term later came to mean a general storeroom or pantry).<ref>This was most likely from a loss of the original Latin meaning and the mistaken belief that ''buttery'' related to "butter".</ref> While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title but in service to the Crown enjoyed a position of administrative power and were only minimally involved with various stores.
[[Image:Amesservants.jpg|right|thumb|250px|In a large house, the butler (centre-left) is traditionally head over a full array of household servants. This is the servant staff at the Stonehouse Hill of [[Massachusetts]], the estate of F. Lothrop Ames, 1914.]]

===Elizabethan through Victorian eras===
The ''Steward'' of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged.<ref>Lord Montague's Book of Rules and Orders, 1595.</ref> Gradually, throughout the nineteenth century and particularly the Victorian era, as the number of butlers and other domestic servants greatly increased in various countries (including America), the butler became a senior male servant of a household's staff. By this time he was in charge of the more modern ''wine cellar'', the "buttery" or ''pantry'' (from French ''pan'' from Latin ''panis'', bread) as it came to be called, which supplied bread, butter, cheese, and other basic provisions, and the ''ewery'', which contained napkins and basins for washing and shaving.<ref name="scanlon">{{cite journal | author=Nancy Scanlon| title=The Development of the Kitchen in the English Country House 1315-1864| journal=Journal of Culinary Science & Technology| year=2006| volume=4| issue=2/3| pages=79–92}}</ref> In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties.<ref name="mrsbeeton">{{cite book | title=Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management| url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89404824| last=Beeton| first=Isabella| date=1861) (2000| pages=393| publisher=Oxford University Press| id=ISBN 0192833456}}</ref> ''[[Mrs Beaton]]'s Book of Household Management'', a manual published in Britain in 1861, reported:
<blockquote>
''The number of the male domestics in a family varies according to the wealth and position of the master, from the owner of the ducal mansion, with a retinue of attendants, at the head of which is the chamberlain and house-steward, to the occupier of the humbler house, where a single footman, or even the odd man-of-all-work, is the only male retainer. The majority of gentlemen's establishments probably comprise a servant out of livery, or butler, a footman, and coachman, or coachman and groom, where the horses exceed two or three.''<ref>Beeton (1861), 393.</ref>
</blockquote>
[[Image:Glanusk park.gif|right|thumb|250px|Glanusk Park in Powys County, U.K., in 1891. The residence had 17 servants in residence. The largest stately houses could have 40 or more.]]
Butlers were head of a strict service hierarchy and therein held a position of power and respect. They were more managerial than "hands on"—more so than serving, they officiated in service. For example, although the butler was at the door to greet and announce the arrival of a formal guest, the door was actually ''opened'' by a footman, who would receive the guest's hat and coat. Even though the butler helped his employer into his coat, this had been handed to him by a footman. However, even the highest-ranking butler would "pitch in" when necessary, such as during a staff shortage, to ensure that the household ran smoothly, although some evidence suggests this was so even during normal times.<ref>Carrolyn Steedman, "The servant’s labour: the business of life, England, 1760–1820", ''Social History'', Vol. 29 No. 1, (Feb., 2004).</ref>

The household itself was generally divided into areas of responsibility. The butler was in charge of the dining room, the [[wine cellar]], pantry, and sometimes the entire main floor. Directly under the butler was the ''first footman'' (or ''head footman''), who was also ''deputy butler'' or ''under-butler'' that would fill in as butler during the butler's illness or absence. The ''[[footman]]''—there were frequently numerous young men in the role within a household—performed a range of duties including serving meals, attending doors, carrying or moving heavy items, and they often doubled as ''[[valets]]''. Valets themselves performed a variety of personal duties for their employer. Butlers engaged and directed all these junior staff and each reported directly to him. The ''[[housekeeper]]'' was in charge of the house as a whole and its appearance. In a household without an official head housekeeper, female servants and kitchen staff were also directly under the butler's management, while in smaller households, the butler usually doubled as valet. Employers and their children and guests addressed the butler by last name alone; fellow servants, retainers, and tradespersons as "Mr. [Surname]".

Butlers were typically hired by the master of the house but usually reported to its lady. Beaton in her manual suggested a GBP 25 - 50 (USD 2,675 - 5,350) per-year salary for butlers; room and board and livery clothing were additional benefits, and tipping known as ''vails'', were common.<ref>D. Marshall, "The Domestic Servants of the Eighteenth Century", ''Economica'', No. 25, (Apr., 1929), pp. 15-40. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548516 Available online with subscription.]</ref> The few butlers who were married had to make separate housing arrangements for their families, as did all other servants within the hierarchy.

===Butlers in early America===
[[Image:Robert Roberts The House Servant's Directory 1827 Book Cover.jpg|right|thumb|120px|Robert Roberts's ''The House Servant' Directory'', 1827.]]
From the beginning of [[slavery]] in [[United States|America]], in the early 1600s, [[African Americans]] were put to task as domestic servants. Some eventually became butlers. Gary Puckrein, a social historian, argues that those used in particularly affluent homes authentically internalised the sorts of "refined" norms and personal attributes that would reflect highly upon the social stature of their masters or mistresses. One of the first books written and published through a commercial U.S. publisher by an African American was by a butler named [[Robert Roberts (butler)|Robert Roberts]]. The book, ''The House Servant's Directory'',<ref>http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_05.cfm</ref> first published in 1827, is essentially a manual for butlers and waiters, and is called by Puckrein "the most remarkable book by an African American in [[South: Ante Bellum|antebellum America]]". The book generated such interest that a second edition was published in 1828, and a third in 1843.<ref name="puckrein">{{cite journal | author=Gary Puckrein| title=The Science of Service| journal=American Visions| year=Oct/Nov 98| volume=13| issue=5}}</ref>

European [[indentured servants]] formed a corps of domestic workers from which butlers were eventually drawn. Although not the victims of institutionalised slavery, many of these had not volunteered for domestic service, but were forced into it by indebtedness or coercion. As with African American slaves, they could rise in domestic service, and their happiness or misery depended greatly on the disposition of their masters.

===The modern butler===
Beginning around the early 1920s, employment in domestic service occupations began a sharp overall decline in western European countries, and even more markedly in the [[United States]]. Even so, there were still around 30,000 butlers employed in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] by [[World War II]]. As few as one-hundred were estimated to remain by the mid-1980s.<ref name="steadyjeevesyouvegotcompany">{{cite journal | author=J. Lee| title=Steady, Jeeves—you've got company!| journal=U.S. News & World Report| year=1988| volume=104| issue=17}}</ref> [[Social history|Social historian]] Barry Higman argues that a high number of domestic workers within a society correlates with a high level of socio-economic inequality. Conversely, as a society undergoes levelling among its [[social class]]es, the number employed in domestic service declines.<ref name="domesticserviceinaustralia">{{cite book | title=Domestic Service in Australia| last=Higman| first=Barry| year=2002| publisher=Melbourne University Publishing| id=ISBN 0522850111}}</ref>

Following varied shifts and changes accompanying accelerated [[globalisation]] beginning in the late 1980s, overall global demand for butlers since the turn of the millennium has risen dramatically. According to Charles MacPherson, vice chairman of the International Guild of Professional Butlers, the proximate cause is that the number of millionaires and billionaires has increased in recent years, and such people are finding that they desire assistance in managing their households. MacPherson emphasises that the number of wealthy in [[China]] has particularly increased, creating in that country a high demand for professional butlers who have been trained in the European butlering tradition.<ref name="NPRradio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7338550|title=By Jeeves, We're Having a Butler Shortage—Interview with Charles MacPherson|accessdate=2007-08-13|publisher=NPR News|year=10 Feb 2007|author=Scott Simon|work=Weekend Edition Saturday|format=Streaming Audio}} Also see Sheelah Kolhatka, [http://static.pinnaclecare.com/reprints/atlantic-monthly-09-06.pdf "Inside the Billionaire Service Industry"]. The Atlantic, Sept 2006, 97-101. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUei8uRE Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> There is also increasing demand for such butlers in other [[Asia]]n countries, [[India]], and the [[petroleum]]-rich [[Middle East]].<ref>See for example Chadha, Monica. "Royal tips for Indian butlers", ''BBC News'', 17 Feb 2003. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2761689.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YERDpaXC Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref name="Available online">"Butlers: A Jeeves of my very own", ''The Daily Telegraph'', 15 Nov 2007. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?xml=/portal/2007/11/15/ftbutler115.xml Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF9YBJuE Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

Higman additionally argues that the inequality/equality levels of societies are a major determinant of the nature of the domestic servant/employer relationship.<ref>Higman (2002).</ref> As the twenty-first century approached, many butlers began carrying out an increasing number of duties formerly reserved for more junior household servants. Butlers today may be called upon to do whatever household and personal duties their employers deem fitting, in the goal of freeing their employers to carry out their own personal and professional affairs. Professional butler and author Steven M. Ferry states that the image of tray-wielding butlers who specialise in serving tables and decanting wine is now anachronistic, and that employers may well be more interested in a butler who is capable of managing a full array of household affairs—from providing the traditional dinner service, to acting as valet, to managing high-tech systems and multiple homes with complexes of staff. Whilst in truly grand houses the modern butler may still function exclusively as a top-ranked household affairs manager,<ref name="butlersandhouseholdmanagers">{{cite book | title=Butlers & Household Managers: 21st Century Professionals| last=Ferry| first=Steven M| pages=14| publisher=BookSurge Publishing| id=ISBN 1591093066}}</ref> in lesser homes, such as those of dual-income middle-class professionals,<ref name="Available online"/> they perform a full array of household and [[personal assistant]] duties,<ref name="thebutlerdoesit">{{cite journal | author=William Loeffler| title=The butler does it| journal=The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, Lifestyle| date=15 April 2007}}</ref> including mundane [[housekeeping]].<ref name="moveoverjeeves">{{cite journal | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| journal=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=2007-08-13| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq Archived by WebCite®.] Elizabeth Camille, a butler in Sydney, states, "I still make beds, clean toilets and peg out washing.... It's not all as glamorous as people perceive it to be." Additionally see "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007. Lynda Reeves, president of the Toronto-based House & Home Media, says that the term "butler" today is just "a pretentious name for a housekeeper".</ref> Butlers today may also be situated within corporate settings, embassies, cruise ships, yachts, or within their own small "Rent-a-Butler" business or similar agency.<ref>Jones, Harvey. "More money than time? Rent a butler". ''The Independent'' (UK), 15 Dec 2001. Available [http://money.independent.co.uk/personal_finance/invest_save/article149002.ece online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5TvdZjrhC Archived by WebCite®.] Also see http://www.rentabutler.de and http://www.rentabutler.nl/.</ref>

Along with these changes of scope and context, butlering [[attire]] has changed. Whereas butlers have traditionally worn a special uniform that separated them from junior servants, and although this is still often the case, butlers today may adorn more casual clothing geared for climate, while exchanging it for formal business attire only upon special service occasions. There are cultural distinctivenesses, as well. In the United States, butlers may frequently adorn a polo shirt and slacks, while in Bali they typically wear [[sarong]]s.<ref>Patrao, Michael. "The alter ago of Jeeves". ''The Deccan Herald'', 27 July 2007. Available [http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/Jul272007/metro2007072615305.asp online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5Tvf9PxTe Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

In 2007, the number of butlers in Britain had risen to an estimated 5,000.<ref>Sapstead, David. "Shortage of Butlers Has World's Wealthy Facing a Crisis", ''New York Sun'', 30 May 2007. [http://www.nysun.com/foreign/shortage-of-butlers-has-worlds-wealthy-facing/55511/ Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDkDOzGn Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

==Training==
Butlers traditionally learned their position while progressing their way up the service ladder. For example, in the documentary ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', retired butler Arthur Inch (born 1915) describes starting as a [[hall boy]].<ref>''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', Documentary featurette in ''Gosford Park'' Collector's Edition DVD, Universal Studios, 2002.</ref> Whilst this is still often the case, numerous private butlering schools exist today, such as the International Institute of Modern Butlers, the Guild of Professional English Butlers, and The International Guild of Butlers & Household Managers; top graduates can start at USD 50,000 - 60,000 (GBP 25,350 - 30,400).<ref>Simon (10 Feb 2007).</ref> Additionally, major up-market hotels such as the [[Ritz-Carlton]] offer traditional butler training, while some hotels have trained a sort of pseudo-butler for service in defined areas such as "technology butlers", who fix guests' computers and other electronic devices, and "bath butlers" who draw custom baths.<ref name="thebutlersaredoingit">{{cite journal | author=Witchel| title=At Hotels, the Butlers Are Doing It| journal=New York Times| year=2000| volume=149| issue=51486| page=2}} Ferry, as quoted in "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007, was quoted as saying that hotel butlers are not rooted in the European tradition of butlering. He states that some hotels essentially rename their pool attendants as "pool butlers" and this is not a real butler so much as a marketing gimmick.</ref><ref>Rouvalis, Cristina. "Butler provides the perfect pampering", ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 06 May 2007. [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07126/783166-37.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDQvRyvh Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref>Hotels are rated by the International Institute of Modern Butlers according to their butler service offerings, which can range from the one-on-one personalized butler (a 5-Butler rating) to the "pool butler (a 0-Butler rating). See http://www.modernbutlers.com/html/butler-rating-system.html</ref>

[[Starkey International Institute for Household Management|Starkey International]] distinguishes between the "British butler" prototype and its American counterpart, often dubbed the "household manager". Starkey states that they train and promote the latter, believing that Americans do not have the "servant mentality" that is part of the British Butler tradition. They stress that their American-style butlers and valets are educated and certified,<ref>Starkey does lay claim to understanding the British butler tradition; however, her general approach seems to be that American domestic staff are better suited to American families.</ref> although some students, numerous former Starkey employees, and several wealthy clients have criticised the programme and its owner.<ref name="starkeycontroversy">{{cite journal | author=Joel Warner| title=At Your Disservice| journal=Denver Westword News| year=9 Aug 2007| url=http://www.westword.com/2007-08-09/news/at-your-disservice}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R5vB2Vfu Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> Magnums Butlers, a school based in Australia, conducts training after the British model at sites in Asia and the Pacific, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Middle East.<ref>See [http://www.magnumsbutlers.com Magnums Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgjKPZP Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> The International Institute of Modern Butlers provides on-site training in various places around the world as well as via correspondence. In 2007, [[City & Guilds]], the U.K.'s largest awarder of vocational credentials, introduced a diploma programme for butlers.<ref>See http://www.cityandguilds.com/cps/rde/xchg/SID-7D78108B-8F23F7DA/cgonline/hs.xsl/12341.html</ref>

In addition to formal training, a few books have been published recently to assist butlers in their duties, including [[Arthur Inch]]'s and Arlene Hirst's 2003 ''Dinner is Served''. Moreover, websites, as well as a news publication, ''Modern Butlers' Journal'', help butlers to network and keep abreast of developments within their field.

Ferry argues that what he calls a "butler mindset" is beneficial to all people within all professions. He states that an attitude of devoted service to others, deference, and the keeping of confidences can help all people succeed.

==Gender and butlering==
Butlers have traditionally been male, and this remains the norm. Probably the first mention of a female butler is in the 1892 book ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses'' by Horace Smith. In it Smith quotes a certain Sydney Smith who had apparently run into lean times:
<blockquote>
''A man servant was too expensive, so I caught up a little garden girl, made like a milestone, christened her Bunch, put a napkin in her hand, and made her my butler. The girls taught her to read, Mrs. Sydney to wait, and I undertook her morals. Bunch became the best butler in the country''.<ref>Smith, Horace; Joel Lehtonen (translator) (1892). ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses''. MacMillan & Co. ISBN 1406919659. Available [http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/7/0/6/17065/17065.htm online] (full text). [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUf9ithw Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>
</blockquote>
Today, female butlers are sometimes preferred,<ref name="moveoverjeeves2">{{cite journal | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| journal=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=2007-08-13| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> especially for work within Middle and Far Eastern families where it may be culturally problematic for males to work closely with females in a household.<ref>See "Unique Rosewood Ladies Floor could start trend in Saudi, Middle East Hotels", 12 Oct 2007. [http://www.automobilsport.com/hotels-resorts-rosewood-saudi-middle-east-corniche-jeddah-saudiarabia-hans-peter-leitzke-photos---30962.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDRTYNMo Archived by WebCite®.] Also, for interesting background see Elizabeth Warnock Fernea, ''Guests of the Sheik: An Ethnography of an Iraqi Village''. Anchor, 1995. ISBN 0385014856.</ref> Western female celebrities may also prefer a female butler,<ref>See [http://www.butlersguild.com The International Guild of Professional Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgSKDTO Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> as may households where the wife is driving the decision to hire a butler,<ref name="Available online"/> and in 2004 [[Buckingham Palace]] announced it was actively recruiting females for the position.<ref>Milne, Meg. "The Royal butlerettes", ''The Financial Mail'', 31 Oct 2004. [http://www.fmwf.com/newsarticle.php?id=338&cat=6 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDPEIPvR Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> Despite these trends, the Ivor Spencer School asserts that female butlers are not easily placed, on the whole.

In ancient times, the roles precursive to butlering were reserved for chattel or those confined within heredity-based class structures. With the advent of the medieval era, butlering became an opportunity for social advancement—even more so during Victorian times. Although still based upon various antecedent roles as manifested during different eras, butlering today has frequently taken over many of the roles formerly reserved for lower ranking domestic servants. At the same time it has become a potentially lucrative career option.<ref>In Loeffler (15 April 2007), Nathalie Laitmon of The Calendar Group in Stamford, Connecticut, states that skilled butlers within the grandest households can make USD 200,000 (GBP 101,500). She states, "The bigger the lifestyle of the family, the more they can earn".</ref>

==Historically important butlers==
*Clive McGonigal, founder of The Butler Bureau
*[[Paul Burrell]], butler to the late [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]
* Wayne Fitzharris, Household Manager and Head Butler, King Hussein of Jordan
*Arthur Richard Inch, long-time real-life butler, Butler Technical Consultant for the film ''[[Gosford Park]]''
*[[Charles MacPherson]], [[Majordomo]] and [[etiquette]] specialist, head of the Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers
*[[Ivor Spencer]], [[Toastmaster]] and [[etiquette]] specialist, head of the Ivor Spencer International School for Butler Administrators/Personal Assistants and Estate Managers
*The late [[Leslie Bartlett]], Butler, [[Toastmaster]] and founder of The London School of British Butlers.

===Alonzo Fields===
[[File:Alonzo Fields - White House Butler.jpg|thumb|left|Alonzo Fields]]
[[File:Alonzo Fields - Truman Notes.jpg|thumb|right|Page from Alonzo Fields's personal papers. This one describes his conduction of a service-event that resulted in Truman's decision to enter the Korean War.]]
By nature of their position and its requisite staunch discretion, it is exceptional when a butler achieves historical importance. One butler who did is [[Alonzo Fields]] (1900–1994), who served as a [[White House]] butler for twenty-one years, all but his first year as chief butler, under presidents Hoover, Roosevelt, Truman, and Eisenhower. After his retirement Fields in 1960 published ''My 21 Years in the White House'' in which he weaved together his private papers and cryptically-written journals, written while serving, with his recollections. Although restrained, his memoir nonetheless provides a uniquely intimate [[primary source]] account of the U.S. presidents he served, several who came to trust Fields as a close personal friend. Fields reports, for example, that he was present when Roosevelt was first informed of the Japanese bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] and that Roosevelt "broke down completely" during that moment, and also emoted racial slurs against the Japanese before gaining control. Truman was especially close with Fields and even related with him as an emotional confidant at times, and the two at one point sat together for a portrait.

When Fields began his tenure at the White House, senators from the [[U.S. South]] frequently addressed him with the racially condescending term "boy", and an obvious racial hierarchy existed between white and black White House house staff, with whites dominating. Whilst the attitudes of most southern U.S. senators would not begin to change until the advent of [[U.S. Civil Rights Movement]], Roosevelt took it upon himself to remove racial tensions among the house staff by making it all black.<ref>Fields, Alonzo. ''My 21 years in the White House'', New York: Coward-McCann, 1960.</ref><ref>Sam Stiegler, "When Speaking About Me, 'Don’t Talk too Long and Don’t Tell the Truth': A Biography of Mr. Alonzo Fields (1900-1994), West Medford Afro-American Remembrance Project, 2005. [http://www.medfordhistorical.org/pdfs/alonzofieldsbio.pdf Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5Y7YHouki Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref>''U.S. News & World Report'', "Alonzo Fields diary, Truman's butler", 16 July 2007. [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060716/16alonzofields_eye.htm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YD3pH8kF Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

More than a decade after Fields's death in 1994, his story was cast into a one-man theatrical performance, ''Looking Over the President's Shoulder.''<ref>Burlingham Ellis, Caroline. "Review of 'Looking Over the President's Shoulder'", ''Theatre Mania'', 8 Dec 2003. [http://www.theatermania.com/content/news.cfm/story/4174 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDM3a6ao Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref>Bales-Sherrod, Lesli. "Serving up a slice of history", ''The American Observer'', Vol. 9, No. 3, 24 Feb 2004. [http://observer.american.edu/2004/feb2504/review.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDMcdYov Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> Historians, such as [[David McCullough]] in his 2003 biography ''Truman'', continue to consult Fields's memoirs when constructing accounts of the presidents he served.<ref>McCullough, David. ''Truman'', Simon & Schuster, pp 472, 473, 502, 623, 931. ISBN 0-7432-6029-5.</ref>

==Surname==
As a surname, “Butler” was originated by [[Theobald Walter, 1st Baron Butler|Theobald le Botiller FitzWalter]] (Lord of Preston). Lord FitzWalter accompanied [[John of England|King John]] to Ireland to help secure [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman areas]]. When men Walter led killed Dermot MacCarthy, prince of [[Desmond]], Walter was granted land holdings of Baggotrath, [[County Dublin]], and the [[Stein River]] lands around what is now Trinity College Dublin. He was also given an important [[fief]], on which Walter both founded an [[abbey]] and established his Irish seat. Upon returning to England, King John endowed Walter with the hereditary office "Butler to the Lord of Ireland" in 1177; some evidence indicates that he was also dubbed "Butler of Ireland". As such, he had the right to pour the King's wine. This title can be defined as Governor by today's standards. His son, Theobalde Butler, was the first to hold the name and pass it to his descendants. Walter's grandson was [[James Butler]], 1st Duke Of Ormonde.<ref>"Butler", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1911 edition. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Butler Available online.] Also see The Carey Estate BCM/H [n.d.], Berkeley Castle Muniments, U.K. National Archives, [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=2189-bcm_4&cid=4&kw=butlers#4 available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YFtztuwb Archived by WebCite®.]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-27&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-27 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 21]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-35&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-35 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 30].</ref> [[Kilkenny Castle]] was the main seat of the Butler family.

==In visual art==
[[Image:William Hogarth 010.jpg|right|thumb|190px|''Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants.'']]
Butlers have been occasionally depicted in visual art. A famous [[painting]], ''Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants'' (c. 1758), is unique among such works. In it, the 17th-century English artist [[William Hogarth]] depicted his household servants, each surrounding the butler. In showing the group in a close-knit assemblage rather than in the performance of their routine household duties, Hogarth sought to humanise and dignify them in a manner akin to wealthy-class members, who were the normal subjects of such [[portrait]]s. Whilst this was a subversive act that certainly raised many eyebrows in his day—Hogarth conspicuously displayed the work in his estate home in full view of guests—at the same time he had painted his servants' facial expressions to convey the sincerity and deference expected of servant-class members.<ref name="fourhundredyears">{{cite book | title=Below stairs, 400 years of servants' portraits| last=Waterfield G., A. French and M. Craske, Eds.| year=2003| publisher=National Portrait Gallery| location=London| id=ISBN 185514512X}}</ref>

In [[contemporary art]], "The Butler's in Love" series by U.S. artist [[Mark Stock]] is especially poignant. In the series, Stock portrays the butler as sick with love, but the possibility of fulfillment is hopeless: the love is a forbidden love, perhaps felt for the lady of the house, and so it must be suffered alone in silent hiddenness. In addition to the ongoing mannerisms and facial expressions of the butler, a seated lady once-appearing in a curtained room and a recurring lipstick-stained [[absinthe]] glass over which the butler obsesses provide the interpretive clues. In selecting a butler as his subject, Stock sought to provide a "universal character", a pathos-laden figuration that could be widely related to and that could depict the universality of loneliness felt by someone who can only look in from the outside. Stock began the series in 1985 to express his difficult feelings during a personal experience of unrequited love. One of the paintings was inspiration for a [[3-D film|3-D]] short film, "The Butler's in Love" by actor/director [[David Arquette]], shot in 2008 at [[San Francisco]]'s historic [[Westerfield Mansion]].<ref>Croft, Karen. "Butlers in Love", ''Salon'', 24 May 2001. Available online: [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/ Page 1], [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/index1.html Page 2], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF2PTVk Archive 1], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF3heL9 Archive 2].</ref><ref>Stock, Mark. Correspondence with Stephen Ewen, stephenewen.org. Also see http://www.theworldofmarkstock.com.</ref><ref>Garchik, Leah. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 14 May 2008. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/05/14/DDOF10KL7M.DTL& Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDbUZBtX Archived by WebCite®.] Also see http://www.wayfaring.com/waypts/show/32050 for a brief history of the mansion.</ref>

==In fiction==
The real-life modern butler attempts to be discreet and unobtrusive, friendly but not familiar, keenly anticipative of the needs of his or her employer, and graceful and precise in execution of duty. The butler of fiction, by contrast, often tends to be larger-than-life and has become a [[plot device]] in [[literature]] and a traditional [[role]] in the [[performing arts]]. Butlers may provide comic relief with wry comments, clues as to the perpetrators of various crimes and are represented as at least as intelligent and moral, or even more so, than their “betters”. They are often portrayed as being serious and expressionless and in the case that the wealthy hero be an orphan—such as [[Batman]], [[Chrono Crusade]]'s Satella Harvenheit, or [[Tomb Raider]]'s [[Lara Croft]]—be a father figure to said hero. Regardless of the genre in which they are cast, butlers in fiction almost invariably follow the "British butler" model and are given an appropriate-sounding surname. The fictional butler tends to be given a typical Anglo-Celtic surname and have a British accent. The Asian, African American, or Caribbean houseboy is a variant, but even these major-domos are based on the British icon.

Today, butlers are usually portrayed as being refined and well-spoken. However, in nineteenth century fiction such as ''[[Dracula]],'' butlers generally spoke with a strong [[Cockney]] or other regional accent.

"The butler" is integral to the plot of countless [[potboiler]]s and [[melodrama]]s, whether or not the character has been given a name. Butlers figure so prominently in [[period piece]]s and [[whodunit]]s that they can be considered [[stock character]]s in [[film]] and [[theatre]] where a [[catch phrase]] is "[[Mary Roberts Rinehart|the butler did it]]!"

See [[valet]] for a list of characters who are often mistaken for butlers, but strictly speaking are valets. The best-known fictional manservant, and the prototype of the quintessential British butler, is himself not a butler at all. [[Jeeves|Reginald Jeeves]], the iconic creation of author [[P.G. Wodehouse]] is a "gentleman's gentleman" and general [[factotum]]. Probably the best-known fictional butlers are [[Alfred Pennyworth|Alfred]] from the ''[[Batman]]'' comic and films; Hudson of [[Upstairs, Downstairs]] television fame; and, Crichton from [[J.M. Barrie]]'s ''[[The Admirable Crichton]]''. Lesser-knowns include Mr. Belvedere from the novel ''[[Belevedere (novel)|Belvedere]]'', which was adapted into a feature film with sequels and later a [[television series]]; Lurch, from the television series ''[[The Addams Family]]'', based on Charles Addams' ''[[New Yorker]]'' cartoons; Beach, from the Wodehouse series about [[Blandings Castle]]; and, Benson from the two series ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]'' and ''[[Benson (television)|Benson]]''.

Playing off Wodehouse's Jeeves character, computer scientist David Warthen in 1996 founded a [[search engine]], "Ask Jeeves" (AskJeeves.com), which became the fourth-most-used among such sites. Greeted with a cartoon depiction of Jeeves, information-seekers followed a simple analogy when searching with the site: when asked questions in natural language, the ever-ready Jeeves would snappily fetch answers from the [[World Wide Web]] and serve them up with a pleased smile. After Wodehouse's estate threatened legal action against Ask Jeeves for copyright infringement, the search engine settled in 2006, humorously announced that Jeeves had retired, and renamed itself [[Ask.com]].<ref>Buresh, Scott. "Ask.com Search Engine - A Brief History", 1 May 2008. [http://www.webpronews.com/expertarticles/2008/04/11/askcom-search-engine-a-brief-history Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YD3vv8KD Archived by WebCite®.] Also see http://blog.ask.com/2006/02/thanks_jeeves.html and http://sp.ask.com/en/docs/about/jeeveshasretired.html. Ask.com stated, "Jeeves is taking a much deserved break and cruising around the world in blissful retirement, aboard his luxury cruise liner."</ref>

Not all fictional butlers portray the "butler stereotype", however. [[Alan Bates]], who played the butler Jennings in the film ''[[Gosford Park]]'', was coached in brooding detail by Arthur Inch, a longtime real-life butler.<ref>"The man who got it right for Gosford Park and told Richard E Grant what was wrong", ''Mid Sussex Times'', 2002. [http://www.midsussextimes.co.uk/CustomPages/CustomPage.aspx?PageID=35023 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF2KEI9A Archived by WebCite®.] Also see ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park''.</ref> Mr. Stevens, the butler played by [[Anthony Hopkins]] in the film ''[[Remains of the Day]]'', was also acted with remarkable realism. A female butler, Sarah Stevens, is the principal character in [[Linda Howard]]'s 2002 ''Dying to Please'', a murder/romance novel. Howard gives detailed and generally accurate descriptions of butlering in the work.<ref>For a synopsis of Howard's book, see http://www1.epinions.com/content_64617352836.</ref>

===Examples===
{{Seealso|List of famous fictional butlers}}

*Stevens, the protagonist of [[Kazuo Ishiguro]]'s [[Booker Prize]] winning novel, [[the Remains of the Day]].
*[[Angus Hudson]], from television's [[Upstairs, Downstairs]].
*[[Rowan Atkinson]] as [[Mr. E. Blackadder|Edmund Blackadder]], butler to Prince [[George (Blackadder character)|George]] the [[Prince Regent]], in the TV Series ''[[List_of_Blackadder_episodes#Series_3:_Blackadder_the_Third_.281987.29|Blackadder the Third]]''.
*[[Alfred Pennyworth]], [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]]'s butler from [[Batman in popular media|Batman]] is a well known fictional butler.
*[[Robert Guillaume]], as [[Benson DuBois]], the Tate butler in the hit 70's sitcom, [[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]
*[[Joseph Marcell]], as [[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#Geoffrey_Barbara_Butler|Geoffrey Butler]], the butler for the [[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#The Bel Air family|Banks Family]] on ''[[The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air]]''.
*[[Mark Linn-Baker]] as [[James La Croix]], the butler of Montgomery Mason appearing in the sitcom [[Home, James]].
*[[Nestor (Tintin character)|Nestor]], the butler of [[Marlinspike Hall]] appearing in [[The Adventures of Tintin]].
*[[Daniel Davis]], as [[Niles (The Nanny)|Niles]] the butler in the TV Series [[The Nanny (TV series)|The Nanny]].
*[[Sebastian Michaelis]], a demon bound by contract to his young master, Ciel Phantomhive, in the [[Black Butler]] Manga and Anime series.
**Also from the same series is Claude Faustus. Like Sebastian, he is a demon bound by contract to his master, Alois Trancy.
*[[Sebastian Beach]] in the Blandings Castle stories by [[P.G. Wodehouse]], of intimidating majesty but nonetheless a good soul who frequently co-conspires with the clever Gally Threepwood.
*[[Butle]]r, the butler for Prince Salde Canarl Shellbrick III off of the puzzle game [[Puyo Puyo Fever 2]].
*[[Smithers]], [[Veronica Lodge]]'s fictional butler.
*[[Domovoi Butler]], butler (and bodyguard) in the [[Artemis Fowl series]] novels by [[Eoin Colfer]].
*Spencer, butler in [[Power Rangers Operation Overdrive]]
*[[Pickering]]{{dn|date=January 2010}}, a bullying, slave-driving butler who was the regular villain of the piece in [[No Tears for Molly]] from [[Tammy]], a British comic which ran from 1971 to 1984.
*[[Hugh Edgar]], butler, ''[[The Edwardian Country House]]'', 2002 British historical recreation TV series
*Cadbury, Butler to [[Richie Rich]]
*Higgins in ''[[Our Man Higgins]]'', a sitcom that revolves around the character of Higgins, and also in ''It's Higgins, Sir'', the radio comedy series on which ''Our Man Higgins'' was based.

==See also==
*[[Housekeeper (servant)]]
*[[Valet]]
*[[Domestic worker]]
*[[Silverman]]
*[[Household]]

==References==
*{{citizendium}}
*''This article incorporates material from "[http://stephenewen.org/articles/History_of_Butlers_and_Butlering.html A Brief History of Butlers and Buttling]" by Stephen Ewen, which is licensed under the [[WP:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License|Creative Common Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License]].''
<references/>

[[Category:Domestic work]]

[[fr:Bouteiller]]
[[id:Butler]]
[[it:Maggiordomo]]
[[es:Mayordomo]]
[[mk:Батлер]]
[[nl:Butler]]
[[ja:バトラー]]
[[pt:Mordomo]]
[[scn:Maggiurdomu]]
[[sv:Butler]]

ICTV (Fernsehsender)

2010-04-26T10:49:33Z

Angusmclellan: bypass dab page

{{Infobox Network |
network_name = ''ICTV''|
network_logo = |
branding = ICTV|
headquarters = {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]]
country = {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]] |
network_type = [[Broadcast network]]|
slogan = |
available = {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]]|
owner = [[Interpipe]]|
launch_date = June 15, 1992|
founder = PPT, Story First Communications|
key_people = Olexandr Bohuts'kyi|
website = [http://www.ictv.ua/ www.ictv.ua]
}}

'''ICTV''' (in full, International Commercial Television) is a privately-held TV channel in [[Ukraine]]. Its coverage area allows it to be received by 56.6 % of the Ukrainian population, making the channel the fourth in the nation in terms of coverage (trailing the state-controlled [[UT1 (Ukraine)|UT1]] and privately-held [[Inter (Channel)|Inter]] and [[1+1]]), and third (well ahead of UT1) by the viewers' ratings.

The channel is owned by several business structures connected to the Ukrainian [[oligarch]] [[Viktor Pinchuk]]. It first went on-air on June 15, 1992 and since 1995 it has broadcast 24 hours a day.

==External links==
*[http://ictv.ua ICTV website]

{{Ukrainian TV}}
{{tv-station-stub}}
{{Ukraine-stub}}

[[Category:Television stations in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Ukrainian brands]]

[[ru:ICTV]]
[[uk:ICTV]]

William Haughey, Baron Haughey

2010-04-19T18:40:37Z

Angusmclellan: missed a bit: that's not his website.

{{Infobox Person
| name = William Haughey
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = 1956
| birth_place = [[Gorbals]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]
| occupation = [[Chairperson|Chairman]], City Refrigeration Holdings UK Ltd
| spouse = {{marriage|Susan Haughey |1985}}
| children = One{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
}}
'''William Haughey''' [[OBE]] (born 1956 in [[Glasgow]])<ref>[http://www.pressteam.co.uk/index.php/news/tycoon-unveils-house-plans PressTeam Scotland Ltd - Tycoon unveils house plans]</ref> is a Scottish [[businessman]], [[philanthropist]]<ref>Leadbetter, Russell. [http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/features/display.var.1730990.0.i_may_be_a_millionaire_but_theres_nothing_i_like_better_than_a_fish_supper_on_a_friday_night.php "I may be a millionaire but..."]. ''[[Evening Times]]''. 3 Oct 2007</ref> and [[chairperson|chairman]] of City Refrigeration Holdings. He formerly served as a non-executive director for [[Celtic F.C.]],<ref>[http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/ViewArticle.aspx?articleid=2615916 The Scotsman]</ref> and in 1997 signed a deal with [[Asda]] to maintain refrigeration equipment in stores throughout the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>[http://www.city-holdings.co.uk/origins.htm City Refrigeration Holdings]</ref> City Refrigeration Holdings Headquarters are based in [[Gorbals]], Glasgow.

=='Cash for Access' scandal==
Haughey has been named in several high-profile investigative newspaper reports in connection with the 'Cash for Access' scandal in the wake of [[Steven Purcell's]] sudden disappearance.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.scotsman.com/comment/Eddie-Barnes-Resignation-is-a.6117742.jp|title=Resignation is a hammer-blow for Scottish Labour so close to a general election|date=3 March 2010|publisher=The Scotsman|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/comment/Steven-Purcell-Fall-of-a.6130367.jp|title=Steven Purcell: Fall of a High Flier|date=7 March 2010|publisher=Scotland on Sunday|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article7061166.ece|title=Labour donor Willie Haughey in ‘cash for favours’ row|date=14 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article7061170.ece|title=Labour donor Willie Haughey linked to cocaine city councillor|date=14 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/politics/company-linked-to-purcell-in-700-000-land-deal-with-labour-donor-1.1014924|title=Company linked to Purcell in £700,000 land deal with Labour donor|date=21 March 2010|publisher=The Herald|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/politics/firm-caught-up-in-purcell-furore-pulls-out-of-labour-party-conference-1.1015284|title=Firm caught up in Purcell furore pulls out of Labour party conference|date=23 March 2010|publisher=The Herald|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/britain/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15772731|title=Heartland attack|date=25 March 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article7078926.ece|title=Labour in little local difficulty|date=28 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Haughey, William}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:People from Glasgow]]
[[Category:Scottish businesspeople]]
[[Category:Political scandals in Scotland]]
[[Category:Celtic F.C. non-playing staff]]
[[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Scottish Labour Party]]
[[Category:Scottish football chairmen and investors]]
[[Category:Scottish philanthropists]]

{{Scotland-poli-stub}}
{{Scotland-sport-bio-stub}}
{{UK-business-bio-stub}}

William Haughey, Baron Haughey

2010-04-19T18:40:16Z

Angusmclellan: Remove linkspam: Haughey can surely pay for his own advertising.

{{Infobox Person
| name = William Haughey
| image =
| caption =
| birth_date = 1956
| birth_place = [[Gorbals]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]
| occupation = [[Chairperson|Chairman]], City Refrigeration Holdings UK Ltd
| spouse = {{marriage|Susan Haughey |1985}}
| children = One{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
| website = [http://www.city-holdings.co.uk city-holdings.co.uk]
}}
'''William Haughey''' [[OBE]] (born 1956 in [[Glasgow]])<ref>[http://www.pressteam.co.uk/index.php/news/tycoon-unveils-house-plans PressTeam Scotland Ltd - Tycoon unveils house plans]</ref> is a Scottish [[businessman]], [[philanthropist]]<ref>Leadbetter, Russell. [http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/features/display.var.1730990.0.i_may_be_a_millionaire_but_theres_nothing_i_like_better_than_a_fish_supper_on_a_friday_night.php "I may be a millionaire but..."]. ''[[Evening Times]]''. 3 Oct 2007</ref> and [[chairperson|chairman]] of City Refrigeration Holdings. He formerly served as a non-executive director for [[Celtic F.C.]],<ref>[http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/ViewArticle.aspx?articleid=2615916 The Scotsman]</ref> and in 1997 signed a deal with [[Asda]] to maintain refrigeration equipment in stores throughout the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>[http://www.city-holdings.co.uk/origins.htm City Refrigeration Holdings]</ref> City Refrigeration Holdings Headquarters are based in [[Gorbals]], Glasgow.

=='Cash for Access' scandal==
Haughey has been named in several high-profile investigative newspaper reports in connection with the 'Cash for Access' scandal in the wake of [[Steven Purcell's]] sudden disappearance.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.scotsman.com/comment/Eddie-Barnes-Resignation-is-a.6117742.jp|title=Resignation is a hammer-blow for Scottish Labour so close to a general election|date=3 March 2010|publisher=The Scotsman|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/comment/Steven-Purcell-Fall-of-a.6130367.jp|title=Steven Purcell: Fall of a High Flier|date=7 March 2010|publisher=Scotland on Sunday|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article7061166.ece|title=Labour donor Willie Haughey in ‘cash for favours’ row|date=14 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article7061170.ece|title=Labour donor Willie Haughey linked to cocaine city councillor|date=14 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/politics/company-linked-to-purcell-in-700-000-land-deal-with-labour-donor-1.1014924|title=Company linked to Purcell in £700,000 land deal with Labour donor|date=21 March 2010|publisher=The Herald|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/politics/firm-caught-up-in-purcell-furore-pulls-out-of-labour-party-conference-1.1015284|title=Firm caught up in Purcell furore pulls out of Labour party conference|date=23 March 2010|publisher=The Herald|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/britain/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15772731|title=Heartland attack|date=25 March 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article7078926.ece|title=Labour in little local difficulty|date=28 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Haughey, William}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:People from Glasgow]]
[[Category:Scottish businesspeople]]
[[Category:Political scandals in Scotland]]
[[Category:Celtic F.C. non-playing staff]]
[[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Scottish Labour Party]]
[[Category:Scottish football chairmen and investors]]
[[Category:Scottish philanthropists]]

{{Scotland-poli-stub}}
{{Scotland-sport-bio-stub}}
{{UK-business-bio-stub}}

Gleaston Castle

2010-04-18T11:49:54Z

Angusmclellan: dab

[[Image:Gleaston Castle ruins.jpg|thumb|Gleaston Castle ruins, 2005]]
'''Gleaston Castle''' is situated in a valley about 0.5 km north-east of the village of [[Gleaston]], which lies between the towns of [[Ulverston]] and [[Barrow-in-Furness]] in the [[Furness|Furness peninsula]], [[Cumbria]], [[England]] ({{gbmapping|SD261715}}).

==Structure==
The castle consists of the remains four towers connected by [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain walls]] around a roughly [[rectangular]] courtyard. The walls are made of [[limestone]] quarried near the site, whilst details such as window and door surrounds are made of a soft red [[sandstone]], the origins of which are uncertain although it is similar to that used in the construction of nearby [[Furness Abbey]]. The walls at the southwestern corner of the site have a [[clay]] core, as is usual in castle construction, but elsewhere the core is the same [[shingle]]{{dn|date=November 2009}} [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] used to face the walls.

==History==
The castle is first mentioned specifically in [[1389]], although Sir John de Harrington, 2nd [[Baron Harington of Aldingham|Baron Harington]] of [[Aldingham]] is said to have died at Gleaston in 1369. It is generally assumed that the castle was begun by his grandfather Sir John, 1st Baron Harington at around the time he was summoned to [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] in 1326. It is possible that part of the structure is earlier and was built as a defence against the [[Scottish people|Scots]] who posed a serious threat to the area following [[Edward I of England|Edward I's]] campaigns and [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert Bruce's]] assumption of the Scottish throne. The majority of the castle must surely have been built after the devastating 1316 and 1322 [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Scottish raids]] on the area as it was built quickly and poorly, with poor quality local materials, suggesting a lack of funds. The castle also lacks the usual [[fortification]]s: there was no [[Crenellation|license to crenellate]] granted, no [[gatehouse]] or [[barbican]] and there are no traces of a defensive [[ditch (fortification)|ditch]] or [[moat]] so it could not have withstood a serious attack.

The castle was the main seat of residence for the [[Muchland|Lords of Aldingham]] until the death of William de Harrington, 5th Baron of Aldingham in 1457. The estate passed to William's daughter Elizabeth who had married William Bonville, 1st [[Baron Bonville]] of [[Shute, Devon|Shute]] in [[Devon]] and the title of 6th Baron Harington passed to their young son William. The Bonvilles made Devon their main seat of residence and Gleaston Castle was abandoned and quickly fell into disrepair.

William Bonville jnr died along with his father at the [[Battle of Wakefield]] in 1460 and the castle fell to his newborn daughter [[Cecily Bonville|Cecily]], who later married [[Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset]]. Eventually it fell to [[Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk]] who sold the castle and its adjacent ''[[demesne]]'' land to his bailiff Walter Curwen before he was beheaded for treason in 1554, by which time it was in ruins. One of the southern towers may have been inhabited in the 16th century but by 1727 a farmhouse had been built adjacent to the southeastern tower. It appears Curwen sold the site to Thomas Preston, a local landowner, whose descendant [[Lord George Cavendish (d. 1794)|Lord George Cavendish]] was probably responsible for creating much of the farm that can be seen today. Gleaston Castle Farm became an important asset to the Cavendish estate after the [[Industrial Revolution]] made [[wheat]] and [[barley]] production highly lucrative. The farm was sold in 1920 to Thomas Barton Jackson of Bolton Manor, [[Urswick]] and again in 1927.

The [[ruins]] can be viewed from the roadside, but it is unsafe to enter the castle due to its state of state of disrepair.

==References==
*[http://www.castleuk.net/castle_lists_north/96/gleastoncastle.htm Gleaston Castle 1]
*[http://www.visitcumbria.com/sl/gleastoncastle.htm Gleaston Castle 2]
*Fry, Plantagenet Somerset, ''The David & Charles Book of Castles'', David & Charles, 1980. ISBN 0-7153-7976-3

{{coord|54.13401|N|3.13251|W|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(SD261715)|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Ruins in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cumbria]]

William Lamberton

2010-04-18T11:45:50Z

Angusmclellan: dab

{{Infobox bishopbiog|
name = William Lamberton |
image = [[Image:Lamberton.jpg]] |
religion=[[Roman Catholic Church]] |
See = [[Diocese of St. Andrews]]|
Title = [[Bishop of St. Andrews]] |
Period = 1297–1328 |
consecration = 1 June 1298, in [[Rome]] |
Predecessor = [[William Fraser]] |
Successor = [[James Bane]] |
post = Chancellor of Glasgow Cathedral|
ordination = |
bishops = |
date of birth = unknown|
place of birth = Possibly Ayrshire or Lamberton, near Berwick |
date of death = 30 May 1328 |
place of death = |
}}

'''William de Lamberton''', sometimes modernized as '''William Lamberton''', (died 20 May 1328) was [[Bishop of St Andrews]] from 1297 (consecrated 1298) until his death. Lamberton is renowned for his influential role during the [[Scottish Wars of Independence]]. He campaigned for the national cause under [[William Wallace]] and later [[King Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]]. Bishop Lamberton is also known for the coronation of Robert the Bruce as King Robert I, breaking a law imposed by [[Edward I]] that had reduced Scotland to a land opposed to a Kingdom. Lamberton would go on to have a vital role in the formulation of the Declaration of the Clergy 1310 and the [[Declaration of Arbroath]] which would lead to Scottish Independence.

During his tenure Lamberton was [[excommunicated]] by Rome for his role in the Wars of Independence along with Robert I and the Clergy of Scotland. However, he was quickly reconciled with the [[Papacy]] before his death.

== Birth and Early Life ==
Lamberton is recorded in one source as coming from the ancient Barony of [[Kilmaurs]], Ayrshire and his surname would in this case be ''[[Cunninghame]]'', for the Lands of [[Lambroughton]] have an ancient origin inextricably linked to the Cunninghame family (McNaught 1912). <ref>[http://www.futuremuseum.co.uk/Default.aspx?Id=552&mode=collection Bishop William Lamberton - Future Museum South West Scotland]</ref>

William may also have come from the settlement of Lamberton, near Berwick in the Scottish Borders (Logan Mack 1926). The name Lamberton here was derived from the Germanic name Lambert, whilst Lambroughton, sometimes spelt Lamberton, is derived from a corruption of the clan McLamroch.

Details from the National Dictionary of Biography do seem to clarify his origins in the Lamberton family, originally from [[Berwickshire]], but holding lands in north-east Scotland by the late twelfth century and later in Stirlingshire also. Details of his birth, education, and early career are not certain; he had certainly received a university education by early 1293 and become a canon of [[Glasgow]]. By the time of his appearance at King John's (Baliol) first parliament in February 1293 he was chancellor of [[Glasgow Cathedral]]. He seems to have been sent abroad for further study by [[Robert Wishart|Bishop Robert Wishart]] of Glasgow, probably in the year or two before July 1295.
[[Image:WilliamLambertonSeal.jpg|thumb|The [[seal (device)|seal]] of Bishop William de Lamberton.]]

== Bishop of Saint Andrews ==
He was appointed Bishop of [[St Andrews]] in 1298 by [[Pope Boniface VIII]] in succession to [[William Fraser (bishop)|William Fraser]]. Lamberton appears to have been a very odd choice for a Bishop as he was very young at the time. However, according to Scottish historian Geoffrey Barrow Lamberton landed the position of Bishop due to then [[Guardian of Scotland|Guardian]] [[William Wallace]] who saw Lamberton as a potential ally and supporter of Independence, likely due to Lamberton's close ties with Bishop Wishart of Glasgow who was a staunch supporter of Independence.<ref>G.W.S Barrow, Robert Bruce & The community of The Realm of Scotland, (Edinburgh, 1988), Pg 94</ref> St Andrews was then the wealthiest and most powerful [[Episcopal See|See]] in [[Scotland]] catapulting Lamberton straight into the highest circles in Scotland.

The English would later charge Wallace with forcing the Chapter of Saint Andrews into electing Lamberton<ref>Palgrave,Docs.Hist.Scot.,332,339.</ref> although evidence suggests that Lamberton was a popular candidate amongst the Chapter attracting the support of Nicholas Balmyle and William Comyn.

He was consecrated in [[Rome]] on 1 June 1298, before joining other Scots on a diplomatic mission to [[France]].

Bishop Lamberton took a young [[James Douglas, Lord of Douglas|James Douglas]] as his squire, Douglas' father having been joined the Scots during the [[First War of Independence]] and died while imprisoned by King Edward I. Lamberton protected Douglas and took him to court to petition unsuccessfully for the return of his estates. James Douglas later became one of the closest friends of Robert the Bruce.

William Lamberton rebuilt [[St Andrew's Cathedral, St Andrews|St. Andrew's Cathedral]], the [[castle of St Andrew's]], and the fortified manor houses at [[Inchmurdo]], [[Palace of Monimail|Monimail]], [[Dairsie]], [[Torry]], [[Muckhart]], [[Kettins]], [[Monymusk]], [[Lasswade]], and [[Stow, Scottish Borders|Stow]].

== Role in War of Independence ==
Upon becoming Bishop, Lamberton found himself in control of the diocese's vast funds; he used them to fund the war against England. He would also act as an important [[diplomat]] and [[envoy (title)|envoy]] for Scotland. Lamberton remained a supporter of Scotland's independence and was even excommunicated for his role.

=== Diplomacy ===
When being consecrated as Bishop, Lamberton went to France to build support for Scotland in the French Court and [[Papal Curia]]. As early as June 1298 Lamberton had won victories for the Scottish cause; his activities led both the King of France [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] and [[Pope Boniface VIII]] to pressure [[Edward I]] to halt his attacks on Scotland. It led to Scotland's deposed king [[John of Scotland|John Balliol]] being handed over into papal custody in 1299.

In a letter to Scottish leaders dated 6 April 1299 Philip IV commended Lamberton's efforts and declared he would assist Scotland. Despite the Bishop's pleas, he did not send a military force to Scotland. Lamberton returned to France in 1301, and then in 1302, to keep pressing for France's support in the war. Lamberton clearly formed a bond with Philip - the French king intervened several times for Scotland.

Bishop Lamberton's diplomatic abilities were later recognised by the Scottish Magnates when he was chosen as a third Guardian, alongside Robert Bruce and [[John III Comyn|John Comyn]] in 1299. His role was to act as a third, senior, but neutral party between the two enemies. He would hold the position until 1301 and during his term he formed a close friendship with Bruce.

=== Wallace's man ===
Lamberton owed his position largely to the efforts of William Wallace who had been made sole Guardian of Scotland after the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]] in 1297 (Wallace was originally joint-guardian with Andrew Murray who died soon after Stirling) and as such Lamberton supported Wallace's campaigns with both money and spiritual support. Spiritual in the sense that Lamberton's clergy publicly denounced the English and supported Wallace. Financially Lamberton ordered his Diocese's officials to divert Church funds to Wallace's campaign and urged Wallace to continue to fight England.

However, after Wallace was defeated at Falkirk he resigned the guardianship. Nonetheless, Lamberton continued to support Scottish Independence.

=== Ties with Robert the Bruce ===
After forming close ties with Bruce during his time as Guardian Lamberton saw him as a potential leader of a fight for independence.

On 11 June 1304 Lamberton and Bruce formed a band "to resist prudently attacks by rivals...to be of one anothers council in all their business and affairs at all times...without any deceit" This bond marked Bishop William's leap from support of Balliol to Bruce.<ref>ibid</ref>

Both Lamberton and Bishop Wishart of Glasgow are said to have assured Bruce that should he make a move for Kingship they would not try to stop him. In fact, quite the opposite happened. Bruce murdered the [[Red Comyn]] in the Greyfriars Church on 10th February 1306 in [[Dumfries]].<ref>http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/dumfries/dumfries/</ref> Less than seven weeks later Bruce was crowned King of Scotland in Scone Abbey on 25 March 1306. Lamberton was present at the coronation of Robert the Bruce and may have placed the crown on his head (Bruce was crowned again a few days later by [[Isabella MacDuff]]) before celebrating Palm Sunday Mass for the new King following his crowning. Lamberton and Wishart were arrested and put in irons for their roles in Bruce's coronation. "Only their [[Holy Orders|Orders]] saved them from hanging." writes Barrow. <ref>G.W.S Barrow, Robert Bruce & The community of The Realm of Scotland, (Edinburgh, 1988), Pg 153</ref> Lamberton was later charged with treason against Edward.

After Edward I's death Lamberton later swore fealty to his son [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] swearing to pursue the King's enemies, pay a ransom of £6000 in installments and remain within the boundaries of the See of [[Durham]]. Lamberton saw his oath to Edward II as a necessity and exhorted from him under duress- therefore invalid. During his holding in England Lamberton positioned himself on the Tweed so that he could maintain connections with the parts of his diocese under English rule. Lamberton also wrote a letter to Philip of France asking for the King to help him gain freedom from England. Interestingly Lamberton attended negotiations in 1309 as an "English" envoy, and would continue to appear to be on both Edward's side and Robert's. However, when Lamberton was received back into Robert's favour in 1312 there is no indication that Robert felt betrayed. Lamberton would never again collaborate with the English and Edward even attempted to have him ousted from the See of St Andrews in 1318 by writing letters to the Pope charging Lamberton with treason. However, Edward's efforts failed.

=== Excommunication and Reconciliation ===
Lamberton spent the remainder of his life administering his great See and continuing to advise, and supporting Robert I. Lamberton and three other bishops were summoned to Avignon by letters dated 18 November. However, the summonses were ignored and Lamberton was excommunicated on 16 June 1320. King Robert, Lamberton and the Community of the Realm sent three separate replies to [[Pope John XXII]]; the last group's letter, now known as the [[Declaration of Arbroath]], is the most famous, but it was a reply to Lamberton's letter which carried the news that any excommunication would be delayed until April 1321, giving Lamberton and the Scots time to reconcile themselves with the Papacy. Indeed, the letter did result in Scotland's reconciliation with Rome. Lamberton's and Robert I's bans of excommunication were lifted.

== Death ==
Bishop William de Lamberton died on 20 May 1328, 18 days after England officially recognized that Scotland was a fully sovereign, independent state separate from England in perpetuam . He was buried on the north side of the high altar of his cathedral on 7 June 1328.

== See also ==
*[[Lambroughton]] ''A History of the Lands of Lambroughton''

== References ==

<references/>
* McNaught, Duncan (1912). Kilmaurs Parish and Burgh. Pub. A.Gardner.
* Barrow, Geoffrey ''Robert Bruce and the Community of The Realm Of Scotland.''
*[http://www.saint-andrews.co.uk/cgi/kk.pl?07 St. Andrews - Bishop William Lamberton]
*[http://www.ancestryuk.com/LambertonAncestry.htm Ancestry - Lamberton]
*[http://uk.geocities.com/snow_man1uk/this_will_be_nyu_next_page.htm James Lord of Douglas]

{{start box}}
{{s-rel}}
{{succession box | before=[[William Fraser (bishop)|William Fraser]]| title= [[Bishop of St. Andrews]] | years=1297/8-1328| after=[[James Bane]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Bishops of St Andrews}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lamberton, William de}}

[[Category:1328 deaths]]
[[Category:13th-century Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:13th-century births]]
[[Category:People excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church]]
[[Category:14th-century Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Bishops of St Andrews]]
[[Category:Guardians of Scotland]]

[[Category:People of the Wars of Scottish Independence]]

[[es:William Lamberton]]
[[no:William Lamberton]]

Lanercost Priory

2010-04-18T11:32:26Z

Angusmclellan: dab

{{Infobox monastery
|name= Lanercost Priory
|image=
|name= Lanercost Priory
|image= Lanercost Priory 1.jpg
|caption= Lanercost Priory
|full= Lanercost Priory
|order= [[Augustinian]]
|founder= [[Robert de Vaux]]
|established= Ca. 1169
|mother=
|disestablished= 1538
|diocese= Carlisle
|churches=
|people=
|location= [[Lanercost]], [[Cumbria]], [[England]]
|coord=
|remains= Nave; still used as the parish church, and impressive ruins. West range used as parish rooms
|public_access= Yes }}

[[Image:Lanercost Priory 2.jpg|thumb|250px|Lanercost Priory from the south. The foundations of the conventual buildings are in the foreground]]

'''Lanercost [[Priory]]''' was founded by Robert de Vaux between 1165 and 1174, the most likely date being 1169,<ref> Todd J M, ''The Lanercost Cartulary'', page 4. pub: The Surtees Society, 1997.</ref> to house [[Augustinian]] [[Canon (priest)|Canons]]. It is situated at the village of [[Lanercost]], [[Cumbria]], [[England]].

==Early years==
The foundation date was traditionally 1169, but can only be dated definitely between 1165 and 1174 on the evidence of charters. The dedication is to St. Mary Magdalene; unusual in the region.

It would seem the arrangements for founding the Priory were well advanced by the time of the foundation charter, as opposed to the more gradual process at [[Wetheral Priory Gatehouse|Wetheral]] and [[St Bees Priory|St. Bees]]. Robert de Vaux gave the land of Lanercost "between the ancient wall and the Irthing and between Burth and Poltros, the vill of Walton by stated bounds, the church of that vill with the chapel of 'Treverman,' the churches of Irthington, Brampton, Carlaton and Farlam"<ref name="wilson" />. The charter of foundation states that the benefaction was made for the sake of Henry II, and for the health of the souls of his father Hubert and his mother Grace.

Soon after the foundation of the house, Robert de Vaux granted to the canons the right of free election, so that when the lord prior died the person on whom the choice of the canons or the greater part of them fell should be elected in his place.

The bulk of the church building dates from the late 13th Century, though there is evidence of earlier work.

==Visitors and Raiders==
The proximity to Scotland inevitably had an effect on the fortunes of the priory, and it was a target of Scots attacks in retaliation to English raids. This became acute after the outbreak of the War of Independence. In 1296 the Scottish army encamped at Lanercost after burning Hexham priory and Lambley nunnery. The Scots were interrupted before the damage could become great, and they retreated through Nicolforest, having burnt some houses of the monastery but not the church.
Similar depredations under Wallace continued the next year and led to calls for reprisals from the English.

[[Edward I]] made several visits to the priory in the latter part of his reign. In the autumn of 1280 he visited in the company of [[Eleanor of Castile|Queen Eleanor]] on his way to Newcastle. The canons met him at the gate in their copes, and although staying only a few days, he found time to take 200 stags and hinds while hunting in Inglewood forest. In 1300, on his way to the siege of Caerlaverock castle, Edward stayed at Lanercost for a short while. <ref name= "wilson">'Houses of Austin canons: The priory of Lanercost', A History of the County of Cumberland: Volume 2 (1905), pp. 152-161.</ref>.

Edward's last visit was in 1306, travelling in a horse litter owing to age and illness, and accompanied by [[Margaret of France, Queen of England|Queen Margaret]]. He arrived at Michaelmas and his stay extended until the following Easter, a duration of 6 months which put a huge burden upon the resources of the priory. It was while Edward was at Lanercost that the brothers of Robert de Brus and other Scottish captives were sent to Carlisle for execution by his order.

This last royal visit depleted the reserves of the priory, and the canons begged him for recompense, but a deal to acquire the the church of 'Hautwyselle,' worth about 100 marks a year, fell through. However the king granted the appropriation of the churches of Mitford in Northumberland and Carlatton in Cumberland, for the relief of the Priory. In a letter to the Pope, Edward gave his reasons for generosity being the special devotion he felt to St. Mary Magdalene, his long stay due to illness, and making good the damage of the Scots. Edward died shortly afterwards at Burgh by Sands in July 1307, whilst still campaigning against the Scots.

In August, 1311, [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert Bruce]], King of Scotland, came with his army and made it his headquarters for three days, "committing infinite evils"<ref name= "wilson"/> and imprisoning some canons; though later letting them free. By contrast in 1328, in fulfilment of the treaty between the Bruce and Edward III, a mutual interchange of good offices took place between the priory of Lanercost and [[Kelso Abbey]] in respect of their common revenues out of the church of Lazonby.
Later though, in 1346 David II ransacked the conventual buildings and desecrated the church. Fresh from the overthrow of Liddel he "entered the holy place with haughtiness, threw out the vessels of the temple, stole the treasures, broke the doors, took the jewels, and destroyed everything they could lay hands on"<ref name="wilson" />. As late as 1386 one of the priors was taken prisoner by the Scots and ransomed for a fixed sum of money and four score quarters of corn. The fortunes of the priory were linked to the state of warfare and raids on the border. The priory was in relatively affluent circumstances before the outbreak of the war of Independence in 1296, and the annual revenue of the house was returned at £74 12s 6d in the 1291 valuation of Pope Nicholas IV. But by the taxation of 1318 the value had fallen almost to nothing <ref name= "wilson"/>.

==The Parish Church==
Lanercost Priory was dissolved in 1538 by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], and the conventual buildings were stripped of their roofs, excepting the church building which continued in use as the parish church. In the late 17th Century, as the Nave deteriorated, the congregation used just the north aisle which had been re-roofed.

In 1747 the nave was re-roofed, but by 1847 the Priory was in a state of disrepair to the extent that the east end roof collapsed. However, by 1849 The church was in use again after a major restoration by [[Anthony Salvin]]. In the 1870s there was further restoration by the Carlisle architect C J Ferguson. 
At the Dissolution, ownership had passed to the Dacre family, and then in the early 1700's to the Howards. In 1929 The Priory ruins were put into public ownership, and today they are managed by English Heritage.

==Architectural Notes==
[[File:Lanercost Priory, West Front, Cumbria.JPG|thumb|upright|West front with the statue of Mary Magdalene.]]
The nave has an aisle to the north, but a large wall to the south with no aisle, where it abuts the cloister. The impressive ruined chancel and crossing of Ca. 1220-1230 are in a good state of preservation; as high as the eaves, and would only require a roof and windows to be restored to the original condition. The oldest masonry is in the the south transept, and dates from the late 12th Century. The cloister and monastic buildings have been largely dismantled; except for the west range, which was made into a house by Sir Thomas Dacre in the 16th Century.
The statue of St Mary Magdalene, given by Edward I, still survives in a niche high up on the west front.
{{Clear}}

==Memorials==
The priory has an unusual medieval stone carving called the Lanercost Cross with an inscription dating back to 1214. Originally the cross was set just
outside the entrance to the church. Today the stump of the cross remains, but the main shaft is housed inside the priory.
In the churchyard is the tomb of [[Thomas Addison]], scientist and physician. In the nave is a memorial to the [[Reverend Henry Whitehead]], former vicar of Lanercost, best known for his pioneering epidemiological work with [[John Snow]] on cholera.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.lanercostpriory.org.uk/ Lanercost Priory official website]
*[http://www.medieval-castle.com/medieval_castle_life/lanercost_priory.htm Lanercost Cross - medieval stone carving history, translation and photographs.]
*[http://www.lanercost.co.uk/ Lanercost website]
* [http://www.visitcumbria.com/car/chb1.htm Visit Cumbria web page]

{{coord|54.9662|-2.6949|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

==References==
<references/>
{{English heritage cumbria}}

[[Category:English Heritage sites in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Augustinian monasteries in England]]
[[Category:Monasteries in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Cumbria]]
[[Category:1166 establishments]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in the 1160s]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Cumbria]]
[[Category:Christian monasteries established in the 12th century]]

Butler

2010-04-18T11:24:00Z

Angusmclellan: Disambiguate King John to John of England using popups

{{about|the type of household servant}}
{{redirect|Butlers|the community in Imperial County, California|Butlers, California}}

[[File:White House Butlers Pantry.jpg|thumb|right|A butler in the White House Butler's Pantry.]]
A '''butler''' is a [[domestic worker|servant]] in a well-to-do [[household]]. In the [[great house]]s of the past, the household was sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the [[dining room]], [[wine cellar]], and [[pantries|pantry]]. Some also have charge of the entire parlour floor, and [[Housekeeper (servant)|housekeepers]] caring for the entire house and its appearance.<ref name="emilypost">{{cite book | title=Emily Post's Etiquette| last=Post| first=Emily| year=2007| publisher=Echo Library| id=ISBN 1406812153}}</ref> A butler is male, and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, and in charge of female servants. Male servants (such as footmen) were better paid and therefore rarer and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the senior male servant, therefore had the highest status of all.

In modern usage, the butler is in charge of food service, wine, spirits, and [[silver (household)|silver]], supervises other servants, and may perform a wide array of household management duties. Butlers may also be titled ''majordomo'', ''butler administrator'', ''staff manager'', or ''head of household staff'', and in the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler.

==Background==
In modern houses where the butler is the most senior worker, titles such as ''[[majordomo]]'', ''butler administrator'', ''house manager'', ''manservant'', ''staff manager'', ''chief of staff'', ''staff captain'', ''estate manager'' and ''head of household staff'' are sometimes given. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, but perhaps more importantly in line with the requirements of the individual employer.

The earliest literary mention of a butler is probably that of the man whose release from prison was predicted by [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] in the [[biblical]] account of Joseph's interpretation of the dreams of the [[Pharaoh]]'s servants. The word "butler" derives from the [[Old French]] ''bouteillier'' (cup bearer), from ''bouteille'', (bottle), and ultimately from Latin. The role of the butler, for centuries, has been that of the chief steward of a household, the attendant entrusted with the care and serving of wine and other bottled beverages which in ancient times might have represented a considerable portion of the household's assets.

In Britain, the butler was originally a middle ranking member of the staff of a grand household. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,  the butler gradually became the usually senior male member of a household's staff in the very grandest households, though there was sometimes a steward who ran the outside estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household, and who was senior to the butler in social status into the nineteenth century. Butlers used to always be attired in a special uniform, distinct from the [[livery]] of junior servants, but today a butler is more likely to wear a [[Business attire|business suit]] or business casual clothing and appear in uniform only on special occasions.

A Silverman or Silver Butler has expertise and professional knowledge of the management, secure storage, use and cleaning of all silverware, associated tableware and other paraphernalia for use at military and other special functions. See also [[Silver (household)]].

==Origin and history==
[[Image:Pincerna-roman.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A slave in charge of wine in ancient Rome. The garb indicates he was probably of [[Phrygian]] origin.]]
The modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages.

===Ancient through medieval eras===
From ancient through medieval times, alcoholic beverages were chiefly stored first in earthenware vessels, then later in wooden barrels, rather than in glass bottles; these containers would have been an important part of a household's possessions. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, although the job could also go to free persons because of heredity-based class lines or the inheritance of trades.

The biblical book of [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew [[Joseph (Old Testament character)|Joseph]] interpreted a dream of Pharaoh's שקה (shaqah) (literally "to give to drink"), which is most often translated into English as "chief butler" or "chief cup-bearer".<ref>Genesis 39-40.</ref>

In ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the [[Medieval Era]] the ''pincerna'', usually a [[serf]], filled the role within the noble court.
The English word "butler" itself derives from the [[Middle English]] word ''boteler'' (and several other forms), from [[Old French]] ''bouteillier'' ("bottle bearer"), and before that from [[Middle Latin]] ''butticula''. "Butticula", in turn, came down to English as "butt" from the [[Latin]] ''buttis'', meaning a large cask. The modern [[English language|English]] "butler" thus relates both to bottles and casks.
[[Image:Pincera-schenker.jpg|left|thumb|95px|A ''pincerna'' depicted in service to a noble court during the Medieval Era.]]
Eventually the European butler emerged as a middle-ranking member of the servants of a great house, in charge of the ''buttery'' (originally a storeroom for "butts" of liquor, although the term later came to mean a general storeroom or pantry).<ref>This was most likely from a loss of the original Latin meaning and the mistaken belief that ''buttery'' related to "butter".</ref> While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title but in service to the Crown enjoyed a position of administrative power and were only minimally involved with various stores.
[[Image:Amesservants.jpg|right|thumb|250px|In a large house, the butler (centre-left) is traditionally head over a full array of household servants. This is the servant staff at the Stonehouse Hill of [[Massachusetts]], the estate of F. Lothrop Ames, 1914.]]

===Elizabethan through Victorian eras===
The ''Steward'' of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged.<ref>Lord Montague's Book of Rules and Orders, 1595.</ref> Gradually, throughout the nineteenth century and particularly the Victorian era, as the number of butlers and other domestic servants greatly increased in various countries (including America), the butler became a senior male servant of a household's staff. By this time he was in charge of the more modern ''wine cellar'', the "buttery" or ''pantry'' (from French ''pan'' from Latin ''panis'', bread) as it came to be called, which supplied bread, butter, cheese, and other basic provisions, and the ''ewery'', which contained napkins and basins for washing and shaving.<ref name="scanlon">{{cite journal | author=Nancy Scanlon| title=The Development of the Kitchen in the English Country House 1315-1864| journal=Journal of Culinary Science & Technology| year=2006| volume=4| issue=2/3| pages=79–92}}</ref> In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties.<ref name="mrsbeeton">{{cite book | title=Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management| url=http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=89404824| last=Beeton| first=Isabella| date=1861) (2000| pages=393| publisher=Oxford University Press| id=ISBN 0192833456}}</ref> ''[[Mrs Beaton]]'s Book of Household Management'', a manual published in Britain in 1861, reported:
<blockquote>
''The number of the male domestics in a family varies according to the wealth and position of the master, from the owner of the ducal mansion, with a retinue of attendants, at the head of which is the chamberlain and house-steward, to the occupier of the humbler house, where a single footman, or even the odd man-of-all-work, is the only male retainer. The majority of gentlemen's establishments probably comprise a servant out of livery, or butler, a footman, and coachman, or coachman and groom, where the horses exceed two or three.''<ref>Beeton (1861), 393.</ref>
</blockquote>
[[Image:Glanusk park.gif|right|thumb|250px|Glanusk Park in Powys County, U.K., in 1891. The residence had 17 servants in residence. The largest stately houses could have 40 or more.]]
Butlers were head of a strict service hierarchy and therein held a position of power and respect. They were more managerial than "hands on"—more so than serving, they officiated in service. For example, although the butler was at the door to greet and announce the arrival of a formal guest, the door was actually ''opened'' by a footman, who would receive the guest's hat and coat. Even though the butler helped his employer into his coat, this had been handed to him by a footman. However, even the highest-ranking butler would "pitch in" when necessary, such as during a staff shortage, to ensure that the household ran smoothly, although some evidence suggests this was so even during normal times.<ref>Carrolyn Steedman, "The servant’s labour: the business of life, England, 1760–1820", ''Social History'', Vol. 29 No. 1, (Feb., 2004).</ref>

The household itself was generally divided into areas of responsibility. The butler was in charge of the dining room, the [[wine cellar]], pantry, and sometimes the entire main floor. Directly under the butler was the ''first footman'' (or ''head footman''), who was also ''deputy butler'' or ''under-butler'' that would fill in as butler during the butler's illness or absence. The ''[[footman]]''—there were frequently numerous young men in the role within a household—performed a range of duties including serving meals, attending doors, carrying or moving heavy items, and they often doubled as ''[[valets]]''. Valets themselves performed a variety of personal duties for their employer. Butlers engaged and directed all these junior staff and each reported directly to him. The ''[[housekeeper]]'' was in charge of the house as a whole and its appearance. In a household without an official head housekeeper, female servants and kitchen staff were also directly under the butler's management, while in smaller households, the butler usually doubled as valet. Employers and their children and guests addressed the butler by last name alone; fellow servants, retainers, and tradespersons as "Mr. [Surname]".

Butlers were typically hired by the master of the house but usually reported to its lady. Beaton in her manual suggested a GBP 25 - 50 (USD 2,675 - 5,350) per-year salary for butlers; room and board and livery clothing were additional benefits, and tipping known as ''vails'', were common.<ref>D. Marshall, "The Domestic Servants of the Eighteenth Century", ''Economica'', No. 25, (Apr., 1929), pp. 15-40. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2548516 Available online with subscription.]</ref> The few butlers who were married had to make separate housing arrangements for their families, as did all other servants within the hierarchy.

===Butlers in early America===
[[Image:Robert Roberts The House Servant's Directory 1827 Book Cover.jpg|right|thumb|120px|Robert Roberts's ''The House Servant' Directory'', 1827.]]
From the beginning of [[slavery]] in [[United States|America]], in the early 1600s, [[African Americans]] were put to task as domestic servants. Some eventually became butlers. Gary Puckrein, a social historian, argues that those used in particularly affluent homes authentically internalised the sorts of "refined" norms and personal attributes that would reflect highly upon the social stature of their masters or mistresses. One of the first books written and published through a commercial U.S. publisher by an African American was by a butler named [[Robert Roberts]]. The book, ''The House Servant's Directory'',<ref>http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/html/books/book_05.cfm</ref> first published in 1827, is essentially a manual for butlers and waiters, and is called by Puckrein "the most remarkable book by an African American in [[South: Ante Bellum|antebellum America]]". The book generated such interest that a second edition was published in 1828, and a third in 1843.<ref name="puckrein">{{cite journal | author=Gary Puckrein| title=The Science of Service| journal=American Visions| year=Oct/Nov 98| volume=13| issue=5}}</ref>

European [[indentured servants]] formed a corps of domestic workers from which butlers were eventually drawn. Although not the victims of institutionalised slavery, many of these had not volunteered for domestic service, but were forced into it by indebtedness or coercion. As with African American slaves, they could rise in domestic service, and their happiness or misery depended greatly on the disposition of their masters.

===The modern butler===
Beginning around the early 1920s, employment in domestic service occupations began a sharp overall decline in western European countries, and even more markedly in the [[United States]]. Even so, there were still around 30,000 butlers employed in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] by [[World War II]]. As few as one-hundred were estimated to remain by the mid-1980s.<ref name="steadyjeevesyouvegotcompany">{{cite journal | author=J. Lee| title=Steady, Jeeves—you've got company!| journal=U.S. News & World Report| year=1988| volume=104| issue=17}}</ref> [[Social history|Social historian]] Barry Higman argues that a high number of domestic workers within a society correlates with a high level of socio-economic inequality. Conversely, as a society undergoes levelling among its [[social class]]es, the number employed in domestic service declines.<ref name="domesticserviceinaustralia">{{cite book | title=Domestic Service in Australia| last=Higman| first=Barry| year=2002| publisher=Melbourne University Publishing| id=ISBN 0522850111}}</ref>

Following varied shifts and changes accompanying accelerated [[globalisation]] beginning in the late 1980s, overall global demand for butlers since the turn of the millennium has risen dramatically. According to Charles MacPherson, vice chairman of the International Guild of Professional Butlers, the proximate cause is that the number of millionaires and billionaires has increased in recent years, and such people are finding that they desire assistance in managing their households. MacPherson emphasises that the number of wealthy in [[China]] has particularly increased, creating in that country a high demand for professional butlers who have been trained in the European butlering tradition.<ref name="NPRradio">{{Cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7338550|title=By Jeeves, We're Having a Butler Shortage—Interview with Charles MacPherson|accessdate=2007-08-13|publisher=NPR News|year=10 Feb 2007|author=Scott Simon|work=Weekend Edition Saturday|format=Streaming Audio}} Also see Sheelah Kolhatka, [http://static.pinnaclecare.com/reprints/atlantic-monthly-09-06.pdf "Inside the Billionaire Service Industry"]. The Atlantic, Sept 2006, 97-101. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUei8uRE Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> There is also increasing demand for such butlers in other [[Asia]]n countries, [[India]], and the [[petroleum]]-rich [[Middle East]].<ref>See for example Chadha, Monica. "Royal tips for Indian butlers", ''BBC News'', 17 Feb 2003. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2761689.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YERDpaXC Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref name="Available online">"Butlers: A Jeeves of my very own", ''The Daily Telegraph'', 15 Nov 2007. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?xml=/portal/2007/11/15/ftbutler115.xml Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF9YBJuE Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

Higman additionally argues that the inequality/equality levels of societies are a major determinant of the nature of the domestic servant/employer relationship.<ref>Higman (2002).</ref> As the twenty-first century approached, many butlers began carrying out an increasing number of duties formerly reserved for more junior household servants. Butlers today may be called upon to do whatever household and personal duties their employers deem fitting, in the goal of freeing their employers to carry out their own personal and professional affairs. Professional butler and author Steven M. Ferry states that the image of tray-wielding butlers who specialise in serving tables and decanting wine is now anachronistic, and that employers may well be more interested in a butler who is capable of managing a full array of household affairs—from providing the traditional dinner service, to acting as valet, to managing high-tech systems and multiple homes with complexes of staff. Whilst in truly grand houses the modern butler may still function exclusively as a top-ranked household affairs manager,<ref name="butlersandhouseholdmanagers">{{cite book | title=Butlers & Household Managers: 21st Century Professionals| last=Ferry| first=Steven M| pages=14| publisher=BookSurge Publishing| id=ISBN 1591093066}}</ref> in lesser homes, such as those of dual-income middle-class professionals,<ref name="Available online"/> they perform a full array of household and [[personal assistant]] duties,<ref name="thebutlerdoesit">{{cite journal | author=William Loeffler| title=The butler does it| journal=The Pittsburgh Tribune-Review, Lifestyle| year=15 April 2007}}</ref> including mundane [[housekeeping]].<ref name="moveoverjeeves">{{cite journal | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| journal=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=2007-08-13| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq Archived by WebCite®.] Elizabeth Camille, a butler in Sydney, states, "I still make beds, clean toilets and peg out washing.... It's not all as glamorous as people perceive it to be." Additionally see "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007. Lynda Reeves, president of the Toronto-based House & Home Media, says that the term "butler" today is just "a pretentious name for a housekeeper".</ref> Butlers today may also be situated within corporate settings, embassies, cruise ships, yachts, or within their own small "Rent-a-Butler" business or similar agency.<ref>Jones, Harvey. "More money than time? Rent a butler". ''The Independent'' (UK), 15 Dec 2001. Available [http://money.independent.co.uk/personal_finance/invest_save/article149002.ece online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5TvdZjrhC Archived by WebCite®.] Also see http://www.rentabutler.de and http://www.rentabutler.nl/.</ref>

Along with these changes of scope and context, butlering [[attire]] has changed. Whereas butlers have traditionally worn a special uniform that separated them from junior servants, and although this is still often the case, butlers today may adorn more casual clothing geared for climate, while exchanging it for formal business attire only upon special service occasions. There are cultural distinctivenesses, as well. In the United States, butlers may frequently adorn a polo shirt and slacks, while in Bali they typically wear [[sarong]]s.<ref>Patrao, Michael. "The alter ago of Jeeves". ''The Deccan Herald'', 27 July 2007. Available [http://www.deccanherald.com/Content/Jul272007/metro2007072615305.asp online]. [http://www.webcitation.org/5Tvf9PxTe Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

In 2007, the number of butlers in Britain had risen to an estimated 5,000.<ref>Sapstead, David. "Shortage of Butlers Has World's Wealthy Facing a Crisis", ''New York Sun'', 30 May 2007. [http://www.nysun.com/foreign/shortage-of-butlers-has-worlds-wealthy-facing/55511/ Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDkDOzGn Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

==Training==
Butlers traditionally learned their position while progressing their way up the service ladder. For example, in the documentary ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', retired butler Arthur Inch (born 1915) describes starting as a [[hall boy]].<ref>''The Authenticity of Gosford Park'', Documentary featurette in ''Gosford Park'' Collector's Edition DVD, Universal Studios, 2002.</ref> Whilst this is still often the case, numerous private butlering schools exist today, such as the International Institute of Modern Butlers, the Guild of Professional English Butlers, and the The International Guild of Butlers & Household Managers; top graduates can start at USD 50,000 - 60,000 (GBP 25,350 - 30,400).<ref>Simon (10 Feb 2007).</ref> Additionally, major up-market hotels such as the [[Ritz-Carlton]] offer traditional butler training, while some hotels have trained a sort of pseudo-butler for service in defined areas such as "technology butlers", who fix guests' computers and other electronic devices, and "bath butlers" who draw custom baths.<ref name="thebutlersaredoingit">{{cite journal | author=Witchel| title=At Hotels, the Butlers Are Doing It| journal=New York Times| year=2000| volume=149| issue=51486| page=2}} Ferry, as quoted in "Desperately seeking Jeeves", The Globe and Mail (Canada), 20 July 2007, was quoted as saying that hotel butlers are not rooted in the European tradition of butlering. He states that some hotels essentially rename their pool attendants as "pool butlers" and this is not a real butler so much as a marketing gimmick.</ref><ref>Rouvalis, Cristina. "Butler provides the perfect pampering", ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', 06 May 2007. [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07126/783166-37.stm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDQvRyvh Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref>Hotels are rated by the International Institute of Modern Butlers according to their butler service offerings, which can range from the one-on-one personalized butler (a 5-Butler rating) to the "pool butler (a 0-Butler rating). See http://www.modernbutlers.com/html/butler-rating-system.html</ref>

Starkey International distinguishes between the "British butler" prototype and its American counterpart, often dubbed the "household manager". Starkey states that they train and promote the latter, believing that Americans do not have the "servant mentality" that is part of the British Butler tradition. They stress that their American-style butlers and valets are educated and certified,<ref>Starkey does lay claim to understanding the British butler tradition; however, her general approach seems to be that American domestic staff are better suited to American families.</ref> although some students, numerous former Starkey employees, and several wealthy clients have criticised the programme and its owner.<ref name="starkeycontroversy">{{cite journal | author=Joel Warner| title=At Your Disservice| journal=Denver Westword News| year=9 Aug 2007| url=http://www.westword.com/2007-08-09/news/at-your-disservice}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R5vB2Vfu Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> Magnums Butlers, a school based in Australia, conducts training after the British model at sites in Asia and the Pacific, Australia, the United Kingdom and the Middle East.<ref>See [http://www.magnumsbutlers.com Magnums Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgjKPZP Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> The International Institute of Modern Butlers provides on-site training in various places around the world as well as via correspondence. In 2007, [[City & Guilds]], the U.K.'s largest awarder of vocational credentials, introduced a diploma programme for butlers.<ref>See http://www.cityandguilds.com/cps/rde/xchg/SID-7D78108B-8F23F7DA/cgonline/hs.xsl/12341.html</ref>

In addition to formal training, a few books have been published recently to assist butlers in their duties, including [[Arthur Inch]]'s and Arlene Hirst's 2003 ''Dinner is Served''. Moreover, websites, as well as a news publication, ''Modern Butlers' Journal'', help butlers to network and keep abreast of developments within their field.

Ferry argues that what he calls a "butler mindset" is beneficial to all people within all professions. He states that an attitude of devoted service to others, deference, and the keeping of confidences can help all people succeed.

==Gender and butlering==
Butlers have traditionally been male, and this remains the norm. Probably the first mention of a female butler is in the 1892 book ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses'' by Horace Smith. In it Smith quotes a certain Sydney Smith who had apparently run into lean times:
<blockquote>
''A man servant was too expensive, so I caught up a little garden girl, made like a milestone, christened her Bunch, put a napkin in her hand, and made her my butler. The girls taught her to read, Mrs. Sydney to wait, and I undertook her morals. Bunch became the best butler in the country''.<ref>Smith, Horace; Joel Lehtonen (translator) (1892). ''Interludes being Two Essays, a Story, and Some Verses''. MacMillan & Co. ISBN 1406919659. Available [http://infomotions.com/etexts/gutenberg/dirs/1/7/0/6/17065/17065.htm online] (full text). [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUf9ithw Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>
</blockquote>
Today, female butlers are sometimes preferred,<ref name="moveoverjeeves2">{{cite journal | author=James Woodford| title=Move over, Jeeves, a new breed of butler is working her way up| journal=The Sydney Morning Herald| date=2007-08-13| url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/10/04/1033538773717.html}} [http://www.webcitation.org/5R4MfrgUq Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> especially for work within Middle and Far Eastern families where it may be culturally problematic for males to work closely with females in a household.<ref>See "Unique Rosewood Ladies Floor could start trend in Saudi, Middle East Hotels", 12 Oct 2007. [http://www.automobilsport.com/hotels-resorts-rosewood-saudi-middle-east-corniche-jeddah-saudiarabia-hans-peter-leitzke-photos---30962.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDRTYNMo Archived by WebCite®.] Also, for interesting background see Elizabeth Warnock Fernea, ''Guests of the Sheik: An Ethnography of an Iraqi Village''. Anchor, 1995. ISBN 0385014856.</ref> Western female celebrities may also prefer a female butler,<ref>See [http://www.butlersguild.com The International Guild of Professional Butlers], accessed 12/31/2007. [http://www.webcitation.org/5UUgSKDTO Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> as may households where the wife is driving the decision to hire a butler,<ref name="Available online"/> and in 2004 [[Buckingham Palace]] announced it was actively recruiting females for the position.<ref>Milne, Meg. "The Royal butlerettes", ''The Financial Mail'', 31 Oct 2004. [http://www.fmwf.com/newsarticle.php?id=338&cat=6 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDPEIPvR Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> Despite these trends, the Ivor Spencer School asserts that female butlers are not easily placed, on the whole.

In ancient times, the roles precursive to butlering were reserved for chattel or those confined within heredity-based class structures. With the advent of the medieval era, butlering became an opportunity for social advancement—even more so during Victorian times. Although still based upon various antecedent roles as manifested during different eras, butlering today has frequently taken over many of the roles formerly reserved for lower ranking domestic servants. At the same time it has become a potentially lucrative career option.<ref>In Loeffler (15 April 2007), Nathalie Laitmon of The Calendar Group in Stamford, Connecticut, states that skilled butlers within the grandest households can make USD 200,000 (GBP 101,500). She states, "The bigger the lifestyle of the family, the more they can earn".</ref>

==Historically important butlers==
*Clive McGonigal, founder of The Butler Bureau
*[[Paul Burrell]], butler to the late [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]
* Wayne Fitzharris, Household Manager and Head Butler, King Hussein of Jordan
*Arthur Richard Inch, long-time real-life butler, Butler Technical Consultant for the film ''[[Gosford Park]]''
*[[Charles MacPherson]], [[Majordomo]] and [[etiquette]] specialist, head of the Charles MacPherson Academy for Butlers and Household Managers
*[[Ivor Spencer]], [[Toastmaster]] and [[etiquette]] specialist, head of the Ivor Spencer International School for Butler Administrators/Personal Assistants and Estate Managers

===Alonzo Fields===
[[File:Alonzo Fields - White House Butler.jpg|thumb|left|Alonzo Fields]]
[[File:Alonzo Fields - Truman Notes.jpg|thumb|right|Page from Alonzo Fields's personal papers. This one describes his conduction of a service-event that resulted in Truman's decision to enter the Korean War.]]
By nature of their position and its requisite staunch discretion, it is exceptional when a butler achieves historical importance. One butler who did is [[Alonzo Fields]] (1900–1994), who served as a [[White House]] butler for twenty-one years, all but his first year as chief butler, under presidents Hoover, Roosevelt, Truman, and Eisenhower. After his retirement Fields in 1960 published ''My 21 Years in the White House'' in which he weaved together his private papers and cryptically-written journals, written while serving, with his recollections. Although restrained, his memoir nonetheless provides a uniquely intimate [[primary source]] account of the U.S. presidents he served, several who came to trust Fields as a close personal friend. Fields reports, for example, that he was present when Roosevelt was first informed of the Japanese bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] and that Roosevelt "broke down completely" during that moment, and also emoted racial slurs against the Japanese before gaining control. Truman was especially close with Fields and even related with him as an emotional confidant at times, and the two at one point sat together for a portrait.

When Fields began his tenure at the White House, senators from the [[U.S. South]] frequently addressed him with the racially condescending term "boy", and an obvious racial hierarchy existed between white and black White House house staff, with whites dominating. Whilst the attitudes of most southern U.S. senators would not begin to change until the advent of [[U.S. Civil Rights Movement]], Roosevelt took it upon himself to remove racial tensions among the house staff by making it all black.<ref>Fields, Alonzo. ''My 21 years in the White House'', New York: Coward-McCann, 1960.</ref><ref>Sam Stiegler, "When Speaking About Me, 'Don’t Talk too Long and Don’t Tell the Truth': A Biography of Mr. Alonzo Fields (1900-1994), West Medford Afro-American Remembrance Project, 2005. [http://www.medfordhistorical.org/pdfs/alonzofieldsbio.pdf Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5Y7YHouki Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref>''U.S. News & World Report'', "Alonzo Fields diary, Truman's butler", 16 July 2007. [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/news/articles/060716/16alonzofields_eye.htm Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YD3pH8kF Archived by WebCite®.]</ref>

More than a decade after Fields's death in 1994, his story was cast into a one-man theatrical performance, ''Looking Over the President's Shoulder.''<ref>Burlingham Ellis, Caroline. "Review of 'Looking Over the President's Shoulder'", ''Theatre Mania'', 8 Dec 2003. [http://www.theatermania.com/content/news.cfm/story/4174 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDM3a6ao Archived by WebCite®.]</ref><ref>Bales-Sherrod, Lesli. "Serving up a slice of history", ''The American Observer'', Vol. 9, No. 3, 24 Feb 2004. [http://observer.american.edu/2004/feb2504/review.html Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDMcdYov Archived by WebCite®.]</ref> Historians, such as [[David McCullough]] in his 2003 biography ''Truman'', continue to consult Fields's memoirs when constructing accounts of the presidents he served.<ref>McCullough, David. ''Truman'', Simon & Schuster, pp 472, 473, 502, 623, 931. ISBN 0-7432-6029-5.</ref>

==Surname==
As a surname, “Butler” was originated by [[Theobald Walter, 1st Baron Butler|Theobald le Botiller FitzWalter]] (Lord of Preston). Lord FitzWalter accompanied [[John of England|King John]] to Ireland to help secure [[Norman invasion of Ireland|Norman areas]]. When men Walter led killed Dermot MacCarthy, prince of [[Desmond]], Walter was granted land holdings of Baggotrath, [[County Dublin]], and the [[Stein River]] lands around what is now Trinity College Dublin. He was also given an important [[fief]], on which Walter both founded an [[abbey]] and established his Irish seat. Upon returning to England, King John endowed Walter with the hereditary office "Butler to the Lord of Ireland" in 1177; some evidence indicates that he was also dubbed "Butler of Ireland". As such, he had the right to pour the King's wine. This title can be defined as Governor by today's standards. His son, Theobalde Butler, was the first to hold the name and pass it to his descendants. Walter's grandson was [[James Butler]], 1st Duke Of Ormonde.<ref>"Butler", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 1911 edition. [http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Butler Available online.] Also see The Carey Estate BCM/H [n.d.], Berkeley Castle Muniments, U.K. National Archives, [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=2189-bcm_4&cid=4&kw=butlers#4 available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YFtztuwb Archived by WebCite®.]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-27&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-27 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 21]; [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/a2a/records.aspx?cat=109-mss_1-1_4&cid=6-35&kw=Theobald%20Walter#6-35 National Archive Record MS 613, f. 30].</ref> [[Kilkenny Castle]] was the main seat of the Butler family.

==In visual art==
[[Image:720px-William Hogarth 010.jpg|right|thumb|190px|''Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants.'']]
Butlers have been occasionally depicted in visual art. A famous [[painting]], ''Heads of Six of Hogarth's Servants'' (c. 1758), is unique among such works. In it, the 17th-century English artist [[William Hogarth]] depicted his household servants, each surrounding the butler. In showing the group in a close-knit assemblage rather than in the performance of their routine household duties, Hogarth sought to humanise and dignify them in a manner akin to wealthy-class members, who were the normal subjects of such [[portrait]]s. Whilst this was a subversive act that certainly raised many eyebrows in his day—Hogarth conspicuously displayed the work in his estate home in full view of guests—at the same time he had painted his servants' facial expressions to convey the sincerity and deference expected of servant-class members.<ref name="fourhundredyears">{{cite book | title=Below stairs, 400 years of servants' portraits| last=Waterfield G., A. French and M. Craske, Eds.| year=2003| publisher=National Portrait Gallery| location=London| id=ISBN 185514512X}}</ref>

In [[contemporary art]], "The Butler's in Love" series by U.S. artist [[Mark Stock]] is especially poignant. In the series, Stock portrays the butler as sick with love, but the possibility of fulfillment is hopeless: the love is a forbidden love, perhaps felt for the lady of the house, and so it must be suffered alone in silent hiddenness. In addition to the ongoing mannerisms and facial expressions of the butler, a seated lady once-appearing in a curtained room and a recurring lipstick-stained [[absinthe]] glass over which the butler obsesses provide the interpretive clues. In selecting a butler as his subject, Stock sought to provide a "universal character", a pathos-laden figuration that could be widely related to and that could depict the universality of loneliness felt by someone who can only look in from the outside. Stock began the series in 1985 to express his difficult feelings during a personal experience of unrequited love. One of the paintings was inspiration for a [[3-D film|3-D]] short film, "The Butler's in Love" by actor/director [[David Arquette]], shot in 2008 at [[San Francisco]]'s historic [[Westerfield Mansion]].<ref>Croft, Karen. "Butlers in Love", ''Salon'', 24 May 2001. Available online: [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/ Page 1], [http://dir.salon.com/story/sex/feature/2001/05/24/stock/index1.html Page 2], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF2PTVk Archive 1], [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDF3heL9 Archive 2].</ref><ref>Stock, Mark. Correspondence with Stephen Ewen, stephenewen.org. Also see http://www.theworldofmarkstock.com.</ref><ref>Garchik, Leah. ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 14 May 2008. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/05/14/DDOF10KL7M.DTL& Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YDbUZBtX Archived by WebCite®.] Also see http://www.wayfaring.com/waypts/show/32050 for a brief history of the mansion.</ref>

==In fiction==
The real-life modern butler attempts to be discreet and unobtrusive, friendly but not familiar, keenly anticipative of the needs of his or her employer, and graceful and precise in execution of duty. The butler of fiction, by contrast, often tends to be larger-than-life and has become a [[plot device]] in [[literature]] and a traditional [[role]] in the [[performing arts]]. Butlers may provide comic relief with wry comments, clues as to the perpetrators of various crimes and are represented as at least as intelligent and moral, or even more so, than their “betters”. They are often portrayed as being serious and expressionless and in the case that the wealthy hero be an orphan—such as [[Batman]], [[Chrono Crusade]]'s Satella Harvenheit, or [[Tomb Raider]]'s [[Lara Croft]]—be a father figure to said hero. Regardless of the genre in which they are cast, butlers in fiction almost invariably follow the "British butler" model and are given an appropriate-sounding surname. The fictional butler tends to be given a typical Anglo-Celtic surname and have a British accent. The Asian, African American, or Caribbean houseboy is a variant, but even these major-domos are based on the British icon.

Today, butlers are usually portrayed as being refined and well-spoken. However, in nineteenth century fiction such as ''[[Dracula]],'' butlers generally spoke with a strong [[Cockney]] or other regional accent.

"The butler" is integral to the plot of countless [[potboiler]]s and [[melodrama]]s, whether or not the character has been given a name. Butlers figure so prominently in [[period piece]]s and [[whodunit]]s that they can be considered [[stock character]]s in [[film]] and [[theatre]] where a [[catch phrase]] is "[[Mary Roberts Rinehart|the butler did it]]!"

See [[valet]] for a list of characters who are often mistaken for butlers, but strictly speaking are valets. The best-known fictional manservant, and the prototype of the quintessential British butler, is himself not a butler at all. [[Jeeves|Reginald Jeeves]], the iconic creation of author [[P.G. Wodehouse]] is a "gentleman's gentleman" and general [[factotum]]. Probably the best-known fictional butlers are [[Alfred Pennyworth|Alfred]] from the ''[[Batman]]'' comic and films; Hudson of [[Upstairs, Downstairs]] television fame; and, Crichton from [[J.M. Barrie]]'s ''[[The Admirable Crichton]]''. Lesser-knowns include Mr. Belvedere from the novel ''[[Belevedere (novel)|Belvedere]]'', which was adapted into a feature film with sequels and later a [[television series]]; Lurch, from the television series ''[[The Addams Family]]'', based on Charles Addams' ''[[New Yorker]]'' cartoons; Beach, from the Wodehouse series about [[Blandings Castle]]; and, Benson from the two series ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]'' and ''[[Benson (television)|Benson]]''.

Playing off Wodehouse's Jeeves character, computer scientist David Warthen in 1996 founded a [[search engine]], "Ask Jeeves" (AskJeeves.com), which became the fourth-most-used among such sites. Greeted with a cartoon depiction of Jeeves, information-seekers followed a simple analogy when searching with the site: when asked questions in natural language, the ever-ready Jeeves would snappily fetch answers from the [[World Wide Web]] and serve them up with a pleased smile. After Wodehouse's estate threatened legal action against Ask Jeeves for copyright infringement, the search engine settled in 2006, humorously announced that Jeeves had retired, and renamed itself [[Ask.com]].<ref>Buresh, Scott. "Ask.com Search Engine - A Brief History", 1 May 2008. [http://www.webpronews.com/expertarticles/2008/04/11/askcom-search-engine-a-brief-history Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YD3vv8KD Archived by WebCite®.] Also see http://blog.ask.com/2006/02/thanks_jeeves.html and http://sp.ask.com/en/docs/about/jeeveshasretired.html. Ask.com stated, "Jeeves is taking a much deserved break and cruising around the world in blissful retirement, aboard his luxury cruise liner."</ref>

Not all fictional butlers portray the "butler stereotype", however. [[Alan Bates]], who played the butler Jennings in the film ''[[Gosford Park]]'', was coached in brooding detail by Arthur Inch, a longtime real-life butler.<ref>"The man who got it right for Gosford Park and told Richard E Grant what was wrong", ''Mid Sussex Times'', 2002. [http://www.midsussextimes.co.uk/CustomPages/CustomPage.aspx?PageID=35023 Available online.] [http://www.webcitation.org/5YF2KEI9A Archived by WebCite®.] Also see ''The Authenticity of Gosford Park''.</ref> Mr. Stevens, the butler played by [[Anthony Hopkins]] in the film ''[[Remains of the Day]]'', was also acted with remarkable realism. A female butler, Sarah Stevens, is the principle character in [[Linda Howard]]'s 2002 ''Dying to Please'', a murder/romance novel. Howard gives detailed and generally accurate descriptions of butlering in the work.<ref>For a synopsis of Howard's book, see http://www1.epinions.com/content_64617352836.</ref>

===Examples===
{{Seealso|List of famous fictional butlers}}

*Stevens, the protagonist of [[Kazuo Ishiguro]]'s [[Booker Prize]] winning novel, [[the Remains of the Day]].
*[[Angus Hudson]], from television's [[Upstairs, Downstairs]].
*[[Rowan Atkinson]] as [[Mr. E. Blackadder|Edmund Blackadder]], butler to Prince [[George (Blackadder character)|George]] the [[Prince Regent]], in the TV Series ''[[List_of_Blackadder_episodes#Series_3:_Blackadder_the_Third_.281987.29|Blackadder the Third]]''.
*[[Alfred Pennyworth]], [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]]'s butler from [[Batman in popular media|Batman]] is a well known fictional butler.
*[[Robert Guillaume]], as [[Benson DuBois]], the Tate butler in the hit 70's sitcom, [[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]
*[[Joseph Marcell]], as [[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#Geoffrey_Barbara_Butler|Geoffrey Butler]], the butler for the [[List of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air characters#The Bel Air family|Banks Family]] on ''[[The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air]]''.
*[[Mark Linn-Baker]] as [[James La Croix]], the butler of Montgomery Mason appearing in the sitcom [[Home, James]].
*[[Nestor (Tintin character)|Nestor]], the butler of [[Marlinspike Hall]] appearing in [[The Adventures of Tintin]].
*[[Daniel Davis]], as [[Niles (The Nanny)|Niles]] the butler in the TV Series [[The Nanny (TV series)|The Nanny]].
*[[Sebastian Michaelis]], a demon bound by contract to his young master, Ciel Phantomhive, in the [[Black Butler]] Manga and Anime series.
**Also from the same series is Claude Faustus. Like Sebastian, he is a demon bound by contract to his master, Alois Trancy.
*[[Rihito Shibata]], an S rank Butler who chose to serve Mei Shinonome as his only Lady, in the [[Mei-chan no Shitsuji]] J-drama and Manga.
*[[Sebastian Beach]] in the Blandings Castle stories by [[P.G. Wodehouse]], of intimidating majesty but nonetheless a good soul who frequently co-conspires with the clever Gally Threepwood.
*[[Butle]]r, the butler for Prince Salde Canarl Shellbrick III off of the puzzle game [[Puyo Puyo Fever 2]].
*[[Smithers]], [[Veronica Lodge]]'s fictional butler.
*[[Domovoi Butler]], butler (and bodyguard) in the [[Artemis Fowl series]] novels by [[Eoin Colfer]].
*Spencer, butler in [[Power Rangers Operation Overdrive]]
*[[Pickering]]{{dn|date=January 2010}}, a bullying, slave-driving butler who was the regular villain of the piece in [[No Tears for Molly]] from [[Tammy]], a British comic which ran from 1971 to 1984.
*[[Hugh Edgar]], butler, ''[[The Edwardian Country House]]'', 2002 British historical recreation TV series
*Cadbury, Butler to [[Richie Rich]]
*Higgins in ''[[Our Man Higgins]]'', a sitcom that revolves around the character of Higgins, and also in ''It's Higgins, Sir'', the radio comedy series on which ''Our Man Higgins'' was based
*Patrick Butler, a London barrister in one highly acclaimed [[Dr. Gideon Fell]] novel by American mystery writer [[John Dickson Carr]]. This was followed some years later with a novel ''[[Patrick Butler for the Defense]]''.

==See also==
*[[Housekeeper (servant)]]
*[[Valet]]
*[[Domestic worker]]
*[[Silverman]]
*[[Household]]

==References==
*{{citizendium}}
*''This article incorporates material from "[http://stephenewen.org/articles/History_of_Butlers_and_Butlering.html A Brief History of Butlers and Buttling]" by Stephen Ewen, which is licensed under the [[WP:Text of Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License|Creative Common Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License]].''
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.igbh.com/ International guild of butlers and Household Managers] - International Guild of Butlers and Household managers
*[http://www.butlersguild.com/index.php The International Guild of Professional Butlers]
*[http://www.modernbutlers.com/ The International Institute of Modern Butlers]

[[Category:Domestic work]]

[[fr:Bouteiller]]
[[id:Butler]]
[[it:Maggiordomo]]
[[mk:Батлер]]
[[nl:Butler]]
[[ja:バトラー]]
[[pt:Mordomo]]
[[scn:Maggiurdomu]]
[[sv:Butler]]

Benutzer:Andi oisn/Artikelwerkstatt2

2010-04-17T08:48:23Z

Angusmclellan: Disambiguate Henry VII to Henry VII of England using popups

{{Geobox Protected Area

| name = Ashdown Forest
| native_name =
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| image = Ashdown Forest View.JPG
| image_size = 240
| image_caption = Ashdown Forest near Greenwood Gate Clump

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| map = Uk_outline_map.png
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| map_caption = Location of Ashdown Forest in the UK
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| alt= Map of England and Wales with a red dot representing the location of the Mendip Hills on the northern coast of the south west peninsular

| website = http://www.ashdownforest.org
}}

'''Ashdown Forest''', situated some {{convert|30|mi|km|0}} south of London in the county of [[East Sussex]], [[England]], is an area of tranquil open heathland and woodland on the highest sandy ridge-top of the [[High Weald AONB|High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]. It reaches its highest altitude of {{convert|223|m|ft}} above sea level at Greenwood Gate Clump near King's Standing and offers expansive views across the High Weald in all directions<ref>[http://www.panoco.co.uk/example_ashdown.html A panoramic view from Ashdown Forest]</ref>, but particularly northwards toward the [[Greensand Ridge]] and [[North Downs]], and southwards to the chalk escarpment of the [[South Downs]]. Ashdown Forest's origins lie in Norman times as a [[royal forest]] set aside for deer-hunting. By 1283 the forest was fenced in by a {{convert|23|mi|km|0}} ''pale'' enclosing a hunting park of some {{convert|20|sqmi|ha}}. ''Gates'' and ''hatches'' in the pale allowed local people to enter to graze their livestock, collect firewood and cut heather and bracken for animal bedding. In 1693 more than half the forest was taken into private hands; the remainder was set aside as common land. The latter today covers {{convert|9.5|sqmi|ha}} and is administered by a Board of Conservators; it is entirely open for public access (subject to various byelaws) and is the largest area of its kind in south-east England. Its ecological importance has been recognised by its designation by the UK government and EU as a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]], a [[Special Protection Area]] for birds, a [[Special Area of Conservation]], and membership of the [[Natura 2000]] network. Ashdown Forest is famous as the setting for the "[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]" stories written by [[A.A. Milne]]. Its chief villages, all situated on the edge of the forest, are [[Nutley, East Sussex|Nutley]], [[Forest Row]], [[Hartfield]], [[Maresfield]] and [[Danehill, East Sussex|Danehill]], while to the east lies the town of [[Crowborough]].

==Toponymy==
''Ashdown'' is of Anglo-Saxon origin and means Aesca’s hill<ref>Christian (1967), p.2</ref>. ''Forest'' is of Norman origin, an Old French word derived from the Latin "forestem silvam" (the "outside woods"). While the word ''forest'' has acquired the generic meaning of "an extensive area of woodland", in this context it denoted uncultivated land legally set aside for exclusive use by the king for the hunting of deer and boar; such land was subject not to Common Law but to the harsh Forest Law, which protected both royal and aristocratic hunting privileges and commoners' rights<ref>Langton and Jones (2008)</ref>. It follows that the designation of Ashdown by the Normans as a [[Royal Forest|royal forest]] does not imply that it was heavily wooded. In fact, royal forests in England in medieval times typically consisted of a mixture of heath, woodland and other habitats in which a variety of game could flourish and Ashdown Forest, notwithstanding its location in the middle of the heavily wooded [[High Weald]], may have been no exception.

==Definition==
Ashdown Forest is very roughly triangular in shape, some seven miles from east to west and the same distance from north to south, with an extent of about {{convert|14000|acres|sqmi|1}}<ref>Straker(1940), p.121.</ref>.

The Forest can be defined in various ways. The most important is that given by the line of the medieval ''pale'', which goes back to the Forest's origins as a Norman deer-hunting park. This {{convert|23|mi|km}} long ditch and bank topped with an oak palisade enclosed an area of some {{convert|20.5|sqmi|ha}}. First referred to in 1283, the pale can still be discerned today.

During [[the Protectorate]], in 1658, a comprehensive Parliamentary Survey found Lancaster Great Park (the name given to Ashdown Forest from 1372 to 1672 after it was granted to [[John of Gaunt]], Duke of Lancaster, by [[Edward III]]) to have an area of {{convert|13991|acres|sqmi|1}} (5,662 hectares)<ref>Turner (1862), p.48.</ref>.

In 1693, following the [[Restoration]], the Forest was divided up and it took its present shape. Slightly more than half of the forest, 55%, was dedicated to private use for enclosure and improvement, while the remainder was set aside as common land. Many present-day references to Ashdown Forest, particularly by the Board of Conservators and in legal, statutory and scientific documents and designations, treat the Forest as synonymous and co-terminous with this rather fragmentary residual common land. This can lead to confusion. According to one authority "''when people speak of Ashdown Forest, they may mean either a whole district of heaths and woodland that includes many private estates to which there is no public access, or they may be talking of the [common land] where the public are free to roam''".<ref>Christian (1967), p. 28.</ref>

Most of today's common land lies within the medieval pale, although one tract, near Chelwood Beacon, extends outside. The Conservators have also acquired land in recent years and incorporated it into the forest, for example at Chelwood Vachery. According to the definition used by the Conservators, which relates to the land for which they have statutory responsibility, the area of Ashdown Forest is {{convert|2472|ha|sqmi|1}}.

The area of Ashdown Forest stated in connection with statutory designations varies but in all cases is greater than that employed by the Conservators. The Ashdown Forest Site of Special Scientific Interest covers {{convert|3144|ha|sqmi|1}}, but this includes land owned by Sussex Wildlife Trust at Old Lodge. The EU Special Protection Area (relating to protection of birds) covers {{convert|3207|ha|sqmi|1}}, while the EU Special Area of Conservation (relating to conservation of habitats) covers {{convert|2729|ha|sqmi|1}}.

==Ecology==
[[Image:Ashdown_Forest_Kings_Standing.jpg|thumb|right|Kings Standing, Ashdown Forest]]
Ashdown Forest is one of the largest single continuous blocks of heath, semi-natural woodland and valley bog in south-east England. Heathland predominates: of its 2472 ha of common land, 55% (1365 ha) is heathland and 40% (997 ha) mixed woodland (the remaining 5% (112 ha) consists of car parks, picnic areas, golf courses, etc). It was designated a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] in 1953 in recognition of its unique ecology, and its designation was reffirmed in 1986.

===Geology and soils===

Ashdown Forest is underlain predominantly by the sandy bedrock of the [[Lower Cretaceous]] Hastings Beds, in particular the Ashdown Formation of interbedded sandstone and siltstone<ref>Leslie and Short (1999), pp. 2-3.</ref>. These Ashdown Sands, combined with a local climate that is generally wetter, cooler and windier than the surrounding area owing to the forest's elevation, which rises from 200 feet to over 700 feet above sea level, give rise to soils that are characteristically acid, clay, and nutrient-poor<ref>Leslie and Short (1999), pp. 4-5.</ref>. On these soils have developed heathland, valley mires and damp woodland. These conditions have never favoured cultivation.

===Flora===
Ashdown Forest is noted for its profusion of heathland plants and flowers, such as the rare [[Gentiana pneumonanthe | Marsh Gentian]], but it also provides other distinctive or unusual plant habitats.

The extensive areas of dry heath are dominated by [[Calluna|ling]] ''Calluna vulgaris'', [[bell heather]] ''Erica cinerea'' and [[Ulex minor | dwarf gorse]] ''Ulex minor''. Important lichen communities include ''Pycnothelia papillaria''. [[Pteridium|Bracken]] ''Pteridium aquilinum'' is dominant over large areas. On the damper heath, [[cross-leaved heath]] ''Erica tetralix'' becomes dominant with [[List_of_the_vascular_plants_of_Britain_and_Ireland_8 | deer-grass]] ''Trichophorum cespitosum''. The heath and bracken communities form a mosaic with acid grassland dominated by [[Molinia caerulea | purple moor-grass]] ''Molinia caerulea'' mingled with many specialised heathland plants such as [[Genista anglica|petty whin]] ''Genista anglica'', [[Salicaceae| creeping willow]] ''sp. Salicaceae'' and [[Dactylorhiza maculata | heath spotted orchid]] ''Dactylorhiza maculata''.

In the wet areas are found several species of [[Sphagnum |sphagnum moss]] together with [[Narthecium ossifragum|bog asphodel]] ''Narthecium ossifragum'', [[Eriophorum angustifolium |common cotton-grass]] ''Eriophorum angustifolium'' and specialities such as [[Gentiana pneumonanthe | marsh gentian]] ''Gentiana pneumonanthe'', [[Wahlenbergia | ivy-leaved bell flower]] ''Wahlenbergia hederacea'', [[Rhynchospora alba | white-beaked sedge]] ''Rhynchospora alba'' and [[Lycopodiella inundata | marsh club moss]] ''Lycopodiella inundata''. The Marsh Gentian, noted for its bright blue trumpet-like flowers, has a flowering season lasting from July well into October and is found in about a dozen colonies.

[[Ulex europaeus | Gorse]] ''Ulex europaeus'', [[Betula pendula | silver birch]] ''Betula pendula'', [[Quercus robur | pendunculate oak]] ''Quercus robur'' and [[Pinus sylvestris | scots pine]] ''Pinus sylvestris '' are scattered across the heath, in places forming extensive areas of secondary woodland and scrub. Older woodlands consist of [[Fagus sylvatica | beech]] ''Fagus sylvatica'' and [[Castanea sativa | sweet chestnut]] ''Castanea sativa''. These contain [[Common bluebell | bluebell]] ''Hyacinthinoides non-scripta'', [[Vaccinium myrtillus | bilberry]] ''Vaccinium myrtillus'', [[Blechnum spicant | the hard fern]] ''Blechnum spicant'' and [[Lonicera periclymenum | honeysuckle]] ''Lonicera periclymenum'' with [[Neottia nidus-avis | birds-nest orchid]] ''Neottia nidus-avis'' and [[Epipactis purpurata | violet helleborine]] ''Epipactis purpurata'' found particularly under beech. In the woodlands can also be found [[Anemone nemorosa | wood anemone]] ''Anemone nemorosa'' and [[Oxalis acetosella | common wood sorrel]] ''Oxalis acetosella''.

[[Image:Ashdown Forest - Friends Clump.jpg|thumb|right|Friends Clump]]

Forest streams, often lined by [[alder]] trees ''Alnus glutinosa'', [[Salix|grey sallow]] ''Salix cinerea'', birch and oak, cut through the soft sandstone forming steep-sided valleys (ghylls) that are sheltered from winter frosts and remain humid in summer, creating conditions more familiar in the Atlantic-facing western coastal regions of Britain. Uncommon [[Bryophyte|bryophytes]] such as the liverwort ''Nardia compressa'' and a range of ferns including the mountain fern ''Oreopteris limbosperma'' and the [[Dryopteris | hay-scented buckler fern]] ''Dryopteris aemula'' thrive in this “Atlantic” microclimate.

The damming of streams, digging for marl, and quarrying have produced several large ponds containing, particularly in former marl pits, localised rafts of [[Potamogeton natans | broad-leaved pondweed]] ''Potamogeton natans'', beds of [[Typha latifolia | bulrush (reedmace)]] ''Typha latifolia'' and [[Equisetum fluviatile | water horsetail]] ''Equisetum fluviatile''.

The clumps of [[Pinus sylvestris | Scots pine]] that form such a distinctive, iconic hilltop feature of Ashdown Forest were mostly planted in 1825 by Arabella Diana, Dowager Duchess, Lady of the Manor to provide habitats for [[blackgame]]. She planted eight clumps and granted the public permission to cross her land to visit them. A clump at Millbrook also dates from this time. 20th century plantings comprise Macmillan Clump near Chelwood Gate (commemorating former British prime-minister [[Harold Macmillan]], who lived at Birch Grove), Kennedy Clump (commemorating a visit to the area by [[John F. Kennedy]], when he stayed with Macmillan), Millenium Clump and Friends Clump, planted in 1973 to mark the Year of the Tree.

===Fauna===

Important populations of heath and woodland birds are found on the forest, notably [[Dartford Warbler]] ''Sylvia undata'' and [[Nightjar]] ''Caprimulgus europaeus''. Because of this, it has been designated as a European Union [[Special Protection Area]] and it is a popular destination for bird-watchers.

The Forest contains four main bird habitats<ref>{{cite web |title=Birds of Ashdown Forest |url=http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/birds_of_ashdown_forest.php}}</ref>. Open lowland heath, with various species of gorse and heather, supports all-year resident populations of Britain's scarcest heathland bird species, the [[Dartford Warbler]] (which has seen a resurgence since the early 1990s), [[European Stonechat|Stonechat]] ''Saxicola rubecola'' and [[Meadow Pipit]] ''Anthus trivialis''; in the summer, [[Skylark]] ''Alauda arvensis'', [[Linnet]] ''Carduelis cannabina'', [[Yellowhammer]] ''Emberiza citrinella'' and [[Cuckoo]] ''Cuculus canorus''; and in winter, rarely, [[Hen Harrier]] ''Circus cyaneus''. Open areas of grassland, heather or gorse, with some bogs, interspersed with single trees or clumps of trees, particularly Scots Pine, support year-round populations of [[Lesser redpoll]] ''Carduelis cabaret'' and [[Goldcrest]] ''Regulus regulus''; in the summer, [[Woodlark]] ''Lullula arborea'', [[Tree Pipit]] ''Anthus sylvestris'', [[Nightjar|European Nightjar]] ''Caprimulgus europaeus'', [[Common Redstart]] ''Phoenicurus phoenicurus'', [[Spotted flycatcher]] ''Muscicapa striata'', [[Common Snipe]] ''Gallinago gallinago'', [[Eurasian Hobby]] ''Falco subbuteo'', [[Eurasian Woodcock]] ''Scolopax rusticola'', and [[Yellowhammer]]; in spring and autumn, [[Wheatear]] ''Oenanthe oenanthe'', [[Whinchat]] ''Saxicola rubetra'', [[Common crossbill]] ''Loxia curvirostra''; and in winter, rarely, [[Great Grey Shrike]] ''Lanius exubitor''. In scrub areas, especially on the boundary between woodland and heath/grassland, an all-year resident is [[Reed bunting]] ''Emberiza schoeniclus''; in summer, [[Turtle dove]] ''Streptopelia turtur ''; and in winter, [[Eurasian Siskin]] ''Carduelis spinus'' and [[Lesser redpoll]]. Finally, in mixed woodlands of oak, birch and sweet chestnut, often with Scots pine, all-year residents are [[Stock dove]] ''Columba oenas'', [[Marsh tit]] ''Parus palustris'', [[Tawny owl]] ''Strix aluco'', [[Bullfinch]] ''Pyrrhula pyrrhula'', and [[Eurasian Sparrowhawk]] ''Accipiter nisus''; in the summer, [[Firecrest]] ''Regulus ignicapillus''; an occasional visitor is the [[Common Buzzard]] ''Buteo buteo''.

[[Image:Cordulegaster_boltonii_Grd3.jpg|thumb|right|Golden-ringed dragonfly]]

The Forest supports a rich invertebrate fauna, with many heathland specialities. Half of Britain's 46 breeding species of damselflies and dragonflies (the [[Odonata]]) have been recorded, the scarcer among them being the [[Black Darter]], Brilliant Emerald and [[Small Red Damselfly]]. It is also an important home for the [[Golden-ringed_Dragonfly|golden-ringed dragonfly]], which flies from mid-June to early September. Of the Forest's 34 species of butterfly, the most spectacular, the [[Purple Emperor]], can be hard to see, but another speciality, the [[Silver-studded Blue]], is plentiful; the main food plants of its caterpillars are gorses and heathers.

Deer have been a feature of Ashdown Forest particularly since its impaling as a royal hunting park in the 13th century.<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/deer.php Deer in Ashdown Forest]</ref> [[Red deer]], an essential part of Wealden culture as long as 6-8,000 years ago, and [[Fallow deer]], already present in Sussex in the Romano-British era and particularly favoured by the Normans for hunting, were both hunted here until the 17th century. By the end of the 17th century Red deer had disappeared completely while Fallow deer had declined to very low numbers, the poor condition of the forest pale having allowed them to escape. Fallow deer returned in the 20th century, probably as a result of escapes from a local deer park. Also present are [[Roe deer]] (the only native deer roaming the forest), [[Muntjac]] and [[Sika deer]].

The population of Fallow deer has grown sharply in the last three decades, and they now number in their thousands. Around 500 a year are involved in collisions with motor vehicles on local roads<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/docs/AFVRSP_minutes_August_2009.pdf Ashdown Forest Villages Road Safety Partnership, minutes of 25 Augusst 2009 meeting]</ref> and many are killed. Reducing deer casualties and how best to control their numbers have become major public issues. The presence of deer in large numbers on the private land of the forest as well as on the common land administered by the Conservators makes resolving these issues more difficult.<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/conservation/Ashdown%20Area%20Deer%20Group.php Ashdown Area Deer Group]</ref>

==Landscape and conservation==

===Landscape evolution===
[[Image:Ashdown_Forest_from_Standen.jpg|thumb|right|Ashdown Forest viewed from the gardens of [[Standen]] house]]
Ashdown Forest is essentially a man-made landscape. There is debate about how early in history heathland came to dominate the landscape, but from at least medieval times the forest's commoners were playing a major role in maintaining the forest as predominantly heathland by keeping large numbers of livestock on the common land where they would graze on tree shoots. For example, at the end of the 13th century the commoners were turning out 2,000-3,000 cattle onto the forest alongside the 1,000-2,000 deer that were also present<ref name="forestplan">Strategic Forest Plan of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2008-2016</ref>, while according to a 1297 record the forest was also being grazed by almost 2,700 swine<ref>Ashdown Forest and Its Inclosures. Ernest Straker</ref>.

The local iron industry that flourished in the Tudor and early Stuart period also had a major influence on the landscape by significantly reducing the forest's woodlands in order to feed furnaces and forges. The loss of much of the tree cover from the fringes of the forest during the 16th century has been attributed at least in part to the rapid growth of the industry following the introduction of blast furnaces with their huge demand for charcoal. For example, large-scale tree cutting took place to feed the iron works of [[Ralph Hogge]] to the south of the forest between Buxted and Maresfield<ref>Cleere and Crossley (1995) p.137.</ref>. The loss of trees caused much public concern: as early as 1520 it was lamented that "much of the King's woods were cut down and coled [turned into charcoal] for the iron mills, and the Forest digged for Irne [iron] by which man and beast be in jeopardy" <ref>Straker (1940), p. 123.</ref>. The industry continued to denude Ashdown Forest during the 17th century: by 1632 there was little great wood left, and by 1658 none, while by 1632 coppices were slight and much affected by illicit cutting<ref>Cleere and Crossley (1995) p.169.</ref>. The effect of the local iron industry on the forest was curtailed however by its rapid decline during the 17th century and disappearance during the 18th century.

Ashdown Forest's landscape in the early 19th century was famously described by [[William Cobbett]] after he had ridden through in January 1822<ref>William Cobbett ''Rural Rides''. Constable, London. 1982. ISBN 0-09-464060-2</ref>:<blockquote>"At about three miles from [[East Grinstead|Grinstead]] you come to a pretty village, called [[Forest Row|Forest-Row]], and then, on the road to [[Uckfield]], you cross Ashurst (sic) Forest, which is a heath, with here and there a few birch scrubs upon it, verily the most villainously ugly spot I saw in England. This lasts you for five miles, getting, if possible, uglier and uglier all the way, till, at last, as if barren soil, nasty spewy gravel, heath and even that stunted, were not enough, you see some rising spots, which instead of trees, present you with black, ragged, hideous rocks."</blockquote>

At the start of the 20th century the forest was virtually treeless, apart from the picturesque clumps of Scots Pine that had been planted on its hill-tops in the early 19th century and the woods remaining in its deeper valleys and ghylls, and its heathland was the largest in south-east England. However, after World War II a sharp decline in livestock grazing by the commoners owing to economic and social factors (see below) led to a rapid and substantial loss of heathland to scrub and trees. The increasing amounts of road traffic across the forest, with the consequent loss of animals in road traffic collisions, also became a major deterrent to grazing, with the last of the free-ranging livestock of the commoners being removed in 1985. As a consequence the proportion of heathland in the forest has declined greatly in the last sixty years, from 90% in 1947 to 60% in 2007.

===Conservation measures===
[[Image:Ashdown_Forest_Hebridean_flock.jpg|thumb|right|Ashdown Forest's Hebridean sheep flock awaiting shearing]]
The post-war decline in the exploitation of the forest by the commoners forced the Conservators to step in to stem any further loss of the heathland that gives the forest its distinctive open landscape and rare wildlife habitats. The Conservators' stated aim is to maintain the ratio of heathland to woodland at 60:40<ref>Annual Report of the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest 2007/2008, page 2</ref>. To suppress scrub, trees and bracken regular mowing of the heathland is undertaken in the summer and birch saplings are cut down in the winter. In 1996 the Secretary of State for the Environment gave permission for a 550 ha (1359 acre) fenced enclosure in the south and west chases to allow Commoners to graze their livestock in safety, and to enhance the conservation value of the heathlands. More recently, a close-herded shepherding project, funded by the ''Higher Level Stewardship'' scheme (see below), has been piloted in which a flock of Hebridean sheep, now numbering 225, is guided by a shepherd to graze the heathland. An advantage of this approach is that sheep prefer to eat coarse grass and scrub and ignore heather, their grazing can be targeted on the most over-grown areas, they will graze in places that are difficult to deal with through mowing, and no fencing is required; a disadvantage may be that it is a labour-intensive activity whose impact is small in scale.

The conservation work of the Board of Conservators is being supported by substantial public funding from [[Natural England]] under a ten-year ''Higher Level Stewardship'' (HLS) agreement. Signed in August 2006, this requires the heathland to be restored to "favourable condition". It is the largest such scheme in south-east England.

===Statutory designations===
Reflecting its ecological importance in the UK and Europe, Ashdown Forest is designated as a [[Site of Special Scientific Interest]] (SSSI)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.english-nature.org.uk/special/sssi/sssi_details.cfm?sssi_id=1001983 |title=Natural England - SSSI|accessdate=2008-05-25|publisher=English Nature}}</ref>, a [[Special Protection Area]] (SPA)<ref>[http://www.jncc.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=2052 Ashdown Forest Special Protection Area - Description]</ref> and a [[Special Area of Conservation]] (SAC). The first is a UK designation while the last two are designations under EU directives relating to the protection of birds and habitats respectively. The forest's importance on the European level is underlined by its membership of the [[Natura 2000]] network, which brings together Europe's most precious and threatened wildlife sites.<ref>The SSSI, SPA and SPA designations cover the Ashdown Forest common land plus the Old Lodge nature reserve and exclude privately-owned land.</ref>
The whole of the forest is in the [[High Weald AONB|High Weald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]], "...one of the best surviving, intact medieval landscapes in Northern Europe"<ref>http://www.highweald.org</ref>, characterised by rolling hills, steep-sided ghyll streams, sandstone outcrops, nationally-high woodland cover, many interconnected ancient woods, narrow sunken lanes, scattered farmsteads and hamlets, small irregular-shaped fields, and open heaths, of which Ashdown Forest, whose 1,500 hectares of ''lowland heathland''<ref>[http://www.jncc.gov.uk/page-1432 Lowland Heathland]</ref> make it the largest area of this threatened habitat in south-east England, is the most important example.

==Recreation and leisure==

[[Image:Ashdown_Forest_cyclists_on_Crowborough_Road.jpg|thumb|right| Cyclists crossing Ashdown Forest]]

Ashdown Forest is the largest area of open countryside in south-east England. It offers visitors a large, elevated expanse of unspoiled heath and woodland close to London and other centres of population where they may walk, picnic or simply sit while taking in glorious views. The Forest's common land is freely open to the public, subject to a number of bye-laws. These include prohibitions on activities that are detrimental to the forest environment such as off-road cycling (mountain biking) and other wheeled vehicles, horse-riding (except by permit), camping and the lighting of fires.

The forest attracts over 750,000 visitors each year<ref name="forestplan" />. Most come by car, and access is straightforward: the forest is crossed by a major artery, the [[A22]], which provides access from the [[M25 motorway|M25]] and [[M23 motorway|M23]] motorways. The Conservators have provided 48 unobtrusive car parks, and picnic areas. The nearest railway station is at [[East Grinstead]]<ref>http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/roadsandtransport/public/train/default.htm Train service information</ref>. Two bus services cross the forest: the 261 service from East Grinstead railway station to Uckfield stops at Nutley, Chelwood Gate, Wych Cross, the Ashdown Forest Centre and Colemans Hatch (two-hourly; no service on Sundays or public holidays); the 270 service from East Grinstead railway station to Haywards Heath stops at Wych Cross and Chelwood Gate (hourly service, every day)<ref>http://www.eastsussex.gov.uk/roadsandtransport/public/buses/downloadmaps.htm Bus timetables and maps</ref>. Gatwick Airport is about 25 minutes away by car.

The ''Ashdown Forest Centre'' (see below) is the main visitor centre for the forest. Tourist information points may be found at [[Ashdown Forest Llama Park]], Forest Row Community Centre<ref>http://forestrow.gov.uk/index.php Forest Row Community Centre (tourist information point)</ref> and Perryhill Orchards<ref>http://www.perryhillorchards.co.uk Perryhill Orchards (tourist information point)</ref>, Hartfield. The Forest's principal tourism organisation is the ''Ashdown Forest Tourism Association''<ref>http://www.ashdownforest.com Ashdown Forest Tourism Association website</ref>.

The Forest is very popular with walkers, and all its common land is open to them. Two long-distance footpaths, the [[Vanguard Way]] and [[Wealdway]] cross the forest and meet near Old Lodge. The Wealdway passes through Five Hundred Acre wood, the [[Hundred Acre Wood]] of the Winnie-the-Pooh stories. The ''Ashdown Forest Centre'' produces a
series of leaflets detailing interesting walks in various parts of the forest, which may also be downloaded from its website<ref>
http://www.ashdownforest.org/downloads/downloads_all.php Source of Ashdown Forest walks leaflets</ref>.

Ashdown Forest contains {{convert|82|mi|km}} of permitted tracks that may be ridden by horse once an annual permit has been obtained from the Conservators. The main horse-riding organisation is the ''Ashdown Forest Riding Association'', which has around 200 members<ref>http://www.afranews.org.uk Ashdown Forest Riding Association website</ref>.

The Forest, with its attractive landscapes, vistas and hills, is a popular destination for road cyclists, races and cyclosportives such as the ''Hell of the Ashdown''<ref>http://www.hell.gb.com Hell of the Ashdown (cyclosportive) website</ref>. Former Tour de France rider [[Sean Yates]] lives at [[Forest Row]] and has taken [[Lance Armstrong]] training here. Off-road cycling and mountain biking is prohibited for environmental reasons, except along public bridleways. A local pressure group is campaigning for this ban to be lifted<ref>http://www.ashdowncc.org Ashdown Cycling Campaign website</ref>.

The ''Royal Ashdown Forest Golf Club'' occupies a large area of leasehold land in the northern part of the Forest near Forest Row. It is a traditional members' club founded in 1888 at the instigation of Earl de la Warr, Lord of the Manor, who became its first president. Its two 18-hole heathland courses are notable for the absence of bunkers (at the insistence of the Conservators). As elsewhere in Ashdown Forest, trees and bracken scrub have invaded following the cessation of grazing and decreased wood cutting by the Commoners, and the club is working with the Conservators to restore the golf courses to their original heathland character<ref>http://www.royalashdown.co.uk Royal Ashdown Forest Golf Club website</ref>.

The principal hotel within the Forest is the ''Ashdown Park Hotel & Country Club'', a listed 19th century mansion house set in 186 acres<ref>http://www.ashdownpark.com Ashdown Park Hotel and Country Club website</ref>.

==Visitor attractions==
===The Ashdown Forest Centre===
[[Image:Ashdown_Forest_Centre.JPG|thumb|right|The Ashdown Forest Centre ]]
The Ashdown Forest Centre, situated opposite Ashdown Park hotel between Wych Cross and Coleman's Hatch, houses a visitor centre and is the administrative base for the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest. Completed in 1983, it consists of three old reconstructed barns. The visitor centre<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/about/forest_centre.phphere Ashdown Forest Centre Information Barn]</ref> has a permanent display about the forest's history and wildlife, details of walks in the forest and much other useful information for visitors, and an exhibition area for local craft and art work. It is open 7 days a week during the summer, weekends in the winter, and on Bank Holidays except Christmas Day and Boxing Day.

===Old Lodge Nature Reserve===

Old Lodge nature reserve<ref>[http://www.sussexwt.org.uk/reserves/page00023.htm Old Lodge nature reserve]</ref>, managed by Sussex Wildlife Trust, offers open vistas of the forest's heathland. A well-marked nature trail leads round most of the hilly 76 hectare reserve, which contains acidic ponds and areas of pine woodland. The reserve is notable for dragonfly, nightjar, redstart, woodcock, tree pipit, stonechat and adder.

===Nutley Windmill===
[[Image:Nutley_Windmill_2.jpg|thumb|right| [[Nutley Windmill]]]]
[[Nutley Windmill]], which stands just north of the Nutley to Duddleswell road, is thought to be about 300 years old and is a rare example of an open-trestle post mill (the whole body of the mill can be rotated on its central post to face the wind). It has been restored to full working order and is open to the public. It is within easy walking distance of Friend's Clump car-park.

===The Airman's Grave===

The Airman's Grave is not in fact a grave, but a memorial to the six man crew of a Wellington bomber of 142 Squadron which crashed in the forest on the morning of 31 July 1941 on its return from a raid on Cologne during World War II. The memorial, which is a simple stone-walled enclosure on the heathland west of Duddleswell, shelters a white cross surrounded by a tiny garden of remembrance and was erected by the mother of Sergeant P.V.R. Sutton, who was aged 24 at the time of his death. A short public service takes place each year on Remembrance Sunday when a wreath is laid by an Ashdown Forest Ranger, at the request of Mrs Sutton, together with one from the Ashdown Forest Riding Association. The Ashdown Forest Centre has published a circular walk to the memorial from Hollies car park.

===Ashdown Forest Llama Park===

Situated south-east of Wych Cross on the [[A22]] main road, [[Ashdown Forest Llama Park]] breeds and sells llamas and alpacas, and operates as a visitor attraction to educate the public about these animals. The park has a gift shop, coffee shop and tourist information point for which there is no admission charge.

==Winnie-the-Pooh==
[[Image:Pooh sticks bridge.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Poohsticks Bridge in Ashdown Forest]]

Ashdown Forest is famous as the setting for the ''[[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]]'' stories, written by [[A. A. Milne]] for his son [[Christopher Robin Milne]]. The first book, ''[[Winnie-the-Pooh (book)|Winnie-the-Pooh]]'', was published in 1926 with illustrations by E. H. Shepard. The second book, ''[[The House at Pooh Corner]]'', also illustrated by Shepard, was published in 1928. These hugely popular stories were set in Ashdown Forest: A.A. Milne's country retreat at Cotchford Farm near [[Hartfield]] was situated just north of the forest about a mile from the entrance at Chuck Hatch; from there he and his wife, son and nanny would regularly venture out onto the forest. In his autobiography Christopher Milne wrote that “Pooh’s forest and Ashdown Forest are identical”. Several of the sites described in the books can be easily identified, although their names have been changed. For example Five Hundred Acre Wood became ''[[Hundred Acre Wood]]'' and Gills Lap became ''[[Galleon's Lap]]''. The ''North Pole'' and ''Gloomy Place'' are in Wren’s Warren valley as is ''The Dark and Mysterious Forest''. The landscapes depicted in Shepard’s illustrations for the books, which are very evocative of Ashdown Forest, can in many cases be matched up to actual views, allowing for a degree of artistic licence (Shepard's sketches of pine trees and other forest scenes are on display at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum|V&A Museum]] in London).

A leaflet, “Pooh Walks from Gills Lap”, available from the Ashdown Forest Centre and downloadable from its website, describes a walk that takes in many locations familiar from the Pooh stories including ''[[Galleon's Lap]]'', ''The Enchanted Place'', the ''[[Heffalump trap|Heffalump Trap]]'' and Lone Pine, ''North Pole'', ''100 Aker Wood'' and Eeyore’s ''Sad and Gloomy Place''.

[[Image:Gills Lap Plaque.JPG|thumb| right|Memorial plaque dedicated to [[A. A. Milne]] and [[E. H. Shepard]] at Gills Lap]]A memorial plaque to Milne and Shepard can be found at Gills Lap. Its heading is a quotation from the Pooh stories: "...and by and by they came to an enchanted place on the very top of the Forest called Galleons Lap". The dedication reads: "Here at Gills Lap are commemorated A.A. Milne 1882-1956 and E.H. Shepard 1879-1976 who collaborated in the creation of "Winnie-the-Pooh" and so captured the magic of Ashdown Forest and gave it to the world".

[[Poohsticks Bridge|Pooh Sticks Bridge]] is a mile north of Gills Lap at Chuck Hatch and is open to the public. The original bridge was built in 1907, restored in 1979 and completely rebuilt in 1999. So popular is the game of [[Poohsticks]] that the surrounding area has been denuded of twigs and small branches by the many visitors. A path leads to the bridge from a car-park on Chuck Hatch Lane, just off the B2026 Maresfield to Hartfield road.

''Pooh Corner'', situated on the High Street in Hartfield, sells Winnie-the-Pooh related products and offers much information for visitors.<ref>http://www.pooh-country.co.uk/ Pooh Corner</ref>


==Film and television==
Various locations in and around Ashdown Forest have been used as settings for television and film productions. These include ''[[Colditz]]'', the 2002 version of ''[[The Four Feathers (2002 film)|The Four Feathers]]'', ''[[Under Suspicion (1991 film)|Under Suspicion]]'', ''[[Flyboys]]'' and [[HBO]]/[[BBC]]'s mini-series [[Band of Brothers (TV miniseries)|Band of Brothers]].<ref name="media">{{cite web | title=Film and Television locations in the area | url=http://www.ashdownforest.com/film.html | publisher=Ashdown Forest Tourism Association | accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref>

==Notable people==
[[Brian Jones]] of the [[The Rolling Stones]] lived at [[A.A. Milne]]'s former country home at Cotchford Farm and died there in 1969. The author of the [[Sherlock Holmes]] stories, [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], lived at [[Crowborough]], on the eastern edge of the forest, as did the nature writer [[Richard Jefferies]] for a period while he wrote some of his famous essays.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://thesussexweald.com/N10.asp?NId=1131 | title=Jefferies, John Richard | publisher=The Weald of Kent, Surrey and Sussex | accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref> British Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] lived at Birch Grove, a house on the edge of the forest near Chelwood Gate; the Macmillan Clump of trees is named in his honour. Major [[Edward Dudley Metcalfe]], the best friend and [[equerry]] of [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,761962-1,00.html | title=Good Old Duke | publisher=[[TIME]] | date=1939-09-25 | accessdate=2008-01-11}}</ref>, lived in a grey stone house in the forest.

==History==

===Norman origins===
Ashdown Forest's origins lie as a Norman royal hunting forest, dating back to the period immediately following the [[Norman conquest]] of 1066. Prior to that, it formed an unnamed part of a much larger area of dense, impenetrable, and sparsely populated oak woodland, extending for 30 miles between the North and South Downs and for over 90 miles from east to west between Kent and Hampshire, that was known in Saxon times as ''Andredes weald'' ("the forest of Andred", from the name of the Roman fort at [[Pevensey]], ''Anderida''), from which the name of the physiographic region of south-east England in which Ashdown Forest is situated, the [[Weald]], is derived.<ref>Brandon (2003), Chapters 2 and 6.</ref>.

Ashdown Forest is not mentioned in the [[Domesday Book]] of 1086 but, lying as it did within the Forest of Pevensel (sic) in the [[Rape (county subdivision)|Rape]] of [[Pevensey]], it had already been granted by William the Conqueror to his half-brother [[Robert, Count of Mortain]]. This strategically and economically important Rape was awarded to Robert by William, along with several hundred manors across England, in recognition of his support during the invasion. There were two important conditions: the king could keep and hunt deer on the forest, while the commoners - tenant farmers who had smallholdings near the forest - could continue to use it to graze their livestock and cut wood for fuel and bracken for livestock bedding.

===The Forest pale===
[[File:The_Hatch_Inn.jpg|thumb|The Hatch Inn, Colemans Hatch, at an entrance to Ashdown Forest.]]
During the [[Middle Ages]] Ashdown Forest was enclosed as a royal hunting park by a 38 kilometre (23 mile) long ''pale''. This consisted of an earth bank 4-5 feet high surmounted by an oak paling fence with a deep ditch on the forest side that allowed deer to enter but not to leave. It enclosed an area of over 5,300 hectares (20.5 square miles)<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/ Ashdown Forest, home of the Conservators and Pooh Bear.]</ref>. Entry was via 34 gates and hatches, ''gates'' being used for access by wheeled vehicles, commoners' animals and mounted groups, ''hatches'' by pedestrians. These names survive in local place-names such as Chuck Hatch and Chelwood Gate. Some of these entrances were, and still are, marked by pubs, for example the 18th century Hatch Inn<ref>[http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~nickad/index.htm The Hatch Inn]</ref> at Coleman's Hatch, which occupies three former cottages believed to date to 1430 that later may have housed ironworkers from the nearby blast furnace at Newbridge.

It is not known precisely when the pale was built. Forest management accounts of 1283 refer to the cost of repairing the pale and building new lengths<ref name="ashdownforesthistory">http://www.ashdownforest.com/history.html</ref>. However, the granting of the "Free-chase of Ashdon" to John of Gaunt in 1372 and its renaming as ''Lancaster Great Park'' (see below) implies that the Forest may only have been recently enclosed (''chase'' denoted an open hunting ground, ''park'' an enclosed one). Although the condition of the pale deteriorated during the Tudor and Stuart period, and it seems to have fallen into almost complete disrepair by the end of the 17th century, remnants of the bank and ditch are still visible in places today, such as at Legsheath.

===Post-Conquest changes of ownership===

The forest was owned by the Lords of Pevensey Castle - various Norman nobles - for most of the period until the reign of [[Henry_III_of_England | Henry III]], when, in 1268, it was vested in the Crown in perpetuity. The forest was used for deer hunting by [[Edward_II_of_England | Edward II]], who built a hunting lodge near Nutley that was later to be used by John of Gaunt.

In 1372 [[Edward_III_of_England|Edward III]] granted the "Free-chase of Ashdon" to his third son, [[John of Gaunt]], Duke of Lancaster. From then for the next 300 years, until 1672, it was known as ''Lancaster Great Park'', though the park reverted to the Crown with the rest of the Duchy of Lancaster after the Duke's death in 1399.

In 1561 Richard Sackville was granted the "mastership of the Forest and keepership of the wild beasts therein", thus beginning a family involvement that lasted over 400 years. The Sackvilles later became Earls of Dorset and it was in in 1605, under James I, that Thomas Sackville, Earl of Dorset, became Lord of the Manor of Duddleswell (the [[Manorialism | manor]] within which Lancaster Great Park lay). The Earls and Dukes of Dorset remained Lords of the Manor until the male line died out in 1815, at which point the freehold passed to the related [[Earl De La Warr|de la Warr]] (pronounced "Delaware") family, who retained it until 1988.

===The 1693 land division===

In 1693 more than half of Ashdown Forest was taken into private hands. Repeated attempts during the 17th century to enclose and improve the forest, whose condition had deteriorated by the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] in 1660 to a state where "the whole forest [had been] laid open and made waste"<ref>Straker (1940), p. 124.</ref>, had been strongly opposed by the commoners and by the owners of neighbouring estates who claimed right of pasture there. After the Restoration it was disafforested by letters patent of [[Charles II]] and granted, in 1671, to the Earl of Bristol and then to the Earl of Dorset and others whose efforts to enclose and develop the heathland were frustrated "by the crossness of the neighbourhood"<ref>Christian (1967), p.2.</ref>. In 1689, the Earl of Dorset brought a legal suit against 133 defendants led by one John Newnham who claimed rights of common on the forest having exercised them "from time out of mind". Commissioners appointed by the Duchy Court to divide up the 13,991 acres (5,662 ha) of forest made their award on 4 December 1693, setting aside 6,400 acres (2,590 ha) in the vicinity of farms and villages for the commoners. Here they were given sole right of pasturage and the right to cut birch, alder and willow. But they were excluded from the rest of the forest, 55 per cent of its area, which was assigned for "inclosure and improvement". As a result, the common land of Ashdown Forest today is highly fragmented and irregular in shape, broken up by large tracts of privately-owned land. Some of the largest enclosures, such as Hindleap Warren, Prestridge Warren, Broadstone Warren and Crowborough Warren, were created for intensive rabbit farming. Other large enclosures include Pippingford Park, today a military training area, and Five Hundred Acre Wood. That the forest today still appears to be an extensive area of wild country is partly because the land that was taken into private hands has largely remained uncultivated<ref>Hinde (1987), p. 66.</ref>. That said, the contrast between the areas of common land, which are predominantly heathland, and the privately-held lands, which are generally either quite heavily wooded or cleared for pasture, and which in cases cover large areas within the old forest pale, is stark.

===The 1876 dispute===

In 1876-82 a further challenge to commoners' rights, which became known as the ''Ashdown Forest Dispute'', led directly to today's framework of forest governance. On 13 October 1877 John Miles was seen cutting litter on behalf of his landlord Bernard Hale, a commoner, by a keeper employed by the Lord of the Manor, the [[Earl De La Warr]]. In a test case<ref>Short (1997)</ref><ref>[http://theweald.org/bk.asp?bookid=srs080998 Testimonies of Forest residents]</ref>, the earl challenged the right of Hale and Miles to cut and take away litter, claiming that it could only be taken away from the forest in the stomachs of their animals<ref>Hinde (1987), p. 66</ref>. The commoners lost, but an appeal in 1881 found in their favour. Following this dispute a Board of Conservators was established by Act of Parliament in 1885 to oversee the Forest bye-laws, including the protection of Commoner's rights. Further Acts of Parliament have since further refined the governance of Ashdown Forest, the final and most important being the Ashdown Forest Act 1974.

===Sale into public ownership===

In the 1980s the Lord of the Manor, the 10th Earl de la Warr, offered Ashdown Forest for sale direct to the local authority, [[East Sussex County Council]], if they would buy it; otherwise he would probably sell the forest piecemeal on the open market<ref>Willard (1989), p167</ref>. On 25 November 1988 this threat to split up the forest was averted when, with the benefit of donations from many sources, including the proceeds of a public appeal supported by [[Christopher Robin Milne]] that raised £175,000, East Sussex County Council purchased the freehold of Ashdown Forest from the executors of the earl, who had died the previous February. The freehold was then vested by the council in a newly-created charitable trust, the Ashdown Forest Trust.

==Iron working==

Ashdown Forest formed an important part of the [[Wealden iron industry]] that operated from pre-Roman times until the early 18th century. The forest was a particularly favourable location because of the presence of iron-ore in the local geology of Ashdown Beds and overlying Wadhurst Clay and of woodland for the production of charcoal fuel for furnaces and forges, while its deep, steep-sided valleys and locally high rainfall made it practical to dam streams to provide water power. The industry reached its peak in the two periods when the Weald was the main iron-producing region of Britain, namely in the first two centuries of the Roman occupation (first to third centuries AD) and during Tudor and early Stuart times. Iron-smelting in the former period was based on [[bloomery]] technology, while the latter depended on the [[blast furnace]].

===Iron Age and Roman Period===
When the Romans invaded Britain in AD 43 the Weald already had a well-established tradition of iron-making, using very small, clay bloomery furnaces for iron-smelting. The pre-Roman settlement pattern was one of sparse occupation based on major defended enclosures along the northern edge of the High Weald with smaller enclosures deeper within it, such as the hill-fort at Garden Hill. The association of these smaller enclosures with iron-making and other evidence suggest that Iron Age colonizers saw the Weald primarily as a source of iron<ref name="cleereromansussex">Cleere (1978)</ref>.

The Romans also saw the Weald's economic potential for iron-making and with growing markets in south-east England generated by the building of towns, villas and farms the industry grew, achieving high levels of output at its peak. There is evidence in Ashdown Forest of Roman bloomeries at Garden Hill, Pippingford Park and elsewhere. These are thought to have been private, commercial operations set up by entrepreneurs to produce iron goods for nearby civilian markets (in contrast to iron production in the eastern Weald, which is thought to have been state-controlled and linked to the needs of the British Fleet, the [[Classis Britannica]], and possibly part of an ''Imperial Estate'')<ref>Salway, Peter (1981), Roman Britain, pp. 637-638.</ref>.

The transition from Late Iron Age to Roman Era iron production in the Forest, as elsewhere in the Weald, may have been quite smooth, as bloomery production was already well-established and this southern coastal region of Britain had already become Romanised prior to the invasion of AD 43. It has been suggested that the poorly-built Roman-era bath building at Garden Hill may indicate continuity of indigenous community and activity, and a desire to indulge in a more Romanised way of life<ref>Leslie and Short (1999), p.22.</ref>.

The trunk road between [[London to Lewes Way (Roman road)|London and Lewes]], partly metalled with iron slag from local bloomeries, would have served to carry the Forest's iron products to the Roman province's pre-eminent mercantile centre at [[London]] and to the densely populated agricultural areas of the South Downs and coastal plain<ref name="cleereromansussex" />.

Although the Roman iron industry flourished from the invasion to the mid third century, it then declined until there was very little activity at all during the fourth century.

===Saxon Period===
During the period between the departure of the Romans in the early 5th century AD and the Norman Conquest iron-making in the forest - as in the Weald as a whole - seems to have taken place on only a very small scale. A primitive Middle Saxon iron-smelting furnace at Millbrook, near Nutley, which operated in the 9th century, is the only furnace from the Saxon period to have been found in the entire Weald<ref>Tebbutt (1982)</ref><ref>Hodgkinson (2008), p.35.</ref>.

===Tudor and Stuart Period===
The iron industry underwent a massive resurgence in Tudor and early Stuart times as a result of the introduction of the blast furnace from northern France. Blast furnaces were much larger and more permanent structures than bloomeries, and produced much greater quantities of iron - and correspondingly made a much greater demand on local resources of raw materials. Ashdown Forest became the site of Britain's second blast furnace when the works at Newbridge began operation in 1496 (Britain's earliest known blast furnace, a few miles away at at Queenstock, [[Buxted]], began operation at the end of 1490). The Newbridge furnace, constructed at the commission of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] for the production of heavy metalwork for gun carriages for his war against the Scots, was designed and initially run by French immigrants<ref>Hodgkinson (2008) p.63 et seq.</ref>. The Crown's involvement with Newbridge continued until a replacement, larger furnace was built in 1539 on the western edge of Ashdown Forest at Stumbles. Other works set up around this time in or near the Forest include a steel forge at Pippingford Park, around 1505, and a furnace and forge at Parrock, Hartfield, in 1513. Unfortunately, there is little visible trace of any of these sites today.

The industry grew very rapidly here and elsewhere in the High Weald during the 16th century. The area became particularly noted for the production of cannons for the British navy. The iron-master and gun founder [[Ralf Hogge|Ralph Hogge]], who in 1543 had cast the first iron cannon in England at [[Buxted]], drew his raw materials from the southern part of the forest. The rapid expansion of the iron industry and its huge demand for raw materials, particularly the cutting of trees for making charcoal, is likely to have had a major impact on Ashdown Forest.

The industry declined in the 17th century as a result of competition from lower-cost and more productive iron-producing areas in England and overseas, particularly Sweden.

==Archaeology==
[[File:Ashdown Forest Roman Road.JPG|thumb|The ''agger'' of the London-Lewes Roman road, visible at Roman Road car park, Ashdown Forest.]]
The earliest known trace of human activity in Ashdown Forest is a stone hand axe found near Gills Lap, which is thought to be about 50,000 years old<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/history/history_pre_roman.php Ashdown Forest]</ref>. In total, more than 570 archaeological sites have been identified, including Bronze Age round barrows, Iron Age enclosures, prehistoric field systems, iron workings from Roman times onwards, the Pale, medieval and post-medieval pillow mounds for the rearing of rabbits, and a set of military kitchen mounds between Camp Hill and Nutley dating from 1793 that are among the only surviving ones in the United Kingdom.<ref>Ashdown Forest Life, Issue 8, Autumn/Winter 2009</ref>

===Iron Age===
The late pre-Roman [[Iron Age]] (100 BC to AD 43) saw a conspicuous reconfiguration of the settlement and economic geography of Sussex, of which one aspect was the disappearance of hill-forts from the [[South Downs]] (except Devil's Dyke) and the establishment of hill-forts in the [[High Weald]], including one in Ashdown Forest at Garden Hill<ref>Money (1978), p.38.</ref>. Three other hill-forts lie in close proximity at Philpots, Saxonbury and Dry Hill. The general consensus is that these hill-forts are associated with a more intensive exploitation of the iron resources of the Weald<ref>Leslie and Short (1999), p.22.</ref>. This period also presents the first evidence for centralised ceramic production, with specialist pottery sites identified at Chelwood Gate and [[Horsted Keynes]], both situated close to the Forest and ideally located to exploit the local potting clays. Elsewhere in Ashdown Forest there is evidence of Iron Age enclosures at Gills Lap, marked by a roundel of fir trees, and King's Standing, both situated on high hilltops.<ref>Christian (1967), p.7.</ref> Another site, at Chelwood Gate, known as Danes Graves, shows evidence of late pre-Roman Iron Age iron working.

===Garden Hill===

Garden Hill, situated on a hill spur south of Colemans Hatch Road, is Ashdown Forest's most important [[scheduled ancient monument]], containing both an Iron Age hill-fort and the remains of an important Romano-British iron-working centre<ref name="moneyandstreeten">Money & Streeten (date unknown)</ref>. In 1972 archaeologists uncovered a small but complete 2nd century AD Romano-British stone-built bath-house. Subsequent excavations produced evidence of Neolithic, Bronze Age and early pre-Roman occupation of the hill-top and uncovered remains of a late pre-Roman Iron Age and Romano-British iron-working settlement of the first, second and early third centuries AD. This included pre-Roman round houses, a rectangular second-century Roman timber villa to which the bath building was attached, and an almost complete pane of Roman window-glass that was later acquired by the British Museum. Both iron-making (ore roasting and smelting) and iron-working (forging) were conducted, but this is likely to have been small in scale. Later the industrial workings were levelled and replaced by the villa and other buildings of a non-industrial character, suggesting that the settlement may have operated through the 2nd century more as a managerial centre for other iron-working sites nearby, such as the small early 1st century bloomeries at Pippingford Park and Cow Park before probably becoming abandoned by the mid 3rd century<ref name="moneyandstreeten" />. Garden Hill lies within the Ministry of Defence's Pippingford Park military training area and is not open to the public.

===Roman roads and pre-Roman trackways===
The [[London to Lewes Way (Roman road)|London to Lewes Way]], one of three [[Roman roads in Britain|Roman roads]] that connected London with the important [[Wealden iron industry]], crosses Ashdown Forest in a north-south direction. The road ran in a direct line from its junction with [[Watling Street]] at [[Peckham]] in London to the [[South Downs]] on the east side of [[Lewes]], from where it connected with routes to the densely-populated corn-growing areas of the South Downs and coastal plain, and possibly to ports trading with Roman-occupied Gaul. The main purpose of the road, apart from linking the corn-growing areas with London, was to open up Ashdown Forest and neighbouring iron-producing areas for the export of iron products to London and Gaul. Given the great importance of the iron industry to the Romans, it is likely that the road was built soon after the Roman occupation, not long after AD 100 or possibly earlier.<ref>Margary (1965), p.124.</ref>

After crossing the [[Greensand Ridge]] the road runs virtually straight from Marlpit Hill southwards for 11 miles, entering Ashdown Forest near Chuck Hatch, reaching the top of the forest at Camp Hill, and then leaving the Forest via Duddleswell and Fairwarp. The [[Agger (Roman word)|agger]] varies in width (at Camp Hill it is {{convert|14|ft|m}} wide, at Five Hundred Acre Wood, {{convert|17|ft|m}} wide<ref>Margary (1965), p.159.</ref>) and is metalled with compacted sandstone lumps and iron slag from local bloomeries. Unusually, side ditches 62 feet apart run continuously for two miles through the forest.<ref>Margary (1965), p.154.</ref> The remains of the road in the Forest were partly obliterated by tanks undertaking training exercises in World War II, but part of it is clearly marked out at Roman Road car park.

A secondary Roman road which passed through Wych Cross and Colemans Hatch reached the London-Lewes trunk road at Gallypot Street, Hartfield, and would probably have served to link the Romano-British iron-working complex at Garden Hill to the main road.<ref name="moneyandstreeten" />.

The north-south London-Lewes Roman road superseded an older trackway that ran from Titsey, at the foot of the Greensand Ridge, through the iron-age hillfort at Dry Hill, Forest Row, Danehill and Wivelsfield to Westmeston, at the foot of the South Downs. Across the Weald ran many old, broadly east-west trackways that followed the relatively lightly-wooded high sandy ridges. Some of these, particularly in iron-producing areas, would have formed part of the road network used by the Romans.<ref>Margary (1965) p.258.</ref> Among the important trackways that crossed Ashdown Forest were ridgeways from Crowborough and Nutley that clearly followed the high ridges of the Forest to Chelwood Gate and Wych Cross, and which then continued westwards to West Hoathly, Selsfield, Turners Hill and beyond.<ref>Margary (1965) p.264.</ref>

==Forest administration==

Ashdown Forest, narrowly defined as the common land set aside in 1693 (representing less than half of the forest's extent at that time) plus recent land acquisitions, is managed by an independent Board of Conservators. The Board has sixteen members: nine are appointed by East Sussex County Council (one of whom represents the Lord of the Manor, Ashdown Forest Trust), two by Wealden District Council, and the remaining five are elected by the Commoners, of whom four must be Commoners. Day to day running is carried out by the Forest Superintendent and a team of rangers. The Conservators are required to act in accordance with Parliamentary Acts. The last of these, the Ashdown Forest Act 1974, states (Section 16):

<blockquote>"It shall be the duty of the the Conservators at all times as far possible to regulate and manage the forest as an amenity and place of resort subject to the existing rights of common upon the forest and to protect such rights of common, to protect the forest from encroachments, and to conserve it as a quiet and natural area of outstanding beauty."</blockquote>

A number of [[Byelaws in the United Kingdom|byelaws]] have been made by the Conservators under the 1974 Act to protect the forest. These include prohibitions on off-roading driving, mountain-biking, horse-riding (except by permit), camping, the lighting of fires, digging and the dumping of rubbish<ref>[http://www.ashdownforest.org/about/byelaws.php List of Ashdown Forest Byelaws]</ref>.

Large numbers of volunteers support the work of the Conservators by undertaking conservation work in the forest. Many of these are recruited by the ''Friends of the Ashdown Forest''<ref>[http://www.friendsofashdownforest.co.uk The Friends of Ashdown Forest]</ref>. Fundraising by the Friends has helped towards the purchase of capital equipment for forest management and enabled the Conservators to buy back parcels of land for reincorporation into the forest. In 1994 the Conservators purchased 28 ha (69 acres) of woodland at Chelwood Vachery (an estate that dates back to at least 1229), including an early 20th century garden and lake system, after the estate was divided up and offered for sale by its owner.

==The Ashdown Forest commoners==
[[Image:Gate to ashdown forest - adjustments.JPG|thumb|right|A gate into Ashdown Forest at sunset]]

That Ashdown Forest today remains predominantly open and uncultivated heathland is largely due to the actions of its Commoners who, over many centuries, have exercised [[Common_land#Commons_rights|rights of common]] on the Forest and who have defended those rights against attempts, particularly in the 17th and 19th centuries, by the Lord of the Manor and others to limit or extinguish them. Their actions resulted in a large area of the forest being retained as common land while the grazing of livestock, which curbed the growth of trees, scrub and bracken, tree clearance and burning helped to maintain the heathland.

The rights of common have varied over time. Today those that remain are ''pasturage'' - the grazing on the forest of livestock such as cattle; ''[[estovers]]'' - the collection of birch, willow and alder as firewood for the "ancestral hearth" and for other uses such as house repairs and fencing and hedging; and ''litter'' - the cutting of bracken or heather for thatching and bedding of livestock. Other historical rights: of ''[[pannage]]'' - feeding pigs on acorns, beech mast or other nuts, and ''[[turbary]]'' - the cutting of turf for fuel, have been lost; the former died out by 1500 while the latter was outlawed in the 19th century because of the damage it was causing to the forest floor.

The Commoners' rights of common allowed them to practise a simple pastoral system. During the summer they would turn out their livestock onto the forest to graze; this would allow them to use the fields close to their smallholdings (the ''in-bye'' land) to produce hay for winter fodder or to grow cereals. In the winter, they would bring their animals indoors and bed them down on bracken litter. In the spring they would cover the in-bye land with the manure-laden litter to improve its fertility.

The 20th century saw a sharp decline in the exploitation of the forest by the Commoners, particularly after World War II. As their smallholdings increasingly became unable to compete with cheaper agricultural produce from elsewhere, many Commoners decided to give up their onerous work and moved to jobs in nearby towns and cities or else retired, in some cases selling up to commuters looking for an attractive country retreat. In 1965, an [[Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom|Act of Parliament]], the Commons Registration Act, which required commoners across the country to register to preserve their rights, resulted in a large drop in the number of Ashdown Forest Commoners: more than half the 1,300 Commoners failed to register, losing the rights of common that were attached to their land for ever. Today, 730 properties in and around the forest retain commonable rights, but very few owners exercise their rights of common. This has affected the forest's ecology. Heath has tended to become old and woody, bracken has spread and scrubby birch and other trees have invaded, leading to the substantial losses of open heathland and of the plants and animals that rely on it.

All Commoners are obliged to pay a ''Forest Rate'' to contribute towards the upkeep of the Forest, which is based on the acreage of their land-holding. All are entitled to vote for five representatives on the Board of Conservators of Ashdown Forest.

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Brandon|first=Peter|year=2003|title=The Kent & Sussex Weald|publisher=Phillimore & Co Ltd|isbn=1-86077-241-2}}
{{refend}}
*{{cite book |last=Christian|first=Garth|year=1967|title=Ashdown Forest|publisher=The Society of Friends of Ashdown Forest}}
*Cleere, Henry (1978). ''Roman Sussex—The Weald''. In Drewett (1978), pp. 59-63.
*{{cite book |last=Cleere|first=Henry| coauthors= Crossley, David|year=1995|title=The Iron Industry of the Weald (2nd edition)|publisher=Merton Priory Press|location=Cardiff|isbn=1-898937-04-4}}
*{{cite book |last=Drewett|first=Peter (ed.)| year=1978|title=Archaeology in Sussex to AD 1500|publisher=Council for British Archaeology, Research Report 29|location=London|isbn=}}
*{{cite book |last=Glyn|first=Philip|coauthors=Prendergast, Hew |year=1995|title=Ashdown Forest, An Illustrated Guide|publisher=Essedon Press|isbn=0-9525549-0-9}}
*{{cite book |last=Hinde |first=Thomas|year=1987|title=Forests of Britain|publisher=Sphere Books Ltd|isbn=0-349-11687-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Hodgkinson|first=Jeremy|year=2008|title=The Wealden Iron Industry|publisher=The History Press|location=Stroud |isbn=978-0-7524-4573-1}}
*{{cite book |last=Kirby|first=Peter|year=1998|title=Forest Camera|publisher=Sweethaws Press|isbn=0-95117-955-0}}
*{{cite book| last =Langton| first =John | coauthors= Jones, Graham| title =Forests and Chases of England and Wales c.1500-c.1850 (2nd edition)| publisher =St John's College Research Centre| year =2008| location =Oxford| pages =118| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =978-0954497545}}
*{{cite book| last =Leslie| first =Kim | coauthors= Short, Brian| title =An Historical Atlas of Sussex | publisher =Phillimore & Co Ltd| year =1999| location =Chichester| pages =166| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =1-86077-112-2}}
*{{cite book| last =Margary| first =Ivan D. | title =Roman Ways in the Weald| publisher =Phoenix House| year =1965| location =| pages =| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =0460077422}}
*Money, J.H. (1978). ''Aspects of the Iron Age in the Weald''. In Drewett (1978), pp. 38-40.
*Money, J.H. & Streeten, A.D.F. (date unknown). ''Excavations in the Iron Age Hill Fort and Roman-British Iron-working Settlement at Garden Hill, Hartfield, East Sussex (1968-1978)''. Sussex Archaeological Collections, 16-26.
*{{cite book| last =Short| first =Brian| title =The Ashdown Forest Dispute, 1876-1882: Environmental Politics and Custom| publisher =Sussex Records Society| year =1997| location =| pages =| url =| doi =| id = | isbn =978-0854450411}}
*Straker, Ernest (1940). ''Ashdown Forest and Its Inclosures''. Sussex Archaeological Society, 121-135.
*Tebbutt, C.F. (1982) ''A Middle-Saxon Iron Smelting Furnace Site at Millbrook, Ashdown Forest, Sussex''. Sussex Archaeological Collections, 120, 19-35.
*Turner, Edward (1862). ''Ashdown Forest, or as it was sometimes called, Lancaster Great Park''. Sussex Archaeological Society, 36-64.
*{{cite book |last=Willard |first=Barbara|year=1989|title=The Forest - Ashdown in East Sussex|publisher=Sweethaws Press|isbn=0-9511795-4-3}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.ashdownforest.org/ Ashdown Forest website]
*[http://theweald.org/P4.asp?PId=PSx.AF Historical documents relating to Ashdown Forest.]



{{Winnie-the-Pooh}}
{{SSSI East Sussex}}

[[Category:Iron Age sites in England]]
[[Category:Stone Age sites in England]]
[[Category:Environment of East Sussex]]
[[Category:Geography of East Sussex]]
[[Category:Forests and woodlands of England]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in East Sussex]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest notified in 1953]]
[[Category:Special Protection Areas in England]]
[[Category:Winnie-the-Pooh]]
[[Category:Special Areas of Conservation in England]]

[[fr:Forêt d'Ashdown]]
[[it:Foresta di Ashdown]]
[[pt:Floresta de Ashdown]]
[[simple:Ashdown Forest]]

Bristol Castle

2010-04-16T14:17:47Z

Angusmclellan: dab

{{Infobox Historic building
|image=Bristol Castle South Prospect.jpg
|caption=Bristol Castle from James Millerd's map of Bristol in 1673
|name=Bristol Castle
|location_town=[[Bristol]]
|location_country=[[England]]
|map_type=Bristol
|latitude=51.4559
|longitude=-2.5883
|architect=[[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester]]
|client=[[William I of England|William the Conqueror]]
|engineer=
|construction_start_date=
|completion_date=
|date_demolished=
|cost=
|structural_system=
|style=
|size=
}}

[[Image:Bristol Castle.jpg|thumb|Remains of the castle today]]

'''Bristol Castle''' was a [[Norman architecture|Norman]] [[castle]] built for the defence of [[Bristol]]. Remains can be seen today in [[Parks of Bristol#Parks close to the city centre|Castle Park]] near the Broadmead Shopping Centre, including the [[sally port]].

The first castle built at Bristol was a timber [[motte and bailey]], presumably erected on the command of [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], who owned Bristol. One of William's closest allies, [[Geoffrey de Montbray]], [[Bishop of Coutances]], appears to have had control of the castle in William's name. The [[Domesday Book]] notes that he received part of the king's income from the borough. The castle is first mentioned in 1088, when Geoffrey used it as a base in his rebellion against [[William II of England|William Rufus]].<ref>''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''.</ref>

After William triumphed, the English lands of the rebels were redistributed to his loyal followers. Among them was [[Robert Fitzhamon]], who gained a large swathe of [[Gloucestershire]], including Bristol Castle. His eldest daughter Mabel married [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Robert]], illegitimate son of [[Henry I of England|Henry I]]. She brought him the honour of Gloucester on the death of her father in 1107.<ref>G.E.C[okayne], ''The Complete Peerage'', 2nd edn. ed. V. Gibbs (London 1910-59).</ref> So he is generally known as Robert of Gloucester.

By this time many of the first wave of Norman timber castles were being replaced in stone. Bristol Castle was a fine example with [[Curtain wall (fortification)|curtain walls]] and a great [[keep]]. It seems that Robert of Gloucester was the man responsible. The castle was built on a strategic site to the east of the town, between the [[River Avon, Bristol|River Avon]] and the [[River Frome, Bristol|River Frome]], which was partly diverted to form the castle [[moat]]. <ref>S. Watson, ''Secret underground Bristol'' (Bristol 1991) ISBN 0-907145-01-9</ref>

This great fortress was to play a key role in the civil wars that followed the death of [[Henry I of England]].
Henry's only legitimate son [[William Adelin|William]] drowned in 1120, so Henry eventually declared his one legitimate daughter [[Empress Matilda|Matilda]] his heir. However her cousin, [[Stephen of England|Stephen of Blois]] [[Usurper|usurped]] the throne on Henry's death in 1135. Matilda's half-brother Robert of Gloucester became her trusted right-hand man - the commander of her troops. Rebels rallied to his castle at Bristol.

Stephen reconnoitred Bristol in 1138 but decided that the town was impregnable. As his chronicler reported: "On one side of it, where it is considered more exposed to siege and more accessible, a castle rising on a vast mound, strengthened by wall and battlements, towers and divers engines, prevents an enemy's approach." <ref>''Gesta Stephani'' ed. and trans. K.R. Potter (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1976), pp. 37-8, 43-4.</ref> After Stephen was captured in 1141, he was imprisoned in Bristol Castle until Robert of Gloucester was also captured and an exchange of prisoners was made.<ref>William of Malmesbury, ''The Historia Novella'', trans. K. R. Potter (London : T. Nelson, 1955), p.50.</ref>

The castle was later taken into royal hands.<ref>''Accounts of the Constables of Bristol Castle in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries'' ed. Margaret Sharp (Bristol Record Society 1982), p. xviii.</ref> [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] spent lavishly on it, adding a [[barbican]] before the main west gate, a [[gatehouse|gate tower]], and magnificent [[great hall]].<ref>H.M. Colvin, ''The History of the King's Works'', vol. 2 (1963), pp. 578-9.</ref>

The two young sons of [[Dafydd ap Gruffydd]], the last princes of [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]], were imprisoned for life in Bristol Castle after [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]'s conquest of [[Wales]] in 1283. [[William le Scrope, 1st Earl of Wiltshire | William le Scrope]], Sir [[John Bussy]] and Sir [[Henry Green]] were executed there without trial in June 1399 by the Duke of Hereford, soon to be King [[Henry IV of England]], after the latter's successful return from exile.

The first detailed description of the castle was written in 1480<ref>William Worcestre, ''The Topography of Medieval Bristol'', Bristol Record Society vol. 51 (2000), nos. 396, 422.</ref>. By the time the [[antiquary]] [[John Leland (antiquary)|John Leland]] visited ''c''.1540, Bristol castle was showing signs of neglect. It had "two courts, and in the north-west part of the outer court there is a large keep with a dungeon, said to have been built of stone brought by the red Earl of Gloucester from [[Caen]] in [[Normandy]]. In the other court is an attractive church and many domestic quarters, with a great gate on the south side, a stone bridge and three ramparts on the left bank leading to the mouth of the Frome. Many towers still stand in both the courts, but they are all on the point of collapse."<ref>''John Leland's Itinerary: Travels in Tudor England'', ed. John Chandler (Sutton Publishing: Stroud, 1993), pp. 178-9.</ref>.
By the sixteenth century the castle had fallen into disuse, but the City authorities had no control over royal property and the precincts became a refuge for lawbreakers. In 1630 the city bought the castle and when the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] broke out the city took the [[Roundheads|Parliamentary]] side and partly restored the castle. However [[Cavalier|Royalist]] troops occupied Bristol and eventually [[Oliver Cromwell]] ordered the [[slighting|destruction]] of the castle.

The castle was demolished in 1656, according to Millerd's map of Bristol (above right). However one octagonal tower survived until it was torn down in 1927. It was sketched by Samuel Loxton in 1907.<ref>George Frederick Stone, ''Bristol As It Was And As It Is'' (Bristol 1909), p. 99.</ref> There are some remains of the banqueting hall incorporated in an existing building.

The castle moat was covered over in 1847 but still exists and is mainly navigable by boat, flowing under Castle Park and into the [[Bristol Harbour|Floating Harbour]]. The western section is a dry ditch and a sally port into the moat survives near St Peter's Church.

The area was redeveloped for commerce and largely destroyed in the '[[Bristol Blitz]]'. It was subsequently redeveloped as a public open space, Castle Park.

It is a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]].<ref>{{cite web | title= Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Bristol | publisher=Bristol City Council | url=http://www.bristol.gov.uk/ccm/cms-service/stream/asset/?asset_id=1157007 | format= PDF | accessdate=2007-05-07}}</ref>

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links==
{{commonscat|Bristol Castle}}
*[http://www.buildinghistory.org/bristol/castle.shtml Bristol Castle] : a history by Jean Manco from Bristol Past.

[[Category:Castles in Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Bristol]]
[[Category:History of Bristol]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Bristol]]

Warrandyte

2010-04-16T11:11:20Z

Angusmclellan: switch to Commons version of image

{{Infobox Australian Place | type = suburb
| name = Warrandyte
| city = Melbourne
| state = vic
| image = Warrandyte_River_Scene.JPG
| caption = The [[Yarra River]] flowing through Warrandyte.
| lga = City of Manningham
| postcode = 3113
| elevation = 113
| pop = 7393 (2006)<ref name="abs">{{Census 2006 AUS | id = SSC21711 | name = Warrandyte (State Suburb) | accessdate = 2007-09-29 | quick = on}}</ref>
| area = 12.1
| est =
| propval = $626,000 <ref>[http://www.domain.com.au/public/suburbprofile.aspx?suburb=Warrandyte&postcode=3113 Warrandyte], accessed 27 February 2009</ref>
| stategov = [[Electoral district of Warrandyte|Warrandyte]]
| fedgov = [[Division of Menzies|Menzies]]
| dist1 = 24
| location1= [[Melbourne]]
| near-nw = [[Eltham, Victoria|Eltham]]
| near-n = [[North Warrandyte, Victoria|North Warrandyte]]
| near-ne = [[Wonga Park, Victoria|Wonga Park]]
| near-w = [[Templestowe, Victoria|Templestowe]]
| near-e = [[Wonga Park, Victoria|Wonga Park]]
| near-sw = [[Donvale, Victoria|Donvale]]
| near-s = [[Park Orchards, Victoria|Park Orchards]]
| near-se = [[Warrandyte South, Victoria|Warrandyte South]]
}}

'''Warrandyte''' is a suburb in [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]], 24 km north-east from Melbourne's [[Melbourne city centre|central business district]]. Its [[Local Government Areas of Victoria|Local Government Area]] is the [[City of Manningham]]. At the [[Census in Australia#2006|2006 Census]], Warrandyte had a population of 7393.

Warrandyte is bounded in the west by Mullum Creek and Target Road, in the north by the [[Yarra River]], in the east by Jumping Creek and Anzac Road, and in the south by an irregular line from Reynolds Road north of [[Donvale, Victoria|Donvale]], [[Park Orchards, Victoria|Park Orchards]] and [[Warrandyte South, Victoria|Warrandyte South]].

Warrandyte was founded as a Victorian town located in the once [[gold]]-rich rolling hills east of [[Melbourne, Victoria]], and is now on the north-eastern boundary of suburban Melbourne. Gold was first discovered in the town in 1851 and together with towns like [[Bendigo, Victoria]] and [[Ballarat, Victoria]], led the way in gold discoveries during the [[Victorian gold rush]]. Today Warrandyte retains much of its past in its surviving buildings of the Colonial period and remains a twin community with [[North Warrandyte, Victoria|North Warrandyte]] which borders the [[Yarra River]] to its north.

Today the town and suburb is well known for its residents' positive attitude towards the [[environmentalism|environment]]. Conservation programs run regularly and areas of land small and large have been set aside for conservation or ecological restoration purposes. The Warrandyte [[Festival]] is held every year in mid March, a parade, live music, food and shopping stalls and kids activities are some of the things that can be seen at the festival, which is one of the last remaining volunteer-run festivals in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]].

== Etymology ==

In [[Australian Aboriginal mythology]] (see [[dreamtime]]), a [[Wurundjeri]] [[dreamtime]] story tells of a great eagle; "the all powerful, ever watchful creator of the world" named ''[[Bunjil]]'', who "once gazed down upon his people from the star Altair and saw their wrong doing. Awaiting their return, with a mighty crash of thunder, he hurled down a star to destroy them". Where the star struck created a gorge in which much of the town today is located. Bunjil's people remembered the spot, and referred to it as ''Warrandyte'' speculated to mean "that which is thrown". <ref name = "Warrandyte Diary">''Warrandyte Diary, Number 389, August 2006."</ref>

== History ==

===Pre European Settlement===

The area was originally occupied by one or more clans of the [[Wurundjeri]], [[Indigenous Australians]] of the [[Kulin]] nation, who spoke variations of the [[Woiwurrung]] language group. Warrandyte was an important place to them as the geology formed a natural gorge which inspired many of the Wurundjeri [[dreamtime]] stories, such as those associated with [[Bunjil]]. They managed the land [[sustainability|sustainably]] for tens of thousands of years. One example of this can be found in the tradition whereby neighbouring clans agreed to cease fishing in the [[Yarra River]] once fish populations became low; this gave the fish the opportunity to repopulate the area and prevented the human-induced extinction of any species. This principle was also applied to hunting and gathering on land and the use of trees.

===Gold Discovery & Mining===

[[Image:Warrandyte Quarry.JPG|right|thumb|250px|A quarry in Warrandyte, once used to mine stone for buildings and structures during the [[gold rush]] era.]]

In 1851, gold was first discovered in Victoria in Warrandyte at Anderson's Creek by Louis Michel, the approximate location of the site is marked by a cairn on Fourth Hill in the [[Warrandyte State Park]].<ref name = "Melways">[[Melway]] Edition 33 2006 (Pages 22,23,24,34,35 & 36)</ref> This marked the start of the [[Victorian gold rush]], however more substantial discoveries in the [[Ballarat]] and [[Bendigo]] region initially drew prospectors away from Warrandyte. While some mining did occur in the area throughout the peak of the gold rush, it wasn't until the late 1800s, after gold discoveries reduced in the more popular regions, that the area around Warrandyte was intensively mined, particularly around Fourth Hill and Whipstick Gully. Some areas continued to be mined up until the 1960s. Warrandyte Post Office opened on 1 August 1857. <ref name = "PostOffice">{{Citation
| last = Premier Postal History | title = Post Office List | url = https://www.premierpostal.com/cgi-bin/wsProd.sh/Viewpocdwrapper.p?SortBy=VIC&country= | accessdate = 2008-04-11 }}</ref>

Throughout Warrandyte the river shows signs of being exploited during this time, a classic example being the tunnel at Pound Bend. The river was partially dammed at Pound Bend near Normans Reserve at its eastern entrance and near Bob's wetlands at its western exit. Miners then blasted a 300m long tunnel through solid rock. The river was then fully dammed at the entrance and exit to the tunnel and water was diverted through 300m and out the other side leaving 3.85km of riverbed around Pound Bend exposed, ready to be mined.

===Artists' Colony===

In the very late 19th and early 20th centuries, Warrandyte became a popular destination for artists of the [[Heidelberg School]] who sought subject matter further into the bush. This led to the development of an artists camp and small colony. Though not as substantial as other colonies such as Heidelberg, [[Montsalvat]] and [[Box Hill, Victoria|Box Hill]], several artists, such as [[Clara Southern]], who was associated with the Heidelberg School, was one of the first to take up residence at Warrandyte. Others followed, including [[Penleigh Boyd]] and Jo Sweatman.

===Potters' Cottage===

In 1958, a group of potters looking for a way of exhibiting and selling their wares, opened the Potters’ Cottage in a small miner’s hut near the Warrandyte bridge. The founding members were Artur Halpern, [[Reg Preston]], Phyl Dunn, [[Gus McLaren]] and Charles Wilton. Sylvia Halpern, Kate Janeeba and Elsa Ardern, joined the group in 1961 after the cottage had moved to a farmhouse at the corner of Jumping Creek and Ringwood-Warrandyte roads. The last member of the group was Peter Laycock, who joined in 1969. The cottage continued to operate until 2005.

===The Bridge===

[[Image:Warrandyte Bridge.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The Warrandyte Bridge, built mid 1950s]]

Warrandyte has always had some form of river crossing at the site of its current bridge. Before the time of bridges, punts were used to cross the [[Yarra River]] into [[North Warrandyte]]. Prior to the construction of the Upper Yarra Dam, heavy downpours led to flood waters that washed away Warrandyte's punt downstream into [[Templestowe, Victoria|Templestowe]], whose residents then decided to use it to cross the Yarra at the present day site of the Swingbridge near Oddesey House. The first bridge was built in Warrandyte in 1861 after much lobbying by residents. The majority of funding came from the government, with the difference made up by residents of Warrandye and North Warrandyte. Built entirely out of local timber, the bridge was located 5mi east of the current bridge and stood for 90 years until the mid 1950s saw the current bridge constructed from new materials in Australia at the time: [[concrete]] and [[iron]].

===Bushfires===

Major bushfires have swept through Warrandyte throughout history, and the town was at the centre of the [[Black Friday bushfires]] in 1939, in which 71 people lost their lives. Many examples of colonial architecture have been destroyed by bushfires, however, there are still a few original buildings that survive to this day. Recent attempts by the Warrandyte CFA at backburning sections of bushland to minimise fuel for fires during the bushfire season have contributed to the town being well prepared if a major fire does take hold in the area. Warrandyte residents are constantly aware of the risk bushfires pose to the area and most are well prepared with evacuation plans and bushfire preparations.Also the Black Sataurday fires in Kinglake were 15 minutes away from North Warrandyte,residents in Somers Road were interviewed by the Herald Sun. in Major bushfires to have swept through Warrandyte include:

*'''1851''' - February 6 "Black Thursday"
*'''1939''' - January 13 "[[Black Friday (1939)|Black Friday]]"
*'''1962''' - January 14-16

== Geography ==

[[Image:Pound Bend tunnel.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Pound bend tunnel was created by gold miners during the gold rush to divert the [[Yarra River]].]]

Warrandyte is situated on the southern banks of the [[Yarra River]]. The river and hills surrounding the town were once rich in gold, and the ruins of mineshafts and tunnels can be found throughout the [[Warrandyte State Park]] amongst other locations. While the central town itself is nestled into a gorge on the river, the suburb covers a reasonably large area of land and can be divided up into the following sections:

===Central Warrandyte & The Yarra===

Central Warrandyte comprises the main street of Ringwood-Warrandyte Road and Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road (Yarra Street), Pound bend and the southern banks of the Yarra River. This is sometimes referred to as central Warrandyte or the "town", in contrast to the suburbs extending to the south and west.

===Around Andersons Creek===

Andersons Creek flows from neighbouring [[South Warrandyte, Victoria|South Warrandyte]] and [[Warranwood, Victoria|Warranwood]] into the Yarra just before the beginning of Pound Bend. This area is where several [[Gully|gullies]] converge and create a geographical hole with Fourth Hill to the east and the hills on the eastern banks of the Mullum Mullum Creek to the west. This becomes evident when driving through Warrandyte on Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road, as the hills guide the road down towards Andersons Creek.

===The Eastern banks of the Mullum Mullum Creek===

The Eastern banks of the [[Mullum Mullum Creek]] were home to vast orchards overflowing from neighbouring [[East Doncaster, Victoria|East Doncaster]] and as a result, much of the vegetation has been cleared. Today the area is covered in large residential properties due to local council regulations allowing land to be subdivided into larger sites. Further south from here, Aumann's Orchard can be found, one of the last surviving operational orchards in the area.

Vast areas of land around Warrandyte are governed by Parks Victoria or are privately owned such as Longridge Farm. These areas contain dense populations of many different varieties of [[Eucalyptus]] Trees.

Warrandyte is home to or borders the following rivers and creeks: <ref name = "Melways">[[Melway]] Edition 33 2006 (Pages 22,23,24,34,35 & 36)</ref>
* The [[Yarra River]]
* Jumping Creek
* Parson Gully
* [[Mullum Mullum Creek]]
* Andersons Creek

Some geographical features that can be found in Warrandyte include: <ref name = "Melways">[[Melway]] Edition 33 2006 (Pages 22,23,24,34,35 & 36)</ref>
* Harris Gully
* Beauty Gully
* Fourth Hill
* Pound Bend
* Pound Bend Tunnel
* The Island
* Black Flat
* Whipstick Gully
* Specimen Gully

==Ecology==

The vegetation in the area was almost entirely cleared during the late 19th century, mostly for agriculture, housing and for mining purposes. The threat of [[bushfire]]s, several of which destroyed parts of or the entire town, the distance from Melbourne and later, the establishment of the green wedge, halted any large scale development throughout the 20th century. This enabled the native vegetation to regenerate and much of what is seen today was grown back since the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

==Transportation==

[[File:Autumn trees in Warrandyte.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Non-native trees allongside the main street in Warrandyte during autumn.]]

Warrandyte is serviced primarily by the private car, however a bus service is run by the Ventura (formerly the National) bus company along the main roads of Ringwood-Warrandyte Road (route number: {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=304}} & {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=364}}) and Heidelberg-Warrandyte Road (Yarra Street) (route numbers: {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=201}}Occ, {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=305}}Occ, {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=308}}Occ, 155-6 {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=159}}, 304, 364 {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=578}}, {{MetlinkBus|numtext=yes|route=579}}). The service interchanges at the bridge (route numbers: 155-6, 159, 201Occ, 304, 305Occ & 308Occ). These two roads service the suburb by car as well as bus. Traffic flowing through Warrandyte usually contains residents traveling from or to [[East Doncaster, Victoria|East Doncaster]], [[Wonga Park, Victoria|Wonga Park]], [[North Warrandyte, Victoria|North Warrandyte]] and [[Park Orchards, Victoria|Park Orchards]], however, due to Warrandyte's geographical position, it can at times be used to travel to and from suburbs further away.

Peak hour traffic always flows to and from west and south of Warrandyte along its main roads, this traffic is either trying to get out of surrounding suburbs or to the [[Eastern Freeway]].

Major local roads in Warrandyte include: <ref name = "Melways">[[Melway]] Edition 33 2006 (Pages 22,23,24,34,35 & 36)</ref>
* Reynolds Road
* Tindals Road
* Beauty Gully Road
* Harris Gully Road
* Gold Memorial Road
* Pound Road
* Webb Street
* Jumping Creek Road
* Yarra Street

== Community ==

[[Image:Cockatoos1.JPG|right|thumb|250px|[[Cockatoo]]s at the Stonehouse Cafe in Warrandyte.]]

Warrandyte is well known for its residents' positive attitude towards the environment. Conservation programs run regularly and areas of land small and large have been set aside for conservation or environmental restoration purposes. In homage to this community spirit, the Warrandyte Festival, one of the last remaining volunteer-run festivals in Victoria, is held every year in mid March. Typically, the festival features a variety of attractions. Many stalls sell local produce or crafts, and there are numerous historical exhibits, as well as safety demonstrations by the [[CFA]]. A variety of live music stages are set up, with stages specifically catering for youth bands from the community. The festival parade is a feature of the festival, with bands, community orientated groups and schools all partaking in a morning march through the town.

Warrandyte contains a general post office, tennis courts, a community centre, an RSL, several [[Bed and Breakfast]]s, restaurants, a police station, a CFA Fire Station, two kindergartens, two recreational ovals (AFL Football and Cricket), Warrandyte Community Church, Uniting and Anglican places of worship, Andersons Creek Cemetery and a [[Scouting in Victoria|Scout hall]], canoe launching ramps, a skatepark, nurseries and tearooms and the Crystal Brook Holiday Centre. <ref name = "Melways">''[[Melways]] Street Directory, 33rd Edition 2006.''</ref>

[[Image:Warrandyte Shop.JPG|right|thumb|250px|An Early Victorian house of the late 1800s, converted into a shop, on Yarra Street, Warrandyte.]]

Educational Facilities in Warrandyte: <ref name = "Melways">[[Melway]] Edition 33 2006 (Pages 22,23,24,34,35 & 36)</ref>
* [[Warrandyte High School]]
* Andersons Creek Primary School
* Warrandyte Primary School

Shopping Strips & Centres in Warrandyte:
* Goldfields Plaza
* Street Shops either side of the Main Roads around the Bridge

==Parklands & Recreation==

Many people who live outside of Warrandyte travel to the suburb to partake in different recreational activities, as well as its residents. These include walking, bike riding, mountain biking, tennis, basketball, football (AFL), cricket, swimming in the [[Yarra River]], canoeing, kayaking, skateboarding and bushwalking among many others.

Parks, Gardens and Reserves in Warrandyte: <ref name = "Melways">[[Melway]] Edition 33 2006 (Pages 22,23,24,34,35 & 36)</ref>
* [[Warrandyte State Park]] (including Pound Bend, Fourth Hill, Black Flat, Mount Lofty and other areas)
* [[Geography of the Yarra River|Pound Bend]] Reserve
* Stiggants Reserve
* Warrandyte Reserve/Taroona Reserve (Home to the Warrandyte Cricket Club, Warrandyte The Bloods [[Australian Rules|Football]] Club competing in the [[Eastern Football League (Australia)|Eastern Football League]] <ref name = "d">{{Citation| last = Full Point Footy | title = Eastern Football League | url = http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/eastern_football_league.htm | accessdate = 2008-10-21 }}</ref>and Junior Football Clubs and Warrandyte Netball Club)
* Longridge Farm
* Alexander Reserve
* [[Currawong Bush Park]] (Environment Centre & Wildlife Enclosure)
* Wildflower Reserve
* Andersons Creek Streamside Reserve

== External Resources & Further Reading ==
{{Mapit-AUS-suburbscale|lat=-37.738|long=145.223}}
* http://www.warrandytecc.com/ (Cricket Club Est.1855)
* http://www.warrandytefc.com/ (Football Club Est.1906)
* http://users.tpg.com.au/tashmick/ (photos of warrandyte gold mines and relics)
* http://www.parkweb.vic.gov.au/1park_display.cfm?park=206
* http://home.vicnet.net.au/~warrandy/
* http://www.walkabout.com.au/locations/VICWarrandyte.shtml
* http://www.arts.monash.edu.au/ncas/multimedia/gazetteer/list/warrandyte.html
* http://www.schools.ash.org.au/andcreek/
* http://www.warrandyte.basketball.net.au/fs_home.asp
* http://www.wcc.org.au/ (Warrandyte Community Church)
* http://www.warrandytejfc.org/
* http://www.users.bigpond.net.au/retz/lcw/
* http://www.warrandytehigh.vic.edu.au/
* http://teachit.acreekps.vic.edu.au/cyberfair2002/warrandytefestival.htm
* http://www.warrandytetennis.org.au/template3.asp?id=1&sec=True&l1=&l2=&l3=&l4=&l5=&lnext=&bhcp=1
* http://www.potteryexpo.com/
* http://www.warrandytefc.com/
* [http://home.vicnet.net.au/~warrfest/ Warrandyte Festival]

== See also ==
* [[City of Doncaster and Templestowe]] - the former local government area of which Warrandyte was a part.
* [[List of Melbourne suburbs]]
* [[Victorian gold rush]]
* [[Bendigo, Victoria]]
* [[Ballarat, Victoria]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
* Manningham Municipal Council Offices. See - [[City of Manningham]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Warrandyte , Victoria}}
{{City of Manningham suburbs}}

[[Category:Suburbs of Melbourne]]
[[Category:Mining towns in Victoria (Australia)]]

[[wuu:伐朗代脫 (维克多利亚)]]

Balintore Castle

2010-04-16T11:09:51Z

Angusmclellan: switch to Commons version of images

'''Balintore Castle''' is a [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] Category A [[Listed buildings|listed building]] in [[Scotland]].

[[File:Balintor1 Castle.jpg|thumb|right|Balintore Castle]]
[[File:Balintor Castle2.jpg|thumb|right|Balintore Castle, distant view]]

The castle occupies an elevated site in moorland a few miles north of the [[Loch]] of Lintrathen, near [[Kirriemuir]], [[Angus]]. A tower house named Balintor existed on the site in the late 1500s, according to [[Timothy Pont]]'s maps.

It was designed in 1859 by the architect [[William Burn]]. A typical example of the [[Scottish Baronial]] style, it features an abundance of [[turret]]ed towers and [[gables]], and an imitation [[portcullis]]. The main tower is topped by a [[baluster|balustraded]] viewing platform similar to that of [[Buchanan Castle]].

The centrepiece of the interior is the [[great hall]], and there is also a gallery, bedrooms, dinner service room, women servant’s sitting room, brushing room, beer cellar, lumber room, butler’s [[pantry]], dining room, and a library.

Balintor Castle was commissioned as a sporting lodge by David Lyon, MP, who had inherited a fortune made by his family through investments in the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]]. Latterly the castle was only used during the shooting season. In the 1960s it was decided not to repair the extensive [[dry rot]] and it was abandoned. The castle then stood empty until 2007, during which time its condition deteriorated to point of endangering the structure. Balintore Castle has been listed in the Scottish Civic Trust [[Buildings at Risk Register]] since it started in 1990. Angus Council used its compulsory purchase powers to buy it from its absentee Far Eastern owners, and it is now in the hands of a Scotsman who intends to restore it and use it as a residence.

==External links==
*[http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/333641 Balintore Castle at Geograph British Isles]
*[http://balintorecastle.googlepages.com/balintorecastlehome Balintore Castle Restoration Project]

{{coord|56|43|03|N|3|09|40|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Balintore Castle}}
[[Category:1859 architecture]]
[[Category:Category A listed buildings]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in Angus]]
[[Category:Castles in Angus]]
[[Category:Listed houses in Scotland]]

{{Scotland-struct-stub}}

[[pt:Castelo de Balintore]]

Dongba

2010-04-12T23:05:08Z

Angusmclellan: Disambiguate Naxi to Naxi people using popups

[[File:Dongba wood carving.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dongba wood carving in the ancient town of Shuhe,Yunnan]]
[[File:Dongba paper shop.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dongba paper shop in the old town Lijiang]]

The term '''Dongba''' (²dto¹mba) literally refers to the religious [[priests]], the [[culture]], and [[writing system|script]] of the [[Nakhi]] people, who are found in southwestern [[China]].

== Religion ==
The Dongba, also known as wise men, are believed to be the priests of the [[Bön]] religion. They play a major role in the [[Naxi people|Naxi]] culture, and preach harmony between man and nature. Their costumes show strong Tibetan influence, and pictures of Bön gods can be seen on their headgear. Tibetan prayer flags and [[Taoist]] offerings can be seen in their rituals.

Religious rituals are also conducted by the priests to propitiate the spirits, as they were believed to be living in every part of the natural world.

This can be evidenced from the fact that the core of the Dongba religion is based on the belief that both man and nature are two half-brothers born of two mothers and the same father. This creates revenge from heaven, which befalls upon humans who use up too much natural resources.

Prior to Bön influence, it is suggested that the original priests were the female [[Llü-bu]]. At that time, statues or religious images could be widely seen everywhere.

==See also==
{{Commonscat|Dongbaism in China}}
*[[Dongba script]]

==External links==
* [http://www.autef.com/Trips/Yunnaxi.html Gallery of Dongba]
* [http://dongba.asimart.com/ Dongba culture related art]
* [http://www.galleriapangea.com/search_results.asp?keywords=dongba/ A series of Dongba Culture artworks] by Dongba ethnic artist Cun Liusan.
* [http://www.zmnsoft.com/edongba/ Edongba] Input Dongba hieroglyphs and Geba symbols.

[[Category:Chinese culture]]
[[Category:Religious occupations]]

[[fr:Dongba]]
[[zh:东巴文化]]
[[zh:東巴教]]

Robert Knolles

2010-04-11T17:49:08Z

Angusmclellan: dab needed

{{otherpeople|Robert Knolles}}
'''Sir Robert Knolles''' (''c.'' 1325 – 1407) was an important [[England|English]] [[soldier]] of the [[Hundred Years' War]],<ref name="eb">[Anon.] (1911)</ref> who, operating with the tacit support of [[the Crown]], succeeded in taking the only two major [[France|French]] cities, other than [[Calais]] and [[Poitiers]], to fall to [[Edward III of England|Edward III]].{{Fact|date=August 2007}} His methods, however, earned him infamy as a freebooter and a ravager: the ruined gables of burned buildings came to be known as "Knolly's mitres".<ref>{{harvnb|Thackray|2004|p=9.}}</ref>

[[Image:Blason Robert Knolles.svg|right|100px]]
Born in [[Cheshire]], Knolles first appears as the captain of several [[castle]]s throughout [[Brittany]] in the mid-fourteenth century, including [[Fougeray]], [[Gravelle]] and [[Chateaublanc]]. He was one of the English champions at the [[Combat of the Thirty]] in 1351, where he was captured. He then contributed himself and 800 men to the 1356 [[chevauchée]] of [[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster]] through [[Normandy]], a diversionary campaign to draw King [[John II of France]] north and thus leave the [[Edward, the Black Prince|Black Prince]] free to embark on the famous Poitiers campaign.<ref name="ODNB">Jones (2006)</ref> With France in disarray after the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Battle of Poitiers]], King [[Charles II of Navarre]] assumed command of the rebellion in Paris, and Knolles joined up with the army of [[Philip, Count of Longueville|Philip of Navarre]] (Charles' younger brother) as they temporarily held the capital against the [[Dauphin of France|Dauphin]] in 1358.<ref>Barbara W. Tuchman, "A Distant Mirror," chapter "Decapitated Fraqnce: The Bourgeois Rising and the Jacquerie"</ref>

Knolles' finest hours were to come that Autumn when he led a Great Company of 2,000–3,000 Anglo-Gascons into the [[Loire Valley]], establishing several forward garrisons at important towns like [[Chateauneuf]]{{dn}}. He then advanced into the [[Nivernais]], which was unsuccessfully defended for [[Margaret III of Flanders]] by the Archpriest [[Arnaud de Cervole]], the adventurer who had raised the first Great Company the previous year.<ref>Barbara W. Tuchman, "A Distant Mirror," chapter "The Battle of Poitiers"</ref>

In 1359 Knolles reached [[Auxerre]], which fell after a two month siege on March 10. After the city had surrendered, Knolles was [[knighted]] by two subordinates, previously he had formally only been ranked as a [[squire]]. The sack of Auxerre proceeded with little violence and destruction, Knolles and his soldiers were professionals who intended to maximize their profit. The city was carefully ransacked for valuables and the citizens assessed for ransom. At the end a huge ransom was extorted for not destroying the city, although this was only partly paid. The following month he returned to Chateauneuf to plot the invasion of the [[Rhône River|Rhône Valley]] with [[Hugh Calveley]]. Marching south, a forward base was established on the [[Allier River]] at [[Pont-du-Chateau]], from where they launched the invasion of the [[Velay]]. Knolles then reunited with Calveley to besiege the important city of [[Le Puy-en-Velay|Le Puy]], which fell in July 1359. As they continued to the [[Pope|Papal]] city of [[Avignon]], their path was barred by the army of [[Thomas de la Marche]], Deputy for [[Louis II, Duke of Bourbon]], at which point both English commanders retreated and dissolved their companies.<ref name="ODNB"/>

Knolles returned to Brittany an even richer man than he had set out and remained active, invading [[Maine]] in 1360,{{Fact|date=August 2007}} participating in [[John V, Duke of Brittany|John de Montfort]]'s noteworthy siege of [[Auray]] in July 1364, and joining the Black Prince at the [[Battle of Nájera (Navarette)]] of 1367.<ref name="ODNB"/>

In 1370 he was given a large grant of lands and money to raise an army to invade northern France. He landed at [[Calais]] in August with 6,000 mounted men and carried out a raid deep into French territory, burning villages on the outskirts of Paris but failing to bring the French King [[Charles V of France|Charles V]] out to battle. He then turned towards Gascony and began capturing and fortifying castles and churches in the region between the rivers [[Loir]] and [[Loire]]. However he had to cope with much criticism from his younger subordinate commanders such as [[Sir John Minsterworth]] who were spoiling for a fight. When it became known that French armies under the command of [[Bertrand du Guesclin]] were closing in on them, Knolles proposed to retreat into Brittany but most of the army refused. He therefore marched away with his own retinue, leaving the bulk of the army where they were, to be comprehensively defeated and slaughtered at the [[Battle of Pontvallain]] on 4 December.

Knolles passed the winter in his castle at [[Derval]] on the Breton March and afterwards attempted to evacuate his men and those of Minsterworth, who had managed to join him with his surviving troop, from the port of [[Saint-Mathieu]]. However for lack of ships most of the English soldiers had to be left behind on the shore to be wiped out by the French under [[Olivier de Clisson]]. In 1372 Knolles was found by the King's Council to bear the major responsibility for this disaster. He was stripped of the lands that had been given him as his fee for raising the army and fined 10,000 marks.<ref>{{harvnb|Sumption|2009|pp=84–93.}}</ref>

He also founded Trinity Hospital, [[Pontefract]] and helped to suppress the [[Peasants' Revolt]].<ref name="ODNB"/>

Knolles' coat of arms decorates the [[postern]] tower of [[Bodiam Castle]], [[Sussex]]. It was a statement of loyalty to Knolles by its builder, [[Edward Dalyngrigge]] who served under Knolles in a [[Free Company]] during the Hundred Years' War.<ref>{{harvnb|Thackray|2004|p=31.}}</ref>

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist}}

;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
*[Anon.] (1911) "[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Knolles Knolles]", ''[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]''
*{{ cite journal | author=Bridges, J. S. C. | year=1908 | title=Two Cheshire soldiers of fortune of the XIV century: Sir Hugh Calveley and Sir Robert Knolles | journal=Journal of the Architectural, Archaeological, and Historic Society for the County and City of Chester and North Wales | pages=new ser., 14 }}
*Jones, M. (2006) "[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/15758 Knolles , Sir Robert (d. 1407)]", ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Oxford University Press, online edn, accessed 5 Aug 2007 (subscription required)
*{{citation |last=Sumption |first=Jonathan |title=Divided Houses: The Hundred Years War. Volume III |year=2009 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-0812242232}}
*{{citation |last=Thackray |first=David |title=Bodiam Castle |publisher=[[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|The National Trust]] |year=2004 |origyear=1991 |isbn=978-1-84359-090-3}}
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Knolles, Robert}}
[[Category:1320s births]]
[[Category:1407 deaths]]
[[Category:14th-century English people]]
[[Category:15th-century English people]]
[[Category:Medieval English knights]]
[[Category:People from Cheshire]]
[[Category:People of the Hundred Years' War]]

[[fr:Robert Knolles]]

83rd Infantry Division (Vereinigte Staaten)

2010-04-11T17:47:38Z

Angusmclellan: /* Combat Chronicle */ dab Châteauneuf

{{Infobox Military Unit
|unit_name=83rd Infantry Division
|image=[[Image:83rd Infantry Division SSI.svg|center|200px]]
|caption=83rd Infantry Division shoulder sleeve insignia
|dates=September 1917-October 1919 15 August 1942- 5 April 1946
|country= United States of America
|allegiance= United States of America
|branch= [[National Army (USA)|National Army]] ([[World War I]]), [[Army of the United States]] ([[World War II]])
|type=Infantry
|role=
|size=
|command_structure=
|current_commander=
|garrison=
|ceremonial_chief=
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|nickname=Thunderbolt Division Ohio Division
|patron=
|motto=
|colors=
|identification_symbol=
|march=
|mascot=
|battles=
|notable_commanders=
|anniversaries=
|decorations=
|battle_honours=
}}
{{US Infantry
|previous=[[82nd Infantry Division (United States)|82nd Infantry Division]]
|next=[[84th Infantry Division (United States)|84th Infantry Division]]
}}
The '''83rd Infantry Division''' was a [[formation (military)|formation]] of the [[United States Army]] in [[World War I]] and [[World War II]].

==World War I==
The division was activated in September 1917, and went overseas in June 1918. It was designated a depot division. Thus it supplied over 195,000 officers and enlisted men as replacements in France without seeing action as a complete formation. Certain division units saw action, such as the [[332nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|332nd Infantry Regiment]], in [[Italy]]. Its commanders were Maj. Gen. Edwin F. Glenn (25 August 1917), Brig. Gen. Frederick Perkins (13 January 1918), Brig. Gen. Willard A. Holbrook (23 March 1918), and finally Maj. Gen. Edwin F. Glenn (3 April 1918). It was inactivated in October 1919.

==World War II==
*Activated: 15 August 1942
*Overseas: 6 April 1944
*Campaigns: [[Operation Overlord|Normandy]], [[Northern France Campaign|Northern France]], [[Rhineland]], [[Ardennes-Alsace]], [[Central Europe Campaign|Central Europe]]
*Days of combat: 244
*Distinguished Unit Citations: 7
*Awards: [[Medal of Honor]]-1 ; [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)]]-7 ; [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)]]-1 ; [[Silver Star]]-710; [[Legion of Merit]]-11; [[Soldier's Medal]]-25 ; [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] -6,294 ; [[Air Medal]]-110
*Commanders: Maj. Gen. [[Frank W. Milburn]] (August 1942-December 1943), Maj. Gen. [[Robert C. Macon]] (January 1944-31 January 1946)
*Returned to U.S.: 26 March 1946
*Inactivated: 5 April 1946

===Combat Chronicle===
The 83d Infantry Division arrived in England on 16 April 1944. After training in Wales, the division landed at [[Omaha Beach]], 18 June 1944, and entered the [[hedgerow]] struggle south of [[Carentan]], 27 June. Taking the offensive, the 83d reached the St. Lo-Periers Road, 25 July, and advanced 8 miles against strong opposition as the [[Operation Cobra|Normandy]] campaign ended.

After a period of training, elements of the division took [[Châteauneuf-d'Ille-et-Vilaine]], 5 August, and [[Dinard]], 7 August, and approached the heavily fortified area protecting [[St. Malo]]. Intense fighting reduced enemy strong points and a combined attack against the Citadel Fortress of [[St. Servan]] caused its surrender, 17 August. While elements moved south to protect the north bank of the [[Loire River]], the main body of the division concentrated south of [[Rennes]] for patrolling and reconnaissance activities. Elements reduced the garrison at [[Cézembre|Ile de Cézembre]], which surrendered, 2 September. On 16 September 1944: the only surrender of a German Major General [[Botho Henning Elster|B. H. Elster]] to US-troops with 18,850 men and 754 officers at the [[Loire]] bridge of [[Beaugency]]. The movement into [[Luxembourg]] was completed on 25 September. Taking [[Remich]] on the 28th and patrolling defensively along the [[Moselle River|Moselle]], the 83d resisted counterattacks and advanced to the [[Siegfried Line]] defenses across the [[Sauer]] after capturing [[Grevenmacher]] and [[Echternach]], 7 October. As the initial movement in operation "Unicorn," the division took Le Stromberg Hill in the vicinity of Basse Konz against strong opposition, 5 November, and beat off counterattacks.

Moving to the [[Battle of Hurtgen Forest|Hurtgen Forest]], the 83d thrust forward from Gressenich to the west bank of the [[Roer]]. It entered the [[Battle of the Bulge]], 27 December, striking at Rochefort and reducing the enemy salient in a bitter struggle. The division moved back to Belgium and the Netherlands for rehabilitation and training, 22 January 1945. On 1 March, the 83d advanced toward the [[Rhine]] in [[Operation Grenade]], and captured [[Neuss]]. The west bank of the Rhine from north of Oberkassel to the Erft Canal was cleared and defensive positions established by 2 March and the division renewed its training. The 83d crossed the Rhine south of [[Wesel]], 29 March, and advanced across the Munster Plain to the [[Weser]], crossing it at [[Bodenwerder]]. As opposition disintegrated, [[Halle, North Rhine-Westphalia|Halle]] fell on 6 April. The division crossed the [[Leine]], 8 April, and attacked to the east, pushing over the [[Harz|Harz Mountain region]] and advancing to the [[Elbe]] at [[Barby, Germany|Barby]]. That city was taken on the 13 April. The 83rd established a bridgehead over the river.

On 11 April 1945 the 83rd encountered Langenstein, a subcamp of the Buchenwald concentration camp. At the camp, the troops found approximately 1,100 inmates. The inmates were malnourished and in extremely poor physical condition. The 83rd reported the death rate at the camp to be 500 per month. Also, that the prisoners had been forced to work 16 hour days in nearby mines, and were shot if they became too weak to work. After liberation, the death rate continued at approximately 25-50 people per day, due to the severe physical debilitation of the prisoners.

To slow the spread of sickness and death, the 83rd ordered the local German mayor to supply the camp with food and water. Also, medical supplies were requisitioned from the U.S. Army's 20th Field Hospital. In addition, the 83rd recovered documents for use by war crimes investigators.

===Assignments in the ETO===
*8 April 1944: VIII Corps, [[United States Third Army|Third Army]]
*25 June 1944: Third Army, but attached to the VIII Corps of [[U.S. First Army|First Army]]
*1 July 1944: [[U.S. VII Corps|VII Corps]]
*15 July 1944: VIII Corps
*1 August 1944: XV Corps, Third Army, [[U.S. 12th Army Group|12th Army Group]]
*3 August 1944: VIII Corps
*5 September 1944: VIII Corps, [[U.S. Ninth Army|Ninth Army]], 12th Army Group
*10 September 1944: Ninth Army, 12th Army Group
*21 September 1944: Third Army, 12th Army Group
*11 October 1944: VIII Corps, Ninth Army, 12th Army Group
*22 October 1944: VIII Corps, First Army, 12th Army Group
*8 November 1944: [[US Third Army|Third Army]], 12th Army Group
*11 November 1944: VIII Corps, First Army, 12th Army Group
*7 December 1944: VII Corps
*20 December 1944: Attached, with the entire First Army, to the [[British 21st Army Group]]
*22 December 1944: [[XIX Corps (United States)|XIX Corps]], Ninth Army (attached to the British 21st Army Group)
*26 December 1944: VII Corps, First Army (attached to British 21st Army Group), 12th Army Group
*16 February 1945: XIX Corps, Ninth Army, 12th Army Group
*8 May 1945: XIII Corps

==General==
*Nicknames: Thunderbolt Division, and Ohio.

*Shoulder patch: A black isosceles triangle with its vertex pointed downward in the center of which, within a gold circle, appear the letters "O," "H," "I," and "O," in a monogram pattern.

==See also==
*[[Tony Vaccaro]], a [[war photographer]] of the 83rd Infantry Division.

==References==
*''[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/lineage/cc/cc.htm The Army Almanac: A Book of Facts Concerning the Army of the United States]'' U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950.
* 1944: [[:de:Botho Henning Elster|Botho Henning Elster]] (German Wikipedia) - a [[Surrender (military)|surrender]] at [[Beaugency]]

==External links==
*[http://www.lonesentry.com/unithistory/thunderbolt/index.html The Thunderbolt Across Europe]
*[http://www.battleofthebulge.org/fact/stats_83rd_infantry_division.html Fact Sheet of the 83rd Infantry Division] from http://www.battleofthebulge.org
*[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10006145 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum recognition of the 83rd as a "liberator" of the camps]
*[http://www.83rd-thunderbolt-division-database.tk 83rd Thunderbolt Division - Database (Fr)]

{{use dmy dates}}
[[Category:Infantry divisions of the United States Army|083rd Infantry Division, U.S.]]
[[Category:World War II divisions of the United States|Infantry Division, U.S. 083]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1917]]
[[Category:Military units and formations disestablished in 1946]]

[[fr:83e division d'infanterie (États-Unis)]]
[[sl:83. pehotna divizija (ZDA)]]

Motorway M-2 (Pakistan)

2010-02-22T22:32:31Z

Angusmclellan: /* Weblinks */ typo

{{Coordinate|NS=31/32/19/N|EW=74/15/42/E|type=landmark|region=PK}}

[[File:M-2logo.png|100px|right]]
[[File:Highest pillared bridge in asia M2 Pak.JPG|thumb|Höchste Säulenbrücke Asiens]]
[[File:Kalar Kahar Rest Area N.JPG|thumb|Northern Service Area in Kallar Kahar, Motorway M2, Pakistan]]
Die '''M-2''' ist eine Autobahn in der [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjabregion]] in [[Pakistan]]. Sie ist 367km lang und verbindet die größte Stadt [[Lahore]] mit der Hauptstadt des Landes [[Islamabad]].

==Bau ==

Sie führt durch Kala Shah Kaku, [[Sheikhupura]], Tekke Dogran, Kot Sarwar, Pindi Bhattian, Salem, Lilla, Kot Momin, Kallar Kahar, Balksar und Chakri. Die M-2 wurde vom Premierminister [[Nawaz Sharif]] in seiner ersten Amtszeit (1990-1993) konzipiert und nach der Bauzeit von 1992 bis 1997 während seiner zweiten Amtszeit im Juli 1997 eingeweiht. Sie ist eine der teuersten Autobahnen in [[Asien]] und hat die höchste Säulen-Brücke in Asien (in der Khewra Salt Range). Besitzer und Betreiber ist die [[National Highway Authority Pakistan]] (NHA).

== Verlauf ==

Die M-2 beginnt im Westen von Lahore an der Thokar Niaz Baig Kreuzung der N-5 (National Highway 5). Nach dem sie den Fluss [[Ravi (Fluss)|Ravi]] überquert weicht sie von der N-5 (auch als GT oder [[Grand Trunk Road]] bekannt) ab und führt in Richtung Westen nach Sheikhupura. Nach der Ausfahrt nach Sheikhupura folgt nach 36km die Ausfahrt nach Khanqah Dogran. Nach der folgenden Kot Sarwar Ausfahrt überschneidet sich die M2 mit der [[M3 (Pakistan)|M3]] bei Pindi Bhattian und führt in Nord-West Richtung bis sie Islamabad erreicht.

==Einrichtungen==

Die M2 hat über die gesamte Strecke sechs Fahrbahnen, es gibt eine Reihe von [[Rastplatz|Rastplätzen]] mit Waschraum und Essenseinrichtungen entlang der Autobahn.

===Tankstellen ===

* Sukheki Tankstelle
* Bhera Tankstelle
* Chakri Tankstelle

==Weblinks==

*{{Commonscat|Lahore-Islamabad Motorway|M2 in Pakistan}}
[[Kategorie:Verkehr (Pakistan)]]
[[Kategorie:Straße in Asien]]

[[en:M2 motorway (Pakistan)]]
[[ur:موٹروے ایم-ٹو]]

Motorway M-2 (Pakistan)

2010-02-22T22:31:46Z

Angusmclellan: /* Weblinks */ Commons: Lahore-Islamabad Motorway

{{Coordinate|NS=31/32/19/N|EW=74/15/42/E|type=landmark|region=PK}}

[[File:M-2logo.png|100px|right]]
[[File:Highest pillared bridge in asia M2 Pak.JPG|thumb|Höchste Säulenbrücke Asiens]]
[[File:Kalar Kahar Rest Area N.JPG|thumb|Northern Service Area in Kallar Kahar, Motorway M2, Pakistan]]
Die '''M-2''' ist eine Autobahn in der [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjabregion]] in [[Pakistan]]. Sie ist 367km lang und verbindet die größte Stadt [[Lahore]] mit der Hauptstadt des Landes [[Islamabad]].

==Bau ==

Sie führt durch Kala Shah Kaku, [[Sheikhupura]], Tekke Dogran, Kot Sarwar, Pindi Bhattian, Salem, Lilla, Kot Momin, Kallar Kahar, Balksar und Chakri. Die M-2 wurde vom Premierminister [[Nawaz Sharif]] in seiner ersten Amtszeit (1990-1993) konzipiert und nach der Bauzeit von 1992 bis 1997 während seiner zweiten Amtszeit im Juli 1997 eingeweiht. Sie ist eine der teuersten Autobahnen in [[Asien]] und hat die höchste Säulen-Brücke in Asien (in der Khewra Salt Range). Besitzer und Betreiber ist die [[National Highway Authority Pakistan]] (NHA).

== Verlauf ==

Die M-2 beginnt im Westen von Lahore an der Thokar Niaz Baig Kreuzung der N-5 (National Highway 5). Nach dem sie den Fluss [[Ravi (Fluss)|Ravi]] überquert weicht sie von der N-5 (auch als GT oder [[Grand Trunk Road]] bekannt) ab und führt in Richtung Westen nach Sheikhupura. Nach der Ausfahrt nach Sheikhupura folgt nach 36km die Ausfahrt nach Khanqah Dogran. Nach der folgenden Kot Sarwar Ausfahrt überschneidet sich die M2 mit der [[M3 (Pakistan)|M3]] bei Pindi Bhattian und führt in Nord-West Richtung bis sie Islamabad erreicht.

==Einrichtungen==

Die M2 hat über die gesamte Strecke sechs Fahrbahnen, es gibt eine Reihe von [[Rastplatz|Rastplätzen]] mit Waschraum und Essenseinrichtungen entlang der Autobahn.

===Tankstellen ===

* Sukheki Tankstelle
* Bhera Tankstelle
* Chakri Tankstelle

==Weblinks==

*{{Commons|Lahore-Islamabad Motorway|M2 in Pakistan}}
[[Kategorie:Verkehr (Pakistan)]]
[[Kategorie:Straße in Asien]]

[[en:M2 motorway (Pakistan)]]
[[ur:موٹروے ایم-ٹو]]

Katie McGrath

2010-01-21T15:26:11Z

Angusmclellan: no need to use a non-free image to show a living person.

{{Infobox actor
| bgcolour =
| name = ''Katie McGrath''
| image =
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birthname =
| birthdate = October, 1982 (unconfirmed)
age 27
| location = [[Ashford, County Wicklow|Ashford]], [[County Wicklow]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| deathdate =
| deathplace =
| othername =
| yearsactive =
| spouse =
| homepage =
| height =
| notable role = ''[[Morgan le Fay|Morgana]]'' in ''[[Merlin (TV series) | Merlin]]'', which has been rebroadcast as of 2009 by [[NBC]] in the U.S..
| academyawards =
| emmyawards =
| tonyawards =
}}'''Katie McGrath''', born in 1982,{{Fact|date=December 2008}} is an [[Irish people|Irish]] actress best known for playing [[Morgan le Fay|Morgana]] in the 2008 [[BBC One]] TV series ''[[Merlin (TV series) | Merlin]]'', which aired in the United States on NBC beginning in June 2009.

==Background==
Born in October, Dublin.<ref name="BBCPress1">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2008/09_september/01/merlin9.shtml ''Merlin'' Press Pack] BBC Press Office. 2008-09-01</ref> McGrath graduated with a degree in History from [[Trinity College, Dublin]].<ref name="TheGloss1">[http://thegloss.ie/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=146&Itemid=1&ed=13 The Gloss Magazine - The Sorcerer’s Apprentice]</ref> She wanted to work in fashion journalism and took a job at [[Image magazine|''Image'']] magazine,<ref name="TheGloss1"/> before becoming a wardrobe assistant on the set of ''[[The Tudors]]''.<ref name="Arena">[http://www.arenamagazine.co.uk/girls/katie-mcgrath/ Arena Magazine - Girls - Katie McGrath]</ref>

==Career==
While working on ''[[The Tudors]]'', McGrath was advised to try acting, so she sent photographs around Irish agents.<ref name="SundayHerald">[http://sundayheraldsalon.com/salon/2008/10/shes_magic.html Sunday Herald Salon - She's magic]</ref> She then won a small role in the series (Season 2 episode 5).<ref name="Arena"/>

She said:

:“A couple of the producers said I should give acting a try. I just thought, ‘Why not?’ It’s like running away to join the circus, everyone wants to do it when they’re young but then you grow up and get a proper job. But somebody’s got to do it or you wouldn’t have the circus.”<ref name="Arena"/>

She also appeared in the feature films ''[[Eden (film)|Eden]]'' and ''[[Freakdog]]'', before being cast in ''[[Merlin (TV series) | Merlin]]''.

McGrath is also set to star in a five-part [[docudrama]] for [[Channel 4]] exploring the life of the [[Elizabeth_II_of_the_United_Kingdom|Queen]], in which she will play a young [[Princess Margaret]].<ref name="Guardian1">{{cite web|author=Holmwood, Leigh|title=Five actresses to play the Queen for C4|publisher=[[The Guardian]]|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2009/jan/28/channel-4-queen-actresses|accessdate=2009-03-04}}</ref> She returned to ''Merlin'' for its second season, which began broadcasting in the UK on 19 September 2009.

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#CCCCCC"
! Year !! Title !! Role !! Notes
|-
|rowspan="1"| 2007 || ''[[Damage]]'' || Rachel || [[TV series]]
|-
|rowspan="4"| 2008 || ''[[Eden (film)|Eden]]'' || Dessie's Girlfriend || [[Feature Film]]
|-
| ''[[Freakdog]]'' || Harriet Chambers || [[Feature Film]]
|-
| ''[[Merlin (TV series) | Merlin Series - 1]]'' || [[Morgan le Fay|Morgana]] || [[TV series]]
|-
| ''[[The Roaring Twenties (mini series) | The Roaring Twenties]]'' || Vixen || [[Mini series]]
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2009 ||''[[Merlin (TV series) | Merlin Series - 2]]'' || [[Morgan le Fay|Morgana]] || [[TV series]]
|-
| ''The Queen''|| [[Princess Margaret]] || Episode One of a [[Docudrama]]
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=2692146|name=Katie McGrath}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macgrath, Katie}}
[[Category:Irish television actors]]
[[category:Irish film actors]]
[[Category:1983 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Dublin]]

[[fr:Katie McGrath]]
[[pt:Katie McGrath]]
[[uk:Кеті МакГраф]]

Somerled

2010-01-18T15:46:43Z

Angusmclellan: Means "Samuel"? citation pliz

'''Somerled''' ([[Old Norse]] ''Sumarliði'', [[Scottish Gaelic]] ''Somhairle'', commonly Anglicized from Gaelic as ''Sorley'') was a military and political leader of the Scottish Isles in the 12th century who was known in Gaelic as ''ri Innse Gall'' ("King of the [[Hebrides]]"). His father was Gillebride of [[MacInnes|Clan Angus]] who had been exiled to Ireland. The name, a common one amongst the [[Viking]]s, means ''summer traveller'' and is a [[kenning]] for [[Viking]].<ref>Murray (1973) p.168.</ref> The name also a common one amongst Irish males means Samuel which has a Hebrew root meaning "God heard".{{fact}}

Somerled first appears in historical chronicles in the year 1140 as the regulus, or [[Monarch|King]], of [[Kintyre]] (Cinn Tìre) when he marries Raghnailt the daughter of [[Olaf I of the Isle of Man|Olaf]] (or Amhlaibh), [[King of Mann and the Isles]]. The year 1153 saw the deaths of two kings: [[David I of Scotland]] and Olaf of Mann. There was much confusion and discord as a result and Somerled took his chance—making offensive moves against both [[Scotland]] and Mann and the Isles, the latter having been inherited from Olaf by Somerled's brother-in-law, [[Godred V of the Isle of Man|Goraidh mac Amhlaibh]].

A summoning was sent to [[Dubgall mac Somairle|Somerled Dougal]]—Somerled's own son by his wife, the daughter of the Manx king—to move so he might be "King over the Isles". In 1156 Goraidh was defeated in battle against 80 ships of Somerled's fleet and the two enemies partitioned the isles between them. Goraidh kept the islands north of [[Ardnamurchan]] with Somerled gaining the rest. However, two years following this Somerled returned to the [[Isle of Man]] with 53 warships. He defeated Goraidh again and this time forced him to flee to [[Norway]]. Somerled's kingdom now stretched from the Isle of Man to the [[Butt of Lewis]].

Thus both [[Viking]] and [[Scot]] formed one people under a single lord and came to share a single culture, one way of life—they were to become a powerful and noted race known as the [[Gall-Gaidheal]], literally meaning 'Foreign-Gaels'. It was upon the seas their power was situated under the rule of the Kings of the Isles yet new enemies arose in the [[east]]. The [[Clan Stuart|Stuarts]] made inroads in the west coast and eventually Somerled assembled a sizeable army to repel them. He advanced to the centre of the Stewarts' own territory, to [[Renfrew]], where a great battle was fought in 1164. Much confusion surrounds the manner of the battle, and indeed whether a battle occurred at all, but what is certain is that Somerled was assassinated, after which his army retreated from the area.

Following the death of Somerled several powerful lords emerged from within his kingdom. The lordship was contested by two main families; that of Somerled and his descendants and that of the descendants of Goraidh mac Amhlaibh. During the 12th and 13th centuries the [[Scandinavia]]n world saw much change in methods of rule and administration which ultimately resulted in more strongly centralized, unified kingdoms such as [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]]. However, this did not happen in the Kingdom of the Isles, which was instead absorbed into the greater [[Kingdom of Scotland]], albeit its place in that state and the loyalty of its inhabitants to the King of Scots would remain peripheral and temperamental for centuries to come.

In 2005 a study by Professor of [[Human Genetics]] [[Bryan Sykes]] of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] led to the conclusion that Somerled has possibly 500,000 living descendants—making him the second most common currently-known ancestor after [[Genghis Khan]]. [http://news.scotsman.com/latestnews/DNA-shows-Celtic-hero-Somerleds.2621296.jp] [http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/stu/somerled.html]
[http://www.electricscotland.com/history/articles/norse.htm] Sykes's research led him to conclude that Somerled was a member of the [[Y-DNA]] [[Haplogroup R1a (Y-DNA)|R1a1 Haplogroup]], often considered the marker of Viking descent among men of deep British or Scottish ancestry.

==Family==
By his first wife, who is unknown, their children were:
*Somhairle Og mac Somhairle
*Gillecallum mac Somhairle b. c 1135, Killed in battle in 1164 during [[Battle of Renfrew]].

He also fathered:
*Gillies mac Somhairle
*Gall mac Somhairle

By his second wife, Ragnhildis Ólafsdóttir, daughter of [[Olaf I Godredsson]], [[King of Mann and the Isles]] and Ingeborg Haakonsdottir daughter of [[Haakon Paulsson]], [[Earl of Orkney]], their children were:

*[[Dubgall mac Somairle|Dugall mac Somhairle]] b. c 1145, d. c 1192
*[[Raghnall mac Somhairle|Reginald mac Somhairle]], b. c 1148, d. 1207
*[[Áonghas mac Somhairle]] b. c 1150, d. 1210
*[[Olav mac Somhairle]]
*[[Bethag nic Somhairle]], St Ronan’s first prioress.

==In fiction==
Somerled is the central character of [[Nigel Tranter]]'s novel ''Lord of the Isles'' (1983).

{{start box}}
{{s-reg|im}}
{{succession box | title=[[King of Mann and the Isles]] | before=[[Godred V of the Isle of Man|Godred V]] | after=[[Ragnald III of the Isle of Man|Ragnald III]] |years=1158 - 1164}}
{{end box}}

==See also==
*[[Lord of the Isles]]
*[[Clan Donald]]
*[[Clan MacDougall]]
*[[Norse-Gaels]]
*[[Uí Ímair]]
*[[John of Islay, Earl of Ross|John MacDonald II]]
*[[Scotland in the High Middle Ages]]

==References==
{{More footnotes|date=June 2009}}
*MacDonald, R. Andrew ''The Kingdom of the Isles: Scotland's Western Seaboard c.1100–c.1336'' (Tuckwell Press, 1997) ISBN 1-898410-85-2
*MacPhee, Kathleen ''Somerled:Hammer of the Norse'' (NWP, 2004) ISBN 1-903238-24-2
*[[W.H. Murray|Murray, W.H.]] (1973) ''The Islands of Western Scotland.'' London. Eyre Methuen.
*Stiùbhart, Domhnall Uilleam ''Rìoghachd nan Eilean'' (Clò Hallaig, 2005) ISBN 0-9549914-0-0
*Williams, Ronald ''The Lords of the Isles'' (Chatto & Windus, 1997) ISBN 1-899863-17-6

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:People of medieval Scotland]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]
[[Category:Monarchs of the Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Norse-Gaels]]
[[Category:1164 deaths]]
[[Category:Human Y-DNA modal haplotypes]]

[[fr:Somerled]]
[[he:סומרלד]]
[[no:Somerled]]
[[ru:Сомерлед]]

Lexi Ainsworth

2010-01-16T17:41:44Z

Angusmclellan: Non-free image is 110% replaceable here, see WP:NFC#UULP.

{{Infobox Actor
| name = Lexi Ainsworth
| image =
| caption =
| birthname = Alexandra Danielle Ainsworth
| birthdate ={{Birth date and age|1992|10|28}}
| birthplace = [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| othername =
| occupation = Actress
| yearsactive = 2005 – present
| spouse =
| domesticpartner =
| website =
}}
'''Lexi Ainsworth''' (born '''Alexandra Danielle Ainsworth''' on October 28, 1992) is an [[United States|American]] [[teen actress]]. She is known for her role as [[Kristina Davis]] on ''[[General Hospital]]''

==Personal life and Carrer==
Ainsworth was born in [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]]. At age 6, she began dancing on stage at the local ballet company.

This led her to appear in several theater productions, such as ''[[The Wizard of Oz (adaptations)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' (playing a munchkin) and ''[[To Kill A Mockingbird]]'' (portraying Scout). However, it was after attending a film camp in [[New York]] that Lexi developed an interest in film and television acting. She then headed to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] where she enrolled in an acting boot camp program. A talent agency noticed Ainsworth, and they sent her out to audition for her first national commercial, subsequently for [[Barbie dolls]].

After shooting various commercials, Ainsworth acquired a role in the short film ''Caroline Crossing,'' and soon after, she portrayed Grace Budd in the film ''[[The Gray Man (2007 film)|The Gray Man]]''.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1943692/bio]</ref>

In June 2009, Ainsworth joined the cast of ''[[General Hospital]]'' as [[Kristina Davis]].

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable" border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="font-size:90%"
|-
!style="background:#CCCCCC"| Year
!style="background:#CCCCCC"| Title
!style="background:#CCCCCC"| Role
!style="background:#CCCCCC"| Notes
|-
|rowspan=2|2005||''[[Medical Investigation]]'' ||Kaitlin Ronson ||(1 episode)
|-
|''[[Gilmore Girls]]''||Tillie ||(2005–2006)
|-
|2006||''Caroline Crossing'' ||Caroline Price ||
|-
|rowspan=2|2007||''[[The Gray Man (2007 film)|The Gray Man]]'' ||Grace Budd ||
|-
|''[[iCarly]]'' ||Lexi || (1 episode)
|-
|2008||''[[Wild Child (film)|Wild Child]]''|| Molly ||
|-
|2009||''[[General Hospital]]'' ||[[Kristina Davis]]|| (2009–present)
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1943692/ Lexi Ainsworth] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.tv.com/lexi-ainsworth/person/353252/summary.html TV.com profile]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Kristina Davis]] actress| before=[[Kali Rodriguez]] | after=Incumbent| years=2009–}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ainsworth, Lexi}}
[[Category:1992 births]]
[[Category:American child actors]]
[[Category:American soap opera actors]]
[[Category:People from Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{US-screen-actor-1990s-stub}}

Schwarze im Mormonentum

2010-01-11T22:25:19Z

Angusmclellan: remove non-free image (no rationale for this article)

{{About|Blacks and the modern LDS church|Blacks and the early Mormon movement|Blacks and Mormonism}}
From 1849 to 1978, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) had a policy against ordaining [[black people|black]] men of African descent to the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]]. Under the same policy, black men and women of African descent were prohibited from participating in the [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|Endowment]] and [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|sealings]], [[ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] that the church teaches are necessary for the [[Exaltation (LDS Church)|highest degree of salvation]]. However, the LDS Church has always had an open membership policy for all races, and black people who were aware of the racial policy did join the church. In 1978, church leaders ceased the racial restriction policy, declaring that they had received a [[1978 Revelation on Priesthood|revelation]] instructing them to do so. Today, the church opposes racial discrimination and [[racism]] of any kind.<ref>[[Gordon B. Hinckley]], [http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html "The Need for Greater Kindness"], 2006-04-01.</ref>

In 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the LDS Church, accounting for about 5% of the total membership; most black members live in Africa, [[Brazil]] and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119. "A rough estimate would place the number of Church members with African roots at year-end 1997 at half a million, with about 100,000 each in Africa and the Caribbean, and another 300,000 in Brazil."</ref> Since 1997, the black membership has grown substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa">[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/africagrowth.html The Church Continues to Grow in Africa]</ref>
{{TOC right}}

==Before 1847==
{{Main|Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement}}

During the early years of the LDS movement, blacks were admitted to the church, and several blacks became priests, including [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]]. [[Joseph Smith]] himself supported the peaceful release of slaves. After Smith's death, the [[Succession crisis (Latter Day Saints)|succession crisis]] ensued, and [[Brigham Young]] led the bulk of the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] west to establish the church in Utah.

==Racial policy under Brigham Young==

Under the leadership of [[Joseph Smith]], a few African-Americans, including [[Elijah Abel]] were admitted to the priesthood. But that policy changed sometime before 1852, because in that year, church president [[Brigham Young]] made a pronouncement to the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]] stating that African-Americans "cannot hold the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/>

===Racial restriction policy under Brigham Young===
An early statement by Young about a priesthood ban in the LDS Church was made on February 13, 1849. The statement — which refers to the [[Curse of Cain]] as the reason for the policy — was given in response to the question, "What chance is there for the redemption of the Negro?" Young responded, "The Lord had cursed Cain's seed with blackness and prohibited them the Priesthood."<ref name = "Mauss-70">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 70]</ref>

In 1852, while addressing the [[Utah Territorial Legislature]], Young stated, "Any man having one drop of the seed of [Cain] ... in him cannot hold the Priesthood and if no other Prophet ever spoke it before I will say it now in the name of Jesus Christ I know it is true and others know it."<ref name = "Mauss-70"/> This pronouncement was made by Young as a [[Prophet, seer, and revelator|prophet]].

===William McCary===
{{Main|William McCary}}
Some researchers have suggested that the actions of [[William McCary]] in [[Winter Quarters, Nebraska]] led to Brigham Young's decision to adopt the priesthood ban in the LDS Church. McCary was a half-African American convert who, after his baptism and ordination to the priesthood, began to claim to be a [[prophet]] and the possessor of other supernatural gifts.<ref name = Murphy>Larry G. Murphy, [[J. Gordon Melton]], and Gary L. Ward (1993). ''Encyclopedia of African American Religions'' (New York: Garland Publishing) pp. 471–472.</ref> He was excommunicated for apostasy in March 1847 and expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst>Newell G. Bringhurst (1981). ''Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People within Mormonism'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press).</ref> After his excommunication, McCary began attracting Latter Day Saint followers and instituted [[plural marriage]] among his group, and he had himself [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|sealed]] to several [[White people|white]] wives.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/>

McCary's behavior angered many of the Latter Day Saints in Winter Quarters. Researchers have stated that his marriages to his white wives "played an important role in pushing the Mormon leadership into an anti-Black position"<ref name = Murphy/> and may have prompted Young to institute the priesthood and temple ban on black people.<ref name = Murphy/><ref name = Bringhurst/><ref>Connell O’Donovan, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html#_ftn107 "The Mormon Priesthood Ban & Elder Q. Walker Lewis: 'An example for his more whiter brethren to follow'], ''John Whitmer Historical Association Journal'', 2006.</ref> A statement from Young to McCary in March 1847 suggested that race had nothing to do with priesthood eligibility<ref>"Its nothing to do with the blood for [from] one blood has God made all flesh, we have to repent [to] regain what we av lost — we av one of the best Elders an African in Lowell [referring to [[Walker Lewis]] ].": Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref> and the earliest known statement about the priesthood restriction from any Mormon leader (including the implication that skin color might be relevant) was made by Apostle [[Parley P. Pratt]] a month after McCary was expelled from Winter Quarters.<ref name = Bringhurst/> Speaking of McCary, Pratt stated that he "was a black man with the blood of Ham in him which linege was cursed as regards the priesthood".<ref>General Minutes, April 25, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref>

===Young's personal views===
When asked "if the spirits of Negroes were neutral in Heaven," Young responded, "No, they were not, there were no neutral [spirits] in Heaven at the time of the rebellion, all took sides …. All spirits are pure that came from the presence of God."<ref>Journal History, 25 December 1869, citing Wilford Woodruff's journal. See also http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html</ref> Prior to learning about Enoch Lewis's marriage to a woman of European descent (December 1847) and subsequently enacting a ban on Negroes in the priesthood, he considered [[Walker Lewis]] "one of the best Elders."<ref>Brigham Young Papers, March 26, 1847, LDS Church Archives, Salt Lake City, Utah</ref>

On another occasion, Young said, "You see some classes of the human family that are black, uncouth, uncomely, disagreeable and low in their habits, wild, and seemingly deprived of nearly all the blessings of the intelligence that is generally bestowed upon mankind …. Cain slew his brother. Cain might have been killed, and that would have put a termination to that line of human beings. This was not to be, and the Lord put a mark upon him, which is the flat nose and black skin. Trace mankind down to after the flood, and then another curse is pronounced upon the same race—that they should be the ‘servant of servants’; and they will be, until that curse is removed; and the Abolitionists cannot help it, nor in the least alter that decree."<ref>''Journal of Discourses'', '''7''':290.</ref>

==Slavery==
===Slavery scripture===
{{See also|Christianity and slavery}}
LDS scripture has various views on slavery. The [[Old Testament]] has stories of slavery, and gives rules and regulations on how to treat slaves. The [[New Testament]] tells slaves not to revolt against their masters. It was a commonly held belief in the South that the Bible permitted slavery. However, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] condemns slavery, teaching "it is not right that any man should be in bondage one to another." ({{lds|D&C|dc|101|80}}) The Book of Mormon heralds righteous kings who did not allow slavery, ({{lds|Mosiah|mosiah|29|40}}) and righteous men who fought against slavery ({{lds|Alma|alma|48|11}}). The Book of Mormon also describes an ideal society that lived around AD 34-200, in which it teaches the people "had all things common among them; therefore there were not rich and poor, bond and free, but they were all made free, and partakers of the heavenly gift" ({{lds|4 Nephi|4_ne|4|3}}). The Pearl of Great Price describes a similar society, in which "they were of one heart and one mind, and dwelt in righteousness; and there was no poor among them" ({{lds|Moses|moses|7|18}}). Mormons believed they too, were commanded by the Lord to "be one; and if ye are not one ye are not mine" ({{lds|D&C|dc|38|27}}). For a short time, Mormons lived in a society with no divisions under the [[United Order]].

===Statements from church leaders===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Young said, "If the Government of the United States, in Congress assembled, had the right to pass an anti-polygamy bill, they had also the right to pass a law that slaves should not be abused as they have been; they had also a right to make a law that negroes should be used like human beings, and not worse than dumb brutes. For their abuse of that race, the whites will be cursed, unless they repent."<ref name = jdcain>''Journal of Discourses'' '''10''':104–111.</ref>

In 1851, Apostle [[Orson Hyde]] said:

{{blockquote|We feel it to be our duty to define our position in relation to the subject of slavery. There are several in the Valley of the Salt Lake from the Southern States, who have their slaves with them. There is no law in Utah to authorize slavery, neither any to prohibit it. If the slave is disposed to leave his master, no power exists there, either legal or moral, that will prevent him. But if the slave chooses to remain with his master, none are allowed to interfere between the master and the slave. All the slaves that are there appear to be perfectly contented and satisfied.

When a man in the Southern states embraces our faith, the Church says to him, if your slaves wish to remain with you, and to go with you, put them not away; but if they choose to leave you, or are not satisfied to remain with you, it is for you to sell them, or let them go free, as your own conscience may direct you. The Church, on this point, assumes not the responsibility to direct. The laws of the land recognize slavery, we do not wish to oppose the laws of the country. If there is sin in selling a slave, let the individual who sells him bear that sin, and not the Church.<ref>''[[Millennial Star]]'', February 15, 1851. Quoted in [http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/quotes.html#smith43 BlackLDS.org]</ref>}}

===Utah sanctions slavery===
The Great [[Compromise of 1850]], allowed [[California]] into the Union as a [[free state]] while permitting Utah and [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]] territories the option of deciding the issue by "popular sovereignty". In 1852 the Utah Territorial Legislature officially sanctioned slavery in Utah Territory. At that time, Brigham Young was governor, and the [[1st Utah Territorial Legislature|Utah Territorial Legislature]] was dominated by church leaders.<ref>{{cite book
|title=Forgotten Kingdom: The Mormon Theocracy in the American West, 1847-1896
|last=Bigler
|first=David L.
|year=1998
|isbn=087062282X
|publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company}}</ref> The Utah slavery law stipulated that slaves would be freed if their masters had sex with them; attempted to take them from the territory against their will; or neglected to feed, clothe, or provide shelter to them. In addition, the law stipulated that slaves must receive schooling. There are conflicting accounts of whether or not slaves could end their bondage by their own choice.<ref>http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part2.htm#Slaves</ref><ref>[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 69]</ref>

Utah was the only western state or territory that had slaves in 1850.<ref>''Negro Slaves in Utah'' by Jack Beller, Utah Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, 1929, pp. 124-126</ref> In 1860, the census showed that 29 of the 59 black people in Utah Territory were slaves.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} When the [[American Civil War]] broke out in 1861, Utah sided with the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and slavery ended in 1862 when the [[United States Congress]] abolished slavery in the Utah Territory.

==Racial restriction policy==
Under the racial restrictions that lasted from the presidency of Brigham Young until 1978, persons with any black African ancestry could not hold the priesthood in the LDS Church and could not participate in some [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]], such as the [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|Endowment]] and [[celestial marriage]]. Black people were permitted to be members of the church, and participate in other [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]], such as [[baptism for the dead]].<ref> In her autobiography, [[Jane Elizabeth Manning James]] says she "had the privilege of going into the temple and being baptized for some of my dead." http://www.blacklds.org/manning Life History of Jane Elizabeth Manning James as transcribed by Elizabeth J.D. Round</ref>

The racial restriction policy was applied to black Africans, persons of black African descent, and any one with mixed race that included any black African ancestry. The policy was not applied to [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], [[Hispanic people|Hispanics]], [[Melanesians]] or [[Polynesian people|Polynesians]].

===Priesthood===
The priesthood restriction was particularly limiting, because the LDS Church has a [[Laity|lay]] priesthood and all worthy male members may receive the priesthood. Young men are generally admitted to the [[Aaronic priesthood]] at age 12, and it is a significant [[rite of passage]]. Virtually all white adult male members of the church held the priesthood. Holders of the priesthood officiate at church meetings, perform blessings of healing, and manage church affairs. Excluding black people from the priesthood meant that they could not hold significant church [[Calling (LDS Church)|leadership roles]] or participate in certain spiritual events.

Don Harwell, a black LDS Church member, said, "I remember being in a Sacrament meeting, pre-1978, and the sacrament was being passed and there was special care taken by this person that not only did I not officiate, but I didn't touch the sacrament tray. They made sure that I could take the sacrament, but that I did not touch the tray and it was passed around me. That was awfully hard, considering that often those who were officiating were young men in their early teens, and they had that priesthood. I valued that priesthood, but it wasn't available."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Temple marriages===
Most black people were not permitted to participate in [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]] performed in the LDS Church temples, such as the [[Endowment (Latter Day Saints)|endowment ritual]] and [[Celestial marriage|temple marriages]] and [[Sealing (Latter Day Saints)|family sealings]]. Denying them the opportunity to participate in these ordinances meant that they could not enjoy the full privileges enjoyed by other Latter-day Saints.

Mormons believe that marriages that are sealed in a [[celestial marriage]] would bind the family together forever, whereas those that are not sealed were terminated upon death. President David McKay taught that black people "need not worry, as those who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."<ref>Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23</ref>

Once black people were allowed to have a celestial marriage, their ancestors would also be allowed to have a temple marriage. Brigham Young taught that "When the ordinances are carried out in the temples that will be erected, [children] will be sealed to their [parents], and those who have slept, clear up to Father [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. This will have to be done...until we shall form a perfect chain from Father Adam down to the closing up scene."<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=88021b08f338c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=f378cb7a29c20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 Chapter 41: Temple Ordinances], Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Brigham Young, 299</ref>

===Entrance to the highest heaven===
A [[celestial marriage]] was not required to get into the [[celestial kingdom]], but was required to obtain a [[Degrees of glory|fullness of glory]] within the celestial kingdom.<ref>Church leader [[Bruce McConkie]] wrote "Baptism is the gate to the celestial kingdom; celestial marriage is the gate to an exaltation in the highest heaven within the celestial world."(Mormon Doctrine, 1966, p 118)</ref> The [[Doctrine and Covenants]] reads "In the celestial glory there are three heavens or degrees; And in order to obtain the highest, a man must enter into this order of the priesthood [meaning the [[celestial marriage|new and everlasting covenant of marriage]]]; And if he does not, he cannot obtain it."({{lds|D&C|dc|131|1-3}}) The righteous who do not have a celestial marriage would still make it into heaven, and live eternally with God, but they would be "appointed [[angel]]s in heaven, which angels are ministering servants."({{lds|D&C|dc|132|16}})

Some interpreted this to mean black people would be treated as unmarried whites, being confined to only ever live in God's presence as a ministering servant. In 1954, Apostle Mark E. Petersen told BYU students: "If that Negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the celestial kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get a celestial resurrection."<ref>Address at Convention of Teachers of Religion, BYU, Utah, August 27, 1954.</ref> Apostle George F. Richards in a talk at General Conference similarly taught: "[t]he Negro is an unfortunate man. He has been given a black skin. But that is as nothing compared with that greater handicap that he is not permitted to receive the Priesthood and the ordinances of the temple, necessary to prepare men and women to enter into and enjoy a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom."<ref>Elder George F. Richards, ''Conference Report'', April 1939, p. 58.</ref>

Several leaders, including [[Joseph Smith]],<ref>In regards to black people, Joseph Smith taught that "They have souls, and are subjects of salvation." ''[http://www.boap.org/LDS/Joseph-Smith/Teachings/T5.html Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith]'', selected by Joseph Fielding Smith, (Salt Lake City: ''[[Deseret Book Company]]'', 1976), 269. ISBN 087579243X</ref> Brigham Young,<ref>Brigham Young said "when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the Holy Priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the Priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we are now entitled to." quoted by the First Presidency, August 17, 1949.</ref> [[Wilford Woodruff]],<ref>Wilford Woodruff said "The day will come when all that race will be redeemed and possess all the blessings which we now have" quoted by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949].</ref> [[George Albert Smith]],<ref>George Albert Smith reiterated what was said by both Brigham Young and Wilford Woodruff in a statement by the [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm First Presidency on August 17, 1949]</ref> [[David O. McKay]],<ref>David McKay taught "Sometime in God's eternal plan, the Negro will be given the right to hold the Priesthood. In the meantime, those of that race who receive the testimony of the Restored Gospel may have their family ties protected and other blessings made secure, for in the justice of the Lord they will possess all the blessings to which they are entitled in the eternal plan of Salvation and Exaltation."(Mormonism and the Negro, pp. 23)</ref> [[Joseph Fielding Smith]],<ref>In reference to black people, Apostle Joseph Fielding Smith taught: "Every soul coming into this world came here with the promise that through obedience he would receive the blessings of salvation. No person was foreordained or appointed to sin or to perform a mission of evil. No person is ever predestined to salvation or damnation. Every person has free agency." (Joseph Fielding Smith Jr., ''Doctrines of Salvation'', Vol.1, p. 61)</ref> [[Harold B. Lee]],<ref>In 1972, Harold B. Lee said "It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we're just waiting for that time."(Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.)</ref> and [[Spencer W. Kimball]],<ref>{{lds|Official Declaration|od|2}}</ref> taught that black people would eventually be able to receive a fullness of glory in the celestial kingdom.

When the priesthood ban was discussed in 1978, apostle [[Bruce McConkie]] argued for its change using the [[Standard Works|Mormon scripture]] and the [[Articles of Faith]]. The Third Article states that "all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the Gospel."({{lds|Articles of Faith|a_of_f|1|3}}) From the Book of Mormon he quoted "And even unto the great and last day, when all people, and all kindreds, and all nations and tongues shall stand before God, to be judged of their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil— If they be good, to the resurrection of everlasting life; and if they be evil, to the resurrection of damnation.({{lds|3 Nephi|3_ne|26|4-5}}) The [[Book of Abraham]] in the [[Pearl of Great Price]] states that [[Abraham]]'s seed "shall all the families of the earth be blessed, even with the blessings of the Gospel, which are the blessings of salvation, even of life eternal."({{lds|Abraham|abr|2|11}}) According to his son, Joseph F. McConkie, these scriptures played a great part in changing the policy.<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/articles/030606hallelujahprint.html Hallelujah! The 25th Anniversary of the Revelation of Priesthood]</ref>

===Statements on duration of policy===
Brigham Young said in 1854: "When all the other children of Adam have had the privilege of receiving the Priesthood, and of coming into the kingdom of God, and of being redeemed from the four quarters of the earth, and have received their resurrection from the dead, then it will be time enough to remove the curse from Cain and his posterity. He deprived his brother of the privilege of pursuing his journey through life, and of extending his kingdom by multiplying upon the earth; and because he did this, he is the last to share the joys of the kingdom of God".<ref>Journal of Discourses, vol. 2, p. 143</ref> And in 1859 he said "How long is that race to endure the dreadful curse that is upon them? That curse will remain upon them, and they never can hold the Priesthood or share in it until all the other descendants of Adam have received the promises and enjoyed the blessings of the Priesthood and the keys thereof. Until the last ones of the residue of Adam's children are brought up to that favourable position, the children of Cain cannot receive the first ordinances of the Priesthood. They were the first that were cursed, and they will be the last from whom the curse will be removed".<ref>Journal of Discourses, vol. 7, pp. 290-291</ref> He also prophesied: "Children are now born who will live until every son of Adam will have the privilege of receiving the principles of eternal life."<ref>Young, Brigham. Journal of Discourses: {{sourcetext|source=Journal of Discourses/Volume 8|book=Character of God and Christ, etc.}} pg. 116</ref> At another time, he stated "That the time will come when they will have the privilege of all we have the privilege of and more."<ref> Brigham Young, Speech given in Joint Session of the Utah Legislature, February 5, 1952, in Fred Collier, The Teachings of President Brigham Young. Salt Lake City, Collier's Publishing, 1987, 43</ref>

[[Joseph Fielding Smith]] wrote in 1935 "Not only was Cain called upon to suffer, but because of his wickedness he became the father of an inferior race. A curse was placed upon him and that curse has been continued through his lineage and must do so while time endures". In his book he made clear that the contents were his opinion.<ref>Way to Perfection, 1935, p. 101</ref> In 1963, while discussing when the ban would be lifted, he told a reporter that "Such a change can come about only through divine revelation, and no one can predict when a divine revelation will occur."<ref>[[Look (American magazine)]], Oct. 22, 1963, p.79</ref>

LDS author John Lewis Lund wrote in 1967 "Brigham Young revealed that the negro will not receive the Priesthood until a great while after the second coming of Jesus Christ, whose coming will usher in a millennium of peace".<ref>The Church and the Negro: A Discussion of Mormons, Negroes, and the Priesthood, 1967, p. 45</ref>

When the policy was reversed in 1978, church president Kimball referred to it as "the long-promised day". Critics say that lifting the restriction before the resurrection is contrary to Young's 1854 and 1859 statements,<ref>[http://utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_part4.htm Jerald and Sandra Tanner - ''Curse of Cain'']</ref> while church apologists say that Brigham Young's statements meant that Africans could receive the priesthood after all other ''races'' were eligible to receive it, not all other individuals.

===Racial discrimination other than racial restriction policy===
{{further|[[Racism in the United States]]}}
The exclusion from the priesthood was not the only discrimination practiced by church members. In the 1950s, the San Francisco mission office took legal action to prevent black families from moving into the church neighborhood.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965">Glen W. Davidson, "Mormon Missionaries and the Race Question," The Christian Century, 29 Sept. 1965, pp. 1183-86.</ref> In 1965, a black man living in Salt Lake City, Daily Oliver, described how - as a boy - he was excluded from an LDS-led boy scout troop because they did not want blacks in their building.<ref>Utah Chronicle, May 28, 1965</ref> Mormon apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] describes a black family that tried to join the LDS church: "[some white church members] went to the Branch President, and said that either the [black] family must leave, or they would all leave. The Branch President ruled that [the black family] could not come to church meetings. It broke their hearts."<ref>"Race Problems As They Affect The Church", presentation by Mark E. Petersen to the Convention of Teachers of Religion", 27 August 1954, p. 16</ref>

==Reasons given for racial restriction policy==
==="Curse of Cain" and representative of Satan===
Some members of the church used the [[Curse and mark of Cain|curse of Cain]] to justify the racial restriction policy. In the [[book of Genesis]],<ref>{{lds|Genesis|gen|4|9|15}}</ref> God puts a mark on Cain after he kills his brother [[Abel]]. Church leader [[Bruce R. McConkie]] wrote in his 1966 edition of ''[[Mormon Doctrine]]'':
<blockquote>
Of the two-thirds who followed Christ, however, some were more valiant than others ....Those who were less valiant in pre-existence and who thereby had certain spiritual restrictions imposed upon them during mortality are known to us as the negroes. Such spirits are sent to earth through the lineage of Cain, the mark put upon him for his rebellion against God and his murder of Abel being a black skin (Moses 5:16-41; 12:22). Noah's son Ham married Egyptus, a descendant of Cain, thus preserving the negro lineage through the flood (Abraham 1:20-27). Negroes in this life are denied the priesthood; under no circumstances can they hold this delegation of authority from the Almighty. (Abra. 1:20-27.) The gospel message of salvation is not carried affirmatively to them (Moses 7:8, 12, 22), although sometimes negroes search out the truth, join the Church, and become by righteous living heirs of the celestial kingdom of heaven. President Brigham Young and others have taught that in the future eternity worthy and qualified negroes will receive the priesthood and every gospel blessing available to any man.
The present status of the negro rests purely and simply on the foundation of pre-existence. Along with all races and peoples he is receiving here what he merits as a result of the long pre-mortal probation in the presence of the Lord....The negroes are not equal with other races where the receipt of certain spiritual blessings are concerned, particularly the priesthood and the temple blessings that flow therefrom, but this inequality is not of man's origin. It is the Lord's doing.<ref>{{cite book
|last=McConkie
|first=Bruce
|title=[[Mormon Doctrine]]
|year=1966}}</ref></blockquote>

In 1881, church president [[John Taylor (Latter Day Saints)|John Taylor]] said "And after the flood we are told that the curse that had been pronounced upon Cain was continued through Ham's wife, as he had married a wife of that seed. And why did it pass through the flood? Because it was necessary that the devil should have a representation upon the earth as well as God; and that man should be a free agent to act for himself, and that all men might have the opportunity of receiving or rejecting the truth, and be governed by it or not according to their wishes and abide the result; and that those who would be able to maintain correct principles under all circumstances, might be able to associate with the Gods in the eternal worlds." (Journal of Discourses, Vol. 22 page 304).

Black journalist and church member [[Darius Gray|Darius Aidan Gray]], in 2007, commented "I think the most damning statement came from one of the presidents of the church, the third president of the church, [[John Taylor (Latter Day Saints)|John Taylor]]. Basically, he said that the reason that black people had been allowed to come through the flood, the flood of Noah, was so that Satan would have representation upon the earth, that black folks were here to represent Satan and to have a balance against white folks, who were here to represent Jesus Christ, the savior. How do you damn a people more than to say that their existence upon the earth is to represent Satan?"<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/etc/script2.html PBS Frontline TV show transcript]</ref><ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/view/15.html PBS Frontline TV show video]</ref>

LDS scholar W. John Walsh disagrees. He reads the quote as saying the devil must have a representation so that all men, including black people, may have ability to choose to receive or reject the truth, not that black people were that representation.<ref>Walsh, W. John [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/response/qa/blacks_representative.htm Blacks Are Not Satan's Representatives]</ref>

====Pearl of Great Price====
The Church leadership began using the newly canonized [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]], which has the following verse:

<blockquote>Pharaoh, being a righteous man, established his kingdom and judged his people wisely and justly all his days, seeking earnestly to imitate that order established by the fathers in the first generations, in the days of the first patriarchal reign, even in the reign of Adam, and also of Noah, his father, who blessed him with the blessing of the earth, and with the blessing of wisdom, ''but cursed him as pertaining the priesthood''. Now, Pharaoh being of that lineage by which he could not have the right of the priesthood, notwithstanding the Pharaohs would fain claim it from Noah, through Ham, therefore my father was led away by their idolatry. ({{sourcetext|source=Pearl of Great Price|version=|book=Abraham|chapter=1|verse=26|range=-27}}, emphasis added)</blockquote>

===Less valiant in pre-existence===
One of the justifications that some Latter-day Saints used for the discriminatory policy was that black individual's [[pre-existence]] spirits were not as virtuous as white pre-existence spirits. For example, Apostle [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] wrote: "According to the doctrine of the church, the negro because of some condition of unfaithfulness in the spirit — or pre-existence, was not valiant and hence was not denied the mortal probation, but was denied the blessing of the priesthood."<ref>Letter to J. Henderson, April 10, 1963). {{cite web|
url=http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/curseofcain_appendix_c.htm|
title=Letter from Joseph Fielding Smith to J. Henderson}}</ref>

Smith also reasoned that during the [[war in Heaven]], some spirits would logically have been less valiant in following the Savior than others, therefore the priesthood was restricted from the least valiant.<ref>Smith, Joseph Fielding, Way to Perfection, 1950, p.46</ref> However, Smith made clear that the book was his own personal opinion. Of the doctrine of the church, Smith said "The Mormon Church does not believe, nor does it teach, that the Negro is an inferior being. Mentally, and physically, the Negro is capable of great achievement, as great and in some cases greater than the potentiality of the white race. He can become a lawyer, a doctor, a scientist, and he can achieve great heights."<ref>(Deseret News, Church Section, June 14, 1962)</ref>

===Reasons not known===
[[David O. McKay]] said: "From the beginning of this dispensation, Joseph Smith and all succeeding presidents of the church have taught that negroes, while spirit children of a common Father, and the progeny of our earthly parents Adam and Eve, were not yet to receive the priesthood, for reasons which we believe are known to God, but which He has not made fully known to man."<ref>Bringhurst 1981: 223</ref>

===An error===
Although not refuting his belief that the policy came from the Lord, [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] [[Spencer W. Kimball]] acknowledged in 1963 that it could have been brought about through an error on man's part. In 1963, he said, "The doctrine or policy has not varied in my memory. I know it could. I know the Lord could change his policy and release the ban and forgive the possible error which brought about the deprivation."<ref>{{cite book
|title=The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball
|page=448–9
|last=Kimball
|first=Edward L.
|authorlink=Edward L. Kimball
|publisher=[[Bookcraft]]}}</ref>

==Racial policy under John Taylor==
Under John Taylor's presidency, there was confusion regarding the origin of the racial policy. Abel was living, breathing proof that an African American was ordained to the Priesthood in the days of Joseph Smith. His son, Enoch Abel, had also been conferred the Priesthood.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/abel.html Elijah Abel | Blacklds.org]</ref> Joseph F. Smith said that Abel's Priesthood had been declared null and void by the Joseph Smith himself, though this seems to conflict with Joseph F. Smith's teachings that the Priesthood could not be removed from any man without removing that man from the church.<ref name = "Mauss-76">[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neither3.htm#Chapter3 Bush & Mauss 1984: 76-86]</ref> From this point on Joseph Smith was repeatedly referred to as the author of many statements, which had actually been made by Brigham Young, on the subject of Priesthood restriction.<ref name = "Mauss-76"/>

==Exceptions==
Several black men received the priesthood after the racial restriction policy was put in place, including Elijah Abel's son Enoch Abel, who was ordained an [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on 1900-11-10. Enoch's son and Elijah Abel's grandson — who was also named Elijah Abel — received the [[Aaronic priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of [[priest (Latter Day Saints)|priest]] on 1934-07-05. The younger Elijah Abel also received the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Melchizedek priesthood]] and was ordained to the office of [[Elder (Latter Day Saints)|elder]] on 1935-09-29.<ref name = MTR>Newell G. Bringhurst, "The 'Missouri Thesis' Revisisted: Early Mormonism, Slavery, and the Status of Black People" in Newell G. Bringhurst and Darron T. Smith (eds.) (2006). ''Black and Mormon'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press) pp. 13–33 at p. 30.</ref> One commentator has pointed out that these incidents illustrate the "ambiguities, contradictions, and paradoxes" of the issue during the twentieth century.<ref name = MTR/>

==The "Negro Question" Declaration==
In 1949, the First Presidency under the direction of [[George Albert Smith]] made a declaration which included the statement that the priesthood restriction was divinely commanded and not a matter of church policy.<ref>{{ cite book|
title=Mormon America|
page=101–102|
year=1999|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling}}</ref> It stated:

<blockquote>
The attitude of the Church with reference to the Negroes remains as it has always stood. It is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord, on which is founded the doctrine of the Church from the days of its organization, to the effect that Negroes may become members of the Church but that they are not entitled to the Priesthood at the present time. The prophets of the Lord have made several statements as to the operation of the principle. President Brigham Young said: "Why are so many of the inhabitants of the earth cursed with a skin of blackness? It comes in consequence of their fathers rejecting the power of the holy priesthood, and the law of God. They will go down to death. And when all the rest of the children have received their blessings in the holy priesthood, then that curse will be removed from the seed of Cain, and they will then come up and possess the priesthood, and receive all the blessings which we now are entitled to."
</blockquote>
The declaration goes on to state that the conditions in which people are born are affected by their conduct in a premortal existence, although the details of the principle are said not to be known. It then says that the privilege of mortal existence is so great that spirits were willing to come to earth even though they would not be able to possess the priesthood. It concludes by stating, "Under this principle there is no injustice whatsoever involved in this deprivation as to the holding of the priesthood by the Negroes."
<ref>First Presidency [http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/neither/neitherappx.htm Letter of the First Presidency] August 17, 1949</ref>

==Darkness associated with sin==
Many LDS church documents and church leaders asserted that dark skin was an indication of sin or a curse.<ref>A verse from the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 30:6) relating to that belief discusses the Lamanites (Native Americans) "... and many generations shall not pass away among the, save they shall be a white and delightsome people". In 1980, the church changed the wording of that verse from "white and delightsome people" to "pure and delightsome people". Church leaders claimed that they were simply restoring the verse to reflect another early edition of the book, and that the verse did not concern skin color but rather concerned character. But church critic [[Richard Abanes]] claims that that change of that verse by the church is an attempt to cover-up its past attitudes. {{cite book
|title=One Nation Under Gods
|first = Richard
|last = Abanes
|page=420}}</ref><ref>For many examples, see Mormonism: Shadow or Reality? Gerald and Sandra Tanner. p. 262-266</ref><ref>"A black skin is a mark of the curse of heaven.... We understand that when God made man in his own image and pronounced him very good, that he made him white." [[Juvenile Instructor]], vol 3, page 157</ref> One belief held by some LDS members was that skin color of Native Americans would gradually change from dark to light as they repented of their sins.<ref>General Conference Report, October, 1960. Improvement Era, December 1960, pp. 922-923. A verse from the Book of Mormon (2 Nephi 30:6) relating to that belief discusses the Lamanites (Native Americans) "... and many generations shall not pass away among the, save they shall be a white and delightsome people".</ref><ref>Mormon writer [[George Edward Clark]] wrote (regarding an Indian tribe in South Carolina): "That tribe, or most of its members, are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Those Indians, at least as many as I have observed, were white and delightsome; as white and fair as any group of citizens of our contry. I know of now prophecy , ancient or modern, that as had a more literal fulfillment".{{cite book
|title=Why I Believe, Fifty-four Evidences of the Divine Calling of Joseph Smith
|first=George Edward
|last=Clark
|year=1954}}</ref><ref>LDS church president [[Spencer W. Kimball]] said in 1960 (when he was a member of the 12 apostles):
I saw a striking contrast in the progress of the Indian people today.... For years they have been growing delightsome, and they are now becoming white and delightsome, as they were promised. In this picture of the twenty Lamanite missionaries, fifteen of the twenty were as light as Anglos, five were darker but equally delightsome The children in the home placement program in Utah are often lighter than their brothers and sisters in the hogans on the reservation. At one meeting a father and mother and their sixteen-year-old daughter were present, the little member girl--sixteen--sitting between the dark father and mother, and it was evident she was several shades lighter than her parents--on the same reservation, in the same hogan, subject to the same sun and wind and weather....These young members of the Church are changing to whiteness and to delightsomeness. One white elder jokingly said that he and his companion were donating blood regularly to the hospital in the hope that the process might be accelerated. '' General Conference Report'', October, 1960. Improvement Era, December 1960, pp. 922-923.</ref>

==Racial policy 1951-1977==
In 1954, Church President [[David O. McKay]] taught: "There is not now, and there never has been a doctrine in this church that the negroes are under a divine curse. There is no doctrine in the church of any kind pertaining to the negro. ''We believe'' that we have a scriptural precedent for withholding the priesthood from the negro. It is a practice, not a doctrine, and the practice someday will be changed. And that's all there is to it.’<ref>Sterling M. McMurrin affidavit, March 6, 1979. See ''[[David O. McKay and the Rise of Modern Mormonism]]'' by [[Greg Prince]] and [[William Robert Wright]]. Quoted by [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/howtoreach.html Genesis Group]</ref>

[[Mark E. Petersen]] (an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]]) addressed the issue of race and Priesthood in his address to a 1954 Convention of Teachers of Religion at the College Level at Brigham Young University. He said:

<blockquote> The reason that one would lose his blessings by marrying a negro is due to the restriction placed upon them. 'No person having the least particle of negro blood can hold the priesthood' (Brigham Young). It does not matter if they are one-sixth negro or one-hundred and sixth, the curse of no Priesthood is the same. If an individual who is entitled to the priesthood marries a negro, the Lord has decreed that only spirits who are not eligible for the priesthood will come to that marriage as children. To intermarry with a negro is to forfeit a 'nation of priesthood holders'....<ref>[http://www.religioustolerance.org/lds_race.htm Racism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons)]</ref></blockquote>

Petersen held that male descendants of a mixed-marriage could not become a Mormon priest, even if they had a lone ancestor with African blood dating back many generations.<ref name = "Mormon-racism">Peterson, Mark E. "[http://www.lds-mormon.com/racism.shtml Race Problems -- As They Affect The Church]", 27 August 1954</ref> However, he did hold out hope for African Americans, in that a black person baptized into the Mormon faith and who accepted Joseph Smith as a Prophet of God could attain the highest form of [[salvation]] known to Mormons, the [[Celestial Kingdom]].<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/> Petersen said, "If that negro is faithful all his days, he can and will enter the Celestial Kingdom. He will go there as a servant, but he will get celestial glory."<ref name = "Mormon-racism"/>

===Apostle Harold B. Lee blocks policy===
In 1969 church apostle [[Harold B. Lee]] blocked the LDS Church from rescinding the racial restriction policy.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14">Quinn, Michael D. ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power'' Salt Lake City: 1994 Signature Books Page 14</ref> Church leaders voted to rescind the policy at a meeting in 1969. Lee was absent from the meeting due to travels. When Lee returned he called for a re-vote, arguing that the policy could not be changed without a revelation.<ref name="Quinn, Michael D. Page 14"/>

===Church president statement in 1972===
[[Harold B. Lee]], president of the church, stated in 1972: "For those who don't believe in modern revelation there is no adequate explanation. Those who do understand revelation stand by and wait until the Lord speaks...It's only a matter of time before the black achieves full status in the Church. We must believe in the justice of God. The black will achieve full status, we’re just waiting for that time."<ref>Kimball, Lengthen Your Stride, working draft chapter 20, page 22; citing Goates, Harold B. Lee, 506, quoting UPI interview published November 16, 1972.</ref>

==Civil Rights movement==

===Church and the Civil Rights movement===
In 1958, [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] published '''Answers to Gospel Questions''' which stated "No church or other organization is more insistent than The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, that the negroes should receive all the rights and privileges that can possibly be given to any other in the true sense of equality as declared in the Declaration of Independence." He continues to say they should not be barred from any type of employment or education, and should be free "to make their lives as happy as it is possible without interference from white men, labor unions or from any other source."<ref name=history>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/history.html LDS Black History Timeline]</ref> In the 1963 General Conference, Hugh B. Brown stated: "it is a moral evil for any person or group of persons to deny any human being the rights to gainful employment, to full educational opportunity, and to every privilege of citizenship". He continued: "We call upon all men everywhere, both within and outside the church, to commit themselves to the establishment of full civil equality for all of God's children. Anything less than this defeats our high ideal of the brotherhood of man."<ref name=history />

The NAACP attempted to get the LDS church to support civil rights legislation and to reverse its discriminating practices during the [[Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights era]] in the 1960s. In 1963 [[NAACP]] leadership tried to arrange meetings with church leadership, but the church refused to meet with them.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1965, the church leadership did meet with the NAACP, and agreed to publish an editorial in church-owned newspaper [[The Deseret News]], which would support civil rights legislation pending in the Utah legislature. The church failed to follow-through on the commitment, and church Apostle [[N. Eldon Tanner]] explained "We have decided to remain silent".<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In March 1965, the NAACP led a anti-discrimination march in Salt Lake City, protesting church policies.<ref name="Glen W. Davidson 1965"/> In 1966, the NAACP issued a statement criticizing the church, saying the church "has maintained a rigid and continuous segregation stand" and that "the church has made "no effort to conteract the widespread discriminatory practices in education, in housing, in employment, and other areas of life"<ref>[[The Deseret News]], May 3, 1966</ref>

During the 1960s and 1970s, Mormons in the West were close to the national averages in racial attitudes.<ref>[[Armand Mauss|Mauss, Armand]] [http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Conferences/2003_LDS_Church_and_the_Race_Issue.html The LDS Church and the Race Issue: A Study in Misplaced Apologetics] 2003</ref> In 1966, [[Armand Mauss]] surveyed Mormons on racial attitudes and discriminatory practices. He found that "Mormons resembled the rather "moderate" denominations (such as Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopalian), rather than the "fundamentalists" or the sects."<ref name=Mauss1966>Armand L. Mauss, "Mormonism and Secular Attitudes toward Negroes", Pacific Sociological Review 9 (Fall 1966)</ref> Negative racial attitudes within Mormonism varied inversely with education, occupation, community size of origin, and youth, reflecting the national trend. Urban Mormons with a more orthodox view of Mormonism tended to be more tolerant.<ref name=Mauss1966 />

===Sports boycotts of BYU===
African-American athletes protested against LDS policies by boycotting several sporting events with [[Brigham Young University]]. In 1968, after the assassination of [[Martin Luther King]], black members of the [[UTEP]] track team approached their coach and expressed their desire not to compete against BYU in an upcoming meet. When the coach disregarded the athletes' complaint, the athletes boycotted the meet.<ref name="ADR"/> In 1969, 14 members of the [[University of Wyoming]] football team were removed from the team for planning to protest the policies of the LDS church.<ref name="ADR">{{cite journal|last=Fried|first=Gil|coauthors=Michael Hiller|date=1997|title=ADR in youth and intercollegiate athletics|journal=Brigham Young University Law Review|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3736/is_199701/ai_n8735454/pg_1}}, p. 1, p. 10</ref> In November 1969, Stanford University President Kenneth Pitzer suspended athletic relations with BYU.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=EfYLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=i1cDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3753,2673063&dq=kenneth-pitzer+brigham-young |work=Evening Independent |date=December 11, 1969 |author=James J. Kilpatrick |title=A Sturdy Discipline Serves Mormons Well}}</ref>

===Boy Scout leaders===
Since the early part of the 20th century, each LDS ward has organized its own [[Boy Scout]]ing troop. Some LDS troops permitted black youths to join, but an LDS policy required that the troop leader to be the deacon quorum president (a priesthood office held by 12 and 13 year old white church members), thus excluding black children from that role. The [[NAACP]] filed a federal lawsuit in 1974 challenging this racist practice, and soon thereafter the LDS church reversed its policy.<ref>http://www.bsa-discrimination.org/html/lds-top.html Exclusionary Practices & Policies of the
Boy Scouts of America</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage |first=Armand L. |last=Mauss |page=218 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2003 |isbn=0252028031}}</ref> Today, even non-Mormons can be leaders of an LDS Boy Scout troop.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

===Spencer W. Kimball denounces racism===
[[Spencer W. Kimball]], LDS apostle and future president of the church taught against racism. In 1972, he said: "Intolerance by Church members is despicable. A special problem exists with respect to black people because they may not now receive the priesthood. Some members of the Church would justify their own un-Christian discrimination against black people because of that rule with respect to the priesthood, but while this restriction has been imposed by the Lord, it is not for us to add burdens upon the shoulders of our black brethren. They who have received Christ in faith through authoritative baptism are heirs to the celestial kingdom along with men of all other races. And those who remain faithful to the end may expect that God may finally grant them all blessings they have merited through their righteousness. Such matters are in the Lord's hands. It is for us to extend our love to all."<ref>The Teachings of Spencer W. Kimball, p.237, emphasis in original</ref>

==Retaliation against mormon anti-discrimination activists==

There were some Mormon church members who protested against the church's discriminatory practices. Two Mormon church members, Douglas A. Wallace and Byron Merchant, were ex-communicated by the LDS church (1976 and 1977 respectively) after criticizing the church's discrimatory practices.<ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 13, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', October 4, 1976</ref><ref>''Salt Lake Tribune'', April 3, 1978</ref><ref>''Dallas Morning News'', October 20, 1977</ref> Mormon church member Grant Syphers objected to the church's racial policies and, as a consequence, his stake president refused to give Sypher permission to enter the temple. The president said "Anyone who could not accept the Church's stand on Negros ... could not go to the temple".<ref>Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, Winter 1967, p. 6</ref>

==Racial policy ends in 1978==
{{Main|1978 Revelation on Priesthood}}
LDS church president Spencer W. Kimball (president 1973 - 1985) took [[General Conference (LDS Church)|general conference]] on the road, holding area and regional conferences all over the world. He also announced many new [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] to be built both in the United States and abroad, including one at [[São Paulo Brazil Temple|temple in São Paulo, Brazil]]. The problem of determining priesthood eligibility in Brazil was thought to be nearly impossible due to the mixing of the races in that country. When the temple was announced, church leaders realized the difficulty of restricting persons with African descent from attending the temple in Brazil.<ref>[[Mark L. Grover]], "The Mormon Priesthood Revelation and the São Paulo Brazil Temple", ''[[Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought]]'' '''23''':39–53 (Spring 1990).</ref>

Finally, on June 8, 1978, the [[First Presidency]] released to the press an official declaration, now a part of the standard works of the church, which contained the following statement:

<blockquote>He has heard our prayers, and ''by revelation'' has confirmed that the long-promised day has come when every faithful, worthy man in the church may receive the Holy Priesthood, with power to exercise its divine authority, and enjoy with his loved ones every blessing that follows there from, including the blessings of the temple. Accordingly, all worthy male members of the church may be ordained to the priesthood without regard for race or color. Priesthood leaders are instructed to follow the policy of carefully interviewing all candidates for ordination to either the Aaronic or the Melchizedek Priesthood to insure that they meet the established standards for worthiness.<ref>[http://scriptures.lds.org/en/od/2 Official Declaration 2], emphasis added.</ref></blockquote>

According to first-person accounts, after much discussion among the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles on this matter, they engaged the Lord in prayer. According to the writing of one of those present, "It was during this prayer that the revelation came. The Spirit of the Lord rested upon us all; we felt something akin to what happened on the day of [[Pentecost]] and at the [[Kirtland Temple]]. From the midst of eternity, the voice of God, conveyed by the power of the Spirit, spoke to his prophet. The message was that the time had now come to offer the fullness of the everlasting gospel, including celestial marriage, and the priesthood, and the blessings of the temple, to all men, without reference to race or color, solely on the basis of personal worthiness. And we all heard the same voice, received the same message, and became personal witnesses that the word received was the mind and will and voice of the Lord."<ref>''Priesthood'', pp. 127-128, Deseret Book Co., 1981.</ref> Immediately after the receipt of this new revelation, an official announcement of the revelation was prepared, and sent out to all of the various leaders of the Church. It was then read to, approved by and accepted as the word and will of the Lord, by a General Conference of the Church in October 1978. Succeeding editions of the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] were printed with this announcement canonized and entitled "[[Official Declaration—2]]".

[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] (a participant in the meetings to reverse the ban), in a churchwide fireside said, "Not one of us who was present on that occasion was ever quite the same after that. Nor has the Church been quite the same. All of us knew that the time had come for a change and that the decision had come from the heavens. The answer was clear. There was perfect unity among us in our experience and in our understanding."<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=6bb6d7630a27b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____ Priesthood Restoration], an edited version of a talk given 15 May 1988 at the Churchwide fireside commemorating the 159th anniversary of the restoration of the priesthood.</ref>

Later in 1978, McConkie said:<ref>Bruce R. McConkie, 1978 (All Are Alike Unto God, A SYMPOSIUM ON THE BOOK OF MORMON, The Second Annual Church Educational System Religious Educator's Symposium, August 17-19, 1978</ref>
<blockquote>There are statements in our literature by the early brethren which we have interpreted to mean that the Negroes would not receive the priesthood in mortality. I have said the same things, and people write me letters and say, "You said such and such, and how is it now that we do such and such?" And all I can say to that is that it is time disbelieving people repented and got in line and believed in a living, modern prophet. Forget everything that I have said, or what President Brigham Young or President George Q. Cannon or whomsoever has said in days past that is contrary to the present revelation. We spoke with a limited understanding and without the light and knowledge that now has come into the world.... We get our truth and our light line upon line and precept upon precept. We have now had added a new flood of intelligence and light on this particular subject, and it erases all the darkness and all the views and all the thoughts of the past. They don’t matter any more.... It doesn’t make a particle of difference what anybody ever said about the Negro matter before the first day of June of this year.</blockquote>

===Critics question motivation of policy reversal===

Critics of the LDS church claim that the church's 1978 reversal of the racial restriction policy was not divinely inspired as the church claimed, but simply a matter of political convenience.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0802412343 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979|
page=319–328
}}</ref> Critics point out that this reversal of policy occurred as the LDS church began to expand outside the United States into countries such as Brazil that have ethnically mixed populations, and that the policy reversal was announced just a few months before the church opened its new temple in [[São Paulo]], Brazil.<ref>
{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|year=1999|
page=95|
publisher=Harper Collins
}}
</ref>

===Critics claim that 1978 revelation undermines prophets===
Critics of the LDS church point out that the 1978 revelation undermines the church's claim that its presidents are prophets of God and that their proclamations are God's word, because Brigham Young stated in 1852 that blacks would not receive the preisthood "until the last of the posterity of Able [sic] had received the priesthood, until the redemtion of the earth."<ref>{{cite web|
url=http://www.mrm.org/topics/miscellaneous/black-skin-and-seed-cain|
title=Mormon Research Ministry}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abane|
isbn=1568582196|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows|
pages=355–374}}
</ref> Apologists reply that revelation is a continuing process and that newer revelations supersede older revelations.

==Interracial marriages==
===Pre-1978===
During a sermon criticizing the federal government, Church president Brigham Young said "If the White man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain (those with dark skin), the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so."<ref name = jdcain />

LDS Apostle [[Mark E. Petersen]] said in 1954: "I think I have read enough to give you an idea of what the Negro is after. He is not just seeking the opportunity of sitting down in a cafe where white people eat. He isn't just trying to ride on the same streetcar or the same Pullman car with white people. It isn't that he just desires to go to the same theater as the white people. From this, and other interviews I have read, it appears that the Negro seeks absorption with the white race. He will not be satisfied until he achieves it by intermarriage. That is his objective and we must face it."<ref>Race Problems - As They Affect The Church, Convention of Teachers of Religion on the College Level, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, August 27, 1954</ref>

In a 1965 address to BYU students, President Kimball told BYU students: "Now, the brethren feel that it is not the wisest thing to cross racial lines in dating and marrying. There is no condemnation. We have had some of our fine young people who have crossed the lines. We hope they will be very happy, but experience of the brethren through a hundred years has proved to us that marriage is a very difficult thing under any circumstances and the difficulty increases in interrace marriages."<ref name=ChurchNews1978>"Interracial Marriage Discouraged", Church News, June 17, 1978, p. 2.</ref>

===Post-1978===
The official newspaper of the LDS Church<ref>{{Harv|Roberts|1983|p=7}}</ref> - the [[Church News]] - printed an article in entitled "Interracial marriage discouraged". This article was printed on June 17, 1978, in the same issue that announced the policy reversal.

There was no written church policy on interracial marriages, which had been permitted since before the 1978 reversal.<ref name=ChurchNews1978 /> In 1978, church spokesman Don LeFevre said "So there is no ban on interracial marriage. If a black partner contemplating marriage is worthy of going to the Temple, nobody's going to stop him... if he's ready to go to the Temple, obviously he may go with the blessings of the church."<ref>Don LeFevre, Salt Lake Tribune, 14 June 1978</ref>

On the LDS Church website, Dr. Robert Millet writes: "[T]he Church Handbook of Instructions... is the guide for all Church leaders on doctrine and practice. There is, in fact, no mention whatsoever in this handbook concerning interracial marriages. In addition, having served as a Church leader for almost 30 years, I can also certify that I have never received official verbal instructions condemning marriages between black and white members."<ref>Robert L. Millet, [http://newsroom.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=a1aa39628b88f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=f5f411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD "Church Response to Jon Krakauer's Under the Banner of Heaven,"] 27 June 2003</ref>

A church lesson manual for adolescent boys that was used in 2008 contains a 1976 quote from [[Spencer W. Kimball]] that recommends that "people marry those who are of the same racial background generally, and of somewhat the same economic and social and educational background".<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=ba805f74db46c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=1f4fa41f6cc20110VgnVCM100000176f620a____&hideNav=1&contentLocale=0 “Lesson 31: Choosing an Eternal Companion,”] ''Aaronic Priesthood Manual 3'', p. 127.</ref>

==1985 to present==
[[Image:MormonAdFamilyPhoto.jpg|right|thumb|[[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church]]Since the Revelation on the Priesthood in 1978, the church has made no distinctions in policy for black people, but it remains an issue for many black members of the church. Alvin Jackson, a black Bishop, puts his focus on "moving forward rather than looking back."<ref>Page Johnson [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/jackson.html Alvin B. Jackson, Jr—The Bishop is Always In] Meridian Magazine</ref> In an interview with ''Mormon Century'', Jason Smith expresses his viewpoint that the membership of the church was not ready for black people to have the Priesthood at the time of the Restoration, because of prejudice and slavery. He draws analogies to the Bible where only the Israelites have the gospel.<ref>Ken Kuykendall, [http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 Past racial issues and the Church today] Mormon Century</ref> Officially the church also uses Biblical history to justify the prior ban:

::Ever since biblical times, the Lord has designated through His prophets who could receive the priesthood and other blessings of the gospel. Among the tribes of Israel, for example, only men of the tribe of Levi were given the priesthood and allowed to officiate in certain ordinances. Likewise, during the Savior's earthly ministry, gospel blessings were restricted to the Jews. Only after a revelation to the Apostle Peter were the gospel and priesthood extended to others (see Acts 10:1–33; 14:23; 15:6–8).<ref>[http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=bbd508f54922d010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=36f2ce9566a43110VgnVCM100000176f620a____ LDS Gospel Topics: Priesthood Ordination before 1978]</ref>

The church opposes racism among its membership. It is currently working to reach out to black people, and has several predominantly black wards inside the United States.<ref>Wilcox, Lauren, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/09/AR2007050901770.html The Saints Go Marching In] Washington Post May 13, 2007</ref> They teach that all are welcome to come unto Christ, and speak against those who harbor ill feelings towards another race. [[Gordon B. Hinckley]], the President of the LDS church, stated:
{{quote|I remind you that no man who makes disparaging remarks concerning those of another race can consider himself a true disciple of Christ. Nor can he consider himself to be in harmony with the teachings of the Church of Christ. Let us all recognize that each of us is a son or daughter of our Father in Heaven, who loves all of His children."<ref name="Hinckley 2006">[http://www.lds.org/conference/talk/display/0,5232,23-1-602-20,00.html The Need for Greater Kindness]</ref>}}

In the July 1992 edition of the [[New Era (magazine)|New Era]], the church published a [[MormonAd]] promoting racial equality in the church. The photo contained several youth of a variety of ethic backgrounds with the words "Family Photo" in large print. Underneath the picture are the words "God created the races—but not racism. We are all children of the same Father. Violence and hatred have no place in His family. (See Acts 10:34.)"<ref>{{cite magazine
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=024644f8f206c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=445405e063feb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|publisher=[[New Era (magazine)|New Era]]
|title=Family Photo
|month=July | year=1992
|last=Diamond
|first=Craig}}</ref>

===Instances of discrimination after 1978 revelation===
LDS historian Wayne J. Embry interviewed several black LDS church members in 1987 and reported "All of the interviewees reported incidents of aloofness on the part of white members, a reluctance or a refusal to shake hands with them or sit by them, and racist comments made to them." Embry further reported that one black church member "was amazingly persistent in attending Mormon services for three years when, by her report, no one would speak to her." Embry reports that "she [the same black church member] had to write directly to the president of the LDS Church to find out how to be baptized" because none of her fellow church members would tell her.<ref> {{cite book|
title=Black and Mormon|
last=Smith|first=Darrin|
publisher=University of Illinois Press|
year=2004|
isbn=025202947X|
pages=75–77}}</ref>

Black LDS church member Darron Smith wrote in 2003: "Even though the priesthood ban was repealed in 1978, the discourse that constructs what blackness means is still very much intact today. Under the direction of President Spencer W. Kimball, the First Presidency and the Twelve removed the policy that denied black people the priesthood but did very little to disrupt the multiple discourses that had fostered the policy in the first place. Hence there are Church members today who continue to summon and teach at every level of Church education the racial discourse that black people are descendants of Cain, that they merited lesser earthly privilege because they were "fence-sitters" in the War in Heaven, and that, science and climatic factors aside, there is a link between skin color and righteousness" <ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Smith
| first = Darron
| title = The Persistence of Racialized Discourse in Mormonism|
journal = Sunstone
|date=March 2003}}
</ref>

Journalist and church member Peggy Fletcher Stack in 2007 wrote "Today, many black Mormons report subtle differences in the way they are treated, as if they are not full members but a separate group. A few even have been called 'the n-word' at church and in the hallowed halls of the temple. They look in vain at photos of Mormon general authorities, hoping to see their own faces reflected there.<ref>"New film and revived group help many feel at home in their church" by Peggy Fletcher Stack, The Salt Lake Tribune, July 6, 2007</ref>

White church member [[Eugene England]], a professor at Brigham Young University, wrote in 1998: <blockquote>
This is a good time to remind ourselves that most Mormons are still in denial about the ban, unwilling to talk in Church settings about it, and that some Mormons still believe that Blacks were cursed by descent from Cain through Ham. Even more believe that Blacks, as well as other non-white people, come color-coded into the world, their lineage and even their class a direct indication of failures in a previous life.... I check occasionally in classes at BYU and find that still, twenty years after the revelation, a majority of bright, well-educated Mormon students say they believe that Blacks are descendants of Cain and Ham and thereby cursed and that skin color is an indication of righteousness in the pre-mortal life. They tell me these ideas came from their parents or Seminary and Sunday School teachers, and they have never questioned them. They seem largely untroubled by the implicit contradiction to basic gospel teachings.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = England
| first = Eugene | journal = Sunstone|
pages=54–58|date=June 1998
| title = }}
</ref> </blockquote>

In an interview for the [[PBS]] documentary [[The Mormons]], [[Jeffrey R. Holland]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], specifically denounced the perpetuation of [[Mormon folklore|folklore]] suggesting that race was in any way an indication of how faithful a person had been in the [[pre-existence]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/mormons/interviews/holland.html trnascript of interview with Holland for the PBS documentary]</ref>

===Church asked to repudiate past racist declarations===
In 1995, black church member A. David Jackson asked church leaders to issue a declaration repudiating past doctrines that treated black people as inferior. In particular, Jackson asked the church to disavow the 1949 "Negro Question" declaration from the church Presidency which stated "The attitude of the church with reference to negroes ... is not a matter of the declaration of a policy but of direct commandment from the Lord ... to the effect that negroes .. are not entitled to the priesthood...".<ref name = "Ostling-103">{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0060663715|
pages=103–104|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

The church leadership did not issue a repudiation, and so in 1997 Jackson, aided by other church members including Armand Mauss, sent a second request to church leaders, which stated that white Mormons felt that the 1978 revelation resolved everything, but that black Mormons react differently when they learn the details. He said that many black Mormons become discouraged and leave the church or become inactive. "When they find out about this, they exit..... You end up with the passive African Americans in the church".<ref>{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
first=Richard and Joan|last=Ostling|
year=1999|
isbn=0060663715|
pages=105|
publisher=Harper Collins}}</ref>

Other black church members think giving an apology would be a "detriment" to church work and a catalyst to further racial misunderstanding. African-American church member Bryan E. Powell says "There is no pleasure in old news, and this news is old." Gladys Newkirk agrees, stating "I've never experienced any problems in this church. I don't need an apology. . . . We're the result of an apology."<ref>{{cite news
|first=Bill
|last=Broadway
|publisher=[[Washington Post]]
|date=1998-05-30
|url=http://www.ldshistory.net/1990/mhablack.htm
|title=Black Mormons Resist Apology Talk}}</ref> The large majority of black Mormons say they are willing to look beyond the racist teachings and cleave to the church in part because of its powerful, detailed teachings on life after death.<ref name=Ramirez2005 />

Hinckley, then church president, told the Los Angeles Times "The 1978 declaration speaks for itself ... I don't see anything further that we need to do". Church leadership did not issue a repudiation.<ref name = "Ostling-103"/> Church apostle [[Dallin H. Oaks]] said: "It's not the pattern of the Lord to give reasons. We can put reasons to commandments. When we do we're on our own. Some people put reasons to [the ban] and they turned out to be spectacularly wrong. There is a lesson in that.... The lesson I've drawn from that, I decided a long time ago that I had faith in the command and I had no faith in the reasons that had been suggested for it... I'm referring to reasons given by general authorities and reasons elaborated upon [those reasons] by others. The whole set of reasons seemed to me to be unnecessary risk taking... Let's [not] make the mistake that's been made in the past, here and in other areas, trying to put reasons to revelation. The reasons turn out to be man-made to a great extent. The revelations are what we sustain as the will of the Lord and that's where safety lies."<ref>Dallin H. Oaks, Interview with Associated Press, in ''[[Daily Herald]]'', Provo, Utah, 5 June 1988</ref>

===Humanitarian aid in Africa===
The church has been involved in several humanitarian aid projects in Africa. On January 27, 1985, members across the world joined together in a fast for "the victims of famine and other causes resulting in hunger and privation among people of Africa." They also donated the money that would have been used for food during the fast to help those victims, regardless of church membership.<ref>Kimball, Spencer, Romney, Marion, Hinckley, Gordon, [http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/u?/EoM,4383 ''Letters of the First Presidency''] January 11, 1985</ref> Together with other organizations such as UNICEF and the American Red Cross, the church is working towards eradicating measles. Since 1999, there has been a 60 percent drop in deaths from measles in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=9ca9775baf050110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Church Works to Eradicate Measles in Africa]</ref> Due to their efforts, the [[American Red Cross]] bestowed the First Presidency with the organization's highest financial support honor, the American Red Cross Circle of Humanitarians award.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=df346287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD American Red Cross Recognizes Church for Support of Measles Initiative in Africa]</ref> The church has also been involved in humanitarian aid in Africa by sending food boxes,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=894b6287b169f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Food Boxes Rushed to Ease Starvation in Africa]</ref> digging wells to provide clean water,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=4b12b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Clean Water Projects]</ref> distributing wheelchairs,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=66f4b28d7cb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Wheelchair Distribution]</ref> fighting AIDS,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2ceb2e636369f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD The church Responds to HIV/AIDS] World AIDS Day Interview With [[Robert C. Oaks]]</ref> providing Neonatal Resuscitation Training,<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a6f37a520251110VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=9ae411154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD church Works to Save Infants Through Neonatal Resuscitation Training]</ref> and setting up employment resources service centers.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsnewsroom/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=8a658bd9eeb9f010VgnVCM100000176f620aRCRD&vgnextchannel=3e0511154963d010VgnVCM1000004e94610aRCRD Employment Resource Service Centers]</ref>

==Black membership==
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. Black people have been members of Mormon congregations since its foundation, but before 1978 its black membership was small. It has since grown, and in 1997, there were approximately 500,000 black members of the church (about 5% of the total membership), mostly in Africa, Brazil and the Caribbean.<ref>[http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_218.html#1062 Adherents.com] quoting ''Deseret News 1999-2000 Church Almanac''. Deseret News: Salt Lake City, UT (1998); pg. 119.</ref> Black membership has continued to grow substantially, especially in [[West Africa]], where two [[Temple (LDS Church)|temples]] have been built.<ref name = "LDS-Africa"/>

===Notable early black church members===
{{Main|Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement}}
Prior to 1847, blacks that were members of the church included [[Elijah Abel]] and [[Walker Lewis]].

[[Jane Elizabeth Manning James|Jane Manning James]] had been born free and worked as a housekeeper in Joseph Smith's home.<ref>Jerel Harris and Brian Passey [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/1stblacks.html The History of Black Pioneers: Slaves, Free Blacks Among the First Utah Settlers]</ref> When she requested the temple ordinances, [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]] took her petition to the Quorum of the Twelve, but her request was denied. When [[Wilford Woodruff]] became president of the church, he compromised and allowed Jane to be sealed to the family of Joseph Smith as a servant. This was unsatisfying to Jane as it did not include the saving ordinance of the endowment, and she repeated her petitions. She died in 1908. President [[Joseph F. Smith]] honored her by speaking at her funeral.<ref name = "Embry-40">Embry 1994: 40-41.</ref>

Other notable early black LDS church members included Green Flake, the slave of John Flake, a convert to the church and from whom he got his name. He was baptized a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints at the age of 16 in the Mississippi River, but remained a slave. Samuel D. Chambers was another early African American pioneer. He was baptized secretly at the age of thirteen when he was still a slave in Mississippi. He was unable to join the main body of the church and lost track of them until after the Civil War. He was thirty-eight when he had saved enough money to immigrate to Utah with his wife and son.<ref name = "Embry-40"/>

===Expansion in West Africa===
{{See also|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Ghana}}
The church began receiving letters from West Africa requesting information about the church in the 1940s. As the church began sending back literature, two LDS bookstores were formed. Because the Africans could not receive the priesthood, leaders hesitated sending missionaries.<ref name=AfricaPioneers>[[E. Dale LeBaron|LeBaron, E. Dale]], [http://deseretbook.com/mormon-life/news/story?story_id=527 Church Pioneers in Africa] ''LDS Living'' November 2001</ref> In 1960, David O. McKay sent Glen G. Fisher on a fact-finding mission to Africa, where he found thousands of people waiting for him.<ref>LaMar Williams, interview by [[E. Dale LeBaron]] in Salt Lake City, February 12, 1988.</ref> McKay decided to send missionaries, but the Nigerian government refused to issue the necessary visas.<ref>[[E. Dale LeBaron]], [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/daily/history/blacks/lebaron_africa.htm "African Converts Without Baptism: A Unique and Inspiring Chapter in Church History"], [[Marriott Center]] devotional address November 3, 1998</ref> Five months after the 1978 revelation, the first missionaries arrived in Nigeria. [[Anthony Obinna]] was one of the first to be baptized.<ref>Larry Morris [http://deseretbook.com/mormon-life/news/story?story_id=739 Obinna Brothers to the First Presidency]''LDS Living'' April 2007</ref> Within one year there were more than 1,700 members in 35 branches in West Africa.<ref>Mabey and Allred, ''Brother to Brother'', p. vii</ref>

===Wynetta Willis Martin===
In 1970, Wynetta Willis Martin gained the distinction of being the first African-American member of the faculty at [[Brigham Young University]]. After being baptized she joined the [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]. She accepted it as her personal mission to prove to the world that there were in fact African-American Mormons and that the Mormons were not racist. She toured with the choir for two years before accepting her appointment on the faculty at BYU. She was employed in the training of nurses and tried to help them become more culturally aware.<ref>Martin, 1972."</ref> About the racial restriction policy, she said: "These two things: baptism and the Holy Ghost are the only requirements, contrary to popular belief, for entering the Celestial Kingdom and being with God for eternity if one is worthy. Therefore, the Priesthood covenants of the Temple which we are not allowed at this point are not really so crucial as popular belief dictates.<ref>Martin 1972: 56, emphasis her own.</ref>

===Genesis Group===
On October 19, 1971, the [[Genesis Group]] was established as an auxiliary unit to the church. Its purpose was to serve the needs of black members, including activating members and welcoming converts. It continues to meet on the first Sunday of each month in Utah. Don Harwell is the current president.<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org Genesis Group]</ref> When asked about racism in the church, he said "Now, is the church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints racist? No, never has been. But some of those people within the church have those tendencies. You have to separate the two."<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/archivenews/interview.html Rosemary Winters, "Black Mormons Struggle for Acceptance in the Church", ''Salt Lake Tribune'', November 4, 2004]</ref>

===Joseph Freeman===
[[Joseph Freeman]] was the first African American to receive the [[Priesthood (LDS Church)|priesthood]] after the 1978 revelation.<ref name = SLT>''[[Salt Lake Tribune]]'', 1978-06-24.</ref> Freeman was also the first black member ever to receive church [[Temple (LDS Church)|temple]] [[Ordinance (Latter Day Saints)|ordinances]].<ref name = Time>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,948228,00.html "Mormonism Enters a New Era"], ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', 1978-08-07.</ref> On June 23, 1978, Freeman was sealed to his wife and five children in the [[Salt Lake Temple]] by then [[Apostle (Latter Day Saints)|apostle]] [[Thomas S. Monson]].<ref name = SLT/><ref name = Time/>

===Helvécio Martins===
{{Main|Helvécio Martins}}
Helvécio Martins was the first person of African descent to be called as a [[general authority]] of the church. Martins was born in Brazil to parents descended from African slaves. He had found success in his professional life but felt unfulfilled with the religious life he was pursuing. The missionaries visited his home in 1972 while he was going through a difficult spiritual crisis. The missionaries visited his home late one night and were worried about how to teach an African since the church had not yet reversed its policy. Indeed, Martins' first question upon inviting the missionaries into his home concerned the church's attitude toward race. The spiritual experiences that the Martins family had while investigating the church superseded their concerns for the racial policy of priesthood restriction, and they were baptized. They experienced much resistance from members of their extended family and former church friends, but eventually found peace with them. Martins served in his ward as a [[Sunday School (LDS Church)|sunday school]] teacher. He was not troubled by the priesthood restriction, but others were. Often, members of the ward would ask him how he could remain a member of the church without the priesthood. It was never an issue for him. He had resolved the issue in his own mind and never expected to receive the priesthood.

When the announcement came, he describes his reaction and that of his wife as unbelieving. It was something for which they had not dared to hope. Martins then served as a member of a [[stake presidency]], as a [[Bishop (Latter Day Saints)|bishop]], a [[mission president]], and finally as a [[Seventy (Latter Day Saints)|seventy]]. His son was one of the first three people of black African descent to serve a full-time mission for the church in nearly 100 years.<ref>Martins & Grover, 1994.</ref>

===Growth in black membership===
Had an increase in membership upon repealing the ban <ref>{{cite news
|title=LDS Church follows members to inner cities
|publisher=The Denver Post
|date=2004-05-01
|first=Eric
|last=Gorski
|url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon158.html}}</ref> by experiencing rapid growth in predominately black communities while other mainstream sects have been losing members.<ref name=Burst2005>{{cite news
|title=Black saints in a White church; Mormon Church grows in urban areas despite racist reputation
|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-117831794.html
|publisher=Baltimore Afro-American
|date=2005-12-23
|first=H. Allen
|last=Hurst}}</ref> In the last 20 years, the church has been well received among middle-class African-Americans, and African American membership grew from minuscule before 1978 to an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 in 2005.<ref name=Ramirez2005>{{cite news
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-blackmormons,1,708682.story?page=1&ctrack=1&cset=true
|title=Mormon past steeped in racism: Some black members want church to denounce racist doctrines
|first=Margaret
|last=Ramirez
|date=2005-07-26
|publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]]}}</ref> A 2007 study by the [[Pew Research Center]] found that 3% of American Mormons were black.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/table-ethnicity-by-tradition.pdf
|format=PDF|title=Race by Religious Tradition
|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]
|year=2007}}</ref> A 1998 survey by a Mormon and amateur sociologist, James W. Lucas, found that about 20 percent of Mormons in New York City were black.<ref>{{cite news
|url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE4DB1030F931A35753C1A9639C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1
|title=For Mormons in Harlem, Bigger Space Beckons
|first=Andy
|last=Newman
|date=2005-10-02
|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> Melvyn Hammarberg explained the growth: "There is a kind of changing face of the LDS Church because of its continuing commitment to work in the inner cities."<ref>{{cite news
|title=Mormons gain in inner cities
|url=http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon276.html
|last=Hill
|first=Miriam
|publisher=Philadelphia Inquirer
|date=2005-12-10}}</ref> Sociology and Religious Studies Professor Armand Mauss says African Americans are particularly attracted by the focus on promoting healthy families. However, these numbers still only represent a fraction of total church membership in the United States, suggesting that African Americans remain comparatively hesitant to join, partly because of the church's past.<ref name=Colorblind>{{cite news
|title=Colorblind Faith
|url=http://www.chicagoreporter.com/index.php/c/Inside_Stories/d/Colorblind_faith
|publisher=Chicago Reporter
|last=Shebeck
|first=Amy}}</ref> Still, Don Harwell, president of the Genesis Group, sees it as a sign that "People are getting past the stereotypes put on the church."<ref name=Burst2005 /> The revelation also helped pave the way for the church's exponential growth in areas like Africa and the Caribbean.<ref name=Colorblind /> The church has been more successful among blacks outside the United States than inside, partly because there is less awareness of this past historic discrimination.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Mormonism spreading around the world
|first=Mary
|last=Jordan
|publisher=The Washington Post
|url=http://www.columbiamissourian.com/stories/2007/11/30/mormonism-spreading-around-world/
|date=2007-11-30}}</ref> In 2005, the church had some 120,000 members in West Africa,<ref name=dedication>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20050808/ai_n14856252 Pres. Hinckley dedicates the Aba Nigeria Temple]</ref> and two temples, the [[Aba Nigeria Temple]] and the [[Accra Ghana Temple]].

===Black People in church leadership===
{{Original research|date=January 2008}}
The church has never kept official records on the race of its membership, so exact numbers are unknown. No member of the two highest governing bodies, the [[First Presidency]] and the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church)|Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], have ever been black. There have been several black members of the [[Seventy (Latter Day Saints)|Quorums of the Seventy]];<ref>For example, [http://www.angelfire.com/mo2/blackmormon/homepage2.html Elder Christopher Chukwurah], [http://www.lds.co.za/artview.asp?ObjectID=1501 Elder Kapumba Kola] and [http://www.hotpepper.ca/lds/africa/history/leaders.html more].</ref> and, as of 2009, Brazilian [[Helvécio Martins]] (a member of the Second Quorum of the Seventy from 1990 to 1995) and [[Kenya]]n [[Joseph W. Sitati]] (a member of the First Quorum of the Seventy since 2009) have served as [[General Authority|general authorities]]. There has never been a black member of the general presidencies of the [[Relief Society]], [[Young Women (organization)|Young Women]], [[Primary (LDS Church)|Primary]], [[Young Men (organization)|Young Men]], or [[Sunday School (LDS Church)|Sunday School]]. The first African member of the Relief Society general board<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20031004/ai_n11424774/pg_1
|title=Pair reflect LDS Nigerians' faith
|publisher=[[Deseret News]]
|date=2003-10-04
|first=Carrie A.
|last=Moore}}</ref> was chosen in 2003, and she shared her testimony at the general meeting of the Relief Society in September 2003.<ref>{{cite news
|title=Testimonies: "Choose That Good Part"
|publisher=[[Ensign]]
|url=http://lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=fe9474536cf0c010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1
|date=November 2003}}</ref>

Mauss commented "As far as leadership is concerned, the role of the various minorities in Mormonism as a whole is not yet very great, but it is growing, and it is crucial in parts of the world outside the U.S."<ref name=Ramirez2005 />
Approximately 5% of church members have African ancestry (mostly in congregations in Africa, South America, and the Caribbean).

===Notable black Mormons===

*[[Thurl Bailey]] - former professional [[basketball]] player in the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]], whose career spanned from 1983 to 1999 with the [[Utah Jazz]] and the [[Minnesota Timberwolves]].<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.com/thurl.html Thurl Bailey Fireside]</ref>
*[[Burgess Owens]] was a [[Safety (football position)|safety]] who played ten seasons in the [[National Football League]] for the [[New York Jets]] and the [[Oakland Raiders]].<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=2354fccf2b7db010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=a782b850e318b010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1 k]</ref>
*[[Eldridge Cleaver]] - an author and a prominent American civil rights leader who began as a dominant member of the [[Black Panther Party]] but who was not active in the church.<ref>[http://www.ldsfilm.com/movies/Panther.html Latter-day Saint (Mormon) character in "Panther" (1997) (Eldridge Cleaver, Latter-day Saint)]</ref>
*Sam Warren - founding member of R&B group, "[[The Drifters]]".<ref>[http://www.meridianmagazine.com/people/060224warren.html A Drifter with Direction]</ref>
*[[Julia Mavimbela]] - black South African woman's leader and founder of the National Council of African Women.<ref>[http://www.lds.org/ldsorg/v/index.jsp?vgnextoid=f318118dd536c010VgnVCM1000004d82620aRCRD&locale=0&sourceId=4b742e4d12fdb010VgnVCM1000004d82620a____&hideNav=1 Julia Mavimbela]</ref>
*Abe Mills - band member in [[Jericho Road]], an LDS music group
*Robert Foster - first black student body president of [[Brigham Young University]], the flagship LDS university.<ref>[http://magazine.byu.edu/?act=view&a=1155 Learning to Lead]</ref>
*[[Alex Boyé]] - actor and musician.<ref>[http://www.alexboye.com/about-alex-boy%C3%A9 About Alex Boyé | alexboye.com]</ref>
*Mark Smith - British pianist<ref>[http://www.fingermix.com Mark "Fingermix" Smith]</ref>
*[[Kenneth Andam]] – ran Olympic track and field for Ghana in 2000 Olympic<ref>[http://famousmormons.net/olympians.html Famous Mormon Olympians (1912-2000)]</ref>
*[[Mia Love]], first African-American female to serve as a mayor in Utah.
*[[Leonard Myles-Mills]] – ran Olympic track and field for [[Ghana]] in 2000 and 2004<ref>[http://www.mormonstoday.com/000924/S2Olympics05.shtml ''Mormon News'', 23 Sept 2000]</ref>
*[[Darius Gray]] - Gray was a counselor in the presidency of the LDS Church's [[Genesis Group]] when it was formed in 1971.<ref>[http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/history.htm "The Genesis Group: History of Genesis"], ldsgenesisgroup.org, accessed 2008-04-21.</ref>

====Gladys Knight====
[[Image:Gladys Knight.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Since her baptism in 1997, [[Gladys Knight]] has strived to raise awareness of black people in the LDS church.]]

[[Gladys Knight]] created and now directs the [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS]] choir [[Saints Unified Voices]].<ref>[http://www.suvchoir.org SUV Choir]</ref> SUV has released a Grammy Award-winning CD entitled ''One Voice'', and occasionally performs at LDS [[Stake (Mormonism)|stake]] [[Fireside (Mormonism)|fireside]]s. Knight said:
{{blockquote|Since I joined the church, I desire to be more and more obedient to God. As I do so, many people say to me, 'I see a light in you more than ever before. What is it?'...During one performance at Disney world...[a member of the audience asked,] 'Could you please tell us...how you got that light?' The question was direct, so I gave a direct answer: 'I have become a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.<ref>[http://www.blacklds.org/mormon/testimonies.html#knight Testimonies | Blacklds.org]</ref>}}

==See also==
*[[Blacks and the Latter Day Saint movement]]
*[[Joseph Freeman]]
*[[Criticism of Mormonism]]

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite paper
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Mary Lucille Bankhead
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite paper
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Gilmore H. Chapel
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1986
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite paper
| author = Cherry, Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| title = Oral History Interview with Cleolivia Lyons
| version =
| publisher = LDS Afto-American Oral History Project, Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1988
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Cherry
| first = Alan Gerald
| authorlink = Alan Cherry
| coauthors =
| title = It's You and Me, Lord!
| publisher = Trilogy Arts Publications
|year=1970
| location = Provo, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite book
| last = Martin
| first = Wynetta Willis
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Mormon Tells Her Story
| publisher = Hawks Publications
|year=1972
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}
*{{cite book
| last = Martins
| first = Helvecio
| authorlink = Helvicio Martins
| coauthors = [[Mark Grover]]
| title = The Autobiography of Elder Helvecio Martins
| publisher = Aspen Books
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url =
| doi =
| id = }}

*{{cite journal
| last = Phelps
| first = Willian W.
| authorlink = William W. Phelps
| coauthors =
| title = Free People of Color
| journal = [[Evening and Morning Star]]
| volume = 2
| issue = 14
| pages = 109
| publisher = W. W. Phelps & Co.
|month=July | year=1833
| url = http://www.centerplace.org/history/ems/v2n14.htm
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 2006-07-15 }}
*{{Cite web
| last=Young
| first=Brigham
| author-link=Brigham Young
| title=Speech by Gov. Young in Joint Session of the Legeslature [sic]
| date=February 5, 1852
| place=Brigham Young Addresses, Ms d 1234, Box 48, folder 3, LDS Church Historical Department, Salt Lake City, Utah
| url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=Slavery%2C_Blacks%2C_and_the_priesthood&oldid=253414
}}.

===Secondary sources===
*{{Cite journal
| last=Allen
| first=James B.
| author-link=James B. Allen (historian)
| title=Would-Be Saints: West Africa before the 1978 Priesthood Revelation
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=17
| year=1991
| pages=207–48
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,15582
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bringhurst
| first = Newel G.
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Saints, Slaves, and Blacks: The Changing Place of Black People Within Mormonism (Contributions to the Study of Religion, No. 4)
| publisher = Greenwood Press
|year=1981
| location = Westport, Connecticut
| url =
| doi =
| isbn = 0-313-22752-7 }}
*{{Cite journal
| last=Brignhurst
| first=Newel G.
| title=Charles B. Thompson and The Issues of Slavery and Race
| journal=[[Journal of Mormon History]]
| volume=8
| year=1981
| url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/u?/jmh,12075
}}.
*{{cite book
| last = Bush
| first = Lester E. Jr
| authorlink =
| coauthors = [[Armand L. Mauss]], eds.
| title = Neither White Nor Black: Mormon Scholars Confront the Race Issue in a Universal Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1984
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/neither.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 0-941214-22-2 }}
*{{cite book
| last = Embry
| first = Jessie
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Black Saints in a White Church
| publisher = [[Signature Books]]
|year=1994
| location = Salt Lake City, Utah
| url = http://www.signaturebooks.com/outofprint/black.htm
| doi =
| isbn = 1-56085-044-2 }}
*{{cite paper
| author = Hawkins, Chester L.
| title = Report on Elijah Abel and his Priesthood
| version =
| publisher = Unpublished Manuscript, Special Collections, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah
|year=1985
| url =
| format =
| accessdate = }}
* O'Donovan, Connell, [http://people.ucsc.edu/~odonovan/elder_walker_lewis.html "The Mormon Priesthood Ban and Elder Q. Walker Lewis"], ''[[John Whitmer Historical Association Journal]]'' (Independence, Missouri, 2006), pp. 47–99.
*''Black Mormons and the Priesthood Ban'' by Darrick T. Evenson (SKU 4935190)
*''Setting the Record Straight: Blacks and the Mormon Priesthood'' by [[Marcus Helvécio T. A. Martins]] (SKU 4995993)
*{{cite book
| title=Black and Mormon
| last=Smith
| first=Darrin
| publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]
| year=2004
| isbn=025202947X
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Changing World of Mormonism |
isbn=0802412343 |
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner|
publisher=Moody Press|
year=1979
}}
*{{cite book|
title=The Curse of Cain|
first=Jerald and Sandra| last=Tanner| authorlink=Jerald and Sandra Tanner}}
*{{cite book|
title=Mormon America|
last=Ostling|first=Richard and Joan|authorlink=Richard and Joan Ostling|year=1999|
publisher=[[Harper Collins]]
}}
*{{cite book|
title=One Nation Under Gods: A History of the Mormon Church|
year=2002|
first=Richard|last=Abanes|authorlink=Richard Abanes|
isbn=1568582196|
publisher=Four Walls Eight Windows}}
* Stewart, John J. ''Mormonism and the Negro'' Salt Lake City, Utah:1960 Bookmark [http://www.celestial-orb.org/library/mormon_negro.html Complete text of the 1960 book ''Mormonism and the Negro'' by John J. Stewart, a defense of the former LDS policy of denying the Mormon Priesthood to people of African ancestry:]
===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000022 mormoncentury.org] Haitian LDS converts share perspective on race & religion
* [http://www.ldsgenesisgroup.org/ The Genesis Group] - LDS fellowship group organized for black members and those interested in the church
*[http://www.blacklds.org/ BlackLDS.org]
*[http://www.mormonstudies.net/html/priesthood.html A Work in Progress: The Latter-day Saint Struggle with Blacks and the Priesthood]
*[http://www.mormoncentury.org/www/ContentPages/HearContent.aspx?PID=1000023 Mormonism is a new ethnicity]
*[http://contentdm.lib.byu.edu/ETD/image/etd1909.pdf A Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in Early Territorial Utah], Ricks, Nathaniel R., Master Thesis, ''Brigham Young University'', 2007.

{{Latter-day Saints|hide|show}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Black People And The Church Of Jesus Christ Of Latter-Day Saints}}
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
[[Category:Mormonism and race]]
[[Category:Brigham Young]]
[[Category:Criticism of Mormonism]]

[[fr:Situation des Noirs dans le mormonisme]]

New-Croton-Talsperre

2010-01-11T20:45:27Z

Angusmclellan: switch to commons image

{{otheruses4|the dam on the Croton River in New York|the dam on the Muskegon River in Michigan|Croton Dam (Michigan)}}
{{Infobox_Dam
|dam_name=New Croton Dam
|image=New Croton Dam from below.jpg
|caption=New Croton Dam
|impounds=
|locale= [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]]
|reservoir= [[New Croton Reservoir]]
|reservoir capacity=
|maint= [[New York City]]
|length= {{convert|2188|ft|m}}
|height= {{convert|297|ft|m}}
|width= {{convert|266|ft|m}}
|began= 1892
|open= 1906
|map_cue=
|map_image=
|map_text=
|map_width=
|coordinates = {{coord|41|13|35|N|73|51|19|W|type:landmark_region:US-NY|display=inline,title}}<ref name="gnis">{{cite web | work = [[Geographic Names Information System]] (GNIS)| publisher = [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) | date = January 23, 1980 | url = http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:958406 | title = New Croton Dam | accessdate= October 13, 2008 | dateformat=dmy }}</ref>
|extra=
}}
[[Image:Croton Dam (panorama).jpg|right|thumb|Panorama view of New Croton Dam, looking northwest]]
The '''New Croton Dam''', part of the [[New York City water supply system]], stretches across the [[Croton River]] near [[Croton-on-Hudson, New York]], about {{convert|22|mi|km}} north of New York City. Construction began in 1892 and was completed in 1906.<ref name=hudson>[http://village.croton-on-hudson.ny.us/Public_Documents/CrotonHudsonNY_WebDocs/HistoricalSociety/crotondam "The Croton Dam"]. Village of Croton-on-Hudson Historical Society. Retrieved on July 8, 2007.</ref> Designed by Alphonse Fteley (1837–1903), this [[masonry dam]] is {{convert|266|ft|m}} broad at its base and {{convert|297|ft|m}} high from base to crest. Its foundation extends {{convert|130|ft|m}} below the bed of the river, and the dam contains {{convert|850000|yd3|m3}} of masonry.<ref>[http://www.yorktownhistory.org/photoarchive/crotondam/index.htm "The Opening of the New Croton Reservoir"]. Yorktown Historical Society. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.</ref> The engineers' tablet mounted on the headhouse nearest the spillway lists the spillway length as {{convert|1000|ft|m|}} and the total length of the dam and spillway combined as {{convert|2188|ft|m|}}.<ref>Tompkins, Christopher R: ''The Croton Dams and Aqueduct'', page 2. Arcadia Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7385-0455-6.</ref> At the time of its completion, it was the tallest dam in the world.<ref>Jackson, Donald C: ''Great American Bridges and Dams'', page 128. John Wiley and Sons, 1988. ISBN 0-471-14385-5</ref> New Croton Dam impounds up to 19 billion gallons (71.9 million m³) of water, a small fraction of the New York City water system's total storage capacity of 580 billion gallons (2.2 billion m³).<ref>[http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/watershed_protection/html/newcrotoninfo.html "New Croton"]. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved on July 10, 2007.</ref>

The dam, in [[Westchester County]], has an unusual [[spillway]], part artificial and part natural, which forms a waterfall on the north side of the structure. New Croton Dam has a public park and trail head at its base and a road along its crest. Road use is limited to pedestrians and emergency vehicles.

== History ==

The original Croton Dam (Old Croton Dam) was built between 1837 and 1842 to improve New York City's water supply. By 1881, after extensive repairs to the dam, which was {{convert|50|ft|m}} high, Old Croton Reservoir was able to supply about 90 million gallons (341,000 m³) a day to the city via the [[Old Croton Aqueduct]].<ref>[http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/watershed_protection/html/history.html "NYC Water Supply Watersheds: History"]. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.</ref> To meet escalating water needs, the Aqueduct Commission of the City of New York ordered construction of a new Croton system in 1885.

The proposed dam and reservoir were to cover 20 square miles (51.8 km²) of land occupied by public and private buildings, six cemeteries, and more than 400 farms.<ref name=hudson>[http://village.croton-on-hudson.ny.us/Public_Documents/CrotonHudsonNY_WebDocs/HistoricalSociety/crotondam "The Croton Dam"]. Village of Croton-on-Hudson Historical Society. Retrieved on July 8, 2007.</ref> Condemnation disputes led to "protests, lawsuits, and confusion" before payment of claims and the awarding of construction contracts.<ref name="hudson"/> The work force on the new dam included stone masons and laborers who had worked on the original dam. John B. Goldsborough, superintendent of excavations and hiring for the project, also recruited stone masons from southern Italy, who re-located to New York.

Work began in 1892 at a site four miles (6.4 km) downstream of the original dam, which was submerged by the new reservoir. [[New Croton Reservoir]] was eventually able to supply 200 to 300 million gallons (760,000 to 1.14 million m³) a day via a new aqueduct that carried water to [[Jerome Park Reservoir]] in the north Bronx, New York City.<ref>[http://people.hofstra.edu/charles_merguerian/Abstracts%20and%20Papers/CM2000c.htm "History and Geology of the NYC Aqueduct System"]. Merguerian, Charles. (Notes for October 4, 2000, lecture at the Long Island Geologists Dinner Meeting). Retrieved on July 8, 2007.</ref>

Building the dam meant diverting the river from its normal path and pumping the riverbed dry. To accomplish this, workers dug a crescent-shaped canal {{convert|1000|ft|m}} long and {{convert|200|ft|m|}} wide in the hill on the north side of the river, secured the canal with a masonry retaining wall, and built temporary dams to control the water flow.<ref name="hudson"/> The initial construction lasted eight years, and extensive modifications and repairs went on for another six. Working conditions were often difficult. A silent film, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0288490/ ''The Croton Dam Strike''], released in 1900, depicted labor/management problems related to the dam's construction.

[[File:Aqueduct trail, New Croton Dam.jpg|right|thumb|Old Croton Trail Endpoint]]
The bridge over the spillway was replaced in 1975 and again in 2005. In that same year, because of the [[September 11 attacks]] on New York City, the [[New York City Department of Environmental Protection]] proposed permanent closure of the road across the top of the dam. Pedestrians and emergency vehicles were allowed to use New Croton Dam Road, but all other traffic was re-routed. The department made plans to replace temporary vehicle barriers with permanent barriers after completion of a New Croton Dam Rehabilitation Project in 2011.<ref>[http://home2.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/environmental_reviews/crotondam.shtml "New Croton Dam Road Closure Environmental Review"]. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.</ref>.

==Trails==
[[Croton Gorge Park]] offers views of the dam from directly downstream. The [[Old Croton Trail]], a popular hiking and biking path that roughly follows the route of the [[Old Croton Aqueduct]], has an endpoint near the base of the dam. [[Teatown Lake Reservation]], a nature preserve, lies nearby as does [[Croton Point]] Park in Croton-on-Hudson.

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

[[Category:Westchester County, New York]]
[[Category:Dams in New York]]
[[Category:Croton Watershed]]

[[de:New-Croton-Talsperre]]

New-Croton-Talsperre

2010-01-11T20:41:47Z

Angusmclellan: switch to commons image

{{otheruses4|the dam on the Croton River in New York|the dam on the Muskegon River in Michigan|Croton Dam (Michigan)}}
{{Infobox_Dam
|dam_name=New Croton Dam
|image=New Croton Dam from below.jpg
|caption=New Croton Dam
|impounds=
|locale= [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]]
|reservoir= [[New Croton Reservoir]]
|reservoir capacity=
|maint= [[New York City]]
|length= {{convert|2188|ft|m}}
|height= {{convert|297|ft|m}}
|width= {{convert|266|ft|m}}
|began= 1892
|open= 1906
|map_cue=
|map_image=
|map_text=
|map_width=
|coordinates = {{coord|41|13|35|N|73|51|19|W|type:landmark_region:US-NY|display=inline,title}}<ref name="gnis">{{cite web | work = [[Geographic Names Information System]] (GNIS)| publisher = [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) | date = January 23, 1980 | url = http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:3:::NO::P3_FID:958406 | title = New Croton Dam | accessdate= October 13, 2008 | dateformat=dmy }}</ref>
|extra=
}}
[[Image:Croton Dam (panorama).jpg|right|thumb|Panorama view of New Croton Dam, looking northwest]]
The '''New Croton Dam''', part of the [[New York City water supply system]], stretches across the [[Croton River]] near [[Croton-on-Hudson, New York]], about {{convert|22|mi|km}} north of New York City. Construction began in 1892 and was completed in 1906.<ref name=hudson>[http://village.croton-on-hudson.ny.us/Public_Documents/CrotonHudsonNY_WebDocs/HistoricalSociety/crotondam "The Croton Dam"]. Village of Croton-on-Hudson Historical Society. Retrieved on July 8, 2007.</ref> Designed by Alphonse Fteley (1837–1903), this [[masonry dam]] is {{convert|266|ft|m}} broad at its base and {{convert|297|ft|m}} high from base to crest. Its foundation extends {{convert|130|ft|m}} below the bed of the river, and the dam contains {{convert|850000|yd3|m3}} of masonry.<ref>[http://www.yorktownhistory.org/photoarchive/crotondam/index.htm "The Opening of the New Croton Reservoir"]. Yorktown Historical Society. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.</ref> The engineers' tablet mounted on the headhouse nearest the spillway lists the spillway length as {{convert|1000|ft|m|}} and the total length of the dam and spillway combined as {{convert|2188|ft|m|}}.<ref>Tompkins, Christopher R: ''The Croton Dams and Aqueduct'', page 2. Arcadia Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7385-0455-6.</ref> At the time of its completion, it was the tallest dam in the world.<ref>Jackson, Donald C: ''Great American Bridges and Dams'', page 128. John Wiley and Sons, 1988. ISBN 0-471-14385-5</ref> New Croton Dam impounds up to 19 billion gallons (71.9 million m³) of water, a small fraction of the New York City water system's total storage capacity of 580 billion gallons (2.2 billion m³).<ref>[http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/watershed_protection/html/newcrotoninfo.html "New Croton"]. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved on July 10, 2007.</ref>

The dam, in [[Westchester County]], has an unusual [[spillway]], part artificial and part natural, which forms a waterfall on the north side of the structure. New Croton Dam has a public park and trail head at its base and a road along its crest. Road use is limited to pedestrians and emergency vehicles.

== History ==

The original Croton Dam (Old Croton Dam) was built between 1837 and 1842 to improve New York City's water supply. By 1881, after extensive repairs to the dam, which was {{convert|50|ft|m}} high, Old Croton Reservoir was able to supply about 90 million gallons (341,000 m³) a day to the city via the [[Old Croton Aqueduct]].<ref>[http://www.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/watershed_protection/html/history.html "NYC Water Supply Watersheds: History"]. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.</ref> To meet escalating water needs, the Aqueduct Commission of the City of New York ordered construction of a new Croton system in 1885.

The proposed dam and reservoir were to cover 20 square miles (51.8 km²) of land occupied by public and private buildings, six cemeteries, and more than 400 farms.<ref name=hudson>[http://village.croton-on-hudson.ny.us/Public_Documents/CrotonHudsonNY_WebDocs/HistoricalSociety/crotondam "The Croton Dam"]. Village of Croton-on-Hudson Historical Society. Retrieved on July 8, 2007.</ref> Condemnation disputes led to "protests, lawsuits, and confusion" before payment of claims and the awarding of construction contracts.<ref name="hudson"/> The work force on the new dam included stone masons and laborers who had worked on the original dam. John B. Goldsborough, superintendent of excavations and hiring for the project, also recruited stone masons from southern Italy, who re-located to New York.

Work began in 1892 at a site four miles (6.4 km) downstream of the original dam, which was submerged by the new reservoir. [[New Croton Reservoir]] was eventually able to supply 200 to 300 million gallons (760,000 to 1.14 million m³) a day via a new aqueduct that carried water to [[Jerome Park Reservoir]] in the north Bronx, New York City.<ref>[http://people.hofstra.edu/charles_merguerian/Abstracts%20and%20Papers/CM2000c.htm "History and Geology of the NYC Aqueduct System"]. Merguerian, Charles. (Notes for October 4, 2000, lecture at the Long Island Geologists Dinner Meeting). Retrieved on July 8, 2007.</ref>

Building the dam meant diverting the river from its normal path and pumping the riverbed dry. To accomplish this, workers dug a crescent-shaped canal {{convert|1000|ft|m}} long and {{convert|200|ft|m|}} wide in the hill on the north side of the river, secured the canal with a masonry retaining wall, and built temporary dams to control the water flow.<ref name="hudson"/> The initial construction lasted eight years, and extensive modifications and repairs went on for another six. Working conditions were often difficult. A silent film, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0288490/ ''The Croton Dam Strike''], released in 1900, depicted labor/management problems related to the dam's construction.

[[Image:4750.JPG|right|thumb|Old Croton Trail Endpoint]]
The bridge over the spillway was replaced in 1975 and again in 2005. In that same year, because of the [[September 11 attacks]] on New York City, the [[New York City Department of Environmental Protection]] proposed permanent closure of the road across the top of the dam. Pedestrians and emergency vehicles were allowed to use New Croton Dam Road, but all other traffic was re-routed. The department made plans to replace temporary vehicle barriers with permanent barriers after completion of a New Croton Dam Rehabilitation Project in 2011.<ref>[http://home2.nyc.gov/html/dep/html/environmental_reviews/crotondam.shtml "New Croton Dam Road Closure Environmental Review"]. New York City Department of Environmental Protection. Retrieved on July 11, 2007.</ref>.

==Trails==
[[Croton Gorge Park]] offers views of the dam from directly downstream. The [[Old Croton Trail]], a popular hiking and biking path that roughly follows the route of the [[Old Croton Aqueduct]], has an endpoint near the base of the dam. [[Teatown Lake Reservation]], a nature preserve, lies nearby as does [[Croton Point]] Park in Croton-on-Hudson.

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

[[Category:Westchester County, New York]]
[[Category:Dams in New York]]
[[Category:Croton Watershed]]

[[de:New-Croton-Talsperre]]

Derafsch-e Kaviani

2010-01-04T17:25:33Z

Angusmclellan: File listed at files for deletion

[[File:Derafsh e kavian.gif|thumb|right|200 px|Derafsh-e Kavian.{{ifdc|Derafsh e kavian.gif|log=2010 January 4}}]]
The '''Derafsh-e Kavian''' (''Derafš-e Kāvīān'', [[Middle Persian]])({{lang-fa|درفش کاویانی}}) was the legendary royal standard of the [[Sassanid]] kings.<ref name="EI_Kavian">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|last=Khaleghi-Motlagh|first=Djalal|title=Derafš-e Kāvīān|volume=7|year=1996|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v7f3/v7f344.html|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda}}</ref> The banner was also sometimes called the "standard of [[Jamshid]]" (''Derafš-e Jamshid''), the "standard of [[Fereydun]]" (''Derafš-e Fereydun''), and the "royal standard" (''Derafš-e Kayr'').

The name ''Derafš-e Kāvīān'' (Modern Persian: ''Derafš Kāvīāni'' ''درفش كاويانى'') means "the standard of the kay(s)" (i.e., ''kavis'' "kings") or "of Kāva."<ref name="EI_Kavian"/> The latter meaning is an identification with an Iranian legend in which the ''Derafš-e Kāvīān'' was the standard of a mythological blacksmith-turned-hero named [[Kaveh|Kāva]] (Modern Persian: Kāveh), who led a popular uprising against the foreign demon-like ruler [[Zahhak|Dahāg]] (Modern Persian: Zahhāk). Recalling the Sassanid-era legend, the 10th century epic [[Shahnameh|Shāhnāma]] recasts Zahhak as an evil and tyrannical Arab, against whom Kāveh called the people to arms, using the blacksmith's leather apron on a spear as a standard. In the story, after the war that called for the kingship of [[Fereydun]] (Middle Persian: ''Frēdōn'') had been won, the people decorated the apron with jewels and the flag became the symbol of Iranian independence and resistance towards foreign tyranny.

By the late [[Sassanid]] era (224-651), a real ''Derafš-e Kāvīān'' had emerged as the standard of the Sassanid dynasts. It was thus also representative of the Sassanid state - ''Ērānshāhr'', the "Kingdom of Iran" - and may so be considered to have been the first "national flag" of [[Iran]]. The banner consisted of a star (the ''akotar'') on a purple field, was encrusted with jewels and had trailing red, gold and purple streamers on its edges. The term ''akotar'' was significant since the star also represented "fortune", and the capture and destruction of the banner on a field of battle implied the loss of the battle (and hence the loss of fortune).<ref name="EI_Flags">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|last=Shahbazi|first=A. Shapur|title=Flags|volume=10|year=2001|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v10f1/v10f103a.html|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda}}</ref> Following the defeat of the Sassanids at the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]], the Sassanid standard was recovered by one Zerar bin Kattab,<ref name="EI_Kavian" /> who received 30,000 dinars for it. After the jewels were removed the caliph [[Omar ibn al-Khattāb|Omar]] is said to have burned the standard.<ref name="EI_Kavian" />

As the symbol of the Sassanid state,<ref name="EI_Derafsh">{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|last=Shahbazi|first=A. Shapur|title=Derafš|volume=7|year=1996|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v7f3/v7f343.html|location=Costa Mesa|publisher=Mazda}}</ref> the ''Derafsh-e Kavian'' was irrevocably tied to the concept of ''Eranshahr'' and hence with the concept of Iranian nationhood. Thus, in 867, when the [[Saffarid]] "[[Ya'qub bin Laith as-Saffar|Yaqub Layt]] 'claimed the inheritance of the kings of Persia' and sought 'to revive their glory,' a poem written on his behalf sent to the [[Abbasid]] caliph said: 'With me is the ''Derafsh-e Kavian'', through which I hope to rule the nations'."<ref name="EI_Flags" /> Although no evidence that Yaqub Layt ever re-recreated such a flag survives, star imagery in banners remained popular until the ascendance of the [[The Lion and Sun|lion and sun]] symbol.

==See also==
* [[Sassanid dynasty]]
* [[Iranian nationalism]]
* [[Flag of Iran]]

==References and Bibliography==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Sassanid dynasty]]
[[Category:Historical flags]]

[[fa:درفش کاویانی]]
[[fr:Derafsh Kaviani]]
[[sv:Derafsh Kaviani]]
[[ur:درفش کاویانی]]

Bankon

2009-12-30T16:06:30Z

Angusmclellan: en:Bankon language

{{Infobox_Sprache
|Sprache = Bankon
|Länder = [[Kamerun]]
|Sprecher = 12.000
|Klassifikation =
* [[Niger-Kongo-Sprachen]]
*: [[Benue-Kongo-Sprachen]]
*:: [[Bantoidsprachen]]
*:::[[Bantusprachen]]
|KSprache = Bankon
|Amtssprache =
|ISO1 = -
|ISO2 = -
|ISO3 =[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=abb abb]
}}

'''Bankon''' (auch Abaw, Abo, Bo und Bon) ist eine [[Bantusprache]] und wird von circa 12.000 Menschen in [[Kamerun]] gesprochen. Sie ist im Bezirk [[Moungo]] in der Provinz [[Littoral (Kamerun)|Littoral]] verbreitet.

==Klassifikation==
Bankon bildet mit den Sprachen [[Bakoko (Sprache)|Bakoko]], [[Barombi]] und [[Bassa (Bantusprache)|Bassa]] die Lundu-Balong-Gruppe. Nach der Einteilung von [[Malcolm Guthrie]] gehört Bankon zur Guthrie-Zone A40.

Circa 86% des [[Wortschatz]]es weisen Ähnlichkeiten mit dem Wortschatz der Sprache Barombi auf.

== Weblinks ==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=abb Ethnologue-Eintrag zu Bankon]

[[Kategorie:Einzelsprache]]
[[Kategorie:Bantusprachen]]

[[en:Bankon language]]
[[fr:Nkon]]

Sharpless-Katalog

2009-12-20T15:45:58Z

Angusmclellan: /* Examples */ one image removed, see Wikipedia:Possibly_unfree_files/2009_November_21#File:IC_1296.jpg

The '''Sharpless catalog''' is a list of 313 [[HII regions]] (emission [[nebulae]]), intended to be comprehensive north of declination -27°. (It does include some nebulae south of that declination as well.) The first edition was publishing 1953 with 142 objects (Sh1) and second and final version was published by US astronomer [[Stewart Sharpless]] in [[1959]] with 313 objects.

In 1953 Stewart Sharpless joined the staff of the [[United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station]],<ref name="steven2002"/> where he surveyed and cataloged [[H II region]]s of the Milky Way Galaxy using the images from the [[Palomar Sky Survey]]. From this work Sharpless published his catalog of H II regions in two editions, the first in 1953 with 142 nebula<ref>Stewart Sharpless, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1953ApJ...118..362S A Catalogue of Emission Nebulae Near the Galactic Plane], ''[[Astrophysical Journal]],'' vol. 118, p.362, 1953</ref>. The second and final edition was published in 1959 with 313 nebulae<ref name="steven2002">{{cite book |last= Steven |first= Dick|title= Sky and Ocean Joined: The [[United States Naval Observatory|U.S. Naval Observatory]], 1830-2000|year= 2002|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn= 978-0521815994 }}</ref><ref>Stewart Sharpless, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1959ApJS....4..257S A Catalogue of H II Regions], [[Astrophysical Journal]] Supplement, vol. 4, p.257, 1959</ref>

The 313 items in the Sharpless overlap with objects from many other catalogs including the 110 [[Messier objects]] (M), 7,840 objects in the [[New General Catalogue]] (NGC), [[Caldwell catalogue]] (which itself is a "best of" from other catalogues, with 109 items), and the [[RCW catalog]]. Abbreviations for Sharpless objects include, for example using 123, would be Sharpless 123, or Sh2-123, Sh 2-123 (for second one).

==Examples==
''Examples of second Sharpless (1958 version) catalog; click on image for image credit, most of which are either various amateur astronomers, the ESO, ESA, or NASA''

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:94%;"
|-
! Sh 2- # || A common name || Images || Names & Designations
|-
|6 || [[NGC 6302]] || [[File:NGC 6302HST.jpg|90px]] || Sh2-6, NGC 6302, Bug Nebula,
PK 349+01 1, Butterfly Nebula, [[RCW]] 124, [[Gum]] 60, [[Caldwell]] 69
|-
|8 || [[NGC 6334]] || [[File:NGC 6334.jpg|99px]] ||ESO 392-EN 009, Sharpless 8, RCW 127, Gum 64, NGC 6334
|-
|11 || [[NGC 6357]] || [[File:EmissionNebula NGC6357.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-11, NGC 6357, RCW 131, Gum 66, War and Peace Nebula
|-
| 25 || [[Lagoon Nebula]] || [[File:M8HunterWilson.jpg|99px]] || Sh2 25, RCW 146, Gum 72, Messier 8
|-
| 30 || [[Trifid Nebula]]|| [[File:Trifid.nebula.arp.750pix.jpg|99px]] || Sh2 30, M20, NGC 6514, RCW 147, Gum 76
|-
| 45 || [[Omega Nebula]] || [[File:ESO-The Omega Nebula-phot-25a-09-fullres.jpg|99px]] || Omega Nebula, M17, NGC 6618, Swan Nebula, Sharpless 45, RCW 160, Gum 81
|-
|49 || [[Eagle Nebula]] || [[File:Eagle Nebula from ESO.jpg|99px]] || Sh2 49, Messier 16, NGC 6611, RCW 165, Gum 83
|-
|101 || [[Tulip Nebula]] || [[File:TulipHunterWilson.jpg|99px]] || Sharpless 101
|-
|105 || [[Crescent Nebula]] || [[File:Crescenthunter.jpg|99px]] || Sh2 105, NGC 6888, Sharpless 105, Caldwell 27
|-
|117 || [[North America Nebula]] || [[File:North American Nebula Lanoue.png|99px]] || NGC 7000, Caldwell 20
|-
|140 || Sh2-140 || [[File:Ssc2004-07a.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-140
|-
|155 || [[Cave Nebula]] || [[File:Cave Nebula.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-155, Caldwell 9
|-
|158 || [[NGC 7538]] ||- || NGC 7538, Bubble Nebula, Dreyer's Object, Sharpless 158
|-
|162 || [[NGC 7635]] || [[File:NGC 7635 (vivid).jpg|99px]] || Sh2-162, NGC 7635, Bubble nebula
|-
| 184 || [[NGC 281]] || [[File:NGC281HunterWilson.jpg|99px]] || NGC 281, IC 11
|-
| 191 || [[Maffei 1]] || [[File:Maf1atlas.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-191, Maffei 1, PGC 9892
|-
| 197 || [[Maffei 2]] || [[File:Maf2atlas.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-197, Mafei 2, UGCA 39,<ref name="ned">{{cite web
| title=NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
| work=Results for Maffei 2
| url=http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/
| accessdate=2006-11-25 }}</ref>[[Principal Galaxies Catalogue|PGC]] 10217,<ref name="ned" />
|-
|199 || [[Soul Nebula]] || [[File:Soul Nebula.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-199, LBN 667, Soul Nebula, IC 1848 (cluster only)
|-
| 220 || [[California Nebula]] || [[File:California-nebula.jpeg|99px]] || NGC 1499, Sharpless 220
|-
| 229 || [[IC 405]] || ||Flaming Star Nebula, Caldwell 31, IC 405, Sh2-229
|-
|238 || [[NGC 1555]] || || NGC 1555, Hind's Nebula, Sharpless 238
|-
| 244 || [[Crab Nebula]] || [[File:Crab Nebula.jpg|99px]] || Messier 1, NGC 1952,
|-
| 248 || [[IC 443]] || [[File:Ic443 wide.jpg|99px]] || IC 443, Sh2-248, Jellyfish Nebula
|-
| 271 || [[Flame Nebula]] || [[File:Ngc2024 med.jpg|99px]] || Sh-271, NGC 2024
|-
| 275 || [[Rosette Nebula]] ||[[File:Rosette nebula s.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-275, CTB 21
|-
| 276 || [[Barnard's Loop]] || [[File:BarnardLoopHunterWilson.jpg|99px]] || Sh2-276, Barnard's Loop
|-
| 281|| [[Orion Nebula]] || [[File:Orion Nebula - Hubble 2006 mosaic 18000.jpg|99px]] ||M42, NGC 1976, LBN 974
|-
| 298|| [[NGC 2359]] || [[Image:NGC 2359.jpg|99px]] || Thor's Helmet, Gum 4, Sharpless 298, NGC 2359
|}

{{Expand section|date=August 2009}}

==External links==
*[http://cdsarc.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/Cat?VII/20 Original catalog]
*[http://galaxymap.org/cgi-bin/sharpless.py?s=1 Illustrated and annotated commentary]
*[[SIMBAD]] [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/sim-ref?bibcode=1959ApJS....4..257S&simbo=on&submit=submit%20bibcode Sh2 listing]
*[http://www.sharplesscatalog.com/sharpless.aspx Sh2 images]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Sh2 objects}}

[[Category:Astronomical catalogues]]
[[Category:Sharpless objects| ]]

[[fr:Catalogue Sharpless]]
[[it:Catalogo Sharpless]]
[[pl:Katalog Sharplessa]]

Alcibiades Diamandi

2009-12-19T17:22:11Z

Angusmclellan: /* Experiments in statehood: The "Autonomous State of Pindus" */ image removed, see Wikipedia:Files_for_deletion/2009_December_11#File:NellEpiro.jpg

'''Alchiviad Diamandi di Samarina''' or '''Alkiviadis Diamandi''' or '''Alcibiade Diamandi''' (sometimes spelled ''Diamanti'', ''Diamandis'', ''Diamanthis'' or ''Diamantis'') (Samarina, Greece, August 13, 1893 — Bucharest, July 9, 1948) was an [[Aromanians|Aromanian]] (Vlach) political figure of [[Greece]], active during the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second World Wars]] in connection with the [[Italy|Italian]] officials (who had occupied parts of Greece).

==From Samarina to Rome via Bucharest==
Diamandi was born in [[Samarina]] (at over 1,600 metres, the village situated at the highest altitude in Greece) to a family of wealthy Aromanian merchants. After attending the Romanian primary school in Samarina, he studied at the Greek Lyceum in [[Thessaloniki]] (at that time still part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]) and on the eve of the [[Balkan Wars]] in 1912 he left (as many other Vlachs of Greece) for [[Romania]], where he enrolled at the Commercial Academy (''Academia Comercială'') in [[Bucharest]], and graduated from it. As Romania entered World War I in 1916, Diamandi volunteered for military service, briefly serving as officer.

It is not clear whether he was discharged from the Romanian Army or rather dispatched by the Romanians to [[Albania]] where, under the Italian and [[France|French]] tutelage (see [[National awakening and the birth of Albania|Birth of Albania]]), he became in 1918 co-founder of the short-lived '''Republic of [[Korçë|Korytsá]]''' (''Korçë'' in [[Albanian language|Albanian]], ''Curceaua'' in [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]], ''Corizza'' in [[Italian language]]), which was supposed, under the makeshift name of the 'Republic of Pindus' to be the first autonomous state of the Vlachs of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]]. While in Albania, Diamandi befriended the Albanian political figure [[Fan S. Noli]], whose political ideals he shared.

After the withdrawal of the Italians, he sought refuge for a while at [[Sarandë]] in Albania, from where he fled to [[Rome]] - where he become involved with [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[Italian fascism|Fascist]] political movement. He contacted the Romanian [[Legation]] and was issued a Romanian passport, with which he was able to travel to Greece. According to the Greek author Stavros Anthemides, Diamandi was 'pardoned' by the Greek authorities in 1927 for his resistance to Greek authorities.

==The Athens years==
Shortly after the presumed amnesty, he arrived in [[Athens]] as the "vice president of the National Petroleum Company of Romania", as an oil importer. This was coupled with importing lumber from Romania to Greece and some other business ventures. He rented a flat in the fashionable [[Kolonaki]] district, and frequented the bars and cafes of [[Piraeus]], where he was involved in a brawl with a Greek navy captain. During the squabble, Diamandi was wounded by a bottle flung in his direction by his adversary, and the resulting scar was used to identify him later on when he was on the run.

Diamandi frequently traveled to [[Rhodes]] (which was at the time an Italian possession), managing to attract the attention of the Greek Counter-intelligence Services. It is widely assumed that the Greek government was aware that Diamandi was an [[undercover]] Romanian agent who was trying to incite the Aromanians against the Greek state. During [[Ioannis Metaxas]]'s regime, Diamandi was served with an expulsion order, but he managed to avoid being forced out and conrinued his activities.

==Experiments in statehood: The "Autonomous State of Pindus"==
{{main|Principality of Pindus}}
{{seealso|Axis Occupation of Greece}}
When the [[Greco-Italian War]] started, at the end of October 1940, Diamandi was already in [[Konitsa]] on the Albanian-Greek border. The invading Italians offered him the rank of ''Commandatore'', and he served as [[translator]] and assistant to the Italian Chief of Staff General [http://www.ww2.web64.dk/person/guzzoni.htm Alfredo Guzzoni]. After Italy's initial defeat, Diamandi was forced to seek refuge in [[Tirana]] (at that time under Italian rule) and re-entered Greece with the Italian armies five months later in the spring of 1941.

This time he went on to form the so-called "[[Autonomy|Autonomous]] State of the Pindus" (''Αυτόνομον Κράτος της Πίνδου'') or "Autonomous Vlach State" (''Αυτόνομον Βλαχικόν Κράτος'') in the territory of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], [[Thessaly]] and parts of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], which was supposed to constitute a "Vlach Homeland".
He started self-styling himself ''Principe'' and sketched the outlook of the "[[Principality of Pindus]]" for the Vlach region. Diamandi's deputy and right-hand was the [[Larissa]]-based lawyer [[Nicola Matushi]], while the third in the hierarchy of the nascent state was [[Rapoutikas Vassilis]]. The model for the Vlach state were the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]], united into a [[confederation]] - which meant, in this case, the "Principality".

In June 1941, Diamandi found himself in [[Grevena]] and then he went to [[Metsovo]], where he founded the "Party of the Kοutso-Vlach Community" (''Κόμμα Κοινότητας Κουτσοβλάχων'') which was part of the "Union of Romanian Communities" (''Ένωσις Ρουμανικών Κοινοτήτων''). A "Vlach Parliament" was summoned in [[Trikala]], but no laws were adopted - since the Parliament was mostly for show; the Italians were not keen on sharing power in the region. Nevertheless, the parliament did issue a series of local regulations aimed at restricting the use of the [[Greek language]] in favour of Aromanian. It also carried out Dimanadi's wish to have the town and village entry signs in Greek replaced with new ones in Aromanian and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Thus, Metsovo became ''Aminciu'' in Aromanian and ''Mincio'' in Italian, [[Nympheon]] became ''Nevesca'' and ''Nevesa'', Samarina was made into ''Santa Maria'' etc.

== A Vlach Manifesto in occupied Greece ==
On March 1, 1942, Diamandi issued an ample ''Manifesto'' which was published in the local press and republished by Stavros Anthemides in 1997 (in his book on the ''Vlachs of Greece''; see bibliography). The ''Manifesto'' was co-signed by leading Vlach intellectuals such as:
* the lawyer [[Nicola Matushi]]
* Prof. Dimas Tioutras
* the lawyer Vasilakis Georgios
* the physician Dr. Frangkos Georgios
* the teacher A. Beca
* the businessman Gachi Papas
* the physician Dr. Nikos Mitsibouna
* Prof. Dim. Hatzigogou
* the lawyer A. Kalometros
* the engineer Niko Teleionis
* Vasilis Tsiotzios
* Prof. Kosta Nicoleskou
* Prof. Toli Pasta
* Dim. Tahas
* Prof. Stefanos Kotsios
* Prof. G. Kontoinani
* Dr. Kaloera
* Prof. Toli Hatzi
* Giovani Mertzios of [[Neveska]] (whose son [http://www.tamos.gr/mertzos.htm Nik. Merztios], in a twist of history, is a well known pro-Greek Vlach author of Greece)
* [[Pericli Papas]]
* Prof. Virgiliu Balamace (related to Nick Balamace, currently the Secretary of the [http://www.farsarotul.org 'Society Farsarotul'] in the [[United States]])
* ing. S. Pelekis
* K. Pitouli
* the lawyer Toli Hatzis
* Dim. Barba

Two Vlachs of Albania and [[Bulgaria]], Vasilis Vartolis and the Samarina born writer [[Ziko Araias]], known also as [http://convorbiri-literare.dntis.ro/FAIFERdec3.html Zicu Araia] also endorsed the ''Manifesto''. In Romania, it was co-signed by the [[Veria]]-born [[George Murnu]], a professor at the [[University of Bucharest]]. Diamandi travelled to Bucharest shortly after he met Murnu, and together they attended a meeting with the then Leader (''Conducător'') of Romania Marshal [[Ion Antonescu]], and the Foreign Minister [[Mihai Antonescu]]. The status of the Principality of Pindos was discussed.

One option favoured by Diamandi was to put the Principality under the sovereignty of the [[King of Romania|Romanian Crown]] (as an associated "free state"). Diamandi, as a Prince, would then have the right to attend the ''Consilii de Coroană'' ("Crown Councils"), which were to be held in Bucharest or in the [[Transylvanian Alps]] mountain spa and ski resort of [[Sinaia]]. Another option was to link the principality to the ruling Italian [[House of Savoy]]. None of these options was to be realised.

==Refuge in Romania==
Towards the second year of the Italian occupation, [[Guerrilla warfare|guerilla]] actions broke out in the area, between the [[Greek Civil War#Background: 1941-44|Greek Resistance]] supported by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]] and the Italo-[[Nazi Germany|German]] side. The chaos that ensued drove Diamandi to leave (either that or he was ordered back) to Romania. Diamandi was arrested by the Romanian police on February 21, 1948. He died in the Prefecture of Police in Bucuresti some month later.

After Dimandi's abdication a [[nobleman]] of Hungarian-Aromanian descent named [[Gyula Cseszneky]] was proclaimed Prince of the Pindus as Julius I, but neither Prince Julius, nor his brother Michael ever set foot on the territory of the state - nevertheless, some Aromanian leaders governed in their name.

Matoussi escaped, first to Athens than to Romania too, while Rapoutikas was shot dead by one of the Greek factions involved in guerilla activities just outside Larissa {the Greeks then tied his corpse on the back a donkey and paraded him through the Vlach villages of the Pindus - this was intended in order to scare the local populace and as a final proof that the Pindus Principality had reached its end).

==Mysterious Diamandi's incomplete life story==
There are many gaps in the biography of the secretive Prince Diamandi, and he is scarcely mentioned in most of the few books that deal with the period). According the to the German scholar Dr. Thede Kahl (see bibliography), Diamandi was for a while [[Kingdom of Romania]]'s Consul in the Albanian port [[Vlorë]] just opposite across the strait of the Italian town of [[Otranto]]. The Greek historians usually avoid mentioning him altogether, while other scholars who give vague reference to him (such as [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:Em-AtIkJOLwJ:www.bibliopolis.de/thetis3.html+lena+divani+italo-romanian&hl=en Lena Divani] or Mark Mazower) make sure that they clearly distance themselves from Diamandi hence bestowing upon him apelatives like "extremist" and "shameful", failing to bring to the surface new data or impartial information as to the personality of Diamandi.

Alkiviadis Diamandi is given mention in 1995 by the British author [http://www.lively-arts.com/books/unwritten_places.htm Tim Salmon] in his book about the Vlachs of Greece (see bibliography) as follows:
:''A pro-Mussolini teacher called Dhiamantis who returned to Samarina during the Occupation and tried to set up a fascist Vlach state the [[Principality of Pindus]]. It is possible that the idea of autonomy struck a chord in some nationalistic Vlach breasts but they certainly were not the collaborators he accused them of being.''
The author finds the precedents of Diamandi's movement in the Vlachs' desire of separateness, which he sees as a sign of "strength". Other passages of his book emphasize this aspect as well.

He writes:
:''Up to the 1920s the Vlakholoi - the Vlach clan as it were- had been so strong that the government could not really interfere with them. There had been Romanian schools (financed from Romania from around the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin]] in 1881 which forced the Turks to cede Thessaly to Greece, drawing the frontier through Metsovo and thus dividing the Greek Vlachdom in [[Ioannina|Yannina]], Thessaloniki and [[Grevena]] up until 1940. In fact, there was one in Samarina itself.''

==Terminology==

*The ''Legion'' Diamandi had gathered under his leadership made reference to the [[Roman Empire]]'s [[Legio V Macedonica]]. Chosen for the common belief that Legions were the factors behind the modern-day [[Romance languages]] and [[Latin Europe]], the name particularly enhanced the connection with Romania - as the Vth Legion had spent time in both [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia province]] and [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]] - and presumably complimented Italian Fascism and its claim to Imperial dominance).

*The names of the main institutions and of the Principality itself were given in Greek and, were possible, Romanian. Reference in Aromanian was not available.

==Bibliography==
*Evangelos Averof-Tositsas, ''Η πολιτική πλευρά του κουτσοβλαχικού ζητήματος'' ["The political aspects of the Aromanian question"], Trikala reprint 1992 (1st edition Athens 1948), p. 94
*Stauros A. Papagiannis, ''Τα παιδιά της λύκαινας. Οι ‘επίγονοι’ της 5ης Ρωμαϊκής Λεγεώνας κατά την διάρκεια της Κατοχής 1941-1944'' ["Wolf children. The ‘descendants’ of the 5th Roman Legion during the occupation 1941-1944"], Athens, 1998
*Anthemidis, Axilleas, ''The Vlachs of Greece''. Thessaloniki: Malliaris 1998 (Greek).
*Tim Salmon, ''Unwritten Places'', Athens Lycabettus Press, 1995 (see p.149 and 215)
*T. J. Winnifrith, The Vlachs: ''The History of a Balkan People'', Palgrave Macmillan, 1987
*Kahl, Thede, ''Ethnizität und räumliche Verteilung der Aromunen in Südosteuropa'', ''Münstersche geographische Arbeiten'', 43, Münster 1999. ISBN 3-9803935-7-7 (see pp. 55-56 on Diamandi)
*Koliopoulos, John, ''Greece: The Modern Sequel'', Hurst 2001
*[http://www.ajarmsbooksellers.com/cgi-bin/ajarms/9732.html ''Herakles & the Swastika: Greek Volunteers in the German Police, Army and & SS 1943-1945'', New York 2000]

== External links ==
* [http://www.vlahoi.net/almyros/propaganda.htm About Diamandi and the Romanian propaganda] (''in Greek language'')
* [http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/Aroumains.htm Les Aroumains], by [[Université Laval]] Montreal
* [http://www.vlachophiles.net/des.htm Objects of desire: Wrangling over the Vlachs in Bucharest and Athens]
* [http://www.vlachophiles.net/blaxoi-article.doc Οι Βλάχοι της Ελλάδας και η Παρεξηγημένη Ιστορία τους]
* [http://maillists.uci.edu/mailman/public/mgsa-l/2003-January/001321.html Christos D. Katsetos - The Political Side of the Kutzovlach Affair Revisited?]
* [http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=83 Ellinika Tagmata Asphaleias] and [http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=84 Ethelontiki Chorophylaki]
* [http://www.procesulcomunismului.com/marturii/fonduri/ioanitoiu/dictionar_de/d/dictionard_12.pdf Pocesul Comunismului]
* [http://starnarcosis.net/obsidian/soubalk2.html Regnal Chronologies: Northern Greece]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Diamandi di Samarina, Alkiviadis}}
[[Category:1893 births]]
[[Category:1948 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Grevena Prefecture]]
[[Category:Aromanian people]]
[[Category:Greek politicians]]
[[Category:Greek people of World War II]]
[[Category:Principality of Pindus]]
[[Category:Romanian fascists]]
[[Category:Recipients of Greek royal pardons]]

[[bs:Alchiviad Diamandi]]
[[el:Αλκιβιάδης Διαμαντής]]
[[es:Alkiviadis Diamandi di Samarina]]
[[hr:Alchiviad Diamandi]]
[[hu:Alchiviad Diamandi]]
[[it:Alcibiade Diamandi]]
[[pl:Alcybiades Diamandi di Samarina]]
[[tr:Alcibiade Diamandi]]

Schlacht bei Sark

2009-12-19T13:57:57Z

Angusmclellan: oops

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Sark
|partof=the Anglo-Scottish Border Wars
|image=
|caption=
|date=23 October 1448
|place= [[Gretna]], [[Dumfries and Galloway]]
| coordinates ={{gbmapping|NY314662}} <ref name="RCAHMS">{{citation | url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/67439/ | title=Site Record for Battle Of Sark; Lochmaben Stone; Old Graitney; Stormont | publisher=Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland }}</ref> {{Coord|54|59|10|N|3|4|19|W|type:event|display=title}}
|result=Decisive Scottish victory
|combatant1={{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|England}} [[Kingdom of England|England]]
|commander1=[[Hugh Douglas, Earl of Ormonde]]
|commander2=[[Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland]]
|strength1=ca.12,000{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
|strength2=ca.20,000{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
|casualties1=up to 600
|casualties2=1500 killed, 500 drowned
}}
{{Campaignbox Anglo-Scottish Wars}}
The '''Battle of Sark''' (alternatively called the '''Battle of Lochmaben Stone''') was fought between England and Scotland in October 1448. A large battle, it was the first significant Scottish victory over the English in over half a century, following the [[Battle of Otterburn]] of 1388. It placed the Scots in a position of strength against the English for over a decade, until [[Edward IV]] ascended the English throne, and it brought [[Clan Douglas]] to greater prominence in Scotland.

==Precursors==
After the 14th century [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], England and Scotland continued to battle periodically along their borders. In 1448, hostilities escalated. [[Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]], son of the [[Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]], destroyed [[Dunbar]] in May, and in June the [[Earl of Salisbury]], [[Lord Warden of the March]] destroyed [[Dumfries]]. In reaction, [[William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas]] mustered a force with the support of the earls of [[Hugh Douglas, Earl of Ormonde|Ormonde]], [[George Douglas, 4th Earl of Angus|Angus]] and [[William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness|Orkney]], destroying [[Warkworth]] and [[Alnwick]]. When the Scots advanced further into [[Cumberland]] and [[Northumberland]], [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] authorized the Percies to retaliate.

==Engagement==
The stage for the battle was set when, in October, the Earl of Northumberland led a troop of 6,000 men into Scotland, where they made camp near the [[Lochmaben Stone]]. Their location proved poorly chosen, as they settled in a [[Waterway#Tidal_waterway|tidal waterway]] between the [[River Sark]] and Kirtle Water. Among the Scots, Hugh Douglas, Earl of Ormonde, mustered a force of 4,000 from [[Annandale]] and [[Nithsdale]], marching against Northumberland on 23 October, 1448. Northumberland took the lead in organizing his troops into three wings, which arrangement Ormonde mirrored. In spite of superior numbers and the advantage of the [[English longbow]], the English were soon driven backwards by Scottish spearmen, where they found the peril of the incoming tide. The number of Scots who lost their lives in the engagement varies by source from as few as 26 to as many as 600, but the ''[[Auchinleck Chronicle]]'' is specific in the number of English deaths: 1,500 killed in battle; 500 drowned.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* ''The Auchinleck Chronicle'', ed. T. Thomson, 1829.
* Griffiths, R. A., ''The Reign of Henry VI'', 1981.
* Hodgkin, T., ''The Warden of the Northern Marches,'' 1908.
* Neilson, G., ''The Battle of Sark'', in Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Antiquarian and Natural History Society, vol. 13 1898.
* Paterson, Raymond Campbell, ''My Wound is Deep: History of the Anglo-Scottish Wars, 1380-1560,'' 1997.
* Pittscottie, Robert Lindsay of, ''The History and Chronicles of Scotland,'' 1899.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Sark}}
[[Category:1448 in Scotland]]
[[Category:15th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles between England and Scotland]]
[[Category:Battles involving England|Sark]]
[[Category:Battles involving Scotland|Sark]]

[[Category:House of Douglas and Angus]]
[[Category:Battles of the Medieval era]]

Schlacht bei Sark

2009-12-19T13:56:16Z

Angusmclellan: link Auchinleck Chronicle

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Sark
|partof=the Anglo-Scottish Border Wars
|image=
|caption=
|date=23 October 1448
|place= [[Gretna]], [[Dumfries and Galloway]]
| coordinates ={{gbmapping|NY314662}} <ref name="RCAHMS">{{citation | url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/67439/ | title=Site Record for Battle Of Sark; Lochmaben Stone; Old Graitney; Stormont | publisher=Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland }}</ref> {{Coord|54|59|10|N|3|4|19|W|type:event|display=title}}
|result=Decisive Scottish victory
|combatant1={{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|England}} [[Kingdom of England|England]]
|commander1=[[Hugh Douglas, Earl of Ormonde]]
|commander2=[[Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland]]
|strength1=ca.12,000{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
|strength2=ca.20,000{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}
|casualties1=up to 600
|casualties2=1500 killed, 500 drowned
}}
{{Campaignbox Anglo-Scottish Wars}}
The '''Battle of Sark''' (alternatively called the '''Battle of Lochmaben Stone''') was fought between England and Scotland in October 1448. A large battle, it was the first significant Scottish victory over the English in over half a century, following the [[Battle of Otterburn]] of 1388. It placed the Scots in a position of strength against the English for over a decade, until [[Edward IV]] ascended the English throne, and it brought [[Clan Douglas]] to greater prominence in Scotland.

==Precursors==
After the 14th century [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], England and Scotland continued to battle periodically along their borders. In 1448, hostilities escalated. [[Henry Percy, 3rd Earl of Northumberland|Henry Percy]], son of the [[Henry Percy, 2nd Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]], destroyed [[Dunbar]] in May, and in June the [[Earl of Salisbury]], [[Lord Warden of the March]] destroyed [[Dumfries]]. In reaction, [[William Douglas, 8th Earl of Douglas]] mustered a force with the support of the earls of [[Hugh Douglas, Earl of Ormonde|Ormonde]], [[George Douglas, 4th Earl of Angus|Angus]] and [[William Sinclair, 1st Earl of Caithness|Orkney]], destroying [[Warkworth]] and [[Alnwick]]. When the Scots advanced further into [[Cumberland]] and [[Northumberland]], [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]] authorized the Percies to retaliate.

==Engagement==
The stage for the battle was set when, in October, the Earl of Northumberland led a troop of 6,000 men into Scotland, where they made camp near the [[Lochmaben Stone]]. Their location proved poorly chosen, as they settled in a [[Waterway#Tidal_waterway|tidal waterway]] between the [[River Sark]] and Kirtle Water. Among the Scots, Hugh Douglas, Earl of Ormonde, mustered a force of 4,000 from [[Annandale]] and [[Nithsdale]], marching against Northumberland on 23 October, 1448. Northumberland took the lead in organizing his troops into three wings, which arrangement Ormonde mirrored. In spite of superior numbers and the advantage of the [[English longbow]], the English were soon driven backwards by Scottish spearmen, where they found the peril of the incoming tide. The number of Scots who lost their lives in the engagement varies by source from as few as 26 to as many as 600, but the ''[[Auchinlek Chronicle]]'' is specific in the number of English deaths: 1,500 killed in battle; 500 drowned.

==References==
{{reflist}}
* ''The Auchinleck Chronicle'', ed. T. Thomson, 1829.
* Griffiths, R. A., ''The Reign of Henry VI'', 1981.
* Hodgkin, T., ''The Warden of the Northern Marches,'' 1908.
* Neilson, G., ''The Battle of Sark'', in Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Antiquarian and Natural History Society, vol. 13 1898.
* Paterson, Raymond Campbell, ''My Wound is Deep: History of the Anglo-Scottish Wars, 1380-1560,'' 1997.
* Pittscottie, Robert Lindsay of, ''The History and Chronicles of Scotland,'' 1899.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Sark}}
[[Category:1448 in Scotland]]
[[Category:15th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Battles between England and Scotland]]
[[Category:Battles involving England|Sark]]
[[Category:Battles involving Scotland|Sark]]

[[Category:House of Douglas and Angus]]
[[Category:Battles of the Medieval era]]

Garleton Castle

2009-12-14T21:56:54Z

Angusmclellan: Disambiguate Haddington to Haddington, East Lothian using popups

[[File:Garleton Castle.jpg|thumb|Garleton Castle]]

'''Garleton Castle''' is a courtyard [[castle]], dating from the sixteenth century, about {{convert|1.5|mi|km}} north of [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]], just north of the [[Garleton Hills]] in [[East Lothian]], [[Scotland]].<ref name=Coventry>Coventry,Martin (2001) ''The Castles of Scotland''. Goblinshead. ISBN 1899874 26 7 p.224</ref>

==Structure==

Garleton Castle once comprised three blocks within a curtain wall,<ref name=Coventry/> but the main [[L-plan castle|L-plan]] tower, which had two wings, is mostly demolished. While the second block has been converted to a farm cottage, the rectangular third block is still nearly complete.<ref name=Coventry/> This block has two storeys, and a garret with crowstepped [[gables]]. Other features are the round stair-tower, and the gunloops piercing the walls.<ref name=Coventry/> The gunloops are of the splayed variety, characteristic of the 16th century. The castle is rubble-built.<ref name=scotlandsplaces>{{cite web |url=http://www.scotlandsplaces.gov.uk/search_item/index.php?service=RCAHMS&id=56360 |title=Garleton Castle |publisher=Scotland's Places |accessdate=2009-11-24}}</ref> Some of the curtain wall survives, and a round tower.<ref name=Coventry/>

The interior, which has been altered considerably, includes a vaulted kitchen, equipped with a wide-arched fireplace, and another room with a canopied fireplace.<ref name=Scotgaz>{{cite web |url=http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/features/featurefirst11057.html|title=Garleton Castle|work=Gazetteer for Scotland|accessdate=2009-11-23}}</ref> The remains of the castle are protected as a category B [[listed building]] and as a [[Scheduled Ancient Monument]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/hsstart?P_HBNUM=6347 |title=Garleton East, Listed Building Report |publisher=Historic Scotland |accessdate=2009-11-26}}</ref>

==History==

Garleton Castle belonged to the [[Clan Lindsay|Lindsay]] family. It subsequently passed to the [[Tower (surname)|Towers]] of [[Innerleithen]], and was sold by them to the [[Seton (surname)|Setons]].<ref name=Coventry/> Sir John Seton of Garleton was given the property by his father [[George Seton, 3rd Earl of Winton]]. By 1885 it could be described as a fragmentary ruin.<ref name=Scotgaz/>

==Tradition==

It is said the building was haunted by an apparition of a man at one stage, while the sound of heavy footsteps is said to have been heard.<ref name=Coventry/> It is possible that [[David Lyndsay|Sir David Lyndsay]], who wrote ''[[Ane Pleasant Satyre of the Thrie Estaitis]]'' was born in an earlier building at this site, in 1486.<ref name=Scotgaz/>

==External links==
* [http://www.maybole.org/history/castles/garleton.htm Artist's reconstruction of Garleton Castle]

==References==
<references/>

{{coord |55.9807|N|2.7884|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in East Lothian]]
[[Category:Category B listed buildings]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in East Lothian]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]
[[Category:Scheduled Ancient Monuments in Scotland]]

Ballencrieff Castle

2009-12-14T21:50:21Z

Angusmclellan: Disambiguate Haddington to Haddington, East Lothian using popups

[[Image:Ballencrieff Castle.jpg|thumb|Ballencrieff Castle from the west]]
'''Ballencrieff Castle''', also known as '''Ballencrieff House''', is a large [[tower house]] at [[Ballencrieff, East Lothian|Ballencrieff]], [[East Lothian]], [[Scotland]]. It is located three miles north west of [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]], and one mile south of [[Aberlady]].

The castle was built in 1507 when King [[James IV of Scotland|James IV]] ordered his private secretary James Murray to build himself a fortified hourse at Ballencrieff. It was destroyed in or around 1545, and rebuilt by his son, also John Murray, in 1586. General [[James Murray (British Army officer)|James Murray]], a Governor of [[Canada]], was born there in 1721. The house burnt down accidentally in 1868, and stood roofless until it was restored between 1992 and 1997. It is now privately owned, and it is situated next to a [[free range]] [[Rare Breeds Survival Trust|rare breed]] pig farm.

[[Image:Ballencrieff castle2.jpg|thumb|left|Ballencrieff Castle from the north]]

The long, rectangular-plan, tower has three storeys, including a vaulted basement, with a near-symmetrical north front. The tall, narrow south-east wing has [[crow-step]] gables. The castle, along with its [[walled garden]] and pavilion, is a category B [[listed building]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/portal.hsstart?P_HBNUM=6529 |title=Ballencrieff House Listed Building Report |publisher=[[Historic Scotland]] |accessdate=2008-06-05}}</ref> During restoration works, 16th-century gun holes and wooden draw-bars on the windows, were discovered in the ruins. The remains of two early 17th-century moulded plaster ceilings, and the remnants of an elaborate fireplace, were found on the first floor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rcahms.gov.uk/pls/portal/newcanmore.newcandig_details_gis?inumlink=54910 |title=Ballencrieff House, NMRS Number: NT47NE 5.00 |publisher=[[RCAHMS]] |accessdate=2008-06-05}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

*{{cite web |url=http://www.countrylife.co.uk/culture/article/73147/Ballencrieff_Castle.html |title=Ballencrieff Castle |work=[[Country Life]] |date=13 January 2006 |author=Penny Churchill
|accessdate=2008-06-05}}

==External links==
* [http://www.scotland-info.co.uk/tranter.htm Nigel Tranter Albavision Video of Ballencrieff Castle restoration]
* [http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/667965 Geograph photo of Ballencrieff Castle]
* [http://www.rcahms.gov.uk/pls/portal/newcanmore.newcandig_p_coll_details?p_arcnumlink=1072466 Pre-restoration view of Ballencrieff Castle]

{{coord|55|59|41|N|2|49|22|W|type:landmark_region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Castles in East Lothian]]
[[Category:Category B listed buildings]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in East Lothian]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]

Berkeley B65

2009-12-12T22:15:37Z

Angusmclellan: Tag non-free images nominated for deletion. Apparently replaceable.

{{Infobox Defunct Company
| company_name = Berkeley Cars Ltd
| company_logo =
| fate = bankrupt
| successor =
| foundation = 1956
| defunct = 1961
| location = [[Biggleswade]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
| industry = Motor vehicle
| key_people =
| products = 
| num_employees = 
}}

'''Berkeley Cars''' Ltd of [[Biggleswade]], [[Bedfordshire]], England produced small cars with engines from 322 cc to 700 cc between 1956 and 1960. In 1991 a new company, Berkeley Developments, was formed to restore original cars and in 1993 they started to build complete T60 models.{{Fact|date=March 2009}}

==History==

The company produced designs by Laurie Bond in the Berkeley Coachworks factory owned by Charles Panter who had been making caravans from glass fibre. The first cars were exhibited at the 1956 London Motor Show.

Four models were made with the number in the name representing the top speed in miles per hour. Production stopped in 1960 and an attempted merger with [[Bond Cars Ltd|Bond Cars]] come to nothing.

The factory was later used by Kayser Bondor to make women's underwear, but it has now been demolished and the site turned over to housing.

==Models==
===Sports B60 and B65===
{{Infobox Automobile generation
| name = Berkeley B60, B65
| image = [[Image:Berkeley SE328 1957.jpg|250px]]1957 SE328 coupé{{deletable image-caption|Saturday, 19 December 2009}}
| production = 1956–1957 2000 approx produced.<ref name=AZ4580>{{cite book |last=Robson |first=G. |title=A-Z of British Cars 1945-1980|year=2006 |publisher=Herridge Books |location=Devon, UK |isbn=1-9541063-9-3}}</ref>
| related =
| body_style = 2-door roadster
| engine = 322 or 328 cc [[two stroke]] twin, air-cooled
| wheelbase = {{convert|68|in|mm|abbr=on}} <ref name=Motor1957/>
| length = {{convert|122.5|in|mm|abbr=on}} <ref name=Motor1957/>
| width = {{convert|50|in|mm|abbr=on}} <ref name=Motor1957/>
| height = {{convert|43.5|in|mm|abbr=on}} <ref name=Motor1957/>
}}

[[Image:Berkeley SE328 open 1957.jpg|thumb|right|250px|1957 SE328 2 seat tourer{{deletable image-caption|Saturday, 19 December 2009}}]]
[[Image:Berkely SA328.jpg|thumb|left|250px|SA328 fitted with a [[Honda CB400]] super sport engine.]]

The B60, initially was produced as the SA322 type, was a glass-fibre [[monocoque]], two-seater open tourer initially powered by an [[Anzani]] twin-cylinder 322 cc two-stroke engine producing {{convert|15|bhp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}}. It was mounted transversely and drove the front wheels via a chain and three speed gearbox. The car had all round independent suspension by coil springs and in spite of the tiny engine gave remarkably good performance owing to its light weight (600 pounds - about 270 kg) and excellent roadholding. Girling hydraulic brakes with {{convert|7|in|mm|abbr=on}} drums were used.

Although usually configured as a two seater with simple bench seat, it was possible to put a small child in the back. A removable hatch could be removed from behind the front seat revealing a compartment normally containing the spare wheel and some luggage space. This could be fitted with a basic seat and the spare wheel moved to a shelf in front of the passenger and under the fascia. Equipment was basic, even the fuel gauge was an extra.

After 146 of the SA322 cars were made a change was made to the SA328 model with a 328 cc [[Excelsior Motor Company|Excelsior]] engine offering {{convert|18|bhp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}}. About 1300 were made, many being exported to the United States. The export model was differentiated by having separate headlamps whereas on the home market they were faired into the wings although the export type lamps could be specified.

[[The Motor (magazine)|The Motor]] magazine tested a 328 cc Berkeley in 1957 and found it to have a top speed of {{convert|62.1|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and acceleration from 0-{{convert|50|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in 30.6 seconds. A fuel consumption of {{convert|58.3|mpgimp|L/100 km mpgus}} was recorded. The test car cost £574 on the home market including taxes of £152. <ref name=Motor1957>{{cite journal | authorlink = Unsigned |title = The Berkeley Sports two-seater| journal =[[The Motor (magazine)|The Motor]]| volume = | pages = | date = 3 April 1957}}</ref>

The last 10 cars were known as B65 and had a strengthened body and four speed gearbox. Top speed was just over {{convert|60|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}.
{{clear}}

===Sports SE492(B90) and Foursome===
{{Infobox Automobile generation
| name = Berkeley B90 and Foursome
| image = [[Image:1959BerkeleySE492-rear.jpg|250px]]1959 Berkeley SE492
| production = 1957–1959
| body_style = 2-door roadster
| engine = 492 cc [[two stroke]] three cylinder
| wheelbase = {{Auto in|70|1}} (2 seat) {{Auto in|78|1}} (4 seat)<ref name=BritishCars>{{cite book |last=Culshaw |first= |coauthors=Horrobin |title=Complete Catalogue of British Cars |year=1974 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |isbn=0333166892}}</ref>
| length =
| width =
| height =
}}

For 1957 the engine was changed to a {{convert|30|bhp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}}, Excelsior three-cylinder 492 cc with three carburettors. A four speed gearbox was standardised. The top speed was now {{convert|80|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}. A Foursome four seater was now available in a slightly wider body and a closed coupé version was also made. Top speed was now over {{convert|80|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}.

The cars were successful in Motor Sport and [[Giovanni Lurani]] bought three which he took to Italy, fitted them with his own design of hardtop, and running them in the 750 cc GT class, one driven by [[Lorenzo Bandini]] finishing first in the 1958 Monza 12 hour race.

Over 650 of the two seater and 16 four seaters were made.
{{clear}}

===Sports B95 and B105===
{{Infobox Automobile generation
| name = Berkeley B95 and B105
| image =
| production = 1959–1961
| body_style = 2-door roadster
| engine = 692 cc [[four stroke]] twin cylinder
| wheelbase = {{Auto in|78|1}}<ref name=BritishCars/>
| length = {{convert|125|in|mm|abbr=on}} (2 seat) {{convert|131|in|mm|abbr=on}} (4 seat)<ref name=AZ4580/>
| width = {{Auto in|54|1}}<ref name=BritishCars/>
| height =
}}
In 1959 the cars got more power, from twin-cylinder [[Royal Enfield]] 692 cc four-stroke engines, with {{convert|40|bhp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}} in the B95 and {{convert|50|bhp|kW PS|0|abbr=on}} in the twin-carburettor B105. The engines featured Berkeley-design primary chaincases to accommodate a Bendix starter motor. The B105 could exceed the magic {{convert|100|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}}. The design of the two four-stoke models was identical to earlier four-wheeled models, with the exception of a taller bonnet (US hood) with large grille to accommodate the engine, unfaired headlights, and duplex chain drive to the differential.

About 200 B95 and B105 models were made, half being exported.

In October 1959 the Q range was announced, with longer and wider bodies. The wheelbase went up from {{convert|70|in|mm}} to {{convert|78|in|mm}} and the track from {{convert|42|in|mm}} to {{convert|46|in|mm}}. The Qs were four seaters (just), although the QB version dispensed with the rear seat to give extra luggage space. Very few of the Q cars were made.
{{clear}}

===Sports T60 and T60-4===

{{Infobox Automobile generation
| name = Berkeley T60
| image = [[Image:1960BerkeleyT60red.JPG|250px]]1960 T60 Three-wheeler
| production = 1959–1960 1850 made<ref name=AZ4580/>
| body_style = 2-door roadster
| engine = 328 cc [[two stroke]] twin cylinder
| wheelbase =
| length = {{convert|122.5|in|mm|abbr=on}} <ref name=AZ4580/>
| width =
| height =
}}
The 1959 T60 was intended as a more basic model and was a three wheeler using the Excelsior "Talisman Twin" 328 cc engine seen in the SE328. Drive was still to the front wheels through a four speed gearbox and a trailing arm replaced the swing axle independent suspension of the four wheeled cars. The T60-4 had a larger rear seat and, together with other three wheelers of the era could legally be driven on a motor cycle licence in the UK, so was suitable for a motor cyclist with family. Another advantage was that the registration fees for three wheelers were considerably less than four wheeled vehicles.

Just over 1800 were made, with fewer than 100 on the road as of 2004.
{{clear}}

===Bandit===
{{Infobox Automobile generation
| name = Berkeley Bandit
| image =
| production = 1960 1 made<ref name=AZ4580/>
| body_style = 2-door roadster
| engine = 997 cc four cylinder
| wheelbase = {{Auto in|82|1}}<ref name=BritishCars/>
| length = {{convert|143|in|mm|abbr=on}} <ref name=AZ4580/>
| width = {{Auto in|54|1}}<ref name=BritishCars/>
| height =
}}
For 1960 the intention was to move into the larger, four-wheeled car market with the Bandit designed by [[John Tojeiro]]<ref name=AZ4580/>. This was to be powered by the 997 cc Ford engine (as in the [[Ford Anglia|105E Anglia]]) with Berkeley designed MacPherson strut front and swing axle rear suspension but the project did not progress beyond the single prototype (which still exists.)

The car was to have sold for £798<ref name=AZ4580/>.

In the late 1980s the design was revived in New Zealand and a few cars called the Ibis Berkeley were made.<ref name=Beaulieu>{{cite book |last=Georgano |first=N. |title=Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile |year=2000 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |isbn=1579582931}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==Revival==
In 1970 a new company was formed in Syston, Leicestershire, to restore Berkeley cars. By 1991 it was using the original moulds to make new body panels and in 1993 complete T60 cars were being made with a new ladder type chassis<ref name=Beaulieu/>. A choice of engines was available including Mini, Citroen 2CV and motor cycle units. In 1996 the company was renamed Berkeley Developments and moved to Langley Mill, Nottingham.<ref name=Beaulieu/>

==Berkeley (1913)==

There was another, unrelated, Berkeley car company in the UK.

This company made some 18 hp cars in 1913. The engine was quoted as a 75x100, 1764 cc unit of unknown origin. Little else is known of them.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Berkeley vehicles}}
*[http://berkeleycars.50.forumer.com/ Berkeley Owners Forum, a new forum for Berkeley Owners]
*[http://www.pearsy.co.uk/ Berkeley Cars]
*[http://home.clara.net/peterfrost/berkeley.html Berkeley pictures]
*[http://www.berkeleyclub.co.uk Berkley Enthusiasts Club]
*[http://www.coldplugs.com/berksecindex.htm Berkeley Sportscars in the USA]

[[Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sports car manufacturers]]
[[Category:Front wheel drive vehicles]]
[[Category:Front wheel drive sports cars]]

[[sv:Berkeley Cars]]

Berkeley Sports

2009-12-12T22:15:37Z

Angusmclellan: Tag non-free images nominated for deletion. Apparently replaceable.

Berkeley B90

2009-12-12T22:15:37Z

Angusmclellan: Tag non-free images nominated for deletion. Apparently replaceable.

Berkeley T60

2009-12-12T22:15:37Z

Angusmclellan: Tag non-free images nominated for deletion. Apparently replaceable.

Berkeley B95

2009-12-12T22:15:37Z

Angusmclellan: Tag non-free images nominated for deletion. Apparently replaceable.