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Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media

2011-10-28T09:18:51Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 122.54.77.162 (talk) to last version by InverseHypercube

{{Infobox Book
| name = Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:Manugactorinconsent2.jpg|200px]]
| author = [[Edward S. Herman]], [[Noam Chomsky]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = United States
| language = English
| series =
| subject =
| genre = [[Politics]]
| publisher = [[Pantheon Books]]
| pub_date = 1988
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover]], [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = 0-3757-1449-9
| dewey= 381/.4530223 21
| congress= P96.E25 H47 2002
| oclc= 47971712
| preceded_by = [[The Fateful Triangle: The United States, Israel, and the Palestinians]]
| followed_by = [[Necessary Illusions]]
}}{{DISPLAYTITLE:''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''}}
{{other|Manufacturing Consent (disambiguation)}}
'''''Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media''''' (1988), by [[Edward S. Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky]], is an analysis of the news media as [[business]]. The title derives from the phrase “the manufacture of consent” that essayist–editor [[Walter Lippmann]] (1889–1974) employed in the book ''[[Public Opinion]]'' (1922).

==The propaganda model==
Using the [[propaganda model]], ''Manufacturing Consent'' posits that [[corporation|corporate]] - owned [[journalism|news]] [[mass media|mass communication media]] — print, radio, television — are businesses subject to commercial competition for advertising revenue and [[profit (economics)|profit]]. As such, their distortion (editorial bias) of news reportage — i.e. what types of news, which items, and how they are reported — is a consequence of the profit motive that requires establishing a stable, profitable business; therefore, news businesses favoring profit over the [[public interest]] succeed, while those favoring reportorial accuracy over profits fail, and are relegated to the margins of their markets (low sales and ratings).

==Government and news media==
Editorial distortion is aggravated by the news media’s dependence upon private and [[government]]al news sources. If a given newspaper, television station, magazine, etc., incurs governmental disfavor, it is subtly excluded from access to information. Consequently, it loses readers or viewers, and ultimately, advertisers. To minimize such financial danger, news media businesses editorially distort their reporting to favor government and corporate policies in order to stay in business.

==Editorial bias: five filters==

Herman and Chomsky's "propaganda model" describes five editorially-distorting filters applied to news reporting in mass media:

# '''Size, Ownership, and Profit Orientation:''' The dominant mass-media outlets are large firms which are run for profit. Therefore they must cater to the financial interest of their owners - often corporations or particular controlling investors. The size of the firms is a necessary consequence of the capital requirements for the technology to reach a mass audience.
# '''The Advertising License to Do Business:''' Since the majority of the revenue of major media outlets derives from advertising (not from sales or subscriptions), advertisers have acquired a "de-facto licensing authority".<ref>James Curran and Jean Seaton, ''Power without responsibility : the press and broadcasting in Britain'' (First edition 1981, with many subsequent editions).</ref> Media outlets are not commercially viable without the support of advertisers. News media must therefore cater to the political prejudices and economic desires of their advertisers. This has weakened the working-class press, for example, and also helps explain the [[attrition]] in the number of newspapers.
# '''Sourcing Mass Media News:''' Herman and Chomsky argue that “the large bureaucracies of the powerful ''subsidize'' the mass media, and gain special access [to the news], by their contribution to reducing the media’s costs of acquiring [...] and producing, news. The large entities that provide this subsidy become 'routine' news sources and have privileged access to the gates. Non-routine sources must struggle for access, and may be ignored by the arbitrary decision of the gatekeepers.”<ref name = MC>Herman and Chomsky, ''Manufacturing Consent''.</ref>
# '''Flak and the Enforcers:''' "Flak" refers to negative responses to a media statement or program (e.g. letters, complaints, lawsuits, or legislative actions). Flak can be expensive to the media, either due to loss of advertising revenue, or due to the costs of legal defense or defense of the media outlet's public image. Flak can be organized by powerful, private influence groups (e.g. [[think tank]]s). The prospect of eliciting flak can be a deterrent to the reporting of certain kinds of facts or opinions.<ref name = MC/>
# '''Anti-Communism:''' This was included as a filter in the original 1988 edition of the book, but Chomsky argues that since the end of the [[Cold War]] (1945–91), [[anticommunism]] was replaced by the "[[War on Terror]]", as the major social control mechanism.<ref>Noam Chomsky, ''Media Control, the Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda'' (1997).</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Journalist_Mars.html|title=The Journalist from Mars|author=Noam Chomsky|year=2002|publisher=Third World Traveler|accessdate=2009-11-08}}, pp. 69–100</ref>

==Recent developments==
* In 1992, the documentary film ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'' (1992), directed by [[Mark Achbar]] and [[Peter Wintonick]], partly based upon the book, presents the propaganda model and its arguments, and a biography of Chomsky.

* In 2006, the Turkish government prosecuted [[Fatih Tas]], owner of the Aram editorial house, two editors and the translator of the revised (2001) edition of ''Manufacturing Consent'' for "stirring hatred among the public" (per Article 216 of the Turkish Penal Code) and for "denigrating the national identity" of Turkey (per [[Article 301 (Turkish penal code)|Article 301]]), because that edition’s introduction addresses the Turkish news media’s reportage of governmental suppression of the Kurdish populace in the 1990s; they were acquitted.<ref>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Daren|date=2006-07-04|url=http://www.kurdishaspect.com/doc75101.html|title=Turkish publisher faces prosecution over Chomsky book|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2006-07-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2006-12-20|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/europe/6198021.stm|title=Turks acquitted over Chomsky book|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2006-12-20 | location=London}}</ref>

* In 2007, at the ''20 Years of Propaganda?: Critical Discussions & Evidence on the Ongoing Relevance of the Herman & Chomsky Propaganda Model'' (15–17 May 2007) [http://www.uwindsor.ca/propaganda conference] at the [[University of Windsor]], Canada, [[Edward S. Herman|Herman]] and [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]] summarized developments to the [[propaganda model]], followed by the publication of the proceedings of a commemoration of the twentieth publication anniversary of ''Manufacturing Consent'' in 2008.

* In 2008, Chomsky replied to questions concerning the ways internet [[blog]]s and self-generated news reportage conform to and differ from the propaganda model.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rnLWSC5p1XE#t=27m38s
|title=Authors@Google: Noam Chomsky
|date=2008-05-02
}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Media Imperialism]]
* [[Nicaraguan general election, 1984]] (US media coverage of these is the subject of Chapter 3)
* [[Politico-media complex]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* "[[The Engineering of Consent]]"

==References==
<references />
# ^ Butler, Daren (2006-07-04). "Turkish publisher faces prosecution over Chomsky book". Reuters. http://www.kurdishaspect.com/doc75101.html. Retrieved on 2006-07-12.
# ^ "Turks acquitted over Chomsky book". BBC News. 2006-12-20. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/low/Europe/6198021.stm. Retrieved on 2006-12-20.
# ^ Chomsky, Noam 2002 "Media Control, The Spectacular Achievements of Propaganda", Seven Stories Press ISBN 1-58322-536-6

==External links==
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Herman%20/Manufac_Consent_Prop_Model.html Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (Excerpt)]
* [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/198901--.htm Synopsis with Herman interview]
* [http://www.westminster.ac.uk/schools/media/camri/wpcc/the-herman-chomsky-propaganda-model-twenty-years-on The Herman-Chomsky Propaganda Model Twenty Years On] ''Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture'' 6(2), 2009
{{Noam Chomsky}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy Of The Mass Media}}
[[Category:1988 books]]
[[Category:Books by Noam Chomsky]]
[[Category:Books about media bias]]
[[Category:Books about propaganda]]
[[Category:Books about public opinion]]
[[Category:Books about politics of the United States]]

[[es:Los guardianes de la libertad]]
[[nl:Manufacturing Consent]]

Halo 4

2011-06-15T07:17:42Z

Anetode: rm {{reimprove|date=June 2011}} - there are five sources to substantiate a measly paragraph. i don't even see any {{cn}}s

{{notable|Video games|date=June 2011}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Infobox VG
|name = Halo 4
|image = [[File:Halo4logo.jpg|256px]]
|developer = [[343 Industries]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft Game Studios]]
|platform= [[Xbox 360]]
|released = Q3/Q4 2012
|series = ''[[Halo (series)|Halo]]''
|genre =
|modes = Campaign, Co-op, Multiplayer
}}

'''''Halo 4''''' is the seventh video game in the best-selling [[Halo (series)|''Halo'' franchise]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://xbox-360.nowgamer.com/news/6012/e3-2011-microsoft-details-leaked-halo-4-confirmed | title=E3: Microsoft Line-Up Leaked, Halo 4 Confirmed | work=''Now Gamer'' | date=June 6, 2011 | accessdate=June 08, 2011 | author=Hopkins, Tom}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/faster-forward/post/e3-2011-halo-4-voice-control-and-the-cloud/2011/06/06/AGNAeELH_blog.html | title=E3 2011: Halo 4, voice control and the cloud | publisher=[[Katharine Weymouth]] | work=[[The Washington Post]] | date=June 7, 2011 | accessdate=June 08, 2011 | author=Tsukayama, Hayley}}</ref> The game's 2012 release was announced at the end of Microsoft's 2011 [[Electronic Entertainment Expo|E3]] press conference, and will be the first major installment to be released less than three years after the previous one, ''[[Halo: Reach]]'', although five years after its 2007 direct predecessor, ''[[Halo 3]]''. According to the conference presenter, ''Halo 4'' is intended to be the first of a new trilogy of ''Halo'' series games. Whereas the previous ''Halo'' games were developed by [[Bungie]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bungie.net/Projects/default.aspx | title=Bungie.net : Games | publisher=Bungie | accessdate=June 08, 2011}}</ref> ''Halo 4'' will be developed by [[343 Industries]]. The game continues some time after the ending of ''Halo 3'', and marks a return of the [[Master Chief (Halo)|Master Chief]] as the playable character. [[Cortana]] will also appear in the game.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.gamingtarget.com/article.php?artid=12428 | title=Halo 4: We We Know From The E3 2011 Trailer | work=''Gaming Target'' | date=June 7, 2011 | accessdate=June 08, 2011 | author=Swider, Matt}}</ref> The official website was launched shortly after the E3 press conference, and states: "Set in the aftermath of Halo 3, Master Chief returns to confront his own destiny and face an ancient evil that threatens the fate of the entire universe. ''Halo 4'' marks the start of a new trilogy that begins with its release in 2012."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.xbox.com/en-US/Marketplace/Product/Halo-4 | title=Halo 4 | publisher=Microsoft | work=''Xbox.com'' | accessdate=June 08, 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gametrailers.com/video/e3-2011-halo-4/714833 ''Halo 4'' Debut Trailer]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/faster-forward/post/e3-2011-halo-4-voice-control-and-the-cloud/2011/06/06/AGNAeELH_blog.html Microsoft's ''Halo 4'' announcement]
* [http://www.xbox.com:80/en-US/Marketplace/Product/Halo-4 Xbox Marketplace—''Halo 4'']
{{Halo series}}

[[Category:2011 introductions]]
[[Category:Halo (series)| *series]]
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[[Category:Halo games|4]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
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[[Category:First-person shooter multiplayer online games]]
[[Category:Science fiction video games]]
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{{Videogame-stub}}

[[es:Halo 4]]
[[fr:Halo 4]]
[[sv:Halo (spelserie)#Halo 4]]

Halo 4

2011-06-07T02:51:53Z

Anetode: coverage in every trade publication and even many general interest international publications -- how is that not enough to establish notability? let the stub grow or put it up for afd

{{Infobox VG
|name = Halo 4
|image = [[File:Halo4logo.jpg|256px]]
|developer = [[343 Industries]]
|publisher = [[Microsoft Game Studios]]
|platform= [[Xbox 360]]
|released = Q3/Q4 2012
|series = ''[[Halo (series)|Halo]]''
|genre =
|modes = Campaign, Co-op, Multiplayer
}}

'''''Halo 4''''' is the fourth installment in the best-selling [[Halo (series)|''Halo'' franchise]].<ref>[http://xbox-360.nowgamer.com/news/6012/e3-2011-microsoft-details-leaked-halo-4-confirmed '''NOW Gamer.com —''' E3: Microsoft Line-Up Leaked, Halo 4 Confirmed]</ref> The game's 2012 release was announced at the end of Microsoft's 2011 [[Electronic Entertainment Expo|E3]] press conference, and will be the first major installment to be released less than 3 years after the previous one, however five years after its 2007 direct predecessor, ''[[Halo 3]]''. According to the conference presenter, ''Halo 4'' is intended to be the first of a new trilogy of Halo series games. Whereas the previous Halo games were developed by Bungie, Halo 4 will be developed by [[343 Industries]]. The game continues some time after the ending of Halo 3, and marks a return of the [[Master Chief (Halo)|Master Chief]] as the playable character.

==Sources==
<references/>

==External Links==
* [http://www.gametrailers.com/video/e3-2011-halo-4/714833 Halo 4 Debut Trailer]

{{Halo series}}

[[Category:2011 introductions]]
[[Category:Halo (series)| *series]]
[[Category:Xbox 360-only games]]
[[Category:Xbox 360 games]]
[[Category:Video game sequels]]
[[Category:Halo games|4]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:First-person shooter multiplayer online games]]
[[Category:Upcoming video games scheduled for 2012]]
[[Category:Upcoming video games]]

[[sv:Halo 4]]
{{Videogame-stub}}

Halo 4

2011-06-06T18:20:53Z

Anetode:

{{Infobox VG
|name= Halo 4
|image=
|developer= [[343 Industries]]
|publisher= [[Microsoft Game Studios]]
|platform= [[Xbox 360]]
|released =Fall 2012
|series = ''[[Halo (series)|Halo]]''
|genre=
|modes= Campaign
}}

'''''Halo 4''''' is the seventh installment in the best-selling [[Halo (series)|''Halo'' franchise]]. <ref>[http://xbox-360.nowgamer.com/news/6012/e3-2011-microsoft-details-leaked-halo-4-confirmed '''NOW Gamer.com —''' E3: Microsoft Line-Up Leaked, Halo 4 Confirmed]</ref> The game's 2012 [[holiday season]] release was announced at the end of Microsoft's 2011 [[Electronic Entertainment Expo|E3]] press conference. According to the conference presenter, Halo 4 is intended to be the first of a new trilogy of Halo series games.

==Sources==
<references/>

{{Halo series}}

[[Category:2011 introductions]]
[[Category:Halo (series)| *series]]
[[Category:Xbox 360-only games]]
[[Category:Xbox 360 games]]
[[Category:Video game sequels]]
[[Category:Halo games|4]]
[[Category:Microsoft games]]
[[Category:2012 video games]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:First-person shooter multiplayer online games]]

420 (Cannabis-Kultur)

2011-04-08T02:50:32Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 420movie (talk) to last version by Outback the koala

{{pp-move-indef}}
[[Image:420Louis.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Louis Pasteur]], at [[San Rafael High School]].]]
'''420''', '''4:20''' or '''4/20''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') refers to consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with cannabis [[subculture]]. The notable day for these is [[April 20]].<ref name=UCSC>{{cite web |url=http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |title=Thousands at UCSC burn one to mark cannabis holiday |first=Matt |last=King |date=April 24, 2007 |work=[[Santa Cruz Sentinel]] |publisher=[[MediaNews Group]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070426081319/http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2007/April/24/local/stories/08local.htm |archivedate = April 26, 2007}}</ref> (Not to be confused with [[Global Marijuana March|J-Day]], an international protest held on the first Saturday of May.)

The term was allegedly coined by a group of teenagers in [[San Rafael, California]] in 1971.<ref name=Snopes>{{cite web|url=http://www.snopes.com/language/stories/420.asp|publisher=[[Snopes.com]]|title=420}}</ref><ref name=NYT2009>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have urged students to just say no. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref> Calling themselves the Waldos, because "their chosen hang-out spot was a wall outside the school,"<ref name=HuffPost2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html|title=What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number|date=April 20, 2009|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2009|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> the group first used the term in connection to a fall 1971 plan to search for an abandoned cannabis crop that they had learned about.<ref name=HuffPost2010>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/04/20/420-meaning-the-true-stor_n_543854.html|title=420 Meaning: The True Story Of How April 20 Became 'Weed Day'|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=April 20, 2010|accessdate=January 23, 2011|first=Ryan|last=Grim|authorlink=Ryan Grim}}</ref> The Waldos designated the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue on the grounds of [[San Rafael High School]] as their meeting place, and 4:20 p.m. as their meeting time.<ref name=HuffPost2009/> The Waldos referred to this plan with the phrase "4:20 Louis". Multiple failed attempts to find the crop eventually shortened their phrase to simply "4:20", which ultimately evolved into a codeword the teens used to mean pot-smoking in general.<ref name=HuffPost2010/>

''[[High Times]]'' Creative Director [[Steven Hager]] was the first person to track down the Waldos and publish their account of the origins of the term. Hager wrote "Are You Stoner Smart or Stoner Stupid?" (October 1998) in which he called for 4:20 PM to be the socially accepted hour of the day to consume cannabis. "I believe 420 is a ritualization of cannabis use that holds deep meaning for our subculture," wrote Hager. "It also points us in a direction for the responsible use of cannabis."

== April 20 observances ==
April 20 (4/20 in U.S. [[Date and time notation by country#United States|date notation]]) has evolved into a [[counterculture]] holiday, where people gather to celebrate and consume cannabis.<ref name=UCSC/> Some events have a political nature to them, advocating for the [[decriminalization of non-medical cannabis in the United States]].<br />
[[File:Partial View of Hippie Hill in San Francisco.jpg|thumb|Partial View of Hippie Hill in San Francisco]]
===American observance===
==== San Francisco, California ====
Every year thousands of people flock from all over California to [[San Francisco]]'s [[Hippie Hill]], located in Golden Gate Park near the famous [[Haight-Ashbury]] district.<ref>http://sfcitizen.com/blog/2010/04/20/a-huge-turn-out-for-420-day-on-hippie-hill-in-san-franciscos-golden-gate-park/</ref>

==== University of California, Santa Cruz ====
A celebration on April 20 takes place every year in the [[Porter College]] meadow at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]]. The event has grown during recent years after the city of Santa Cruz passed [[Measure K]] in 2006, making marijuana a low-priority crime. Participants in the event are often confronted by religious anti-drug activists, yet these protesters are largely ignored.[[Image:SantaCruzUCSC.jpg|thumb|right|Students and others gather to smoke [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at a meadow near [[Porter College]] on April 20, 2007—"[[420 (cannabis culture)|420]] Day".]]

==== University of Colorado, Boulder ====
A large celebration is held every year on the [[University of Colorado system|University of Colorado]]'s [[University of Colorado at Boulder|Boulder campus]], with attendance reaching more than 11,000 in 2008. It has been estimated that in 2009 the crowd surpassed the 10,000 attendee mark that was set in 2008. This would make CU Boulder's celebration of the hopeful legalization of marijuana one of the largest such celebrations in the United States.<ref name=point>{{cite news|first=Jesse|last=McKinley|title=Marijuana Advocates Point to Signs of Change|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/20/us/20marijuana.html|quote=Mr. Hager said the significance of April 20 dates to a ritual begun in the early 1970s in which a group of Northern California teenagers smoked cannabis every day at 4:20 p.m. Word of the ritual spread and expanded to a yearly event in various places. Soon, cannabis aficionados were using "420" as a code for smoking and using it as a sign-off on flyers for concerts where the drug would be plentiful. In recent years, the April 20 events have become so widespread that several colleges have urged students to just say no. At the University of Colorado, Boulder, where thousands of students regularly use the day to light up in the quad, administrators sent an e-mail message this month pleading with students not to "participate in unlawful activity that debases the reputation of your university and degree."|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=April 19, 2009 |accessdate=April 20, 2009|publisher=[[The New York Times Company]]}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080728060041/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/apr/20/cus-420-pot-smoke-out-draws-10000/ CU's 4/20 pot smoke-out draws crowd of 10,000 : CU News].</ref> University police have tried various methods to prevent the gathering, including photographing students participating in the event,<ref>[http://stopthedrugwar.org/chronicle-old/434/colorado.shtml Marijuana: University of Colorado Posts Pics of Students at Pot Rally, Offers Reward for Naming Them].</ref> but the crowd has grown every year.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> The university and police have taken a more hands-off approach since 2006, emphasizing event safety over possession citations. Recent growth of the medical marijuana industry in Colorado is expected to add momentum to future events.<ref>[http://www.dailycamera.com/archivesearch/ci_14855977?IADID=Search-www.dailycamera.com-www.dailycamera.com#axzz0lJwVBnxu. Medical marijuana expected to give momentum to CU-Boulder 4/20 event - Boulder Daily Camera]</ref>

On April 15, 2009, the Office of the Chancellor sent an e-mail to all CU students regarding the 2009 celebration of 4/20 stating that the event would debase "the reputation of your university and degree." The CU student newspaper disagreed with the Chancellor's analysis.<ref>[http://www.coloradodaily.com/news/2009/apr/19/university-colorado-boulder-420-cu-email-apology/ Student Voice: CU owes students apology for 4/20 e-mail]{{Dead link|date=March 2010}}.</ref>

No possession tickets were issued at the 2009 event.<ref>[http://www.truthalliance.net/Archive/News/tabid/67/ID/2579/CUs-420-smokeout-draws-10000-No-possession-tickets-issued.aspx No possession tickets issued during CU's 4/20 smokeout].</ref>

{{wide image|420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder - panorama 1.jpg|900px|Panorama of the 2010 420 cannabis event at University of Colorado at Boulder.}}

===Canadian observance ===
====Ottawa, Ontario====
Annually, on April 20, thousands of activists gather on [[Parliament Hill]] and Major's hill to look toward the peace tower as they join each other in smoking marijuana when the clock strikes 4:20. Police keep an eye on protesters to make sure the peace is kept within correlation to law.<ref>[http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Canada/2009/04/19/9165666-sun.html Pot activists to light up on Hill - Canada - Canoe.ca]</ref><ref>[http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/290409 Ottawa's Parliament Hill just one site for planned 4/20 protest]</ref>

==== Montréal, Québec ====

Every year on April 20, thousands of people gather at the Mont-Royal monument to celebrate 4/20. Police don't make arrests, although they do make their presence known.

==== London, Ontario ====

Each year on 4/20 thousands gather at Victoria Park downtown to celebrate. Over 2000 people joined the festivities in 2010 that included live music. London police made a presence but announced they were not going to lay any marijuana related charges. London is also the hometown of Canadian cannabis policy reform advocate [[Marc Emery]].

==== Toronto, Ontario ====

Every year on April 20th since 2006, a march takes through the city streets in advocacy of legalizing marijuana. The march ends up at Queen's Park Circle just north of the Ontario Provincial Parliament to celebrate 4/20 where there are both vendors and entertainers. Though the event is police-patrolled, no tickets were issued in 2010 while over 30,000 people participated in the revelry.

==== Vancouver, British Columbia ====

On April 20, 2009, an estimated nearly 10,000 people gathered around the [[Vancouver Art Gallery]] to celebrate "420". The police did not attempt to make arrests. This event has taken place in Vancouver annually for many years, and the police are generally tolerant of all marijuana use on April 20, and most other days.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Thousands+marijuana+smokers+gather+Vancouver+celebrate/1515882/story.html |title=Thousands of marijuana smokers gather in Vancouver to celebrate "420" |first=Neal |last=Hall |publisher=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |date=May 2, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2009}}</ref>

=== New Zealand observance ===
====Auckland====
In [[Auckland]], New Zealand a 420 group meets regularly at the [[Daktory]].<ref name="Hopkins">{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/national/3218470/Pot-clubs-go-nationwide|title=Pot clubs go nationwide|last=Hopkins|first=Steve|date=January 10, 2010|publisher=Sunday News|accessdate=January 13, 2010}}</ref>
====Dunedin====
In [[Dunedin]], New Zealand, members of [[Otago NORML]] and some students at [[University of Otago]] meet every Wednesday and Friday at 4:20 pm under a Walnut tree on the University's Union Lawn to smoke cannabis in defiance of New Zealand's cannabis law. There was considerable media and police interest in the '420' group in 2008, resulting in the arrest of a student and the issuance of trespass notices to members of the public at one of the 4:20 pm meetings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/9276/police-swoop-cannabis-protest|title=Police swoop on cannabis protest|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=June 12, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=March 31, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=420 Protest|url=http://www.ch9.co.nz/node/7704|date=February 22, 2008|work=Channel 9 News Dunedin|accessdate=October 7, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/12872/campus-arrests-follow-marijuana-complaints|title=Campus arrests follow marijuana complaints (+ video)|last=Porteous|first=Debbie |date=July 11, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/24064/moore039s-appeal-rejected|title=Moore's appeal rejected|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 26, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/14321/lack-quorum-foils-cannabis-vote|title=Lack of quorum foils cannabis vote|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=July 22, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/23171/ousa-general-meeting-promises-controversy|title=OUSA general meeting promises controversy|last=Rudd|first=Allison |date=September 20, 2008|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=April 22, 2009}}</ref> The group leader was arrested for cannabis possession at a university Market Day unrelated to the 4:20 meetings,<ref name="ODT_guilty">{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/on-campus/university-otago/42645/norml-leader-guilty|title=Norml leader guilty |date=February 10, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=August 23, 2009}}</ref> but was later discharged without conviction on all charges.<ref>{{cite journal | authorlink = Court Reporter
| title = Ex-Norml leader discharged
| journal = The Otago Daily Times
| date = 4 December 2009}}</ref> The group celebrated their 5th anniversary on 11 September 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odt.co.nz/news/dunedin/73731/fifth-anniversary-420-protests|title=Fifth anniversary of 4:20 protests|last=Gibb|first=John |date=September 12, 2009|publisher=Otago Daily Times|accessdate=December 9, 2009}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Legality of cannabis by country]]
* [[Spiritual use of cannabis]]
* [[Cannabis legalization in Canada]]
* [[Cannabis in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Cannabis in the United States]]
* [[Drug subculture]]
* [[Hash Bash]]
* [[420 (Family Guy)]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/20/what-420-means-the-true-s_n_188320.html What 420 Means: The True Story Behind Stoners' Favorite Number] by Ryan Grim, ''The Huffington Post'', April 20, 2009
* [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/localnews/ci_12087719 Mom and Dad now know about '4/20'] by Gevevieve Bookwalter, ''Santa Cruz Sentinel'', April 7, 2009
* [http://articles.latimes.com/2009/aug/30/image/ig-potculture30 Marijuana's New High Life] by ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]''
* [http://the.ricethresher.org/opinion/2006/04/14/420potorigins Roll up for the 420 magical mystery origins] by Evan Mintz, ''[[Rice_Thresher]]'', April 14 ,2006.

{{drug use}}

{{Cannabis resources}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:420 (Cannabis Culture)}}
[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]
[[Category:Unofficial observances]]
[[Category:In-jokes]]
[[Category:Cannabis in the United States]]

[[cs:Světový den marihuany]]
[[es:420 (cannabis)]]
[[fr:420 (cannabis)]]
[[ka:420 (მარიხუანა)]]
[[la:420 (fumatio cannabis)]]
[[nl:420 (cannabiscultuur)]]
[[ja:420 (大麻)]]
[[pt:420 (cultura canábica)]]
[[ru:420 (культура употребления марихуаны)]]
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]

Maison Mantin

2011-03-09T11:29:52Z

Anetode: moved Maison mantin to Maison Mantin

The '''Maison Mantin''' (''"Mantin House"'') is a late 19th-century French [[mansion]]<ref name=restoration>{{cite web |url=http://www.patrimoinedefrance.fr/La-restauration-de-la-Maison |title=La restauration de la Maison Mantin est achevée |work=Patrimoine de France |accessdate=2011-03-09}}</ref> located in the town of [[Moulins]] (aka ''Arrondissement de Moulins''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://geographic.org/geographic_names/name.php?uni=-2082002&fid=1913&c=france |title=Arrondissement de Moulins: France |work=Geographical names |accessdate=2011-03-09}}</ref>)
in the [[Allier]] department of central [[France]].

The mansion, shuttered for more than a century, opened its doors to the public in November 2010 as a museum.<ref name=cnn>{{cite web |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/02/18/france.timewarp.house/index.html?iref=allsearch |title=Time-warp mansion opens its doors after century in the dark |work=CNN, International Edition |accessdate=2011-03-09}}</ref>

== History ==
Maison Mantin was commissioned by Louis Mantin, a wealthy man who wanted to showcase his art and antique collection. It was designed by a noted local architect, René-Justin MOREAU (April 28, 1858 - September 18, 1924), in collaboration with his father, Jean-Bélizaire Moreau (1828-1899), also an architect, and built in 1893.<ref name=architect>{{cite web |url=http://musee-batiment.planet-allier.com/rene_moreau_web.pdf |title=100 ans d’architecture à Moulins, René Moreau, architecte |work=Musée du Bâtiment |accessdate=2011-03-09}}</ref>

Mantain bequethed the mansion to the town of Moulins in his will, written before his death in 1905. The will stated that the house be kept intact, so as to show to visitors in 100 years "a specimen of a [[bourgeois]] home of the nineteenth century".<ref name=restoration></ref>

Consequently, the house was kept shuttered for over a century, with all its original contents, and fell into disrepair. After extensive restoration, it was opened as a museum, and a showcase for the eclectic taste of its former owner.<ref name=cnn></ref>

== The Building ==

The first draft of the architects' design for Maison Mantin was akin to a [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] mansion, but the final design was more picturesque, borrowing many of the elements of a seaside villa. The architect gave free rein to his taste for [[eclecticism]]: in the study and dining room with wood paneling, and the neo-[[renaissance]] decor of the "room of the four seasons" with plaster decorations and paintings in the style of [[Louis XVIII]]; the modern bathroom has [[stained glass]] and paintings in the [[Art Nouveau]] style. The project is important in that it paved the way for the design trend of the "castle-villa".<ref name=architect></ref>

The house incorporates the technological innovations of its period: electrical lighting, hot-and-cold faucets, overhead shower and flushing toilet.<ref name=cnn></ref>

== The Collection ==

The museum contains a dizzying maze of paintings, books, photographs, miniature objects, stuffed animals, ceramics, minerals, carvings and rare and unusual objects gathered by Louis Mantin from his travels in different parts of the world.
The rich collection and the ornamentation of the house give it a unique character.<ref name=restoration></ref>

The museum also has a screening room.

== Visitor Information ==
The entrance to La Maison Mantin is in common with the Anne de Beaujeu Museum, and only with a guide-lecturer.

All visits must be booked in advance. Admission is 5 [[Euro]], 2.5 Euro for those aged 12 to 25, in groups of 10 persons.<ref name=restoration></ref>

== References ==

{{reflist|1}}

== External Links ==

* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/02/pictures/110209-maison-mantin-french-time-capsule-mansion/ Photos: Time Capsule Mansion Opened After 100 Years, National Geographic]
* [http://www.moulins-tourisme.com/en/index.htm Moulins tourism website]

Joseph II.

2010-04-18T21:06:47Z

Anetode: File:Kaiser Joseph II by Georg Decker.png

[[Datei:Kaiser Joseph II by Georg Decker.png|thumb|Portrait des Kaisers Joseph II.]]
[[Datei:Wappen Kaiser Joseph II. 1765 (Groß).png|thumb|Großes Wappen des Kaisers Joseph II.]]
'''Joseph II.''' (ungarisch ''II. József'', kroatisch ''Josip II.''), Benedikt August Johann Anton Michael Adam (* [[13. März]] [[1741]] in [[Wien]]; † [[20. Februar]] [[1790]] ebenda), [[Erzherzog]] von [[Erzherzogtum Österreich|Österreich]] aus dem Geschlecht [[Habsburg-Lothringen]], wurde 1764 [[römisch-deutscher König]], war von 1765 bis 1790 [[Römisch-deutscher Kaiser|Kaiser]] des [[HRR|Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation]], ab 1780 auch [[König]] von [[Böhmen]], [[Königreich Kroatien und Slawonien|Kroatien]] und [[Ungarn]].

== Leben ==
=== Herkunft ===
[[Datei:Maria Theresia Familie.jpg|thumb|Der junge Joseph als Erzherzog (auf dem Stern stehend) neben seiner Mutter Kaiserin Maria Theresia]]
Der spätere Kaiser Joseph II. erblickte am 13. März 1741 als erster Sohn und viertes Kind [[Maria Theresia (Österreich)|Maria Theresias]] und ihres Gemahls [[Franz I. Stephan (HRR)|Franz Stephan von Lothringen]], der als Franz I. Kaiser des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation (Römisch Deutscher Kaiser) war, in [[Wien]] das Licht der Welt.

Im Wiener Diarium, der amtlichen Zeitung der Hauptstadt, hieß es dazu: "Heute in der fruhe zwischen 2 und 3 Uhr seynd Ihre Majestät die Königin zu Hungern und Böheim, Erz-Hertzogin zu Österreich, unsere Allergnädigste Landes-Fürstin und Frau eines schön- und wolgestalteten Ertz-Herzogen zu unaussprechlicher Freude Allerhöchster Herrschaften wie auch zum höchsten Trost alhiesiger Inwohner und gesammter Königl. Erb-Königreichen und Landen glücklichst entbunden worden; von welcher glüklichen Entbindung alsogleich der Ruf mithin ein immerwährendes Jubel-Geschrey durch alle Gassen noch bey eitler Nacht erschollen. Von dieser glücklichen Entbindung seynd auch die Nachrichten mittels Abfertigung einiger Kammer-Herren, Truhsessen und respektive Expresso an unterschiedliche auswärtige Höfe abgefertigt worden." <ref>Gutkas, Karl: Joseph II. Eine Biographie, Wien, Darmstadt 1989, S. 15.</ref>

Noch am Abend der Geburt fand die Taufzeremonie statt. Als Taufpaten fungierten Papst [[Benedikt XIV. (Papst)|Benedikt XIV.]], vertreten durch den Fürsterzbischof von Wien, Kardinal [[Sigismund von Kollonitz]], sowie König [[August III. (Polen)|August III.]] von Polen, welcher durch den Prinzen und späteren Reichsfeldmarschall [[Joseph Friedrich von Sachsen-Hildburghausen]] vertreten wurde. Getauft wurde das Kind schließlich auf die Namen ''Josephus Benedictus Augustus Joannes Antonius Michael Adamus'' - der zweite und der dritte Vorname zu Ehren der beiden Taufpaten. <ref>Gutkas, Karl: Joseph II. Eine Biographie, Wien, Darmstadt 1989, S. 16.</ref>

=== Heirat und Nachkommen ===
[[Datei:Arrival of Isabella of Parma.jpg|thumb|Der feierliche Einzug von Isabella von Parma in Wien zur Hochzeit mit Joseph]]
Joseph heiratete am 6. Oktober 1760 in Wien die Prinzessin [[Isabella von Parma|Isabella von Bourbon-Parma]] (1741-1763), Tochter des Herzogs [[Philipp (Parma)|Philipp von Parma, Piacenza, Guastalla]] und dessen Gattin Prinzessin [[Louise Elisabeth von Frankreich]] a.d.H. Bourbon.
Der auch für heutige Verhältnisse etwas unkonventionell geführten Ehe entsprangen zwei Kinder, die aber bereits früh verstarben.

* Maria Theresia (1762-1770)
* Christine (*/† 1763)

In zweiter Ehe heiratete er am 23. Jänner 1765 in Wien-Schönbrunn seine Cousine 2. Grades Prinzessin [[Maria Josepha von Bayern]] (1739-1767), Tochter des Kaisers [[Karl VII. (HRR)|Karl VII.]] und dessen Gattin Erzherzogin [[Maria Amalia von Österreich (1701–1756)|Maria Amalie von Österreich]]. Die von Joseph vernachlässigte Ehe blieb kinderlos.

=== Joseph II. als römisch-deutscher Kaiser ===
[[Datei:Krönungsmahl Joseph II.jpg|thumb|Krönungsmahl Joseph II. in Frankfurt]]
[[Datei:Pompeo Batoni 002.jpg|thumb|Joseph II. und sein jüngerer Bruder, der spätere Kaiser Leopold II.]]
Am 27. März 1764 wurde er in [[Frankfurt am Main]] zum [[Römisch-deutscher König|römisch-deutschen König]] gewählt und am 3. April 1764 ebenda als solcher gekrönt. Sein Wahlspruch wurde: ''Virtute et exemplo'' (Mit Tugend und Beispiel)

Joseph wurde 1765 nach dem Tod seines Vaters Kaiser des Heiligen Römischen Reiches Deutscher Nation und offizieller Mitregent in den erzherzöglichen Ländern, ohne allerdings viel regieren zu können. Das erhebliche finanzielle Erbe des Vaters verwendete er zu großen Teilen für die Sanierung des Staatshaushaltes. Die Position des römisch-deutschen Kaisers war bereits zu dieser Zeit rein dekorativ, und seine Mutter [[Maria Theresia (Österreich)|Maria Theresia]] überwachte in ihrer Besorgnis um sein unbedachtes Wesen seine Handlungen und Entscheidungen.

In vielen Fragen hatte Joseph andere, zum Teil auch konträre Meinungen zu seiner Mutter Maria Theresia, die bei ihren eigenen Reformen geistig und emotional noch im Zeitalter der [[Gegenreformation]] lebte, während Joseph bereits ein Anhänger [[Zeitalter der Aufklärung|aufklärerischer]] Ideen war. Nach ihrem Tod 1780 versuchte er diese Ideen politisch umzusetzen, dies allerdings auf überhastete oder undiplomatische Art, so dass viele davon durch Verzögerungen oder Widerstand letztlich unwirksam blieben.

Als er 1790 an [[Tuberkulose]] verstarb, erhielt sein jüngerer Bruder [[Leopold II. (HRR)|Leopold II.]] die Kaiserwürde. Nur wenige trauerten um ihn: "Aus der Fackel seines Geistes ist... ein Funke gefallen, der nie mehr erlöschen wird“. Ein letztes Schreiben am Tag vor seinem Tod an seinen engsten Freund [[Franz Moritz von Lacy]] blieb der Nachwelt erhalten.

== Der aufgeklärte Absolutismus und Josephs Reformen ==
Er gilt als Exponent des [[Aufgeklärter Absolutismus|aufgeklärten Absolutismus]]. Für ihn war das Herrschertum ein Amt, ein Dienst am [[Staat]] als übergeordnetem Ganzen.
„Alles für das Volk, aber nichts durch das Volk“ war sein angeblicher Leitspruch, der seinen Regierungsstil zutreffend charakterisiert.

Joseph II. versuchte den Einfluss des [[Adel]]s und des [[Klerus]] zurückzudrängen. Die [[Leibeigenschaft]] der [[Landwirt|Bauern]] etwa wurde durch das [[Untertanenpatent]] am 1. November [[1781]] aufgehoben. Die adligen Ständeversammlungen wurden zugunsten von Staatsbeamten zurückgedrängt.

Dies hatte auch mit Josephs [[Zentralismus|Zentralisierungstendenzen]] zu tun.
So versuchte er, aus [[Österreich]] einen Einheitsstaat mit [[Deutsche Sprache|Deutsch]] als Staatssprache zu machen, und wollte die althergebrachten Sonderrechte der Länder seines Herrschaftsbereiches abschaffen.
Er verzichtete sogar darauf, sich in [[Prag]] und [[Pressburg]] zum [[König]] von [[Böhmen]] bzw. [[Ungarn]] krönen zu lassen. Diese Bestrebungen lösten in den [[Österreichische Niederlande|Österreichischen Niederlanden]] Unruhen aus und brachten [[Ungarn]] an den Rand eines Aufstandes.

Ein anderer Aspekt dieser Bemühungen ist seine Kunstpolitik. So wurde das [[Burgtheater]] zum ''deutschen Nationaltheater'' erklärt und der Komponist [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] wurde 1782 beauftragt, mit der ''[[Die Entführung aus dem Serail|Entführung aus dem Serail]]'' die Gattung des Singspiels in deutscher Sprache auf künstlerisch ernstzunehmendes Niveau zu heben. Die Zusammenarbeit mit Mozart wurde auch in den folgenden Jahren beibehalten, als das Genre des Deutschen Singspiels sich nicht durchgesetzt hatte. 1786 genehmigte er die Uraufführung der Mozart-Oper ''[[Le nozze di Figaro]]'' (nach dem aufrührerischen Stück „Der tolle Tag" des Franzosen [[Pierre Augustin Caron de Beaumarchais|Beaumarchais]], dessen Kritik an den Adelsvorrechten mit der Politik des Kaisers sehr gut zusammenging). 1789 erteilte er Mozart auch den Auftrag zu dessen Oper ''[[Così fan tutte]]''.

Josephs Einheitsstaat sollte in erster Linie für Wohlstand und Fortkommen seiner Bürger sorgen. Allerdings hatte Joseph die Tendenz sich auch um allerkleinste Details zu kümmern, was von seinen Untertanen teilweise als schikanös empfunden wurde. So gab es Regelungen bei Begräbnisfeierlichkeiten bis in kleinste Detail; Festlegung der Zahl der Kerzen, die bei einer Messe anzuzünden seien; das Verbot von [[Pfeffernuss|Pfeffernüssen]] als Genussmittel, welche er für gesundheitsschädlich hielt und vieles mehr.

Ein ernster zu nehmender Aspekt dieser Bemühungen ist seine Gesundheitspolitik, die sich in der Gründung des [[Allgemeines Krankenhaus der Stadt Wien|Allgemeinen Krankenhaus]] und dem [[Collegium-Medico-Chirurgicum-Josephinum|Josephinum]] (einer Ausbildungsstätte für Militärärzte) niederschlug. Das Allgemeine Krankenhaus war eine Art Lieblingsprojekt des Kaisers, mit dem er sich äußerst detailliert befasste - u.a. in der Planung des sog. [[Narrenturm|Narrenturms]], einer Verwahranstalt für sog. "Geisteskranke".

Sein Reformwerk scheiterte letztlich am offenen und versteckten Widerstand der alten Eliten, bzw. an der Tatsache, dass er nur zehn Jahre regierte.
Bei der Auswahl seiner Mitarbeiter übersah er oft deren Fehler und mangelnde Konsensfähigkeit. So bot der Protochirurg [[Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla]] der konservativen Ärzteschaft so viel Angriffsfläche, dass sich die Entwicklung der Chirurgie in Österreich letztlich um Jahrzehnte verzögerte. Der Graf Belgioso schweißte als Statthalter der österreichischen Niederlande durch sein ungeschicktes Agieren sogar den Klerus und die Freigeister zu einer gemeinsamen Opposition zusammen.

=== Justizpolitik ===
Ein wichtiger Aspekt seiner Reformen ist allerdings, dass die Rechtsordnung unter ihm bedeutende Fortschritte machte. 1783 wurden Teile des Eherechts in der „Verordnung in Ehesachen“ [[Kodifikation|kodifiziert]], 1787 wurde ein neues Strafgesetzbuch, das [[Josephinisches Gesetzbuch|Josephinische Gesetzbuch]] erlassen, und die Ausarbeitung eines Bürgerlichen Gesetzbuches, die schließlich zum [[Allgemeines Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|ABGB]] führen sollte, wurde begonnen.

=== Innen- und Wirtschaftspolitik ===
Unter seiner Regierung wurden [[Merkantilismus|merkantilistische]] und [[Physiokratismus|physiokratische]] Ideen verwirklicht. Die Bevölkerung wurde dabei hauptsächlich als Arbeitskräftereservoir angesehen.

Maßnahmen zur Hebung der Bevölkerungszahl gehen damit Hand in Hand. Vor diesem Hintergrund ist z. B. die Aufhebung der Todesstrafe 1787 zu sehen – die Delinquenten wurden schließlich für die Zwangsarbeit gebraucht.

Ebenso verwirklichte er einen straffen [[Polizeistaat]] mit Spitzelsystem. Kurze Experimente mit der [[Pressefreiheit]] wurden rasch wieder aufgegeben.

=== Außenpolitik ===
[[Datei:Allegory of the 1st partition of Poland.jpg|thumb|Katharina II. (ganz links) teilt sich zwischen Joseph II. und [[Friedrich II. (Preußen)|Friedrich II. von Preußen]] Polen wie ein Kuchen auf, während der polnische König [[Stanislaus II. August Poniatowski|Stanislaus August II.]] sich verzweifelt an die Krone greift (Karikatur ''le gâteau des rois'' von [[Jean-Michel Moreau]], 1773)]]
In seiner [[Außenpolitik]] war Joseph expansiv, aber meistens nicht vom Glück begünstigt. Die Beteiligung [[Österreich]]s an der 1. [[Teilungen Polens|Teilung Polens]] mit dem Zugewinn [[Galizien]]s ging auf die Initiative Preußens zurück, das als Ausgleich für Russlands Zugewinne im Krieg mit der Türkei einen Korridor durch Polen (als Verbindung zwischen [[Pommern]] und [[Ostpreußen]]) forderte. Dem war eine Politik der Annäherung an Österreich vorausgegangen, das 1771 einen geheimen Vertrag mit der Türkei geschlossen hatte und damit Druck auf Russland ausübte. Als Katharina II. von Russland von diesem geheimen Vertrag erfuhr, wurde Österreich auch ein Angebot gemacht, an der Teilung des souveränen Polens zu partizipieren. Die Initiative zu den Teilungsplänen ging also nicht von Joseph aus, zumal die Rolle Österreichs unter den europäischen Mächten 1771/72 nicht tonangebend war. Allerdings soll er im Gegensatz zu seiner Mutter keinerlei Skrupel bei diesem Handel gehabt haben.

Im [[Bayerischer Erbfolgekrieg|Bayerischen Erbfolgekrieg]], bei dem ursprünglich geplant war, Bayern an Österreich anzuschließen und dafür den [[Wittelsbach]]ern die [[Österreichische Niederlande|Österreichischen Niederlande]] zu überlassen ([[Bayerisch-Niederländisches Tauschprojekt]]), musste er sich letztlich mit dem [[Innviertel]] begnügen.

1787 wurde er als Verbündeter [[Katharina II. (Russland)|Katharinas II.]] in einen für Österreich wenig erfolgreichen [[Russisch-Österreichischer Türkenkrieg (1787–1792)|Türkenkrieg]] hineingezogen.

=== Religionspolitik („Josephinismus“) ===
[[Datei:Toleranzpatent 001.jpg|thumb|Das Toleranzpatent von 1781]]
Am berühmtesten ist allerdings seine Religionspolitik, die meistens allein gemeint ist, wenn man von '''[[Josephinismus]]''' spricht.

In seinem [[Toleranzpatent]] wurde das Glaubensmonopol der [[Katholische Kirche|Katholischen Kirche]] gebrochen – [[Protestantismus|Protestanten]] und [[Judentum|Juden]] durften ihren Glauben ausüben, allerdings nur unter Duldung; der Vorrang der [[Katholische Kirche|Katholischen Kirche]] blieb aufrecht. Er schreckte auch nicht davor zurück, Vermögen der [[Tote Hand (Recht)|Toten Hand]] zu veräußern und den Willen der Stifter zweckzuentfremden.

Alle [[Ordensgemeinschaft|Orden]], die im [[Volkswirtschaft|volkswirtschaftlichen]] Sinne unproduktiv waren, also keine Krankenpflege, Schulen oder andere soziale Aktivitäten betrieben, wurden aufgehoben, ihr Besitz verstaatlicht. Dies führte dazu, dass viele [[kontemplativ]]e Abteien mit zum Teil langer Tradition geschlossen wurden. Aus dem Erlös der Aufhebungen wurde der bis ins 20. Jahrhundert bestehende [[Religionsfonds]] gegründet, der die Besoldung der Priester übernahm, die auf diese Weise zu Staatsbeamten wurden.

Auch viele Feiertage und Kirchenfeste ([[Wallfahrt]]en, [[Prozession]]en u. Ä.) wurden abgeschafft – hauptsächlich um die Arbeitsproduktivität zu erhöhen.

Andererseits wurde auf seine Initiative die Verwaltungsstruktur der katholischen Kirche in Österreich rationalisiert. Pfarrsprengel wurden verkleinert, neue Diözesen wurden gegründet und bestehende mit den Grenzen der Kronländer in Deckung gebracht.

== Graf Falkenstein ==
Der unter dem [[Pseudonym]] ''Graf von Falkenstein'' [[Anonymität|inkognito]] reisende Kaiser erregte in der zweiten Hälfte des 18. Jahrhunderts auf seinen Reisen durch Europa großes Aufsehen. 1777 bezeichnete man ihn in Frankreich auch als den [[Illustre Voyageur]].

=== Herkunft des Inkognito ===
[[Datei:Portrait Kupfer XVIII.jpg|thumb|Joseph II. reiste incognito als Graf von Falkenstein]]
Als römisch-deutscher Kaiser und Mitregent unternahm Joseph etliche Reisen, so durch Böhmen, nach Italien und Frankreich unter seinem offiziellen Incognito als ''Graf von Falkenstein'' (oder als Comte de Falckenstein auf seiner Reise nach Versailles). Die linksrheinische [[Grafschaft Falkenstein]] im Norden der heutigen Pfalz war eines der kleineren Besitztümer (etwa 125 km² und 4000 Einwohner) der Habsburger und das einzige, das territorial vom lothringischen Erbe geblieben war. Incognito-Reisen des Hochadels oder auch regierender Fürsten waren im 18. Jahrhundert gängig und sollten in erster Linie den Aufwand für Repräsentation mindern. Beliebt waren Incognito-Reisen insbesondere bei protestantischen Fürsten auf der ''Grand Tour'' nach Italien.<ref>Babel, Rainer/Paravicini, Werner (Hrsg.): Grand Tour - Adeliges Reisen und europäische Kultur vom 14. bis zum 18. Jahrhundert (= Beihefte der Francia, Bd. 60), Stuttgart 2005.</ref>

=== Die Inkognitoreisen des Kaisers ===

Joseph II. war derjenige europäische Herrscher, der die höchste Kilometerleistung seiner Zeit erreichte. In seinen knapp 25 Jahren Regierungszeit - 7102 Tage präzise - verbrachte er 2260 Tage nicht in seiner Residenz. Die Reisen wurden mit äußerster Präzision vorbereitet und kalkuliert. Im Brief vom 19. Mai 1777 an Leopold vor der Abreise aus Paris: "... ich habe meine Zeit und Strecke berechnet....ich habe insgesamt 39 Tage Fahrt vor mir, in der Folge verbleiben mir zum Aufenthalt 27 frei verfügbare Tage, die ich, ohne es im Voraus sagen zu können, nach ihrer Kuriosität aufteilen will". Der ausgesprochen scharfsinnige und genaue Beobachter diktierte jeden Abend seine am Tage gemachten Erlebnisse und Beobachtungen - die meisten dieser Reisetagebücher sind noch heute erhalten und von enormer Genauigkeit und Qualität.<ref>Kramar, Konrad/Stuiber, Petra: Die schrulligen Habsburger - Marotten und Allüren eines Kaiserhauses, Wien 1999.</ref>

==== Die Reise durch das Banat von 1768 ====
Joseph II. besuchte 1767/68 und 1773 das Banat. Ihm zu Ehren wurde ein außerhalb der Festung Temeschburg (heute [[Timişoara]]) gelegener, aufblühender Stadtteil ''Josefstadt'' benannt.<ref>[http://www.birda.de/Die-Schwabenzuege-I.html Birda.de], Die Schwabenzüge</ref>

==== Die Italienreise von 1769 ====
1769 fuhr Joseph II. mit seiner Reisekutsche nach Rom. In [[Neapel]] besuchte er seine Schwester [[Maria Karolina von Österreich|Maria Karolina]], die Frau des regierenden Königs [[Ferdinand I. (Sizilien)|Ferdinand IV.]]. Im gleichen Jahr führte ihn eine weitere Reise nach [[Böhmen]], wobei er im [[Mähren|mährischen]] ''Slavikovitz'' der Legende nach einem Bauern dem Pflug abgenommen haben soll. Die Szene des pflügenden Kaisers wurde noch im gleichen Jahr als Denkmal festgehalten.<ref>[http://books.google.de/books?id=uTg43WtvPnQC&pg=PA258&lpg=PA258&dq=Josef+II.+Banat+1768+Reise&source=web&ots=e-xZyV4neO&sig=99zsed-v8QtFLjK-ePtOf8YOGv8&hl=de&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPA258,M1 Anton Schindling, Walter Ziegler - Die Kaiser der Neuzeit 1519-1918 heiliges römisches Reich, Österreich, Deutschland: Heiliges römisches Reich, Österreich, Deutschland, Österreich, Seite 259 - Veröffentlicht von C.H.Beck, 1990 - [[ISBN]] 3406343953, 9783406343957] </ref>

==== Die Balkanreise 1773 ====
1773 bereiste er das Banat, [[Siebenbürgen]] und das gerade erworbene [[Galizien]].<ref>[http://books.google.de/books?id=uTg43WtvPnQC&pg=PA258&lpg=PA258&dq=Josef+II.+Banat+1768+Reise&source=web&ots=e-xZyV4neO&sig=99zsed-v8QtFLjK-ePtOf8YOGv8&hl=de&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=9&ct=result#PPA258,M1 Anton Schindling, Walter Ziegler - Die Kaiser der Neuzeit 1519-1918 heiliges römisches Reich, Österreich, Deutschland: Heiliges römisches Reich, Österreich, Deutschland, Österreich, Seite 258 - Veröffentlicht von C.H.Beck, 1990 - [[ISBN]] 3406343953, 9783406343957] </ref>

==== Die Frankreichreise von 1777 ====
1777 bereiste der Graf Falkenstein Frankreich, wo er aufgrund seines betont einfachen und bürgerlichen Auftretens gefeiert wurde. Hauptmotive der Reise waren die Supervision der Schwester [[Marie-Antoinette]], deren Verhalten und Einmischung in die französische Innenpolitik in Wien Anlass zur Sorge gaben, sowie die Absprache mit den französischen Verbündeten über die geplante Annexion großer Teile Bayerns und des Schweizer Thurgaus. Umstritten ist die Frage ob der Schwager [[Ludwig XVI.]], den eine [[Phimose]] an der Erfüllung der dynastischen Pflichten gehindert haben soll, zur Operation überredet wurde. Unterlagen zu einer derartigen Operation sind in französischen Archiven nicht vorhanden. Ein Indiz für ein derartiges Leiden und eine insgeheime Operation könnte dagegen die Begleitung des Grafen durch den Protochirurgen [[Giovanni Alessandro Brambilla]] sein.

Die Hinreise führte von Wien über München, Stuttgart, Straßburg, Nancy nach Paris. Die Rückreise führte im großen Bogen über Brest, Nantes, Orleans, Bordeaux, San Sebastian, Toulouse, Marseille, Genf, Basel, Freiburg, Konstanz, Innsbruck nach Wien zurück. Leider hat sich das Reisejournal der Frankreichreise nicht erhalten. Die Briefe aus Frankreich an die Geschwister und Mutter wurden 1866-69 von [[Alfred von Arneth]] herausgegeben.

Legendär wurden seine Begegnungen auf dieser Reise mit führenden Köpfen der Zeit, unter anderem mit [[Georges-Louis Leclerc de Buffon|Buffon]], [[Albrecht von Haller|Haller]], [[Lavater]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] und [[Voltaire]]. Sein weiteres Interesse galt sozialen Einrichtungen, Industrieanlagen und militärischen Einrichtungen. Der Graf reiste mit zwei Begleitern, den Grafen [[Philipp von Cobenzl]] und [[Joseph Colloredo-Mels und Wallsee]].

Der Aufenthalt in Paris bedeutete den Zenit der Popularität des Grafen Falkenstein. Das Ansehen wurde auf der Rückreise durch die vermeintlich öffentliche Brüskierung [[Voltaire]]s bei der Vorbeifahrt in [[Ferney]] dauerhaft beschädigt.

Der den Philosophen Voltaire schätzende Graf Falkenstein befand sich in einem Dilemma, da er sich einerseits durch öffentliche Kundgebungen zu einem Besuch gezwungen sah andererseits inständig von der Mutter [[Maria Theresia (Österreich)|Maria Theresia]] beschworen wurde von einem Besuch abzusehen.

Über den Ablauf der Ereignisse in Ferney gibt es unterschiedliche Versionen. Voltaire war alleine in seinem Schloss verblieben und hatte alle Bewohner Ferneys an die wenige Kilometer entfernte Landstraße beordert. Die durch die Menge unbeeindruckte Kutsche des Grafen Falkenstein passierte die Abzweigung nach Ferney, ohne anzuhalten. Als zwei Jugendliche auf die Trittbretter aufsprangen, um in das Innere zu sehen, hielt eine Stimme aus dem Inneren den Kutscher zum Gebrauch der Peitsche an. Erstaunlich milde fiel Voltaires spätere Darstellung der Situation aus: zwei Betrunkene hätten den Monarchen beleidigt. Voltaire sprach Monate später in Paris zu [[Christoph Willibald von Gluck|Gluck]] in voller Hochachtung über den Kaiser Joseph II.

[[Sebastian Brunner]], der noch in persönlichem Kontakt zu den ehemaligen Vertrauten des Kaisers
stand, berichtet in seiner Biographie über Joseph II. eine weitere Version: Der Kaiser
habe sich zu diesem Zeitpunkt im Garten Voltaires aufgehalten um ein unabsichtliches Treffen zu ermöglichen. Voltaire habe jedoch sein Schloss nicht verlassen. In den Quellen ist wiederholt eine zweite Kutsche des Grafen belegt, die im Hintergrund logistische Aufgaben übernahm und wahrscheinlich auch ein [[Doppelgänger|Double]] mitführte. Die Version Brunners dementiert ein direktes Treffen, schließt es aber letztlich nicht glaubhaft aus.

Das Ansehen des Kaisers in den Augen von auf Veränderungen drängenden Schichten wurde durch diese Affäre schwer beschädigt. [[Adam Smith]] kommt so zum Schluss, Joseph II. sei "''of inferior mind''", d. h. "niedriger Geistesart".

==== Die Reise durch die Niederlande von 1781 ====
Der Graf von Falkenstein bereiste 1781 inkognito die [[Österreichische Niederlande|Österreichischen Niederlande]]. Ende Mai inspizierte er die militärische Befestigung von [[Namur]] und zog dann nach [[Charleroi]], [[Dünkirchen]], [[Ostende]], [[Brügge]], [[Gent]], [[Antwerpen]], [[Löwen]], [[Brüssel]], und besuchte dort Häfen und Manufakturen, sowie Zucht-, Kranken- und Waisenhäuser, in denen er auch das Essen kostete. Die wahre Identität des Grafen wurde jedoch bald erkannt: insgesamt nahm er ungefähr 10.000 Bittschriften entgegen, die alle von der Regierung geprüft wurden.<ref>Roegiers, J. (1980) Die Reise Josephs II. in den Österreichischen Niederlanden (Mai bis Juli 1781), S. 85-88. In: Österreich zur Zeit Kaiser Josephs II. Mitregent Kaiserin Maria Theresias, Kaiser und Landesfürst. Niederösterreichische Landesausstellung. Stift Melk.</ref> Darauf reiste er in die [[Republik der Sieben Vereinigten Provinzen]]. Der Graf besuchte das [[Naturalienkabinett]] des [[Statthalter]]s [[Wilhelm V. (Oranien)|Wilhelm V. von Oranien]] in [[Den Haag]], den Garten des Sohnes [[Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer]]s in [[Wassenaar]] und Bürgermeister Joachim Rendorp in [[Amsterdam]], mit dem er sich über die [[Schelde]], das [[Barrieretraktat]] und die Lage seines unbeliebten Verwandten [[Ludwig Ernst von Braunschweig-Wolfenbüttel]] auseinandersetze. Er besuchte in [[Den Helder]] liegende Kriegsschiffe, [[Zaandam]] sowie das Dorf [[Broek in Waterland]].<ref>Dunk, Th. von der (2008) Germanie: Inkognito aber stadtbekantt. Joseph II. auf Reise in Holland, p. 95. In: De Achttiende Eeuw, 40 (2008) 1.</ref> Ende Juli reiste er über [[Maastricht]] nach Paris.



==== Darstellungen des Grafen von Falkenstein ====
[[Datei:Der Graf von Falkenstein beim Gebet.jpg|thumb|Joseph Graf Falkenstein beim Gebet]]
* M. le comte de Falckenstein, Kupferstich 1777, unbekannter französischer Stecher
* Anonymes Portrait des Grafen Falkenstein in Uniform, Kupferstich 1777, vermutlich [[Christian von Mechel]] 1737-1817
* Der Graf von Falkenstein beim Gebet im Freiburger Münster, Alabasterelief 1777, [[Joseph Hörr]] 1732-1785
* Graf von Falkenstein, Kupferstich 1777 bei Sulzer, [[Johann Heinrich Lips]] 1758-1817

== Bewertung ==
[[Datei:GrabKaiserJosef II.JPG|thumb|Grab von Kaiser Joseph II. in der [[Kapuzinergruft]]]]
Die historische Beurteilung seiner Person ist sehr unterschiedlich. Aufgrund der Überstürztheit und Radikalität seiner Maßnahmen, die das Leben des Einzelnen teilweise bis ins Kleinste bestimmten, war Joseph zu Lebzeiten unpopulär bis zur Verhasstheit und er musste einige seiner Reformen kurz vor seinem Tod wieder zurücknehmen.

Unter der Regentschaft seines bis zum Starrsinn reaktionären Neffen [[Franz II. (HRR)|Franz II./I.]] wurde er hingegen allmählich zu einer mit Nostalgie verklärten Lichtgestalt.

Seit Ende des 19. Jahrhunderts wird er einerseits als fortschrittlicher Vertreter eines [[Aufgeklärter Absolutismus|aufgeklärten Absolutismus]] gesehen, andererseits wird auch auf den paternalistischen und zentralistischen Charakter seines Regiments hingewiesen.

Nichtsdestoweniger war er einer der wichtigsten Herrscher Österreichs, auf den viele konstruktive Ansätze zurückgehen und der einen bedeutsamen Reform- und Modernisierungsschub gebracht hat.

== Übersicht über die Reformen ==
Joseph führte viele Reformen durch, von denen er aber kurz vor seinem Tode noch viele zurücknahm.

=== Staatswesen ===
* Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft
* Ein Jahr nach demselben Beschluss seines Bruders [[Leopold II. (HRR)|Leopold II.]] in der Toskana: Abschaffung der [[Todesstrafe]] im Zivilstrafrecht (nicht im Militärstrafrecht)
* Religionsfreiheit
* Öffnung des [[Wiener Prater|Praters]] und des [[Augarten|Augartens]] für die Öffentlichkeit
* Einschränkung des strengen Spanischen Hofzeremonielles
* Schutzzölle für den Handel
* Grundsteuer für den Adel
* Versuch: Deutsch als Staatssprache im Vielvölkerreich

=== Soziales ===
[[Datei:AAKH-1784.jpg|thumb|Joseph II. gründete das Allgemeine Krankenhaus in Wien]]
* Bau von Schulen und Krankenhäusern (u. a. altes [[Allgemeines Krankenhaus der Stadt Wien]])
* Gründung von Waisen- und Armenhäusern
* Verbannung der Friedhöfe aus den Städten, um das Grundwasser zu schonen
* Einrichtung eines steirischen Volksmuseums
* Verbesserung der Lebensverhältnisse arbeitender Kinder

=== Kirche ===
* Neugründung von Pfarren
* Auflösung von 700 Klöstern
* Verringerung des päpstlichen Einflusses
* Verbot von „abergläubischen“ Bräuchen der Kirche, gleichzeitig Religionsfreiheit für Christentum und Judentum im [[Toleranzpatent]] vom 13. Oktober 1781
* Abschaffung von Särgen für jeden Toten (stattdessen ein allgemeiner Sarg, der eine Falltür hatte, ein sogenannter ''[[Josephinischer Gemeindesarg]]'', im Volksmund auch ''Klappsarg'' genannt - dies wurde von den damaligen Österreichern als pietätlos empfunden)

== Trivia und Sonstiges ==
Nach dem österreichischen [[Soziologie|Soziologen]] und [[Kulturanthropologie|Kulturanthropologen]] [[Roland Girtler]] soll Joseph II., dem Volksmund nach, des öfteren einer bestimmten [[Dirne]] in einem der zahlreichen [[Bordell]]e am [[Spittelberg (Wien)|Wiener Spittelberg]] Besuche abgestattet haben. Bei einem solcher Besuche soll er unsanft vor die Tür gesetzt worden sein. Daran erinnert im Haus Spittelberggasse/Gutenberggasse 13 (heute ein [[Restaurant]]) folgende Inschrift: „Durch dieses Tor im Bogen kam Kaiser Joseph II. geflogen - 1778“. Der Errichtung von Bordellen hatte sich Joseph II. jedoch - wie seine Mutter - verweigert. Auf den Vorschlag hin, der Errichtung von Bordellen zuzustimmen, soll der Kaiser erwidert haben: „Was, Bordelle? Da brauche ich über ganz Wien nur ein großes Dach machen zu lassen...“<ref name="Girtler">''Roland Girtler: Vom Fahrrad aus. Kulturwissenschaftliche Gedanken und Betrachtungen, Wien 2004, S. 121''</ref>

== Literatur ==
* [[Karl Gutkas]]: ''Kaiser Joseph II. Eine Biographie''. Zsolnay, Wien, Darmstadt 1989. ISBN 3-552-04128-1.
* [[Francois Fejtö]]: ''Joseph II. Porträt eines aufgeklärten Despoten''. Matthes & Seitz, München 1987. ISBN 3-88221-512-7.
* Lorenz Mikoletzky: ''Kaiser Joseph II. Herrscher zwischen den Zeiten'', Muster-Schmidt, Göttingen, Frankfurt, Zürich 1979. ISBN 3-7881-0107-5.
* Humbert Fink: ''Joseph II. Kaiser, König und Reformer.'' Econ, Düsseldorf, Wien, New York 1990. ISBN 3-430-12749-1.
* Hans Magenschab: ''Josef II. Österreichs Weg in die Moderne.'' Amalthea, Wien 2006. ISBN 978-3-85002-559-1.
* Justin V. Prášek: ''Panování císaře Josefa II.''. I.-II., Prag 1903, 1904.
* Robert Widl: Joseph II. und Isabella von Parma. ''Roman einer wundersamen Ehe''. Stieglitz 2003.
* Alfred Ritter von Arneth: Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland "Ihr Briefwechsel", Wien 1869.
* [[Friedrich Weissensteiner]], ''Die Söhne Maria Theresias, Kremayer & Scheriau'', 1991.
* Ernst Wangermann: ''Die Waffen der Publizität. Zum Funktionswandel der politischen Literatur unter Joseph II.''. 2004. ISBN 978-3-486-56839-4.
* Katalog der Niederösterreichischen Landesausstellung: ''Österreich zur Zeit Kaiser Josephs II. Mitregent Kaiserin Maria Theresias, Kaiser und Landesfürst.'' Stift Melk 29. März bis 2. November 1980.

=== Der Graf von Falkenstein in der zeitgenössischen Literatur ===
* Du Coudray, Alexandre Jacques: Anecdotes intéressantes et historiques de l´illustre voyageur, Paris , Ruault, 1777. Erweiterte Auflage 1778.
* L'Abbe Duval-Pyrau: Journal et Anecdotes interessantes du Voyage de Monsieur le Comte de Falckenstein en France, Frankfurt und Leipzig, Broenner, 1777.
* Endres, Johann Friedrich : Anthologische Beschreibung der Reise des Grafen von Falkenstein, Schwabach 1777.
* Schiller , Friedrich zugeschrieben: Auf die Ankunft des Grafen von Falkenstein in Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Erhardt, 1777.
* Anonym: Relation fidèle et historique de monsieur le comte de Falckenstein dans nos provinces, Paris, Ruault, 1777.
* Mayer, Charles-Joseph: Monsieur le Comte de Falkenstein, Rom und Paris, Cailleau, Esprit, Ruault, 1777.
* Gobet, Pierre-Paul dit Dorfeuille: L' Illustre voyageur ou le Retour du comte de Falckenstein dans ses états, comédie, Paris 1777.
* De Simpré, Gauthier und Ringwald Petter: Grefvens af Falkenstein resa til och från Frankrike, år 1777, Stockholm, Holmberg, 1786.
* [[Johann Caspar Lavater|Lavater, Johann Kaspar]]: Aus meinem Tagebuch vom Jul(ius) 1777 auf einem Reischen mit Zollikofer, Handbibliothek für Freunde, Band V, Eigenverlag, 1793

== Einzelnachweise ==
<references/>

== Weblinks ==
{{Commons|Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II.}}
{{Wikisource|BLKÖ:Habsburg, Joseph II.|Joseph II., im ''Bibliographischen Lexikon des Kaiserthums Österreich'', Bd. VI}}
{{Wikiquote|Joseph II. von Österreich}}
* {{DNB-Portal|118558404}}
* {{ADB|14|542|562|Joseph II.|August Fournier|ADB:Joseph II.}}
* {{BBKL|j/Joseph_II}}
* {{aeiou|j/j639423}}
* [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/?id=5&xid=940&kapitel=1 Projekt Gutenberg Franz Gräffer - Josephinische Curiosa]

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| NACHFOLGER2=[[Leopold II. (HRR)|Leopold II.]]

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| AMT5=[[Liste der kroatischen Könige|König von Kroatien und Slawonien]]
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{{Normdaten|PND=118558404|LCCN=n/50/38057|VIAF=39386414}}

{{SORTIERUNG:Joseph II.}}
[[Kategorie:Kaiser (HRR)]]
[[Kategorie:Kurfürst (Böhmen)]]
[[Kategorie:König (Ungarn)]]
[[Kategorie:Haus Habsburg-Lothringen]]
[[Kategorie:Protestantismus in Österreich]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1741]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1790]]
[[Kategorie:Mann]]

{{Personendaten
|NAME=Joseph II.
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=Kaiser des Heiligen Römischen Reiches (1765–1790), Alleinherrscher in den österreichischen Ländern (1780–1790)
|GEBURTSDATUM= 13. März 1741
|GEBURTSORT=[[Wien]]
|STERBEDATUM= 20. Februar 1790
|STERBEORT=[[Wien]]
}}

[[ar:جوزيف الثاني]]
[[be-x-old:Іосіф II (імпэратар Сьвяшчэннай Рымскай імпэрыі)]]
[[bg:Йозеф II (Свещена Римска империя)]]
[[bs:Josip II, car Svetog Rimskog Carstva]]
[[ca:Josep II del Sacre Imperi Romanogermànic]]
[[cs:Josef II.]]
[[da:Josef 2. (Tysk-romerske rige)]]
[[el:Ιωσήφ Β΄ των Αψβούργων]]
[[en:Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]]
[[eo:Jozefo la 2-a]]
[[es:José II de Habsburgo]]
[[et:Joseph II (Saksa-Rooma keiser)]]
[[fi:Joosef II]]
[[fr:Joseph II du Saint-Empire]]
[[he:יוזף השני, קיסר האימפריה הרומית הקדושה]]
[[hr:Josip II., car Svetog Rimskog Carstva]]
[[hu:II. József magyar király]]
[[id:Joseph II, Kaisar Romawi Suci]]
[[it:Giuseppe II del Sacro Romano Impero]]
[[ja:ヨーゼフ2世 (神聖ローマ皇帝)]]
[[ko:요제프 2세]]
[[la:Iosephus II]]
[[lb:Joseph II. (HRR)]]
[[lt:Imperatorius Juozapas II]]
[[lv:Jozefs II]]
[[nl:Jozef II van het Heilige Roomse Rijk]]
[[no:Josef II av Det tysk-romerske rike]]
[[pl:Józef II Habsburg]]
[[pt:José II, Sacro Imperador Romano-Germânico]]
[[ro:Iosif al II-lea, Împărat Roman]]
[[ru:Иосиф II (император Священной Римской империи)]]
[[sk:Jozef II. Habsburský]]
[[sl:Jožef II. Habsburško-Lotarinški]]
[[sr:Јозеф II Хабзбуршки]]
[[sv:Josef II (tysk-romersk kejsare)]]
[[tr:II. Joseph (Kutsal Roma İmparatoru)]]
[[uk:Йосип II]]
[[vi:Joseph II của đế quốc La Mã Thần thánh]]
[[zh:约瑟夫二世 (神圣罗马帝国)]]

Romance Is Boring

2009-11-23T11:54:52Z

Anetode: moved Romance is Boring to Romance Is Boring: wp:mos

{{refimprove|date=October 2009}}
{{Infobox Album 
| Name = Romance Is Boring
| Type = studio
| Artist = [[Los Campesinos!]]
| Cover = ROMANCEISBORINGALBUMART.jpg
| Released = February 1, 2010 <small>([[United Kingdom|UK]])</small><br />
| Recorded = March-June 2009
| Genre = [[Indie pop]]
| Length =
| Label = [[Wichita Recordings]]<br />[[Arts & Crafts (record label)|Arts & Crafts]]
| Producer = [[John Goodmanson]]
| Reviews =
| Last album = ''[[We Are Beautiful, We Are Doomed]]'' <br />(2008)
| This album = '''''Romance is Boring'''''<br />(2010)
| Next album =
| Misc = {{Singles
| Name = Romance Is Boring
| Type = album
| Single 1 = The Sea Is A Good Place To Think Of The Future
| Single 1 date = September 9, 2009
| Single 2 = There Are Listed Buildings
| Single 2 date = October, 2009
}}
}}

'''''Romance is Boring''''' <ref>http://loscampesinos.com/2009/10/25/romance-is-boring/</ref> is the second official album from [[Cardiff]]-based [[indie pop]] septet [[Los Campesinos!]]. It will be released on February 1, 2010<ref>http://pitchfork.com/news/36913-los-campesinos-announce-new-lp/</ref>. The album was recorded and mixed between March and June of 2009, in Seattle, Connecticut and Monmouthsire, with producer John Goodmanson. It features guest appearances from [[Jamie Stewart]] of [[Xiu Xiu]], Zach Pennington of [[Parenthetical Girls]] and Jherek Bischoff of Dead Science<ref>http://pitchfork.com/news/36913-los-campesinos-announce-new-lp/</ref>.

==Track listing==
{{tracklist
| all_writing = Los Campesinos!
| title1 = In Medias Res
| length1 =
| title2 = There Are Listed Buildings
| length2 = 2:54
| title3 = Romance Is Boring
| length3 =
| title4 = We’ve Got Your Back (Documented Minor Emotional Breakdown #2)
| length4 =
| title5 = Plan A
| length5 =
| title6 = 200-102
| length6 =
| title7 = Straight in at 101
| length7 =
| title8 = Who Fell Asleep In
| length8 =
| title9 = I Warned You: Do Not Make an Enemy of Me
| length9 =
| title10 = Heart Swells/100-1
| length10 =
| title11 = I Just Sighed. I Just Sighed, Just So You Know
| length11 =
| title12 = A Heat Rash in the Shape of the Show Me State; or, Letters from Me to Charlotte
| length12 =
| title13 = The Sea Is a Good Place to Think of the Future
| length13 = 4:24
| title14 = This Is a Flag. There Is No Wind
| length14 =
| title15 = Coda: A Burn Scar in the Shape of the Sooner State
| length15 =
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Los Campesinos!}}

[[Category:2010 albums]]
[[Category:Los Campesinos! albums]]
[[Category:Arts & Crafts albums]]

Colectivos in Argentinien

2008-09-18T20:12:22Z

Anetode: /* 1930–1950 */ rm deleted image

'''''Colectivo''''' is the name given in [[Argentina]] to public transportation vehicles, especially those of Argentina's [[capital|capital city]], [[Buenos Aires]]. They represent one of the best-known traditions of the city.

When they first appeared in the 1920s, colectivos were small [[bus]]es built out of smaller vehicle chassis (cars, vans, etc.) and, later, out of truck chassis (1950–1990, by [[Mercedes-Benz]] Argentina).
Colectivos used to be built on top of units not specifically designed for the transportation of people and were decorated with unique hand painted "graphics" ''([[fileteado]])'' that gave each unit a distinct flavor and added a colorful touch to Buenos Aires' streets.

Their evolution and size growth was steady and they kept their own picturesque style until 1990, when the urban fleet was modernized with real [[bus]] units (with motors in the back) and much of the charm was lost.

Together with [[football (soccer)|football]], urban landmarks (like the [[Obelisk of Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires Obelisk]]) and [[Tango (dance)|tango]], the colectivo was, until the 1990s, one of the big tourist draws of Buenos Aires. Because of its golden times the ''colectivo'' is loved by the citizens of Buenos Aires. A colectivo historian concluded after his extensive study<ref>[http://www.busarg.com.ar/evolucion.htm The design evolution of the Colectivo] accessed [[5 September]] [[2005]] {{Sp icon}}</ref>:

[[Image:Buenos Aires city bus.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Lots of charachter classic "short snout " 1969 MB LO1112 Colectivo at the [[Mercedes-Benz Museum]] in Stuttgart]]

<blockquote>''The colectivo is considered a source of pride for the national ego (identity), the same one that makes an Argentinian proud that his countrymen invented the [[birome]] ([[ballpoint pen]]) and [[dulce de leche]], and that his city's avenues include the longest in the world ([[Rivadavia Avenue]]) as well as the widest ([[9 de Julio Avenue]])
</blockquote>

==History==
===1930–1950===
'''Taxi-bus, car-bus, van-bus. Creation of the "líneas"'''

In the 1900s Argentina was the "Granary of the World", one of the largest world food producers and exporters, and a wealthy country. The streets of prosperous Buenos Aires (with 2 million inhabitants) soon filled with cars.
Commercial relations with the [[United Kingdom]] (mainly trade in meat and grain), also brought a myriad of investors and enterprises in the early years of the century, including [[Latin America]]'s [[Buenos Aires Metro|first metro system]], [[car]]s, [[train]]s, [[tram]]ways, [[taxicab|taxi]]s and public buses.

But in 1929 the [[Great Depression]] hit, and the local cab owners attempted a radical change. They modified their taxi units, widening the back seats to allow more than one passenger per trip, and established pre-defined itineraries and stops, at a lower price per passenger. Every day, the drivers deliberately challenged the "real" public buses and electrical tramways, parking near them at the busiest stations and driving close to them during the day to pick up their passengers. Soon people started to prefer these colectivos and the original buses and tramways became part of history. Thus the original Argentine colectivo was born.
With time, these routes were formalized and owners of individual units grouped into líneas (''lines'') that operated a particular route. Since several lines often shared avenues and roads, companies began to adopt different colors to distinguish their units and not depend only on their assigned numbers (up to 3 digits) because they were often hard to see in the crowded streets. The [[Colectivo 60|Line 60]] had it's beginnings in this era and, with it, a legend was born.

Popular demand in the 1930s propelled the size of the colectivo from five to up to a dozen seats but the picturesque external chassis designs remained in the original styles, which were kept until the 1970s and 1980s (by which time the units had twenty seats).

===1950–1990===
'''Mercedes-Benz truck and buses'''

After [[World War II]] and during the 1950s, Argentine industry started to develop again but the country's public transport system was inadequate for the new era: practically no modernization had taken place since the early years, and the train system was inadequate to meet the rising demands of the population.
[[Image:Mercedesmotorhome.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Classic Mercedes Benz LO 3500 colectivo turned motorhome]]
Mercedes-Benz then took up this novel idea and ran with it, forever shaping the history of the colectivos. In 1951 the then Daimler-Benz AG set up in Argentina its first factories outside [[Germany]]<ref>Mercedez-Benz history [http://www.duttondirect.com/history/view/make:mercedes-benz www.duttondirect.com] accessed [[8 May]] [[2008]]</ref><ref>[http://www.auto-historia.com.ar/Historias/Mercedes%20Historia.htm www.mercedes-benz.argentina/history] accessed [[9 May]] [[2008]] {{Sp icon}}</ref>: one in the town of [[San Martín, Buenos Aires|San Martín]], near Buenos Aires, and another in [[González Catán]].

Mercedes released updated local colectivo based on modified L 3500 truck chassis – LO 3500, OP 3500, LO 311, LO 312, LO 911– with a separately manufactured body fitted at a later stage by different coach builders. In less than a decade the output was 6,500 units a year. In 1963 Mercedes built the 10,000nd colectivo (model LO 312), and continued with other models, such as L 1112 (120 [[horsepower|HP]]), LA 1112 (traction in all wheels) and the L 1114. Due to the family relationship with the truck, the Mercedes-Benz Colectivos had a diesel engine with power transmitted to the rear axle by a five-speed constant-mesh gearbox.

All the lines progressively adopted these units and, between 1950 and 1990, all the colectivos on the street eventually became Mercedes-Benz models, the most successful bus in its day and age.

===1990 to the present===
'''Omnibus. Blurring of the tradition of the colectivo'''

[[Image:Colectivo.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Modern colectivo Line 114. Urban planners have praised the cities unique and efficient transportation system]]

In 1987 "El Detalle", one of the bus body suppliers of Mercedes-Benz, started competing with its former chassis provider, investing in low price and modern urban buses, with cheaper [[Deutz AG|Deutz]] engines. That same year model OA-101 was launched. This model was rear-engined and had [[pneumatic]] suspension, allowing for smoother rides and more inside space.
Mercedes-Benz responded the following year with the rear-engined OH-1314 but that was considered "the death of the Colectivo"<ref>[http://www.busarg.com.ar/evolucion.htm www.busarg.com.ar] {{Sp icon}}</ref>, certainly the end of an era.

In 1989 the last truck based Colectivos on classic Mercedes-Benz chassis LO-1114 were mounted. Production had been discontinued the previous year.

During the 1990s, some companies found it cheaper to switch to single colored units, and a flurry of mergers and foldings changed the way the colectivos look.

Nowadays, only the three-digit numbering survives from the traditional old "líneas", ''[[fileteado]]'' is rare and scarce, the ''filigranas'' were lost, and some of the classic big details, like the panoramic mirrors close to the driver's head, simply disappeared.


After 1995 automatic ticket machines added added safety to journeys since the drivers did not have to sell tickets and drive at the same time.

As of 2005, Mercedes-Benz units account only for about half of the buses in the city of Buenos Aires and its surroundings, with units built in [[Buenos Aires]] (La Favorita, Eivar, CND, CEAP, Ugarte, etc) and in [[Brazil]] (Marcopolo, CAIO and others). The other half are El Detalle units and others like Scania, Volvo, Dimex and Zanello.

Most older units have been retired from service in Buenos Aires, as they are considered too dangerous and noisy for use in the fast-paced city. They were disposed of or sent to smaller cities all over the country. Colectivos are usually retired of only when they are too damaged to be repaired, some of them have “resuscitated” as fine motorhomes.

==Description of the ''Colectivo''==

The Mercedes units were more sophisticated than the original ''taxi-bus'' but the body kept its artistic touches, preserving the original style of the ''colectivo''. This style was not influenced by the social class of the districts through which the ''colectivos'' journeyed. All the units of all the ''"líneas"'' shared these characteristics until the 1990s:
[[Image:Bus Rosario 2.jpg|right|260px|thumb|Latest generation colectivo in the city of Rosario]]
====Multi-colored units====

Decorators used many colorful combinations over the units' external body, helping identify each one of the ''líneas''. These eventually evolved into "corporate colors", meaning that when on occasion two or more lines were bought by the same company, units of different lines were painted in the same colors. Until the 1990s, the ''fileteado'' was kept nonetheless in spirit with the uniqueness of each individual bus.


====''Fileteados''====

''[[Fileteado]]'' was defined as: "art on wheels": full of colored ornaments and symmetries completed with poetic phrases, sayings and aphorisms, both humorous or roguish, emotional or philosophical"<ref>[http://www.martinianoarce.com/#english www.martinianoarce.com]</ref>.
The colectivos were where this art found its best "canvas". Long, wide mirrors placed around the driver seat often had winding drawings and motifs that usually portrayed the driver's preferences in [[football (soccer)|football]], [[religion]] and [[Tango music|tango]].
The outside of the units was also painted with ''fileteado'' details, flower motifs, [[Flag of Argentina|national flags]], and football team flags. It was also very common to see phrases written down in complex fonts, usually in the back. These phrases were often ingenious [[puns]] or rhymes and became part of Argentine folklore. A simple example of a very common phrase is: ''Lo mejor que hizo la vieja es el pibe que maneja'' ("The best thing my old woman did was the lad who's driving").

====Other details====

The units with a larger budget had more details added around the driver's seat. These usually came in the form of lights of exotic colors or seat covers with wool and fringes or even leather. It was very common to see the gear-stick full of hanging [[knickknack]]s and the casing where the tickets and coins were stored covered with motifs.

==In popular culture==
*The cultural roots of "porteños" (inhabitants of the city Buenos Aires) placed the Colectivo for many years as one of their distinctive icons, together with the ''Obelisco'' in Buenos Aires and the fanaticism for football.

*The makers of the [[1979 in film|1979]] motion picture ''La fiesta de todos'' <ref>[http://www.cinenacional.com/peliculas/index.php?pelicula=791 www.cinenacional.com] {{Sp icon}}</ref>, after Argentina's victory in the [[1978 FIFA World Cup]] were forced by the military government to film one of its key stories inside a colectivo.

*One of Argentina's best-remembered [[soap opera]]s was called ''Un mundo de 20 asientos'' ("A 20-seat world") and its main character was a ''colectivero'' (colectivo driver).

*With the cultural explosion in Argentina from the 1980s, in films and intellectual endeavors, colectivos became one of the best-known examples of mass transport in the [[Western World]], similar to [[London]]'s [[double-decker]] buses or the [[New York City subway]].

* Domestically, the colectivo is also called '''''bondi'''''; the word comes from the name of [[Rio de Janeiro]]'s [[tram]]ways (''bondes''), in turn from [[English language|English]] ''bonds'', which is how the government paid for the Rio tramway system to the British company that built it.

* Tickets are called '''''boletos'''''. Before 1995, they were sold by the ''colectivero'' himself, and consisted of multi-colored strips of paper, with a 5-digit numeration. Palindromic numbers (such as ''10301'', ''29692'', ''12321'') were called ''capicúas'' (from [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''cap i cúa'', "head and tail") and were traditionally conserved by the user as [[luck]]y charms.

*The term colectivo came to be used in some neighbouring countries including [[Paraguay]].

== Usage in Buenos Aires ==
[[Image:Colectivo Linea 107 .jpg|thumb|right|270px|Monochromatic colour schemes like on this line are unusual since there are so many lines that multi-coloured combinations are a must.]]
The colectivo bus operations of Buenos Aires, Argentina, provide a premium-quality bus service that attracts exceptionally high ridership with virtually no public financial support<ref>[http://trb.metapress.com/content/v5542g6mh27j6u44/ Transportation Research Board, Buenos Aires Colectivo Buses and Experience with Privatization] accessed [[5 May]] [[2008]]</ref> and only receive subsidized petrol in order to keep fares low.

With very affordable ticket prices and extensive routes, usually not further than four blocks from folks residences, the colectivo is by far the preferred mode of transportation around the city and their frequency makes them equal to the subway systems of other cities, but on wheels, however, they cover a far wider area than the subway system. "Porteños" have a love-hate relationship with the colectivo. On one side, they tend to be very crowded in [[rush hour]] and are a haven for [[pickpocketing|pickpockets]] and petty [[theft|thieves]]. [[begging|Beggars]] and itinerant salesmen hawk on board. On the other hand, they are a loved necessity in the city and a convenient and cheap way to get around. Most colectivos in big cities of Argentina do not have a fixed timetable, but run from four to several per hour, depending on the bus line and time of the day.

===Fares===
Most buses share a basic fare system which is cheap, distance traveled works similar to the [[Honour System]] of fares. The "universal" fare (in pesos) is:

* [[Argentine Peso|ARS]] 0.90 (about USD 0.28) for less than 6 kilometers
* [[Argentine Peso|ARS]] 1.00 (about USD 0.32) for more than 6 kilometers and up to 12
* [[Argentine Peso|ARS]] 1.40 (about USD 0.42) for more than 12 kilometers

Section boundaries are fixed at about 3 km from each other (less so near the city center), so that a 4-kilometer ride may sometimes require to pay the second rate.

Some lines operate a number of "diferencial" buses, with no standing room and other amenities, at a higher price.

These fares are good for one ride. There is no transfer scheme across lines, or between the bus and the underground.


== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
*[[Customised buses]]
*[[Transportation in Argentina]]
*[[Colectivo 60]]
*[[Mercedes-Benz]]
*[[Jeepney]] - a similar type of vehicle made in the [[Philippines]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.busarg.com.ar www.busarg.com.ar] History (Spanish)
*[http://www.loscolectivos.com.ar/historia.htm# www.loscolectivos.com.ar] History (Spanish)
*[http://www.busesrosarinos.com.ar/historia/colectivo/colecti.htm www.busesrosarinos.com.ar/History] History (Spanish)
*[http://www.busesrosarinos.com.ar/industria/ta2007/autobus2007.htm www.busesrosarinos.com.ar/expo2007] Transportation Expo 2007, (Spanish) ''but with nice photos of vintage buses.''
*[http://www.cyberbondi.com.ar www.cyberbondi.com.ar] (Spanish)
*[http://www.mercedes-benz.com.ar# Mercedes Benz Argentina] (Spanish)



{{Buenos Aires Transit}}

[[Category:Customised buses]]
[[Category:Transportation in Buenos Aires]]
[[Category:Transportation in Argentina]]
[[Category:Argentine culture]]
[[Category:Bus transport]]

[[es:Colectivo (Argentina)]]
[[oc:Colectivo]]

Jakob Ben-Jesri

2008-09-05T07:45:07Z

Anetode: Tagging :Image:Yaakov Ben-Yezri.jpg which is up for deletion per CSD using TW

{{MKs |
Image = [[Image:Yaakov Ben-Yezri.jpg|229px|{{deletable image-caption|1=Friday, 12 September 2008}}]]|
Date of birth = [[1927]]|
Year of Aliyah = [[1949]]|
Date of death = |
Knesset(s) = [[Israeli legislative election, 2006|17th (current)]]|
Party = [[Gil (political party)|Gil]]|
Former parties = |
Gov't roles = '''[[Health Minister of Israel|Minister of Health]]'''|
}}

'''Yaakov Ben-Yezri''' ({{lang-he|יעקב בן-יזרי}}, born [[1927]]) is an [[Israel]]i politician, and the current [[Health Minister of Israel|Minister of Health]]. He is a [[Knesset]] member on behalf of [[Gil (political party)|Gil]], the Israeli pensioners' party.

Ben-Yezri was born in [[Morocco]]. He is the chairman of the Central Pensioners' Fund. He is former national chairman of the Health Funds' Workers Organization and chairman of the Health Funds' Pensioners Organization, and has served on the [[Pardes Hanna-Karkur]] regional council.

Ben-Yezri is known as one of the foremost experts on pension funds and healthcare in Israel. He was voted into the 17th Knesset in the [[Israeli legislative election, 2006|2006 elections]]. As of [[May 4]], 2006, he is the Minister of Health. Ben-Yezri, a confessed smoker, later caused controversy when he lit up whilst being interviewed on television. <ref>[http://www.tobacco.org/news/223529.html Ben-Yizri lights up on TV] Tobacco News, 8 May 2006</ref>

==References==
<references />
==External links==
{{MKlink|id=796}}

{{Israeli Health Ministers}}
{{Gil Knesset members}}
{{Israel-politician-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ben-Yezri, Yaakov}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the Knesset]]
[[Category:Israelis of Moroccan descent|B]]

[[fr:Yaakov Ben Yezri]]
[[he:יעקב בן יזרי]]
[[pl:Yaakov Ben Yezri]]

Amtsantrittsrede von John F. Kennedy

2008-06-21T21:46:06Z

Anetode: sure, but by whom? (using Huggle)

[[Image:Kennedy inauguration footage.ogg|thumb|300px|Kennedy delivering his first and only inaugural address]]

[[President of the United States|U.S. President]] '''[[John F. Kennedy]]''' made his only '''[[inaugural address]]''' at 12:51 ([[Eastern Time Zone (North America)|ET]]) Friday, [[January 20]], [[1961]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jfklibrary.org/white%20house%20diary/1961/January/20 |title=White House Diaries |accessdate=2008-01-08 |author= |date= |work= |publisher=John F. Kennedy Library and Museum}}</ref> immediately after taking the [[Oath of office of the President of the United States|presidential oath of office]] administered by [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[Earl Warren]].<ref name="Barteby">{{cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/124/pres56.html |title=John F. Kennedy Inaugural Address |accessdate=2008-01-08 |author= |date= |work= |publisher=Bartleby}}</ref>

The address is 1364 words and took 13 minutes and 59 seconds to deliver, from the first word to the last word, not including applause at the end, making it the fourth-shortest inaugural address ever delivered. *

==Preparation==
[[Image:John F. Kennedy, White House photo portrait, looking up.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy.]]

After defeating Republican candidate [[Richard Nixon]], Kennedy began collecting thoughts and ideas for his inauguration speech in late November 1960. He sought suggestions from various friends, aides and counselors, including suggestions from clergymen for biblical quotations. Kennedy then made several drafts using his thoughts and those suggestions, with the final version made and edited exclusively by Kennedy.<ref name="NARA">{{cite web |url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals_iv/sections/jfk_inaugural_address.html# |title=John F. Kennedy's inaugural address, 1961 |accessdate=2008-01-29 |author=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |date= |work= |publisher=}}</ref>

The eve of the address was marked by heavy snow, but plans made to cancel the address were overridden.<ref name="Barteby"/> After attending the [[Holy Trinity Catholic Church (Washington, D.C.)|Holy Trinity Catholic Church]] in [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]], Kennedy headed towards the [[U.S. Capitol]] building accompanied by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] to the inaugural ceremony.<ref name="Barteby"/>

== Attendees ==

[[Robert Frost]] attended the inaugural ceremonies, and brought a handwritten poem titled ''Dedication'' meant for the President. Although Frost had planned to read aloud a typed copy of the poem at the ceremonies, the sun glare reflecting off the heavy snow that fell the night before made it difficult to read.<ref name="JFKlibrary">{{cite web |url = http://www.jfklibrary.org/JFK+Library+and+Museum/News+and+Press/Robert+Frosts+Original+Poem+for+JFKs+Inauguration+Finds+Way+to+Kennedy+Presidential+Library.htm | title=Robert Frost's Original Poem for JFK's Inauguration Finds Way to Kennedy Presidential Library |accessdate=2008-01-08 |author= |date= |work= |publisher=John F. Kennedy Library and Museum}}</ref><ref name="LOC treasures">{{cite web |url=http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tri050.html |title=The Poetry of Robert Frost |accessdate=2008-01-29 |author=Lesley Frost Ballantine |date=1969 |work= |publisher=Henry Holt and Company, Inc.}}</ref> He then recited by memory the ''The Gift Outright'', and handed the original handwritten version of ''Dedication'' to John and his wife [[Jacqueline Kennedy|Jacqueline]], who framed the poem and wrote on the back: ''For Jack. First thing I had framed to be put in your office. First thing to be hung there.''<ref name="JFKlibrary"/>

== Notable passages ==
{{wikisource|John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address}}

* "...the belief that the rights of man come not from the generosity of the state, but from the hand of God."
* "Let the word go forth.....that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans."
* "Let every nation know... that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty."
* "The world is very different now. For man holds in his hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life."
* "Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate."
* "Ask not what your country can do for you - ask what you can do for your country"
* "For only when our arms are sufficient beyond doubt can we be certain beyond doubt that they will never be employed."
* "All this will not be finished in the first 100 days. Nor will it be finished in the first 1,000 days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin."
* "...let us go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessing and His help, but knowing that here on earth God's work must truly be our own."

== Notes ==

{{refs}}

== References ==

* Clarke, Thurston ''Ask Not : The Inauguration of John F. Kennedy and the Speech That Changed America''. New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2004. ISBN 0-8050-7213-6.

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote|John F. Kennedy}}
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/ John F. Kennedy Library and Museum]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/pihtml/pi051.html Library of Congress, Presidential Inaugurations]
* [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/jfkinaugural.htm Text, Audio, Video of Address]

{{John F. Kennedy}}
{{USstatements}}

[[Category:John F. Kennedy|Inaugural address]]
[[Category:Cold War speeches]]
[[Category:1961 in politics]]
[[Category:1961 in the United States]]
[[Category:1961 works]]
[[Category:United States presidential inaugural addresses|Kennedy, John F.]]

Aga-Khan-Stiftung

2008-06-21T21:44:08Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 130.132.117.120 to last version by Typhoonchaser (using Huggle)

[[Image:Akf-title logo.gif|right|250px]]

The '''Aga Khan Foundation <small>[http://www.akdn.org/agency/akf.html (AKF)]</small>''' is a non-denominational, [[non-governmental organization|non-governmental]], [[international development|development agency]] founded in [[1967]] by [[Aga Khan IV|His Highness the Aga Khan]]. The Foundation aims to develop and promote creative solutions to problems that impede social development, primarily in Asia and East Africa. Based in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], it has branches and independent affiliates in 15 countries. The Aga Khan Foundation is an agency of the [[Aga Khan Development Network]].

==Areas of focus==
The Aga Khan Foundation concentrates its resources on selected issues in [[health]], [[education]], [[Rural community development|rural development]] and the strengthening of [[civil society]]. Seeking innovative approaches to generic problems, it tries to identify solutions that can be adapted to conditions in many different regions and replicated.

Cross-cutting issues that are also addressed by the Foundation include Human Resource Development, Community Participation, Gender and Development and issues of the Environment.

==Funding and grant making==
The Aga Khan Foundation is the principal grant-making agency for social development within the [[Ismaili|Shia Ismaili]] Imamat. His Highness the Aga Khan provides the Foundation with regular funding for administration and new programme initiatives as well as contributions to its endowment. The Ismaili community contributes volunteer time, professional services and substantial financial resources. Other funding sources include income from investments and grants from government, institutional and private sector partners - as well as donations from individuals around the world.

Grants are normally made to non-governmental organisations that share the Foundation’s goals. In some cases, where there is no appropriate partner, the Foundation may help to create a new civil society organisation or may manage projects directly. In [[2004]], the foundation provided $149 million [[USD]] in grants for 130 projects located in 16 countries.

==Awards and recognition==
Among other recognition for its work, the Foundation received the 2005 Award for Most Innovative Development Project from the [[Global Development Awards and Medals Competition|Global Development Network]] for the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) in Pakistan.[http://www.gdnet.org/middle.php?primary_link_id=3&secondary_link_id=9]

==Geographic focus==
The Foundation normally intervenes where it has a strong volunteer base. It is currently active in the following countries:
*[[Afghanistan]]
*[[Bangladesh]]
*[[Canada]] - [http://www.akfc.ca/ Aga Khan Foundation Canada]
*[[India]] - [http://www.akdn.org/agency/akpbs.html/ Aga Khan Foundation India]
*[[Kenya]]
*[[Kyrgyzstan]]
*[[Mozambique]]
*[[Pakistan]]
*[[Portugal]] - [http://www.fakp.pt/ Fundação Aga Khan]
*[[Switzerland]]
*[[Syria]]
*[[Tajikistan]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Uganda]]
*[[United Kingdom]] - [http://www.akf.org.uk/ Aga Khan Foundation United Kingdom]
*[[United States of America]] - [http://www.akfusa.org/ Aga Khan Foundation USA]

==Sources==
*{{cite web |url=http://www.akdn.org/akf/AKF%20Annual%20Report%202005.pdf |title=Aga Khan Foundation Annual Report 2005 |format=PDF |accessdate=2006-12-01}}

==External links==
*[http://www.akdn.org/agency/akf.html Aga Khan Foundation (website)]

[[Category:Aga Khan Development Network|Foundation]]
[[Category:Development charities]]
[[Category:Humanitarian aid organizations]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1967]]
[[Category:International nongovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:Rural community development]]

MTV2 Canada

2008-06-21T20:10:55Z

Anetode: ok, but is this your guess, or is there a source for the claim?

: ''This article is about the [[Canada|Canadian]] television network named Razer. For other meanings see [[Razer (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_TV_channel|
| name = Razer
| logofile = Razer logo.svg
| logoalt = Razer logo
| logosize = 125px
| launch = [[October 18]], [[2001]]
| closed date =
| picture format =
| share =
| share as of =
| share source =
| network =
| owner = [[CTVglobemedia]] <br><small>CTV Limited</small>
| slogan =
| country = [[Canada]]
| broadcast area = National
| headquarters = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]
| former names = MTV Canada
| replaced names =
| sister names =
| timeshift names =
| web = [http://www.razer.ca razer.ca]
| sat serv 1 = [[Bell ExpressVu]]
| sat chan 1 = Channel 577
| sat serv 2 = [[Star Choice]]
| sat chan 2 = Channel 590
| cable serv 1 = Available on many Canadian cable systems
| cable chan 1 = Check local listings
}}
'''Razer''' is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[English language]] [[Category 1 specialty channel|category 1]] [[digital cable]] [[specialty channel]] owned by CTV Limited, a division of [[CTVglobemedia]]. Razer is a lifestyle and general entertainment channel aimed at youth and teen audiences. The channel focuses in on trends in entertainment, TV, movies, music, videogames, fashion, technology, sports and leisure as well as scripted series.

==History==
[[Image:MTV Canada 2001.PNG|200px|left|thumb|Logo of MTV Canada before rebranding to Razer]] On [[November 24]], [[2000]], the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) announced the licensees of the new, much-sought [[Category 1 channels (Canada)|Category 1]] digital services. [[Craig Media]] was [http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Decisions/2000/DB2000-462.htm granted] a licence for a youth lifestyle service known as ''Connect''. One of the licence's conditions was that the channel could not devote more than 10 per cent of its schedule to the airing of music videos, in order to avoid direct competition with CHUM's [[MuchMusic]].

Nonetheless Craig quickly reached an agreement with [[MTV Networks]] to carry [[MTV]] programming, prompting a pre-launch name change to '''MTV Canada'''. It launched on [[October 18]], [[2001]] and shortly after Craig sold a minority interest in the service to MTV Networks as well. Canadian programs that aired on MTV Canada included ''[[Pepsi Breakout]]'', ''[[Versus]]'', ''[[MTV Select]]'' (later renamed ''[[969 (TV series)|969]]'') and more, while foreign MTV programs that aired were ''[[Punk'd]]'', ''[[Total Request Live|TRL]]'', ''[[The Real World]]'' and more.

CHUM soon complained to the CRTC that MTV Canada was violating its conditions of licence, becoming a direct competitor to MuchMusic. Craig was forced to make changes to reduce its percentage of music-related programming. However these changes were soon rendered moot as Craig was acquired by [[CHUM Limited]] in [[December 1]], [[2004]], prompting MTV Networks to exercise its right to terminate the agreement with Craig if a change in control were to happen. CHUM was also required to pay remaining licence fees for MTV Canada and MTV2 of approximately $10 million to MTV Networks which also meant MTV Networks was no longer able to retain interest in the channels. Plans to rebrand the channel as Razer were announced on [[June 9]], [[2005]] and took effect on [[June 30]] of that year. CTV acquired the rights to MTV programming later in the year, launching its [[MTV (Canada)|own MTV channel]] (previously known as talktv) in early 2006. Ownership changed hands once again on June 22, 2007 when CTVglobemedia took over CHUM Limited.

On August 1, 2008, Razer channel will change its name to [[MTV2]] in line with its U.S. counterpart.
[[Image:MTV2.png|150px|thumb|Proposed logo for Razer when it becomes '''MTV2'''{{cn}}]]

==Programming==
{{see|List of programs broadcast by Razer}}

==External links==
* [http://www.razer.ca/ Official Razer website]
* [http://www.mtv2.ca MTV2 website containing countdown to the rebrand]
* [http://www.ctvglobemedia.ca CTVglobemedia]

{{CHUM Limited}}

[[Category:Canadian television networks]]
[[Category:CTVglobemedia]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2001]]

MTV2 Canada

2008-06-21T09:23:23Z

Anetode: nevermind, removing instance since this is just speculation; razer currently retains the same logo illustrated in the infobox

: ''This article is about the [[Canada|Canadian]] television network named Razer. For other meanings see [[Razer (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_TV_channel|
| name = Razer
| logofile = Razer logo.svg
| logoalt = Razer logo
| logosize = 125px
| launch = [[October 18]], [[2001]]
| closed date =
| picture format =
| share =
| share as of =
| share source =
| network =
| owner = [[CTVglobemedia]] <br><small>CTV Limited</small>
| slogan =
| country = [[Canada]]
| broadcast area = National
| headquarters = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]
| former names = MTV Canada
| replaced names =
| sister names =
| timeshift names =
| web = [http://www.razer.ca razer.ca]
| sat serv 1 = [[Bell ExpressVu]]
| sat chan 1 = Channel 577
| sat serv 2 = [[Star Choice]]
| sat chan 2 = Channel 590
| cable serv 1 = Available on many Canadian cable systems
| cable chan 1 = Check local listings
}}
'''Razer''' is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[English language]] [[Category 1 specialty channel|category 1]] [[digital cable]] [[specialty channel]] owned by CTV Limited, a division of [[CTVglobemedia]]. Razer is a lifestyle and general entertainment channel aimed at youth and teen audiences. The channel focuses in on trends in entertainment, TV, movies, music, videogames, fashion, technology, sports and leisure as well as scripted series.

==History==
[[Image:Mtv canada.gif|200px|left|thumb|Logo of MTV Canada before rebranding to Razer]] On [[November 24]], [[2000]], the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) announced the licensees of the new, much-sought [[Category 1 channels (Canada)|Category 1]] digital services. [[Craig Media]] was [http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Decisions/2000/DB2000-462.htm granted] a licence for a youth lifestyle service known as ''Connect''. One of the licence's conditions was that the channel could not devote more than 10 per cent of its schedule to the airing of music videos, in order to avoid direct competition with CHUM's [[MuchMusic]].

Nonetheless Craig quickly reached an agreement with [[MTV Networks]] to carry [[MTV]] programming, prompting a pre-launch name change to '''MTV Canada'''. It launched on [[October 18]], [[2001]] and shortly after Craig sold a minority interest in the service to MTV Networks as well. Canadian programs that aired on MTV Canada included ''[[Pepsi Breakout]]'', ''[[Versus]]'', ''[[MTV Select]]'' (later renamed ''[[969 (TV series)|969]]'') and more, while foreign MTV programs that aired were ''[[Punk'd]]'', ''[[Total Request Live|TRL]]'', ''[[The Real World]]'' and more.

CHUM soon complained to the CRTC that MTV Canada was violating its conditions of licence, becoming a direct competitor to MuchMusic. Craig was forced to make changes to reduce its percentage of music-related programming. However these changes were soon rendered moot as Craig was acquired by [[CHUM Limited]] in [[December 1]], [[2004]], prompting MTV Networks to exercise its right to terminate the agreement with Craig if a change in control were to happen. CHUM was also required to pay remaining licence fees for MTV Canada and MTV2 of approximately $10 million to MTV Networks which also meant MTV Networks was no longer able to retain interest in the channels. Plans to rebrand the channel as Razer were announced on [[June 9]], [[2005]] and took effect on [[June 30]] of that year. CTV acquired the rights to MTV programming later in the year, launching its [[MTV (Canada)|own MTV channel]] (previously known as talktv) in early 2006. Ownership changed hands once again on June 22, 2007 when CTVglobemedia took over CHUM Limited.

On August 1, 2008, Razer channel will change its name to [[MTV2]] in line with its U.S. counterpart.

==Programming==
{{see|List of programs broadcast by Razer}}

==External links==
* [http://www.razer.ca/ Official Razer website]
* [http://www.mtv2.ca MTV2 website containing countdown to the rebrand]
* [http://www.ctvglobemedia.ca CTVglobemedia]

{{CHUM Limited}}

[[Category:Canadian television networks]]
[[Category:CTVglobemedia]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2001]]

MTV2 Canada

2008-06-21T09:22:07Z

Anetode: replace with .png

: ''This article is about the [[Canada|Canadian]] television network named Razer. For other meanings see [[Razer (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_TV_channel|
| name = Razer
| logofile = Razer logo.svg
| logoalt = Razer logo
| logosize = 125px
| launch = [[October 18]], [[2001]]
| closed date =
| picture format =
| share =
| share as of =
| share source =
| network =
| owner = [[CTVglobemedia]] <br><small>CTV Limited</small>
| slogan =
| country = [[Canada]]
| broadcast area = National
| headquarters = [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]
| former names = MTV Canada
| replaced names =
| sister names =
| timeshift names =
| web = [http://www.razer.ca razer.ca]
| sat serv 1 = [[Bell ExpressVu]]
| sat chan 1 = Channel 577
| sat serv 2 = [[Star Choice]]
| sat chan 2 = Channel 590
| cable serv 1 = Available on many Canadian cable systems
| cable chan 1 = Check local listings
}}
'''Razer''' is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[English language]] [[Category 1 specialty channel|category 1]] [[digital cable]] [[specialty channel]] owned by CTV Limited, a division of [[CTVglobemedia]]. Razer is a lifestyle and general entertainment channel aimed at youth and teen audiences. The channel focuses in on trends in entertainment, TV, movies, music, videogames, fashion, technology, sports and leisure as well as scripted series.

==History==
[[Image:Mtv canada.gif|200px|left|thumb|Logo of MTV Canada before rebranding to Razer]] On [[November 24]], [[2000]], the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) announced the licensees of the new, much-sought [[Category 1 channels (Canada)|Category 1]] digital services. [[Craig Media]] was [http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Decisions/2000/DB2000-462.htm granted] a licence for a youth lifestyle service known as ''Connect''. One of the licence's conditions was that the channel could not devote more than 10 per cent of its schedule to the airing of music videos, in order to avoid direct competition with CHUM's [[MuchMusic]].

Nonetheless Craig quickly reached an agreement with [[MTV Networks]] to carry [[MTV]] programming, prompting a pre-launch name change to '''MTV Canada'''. It launched on [[October 18]], [[2001]] and shortly after Craig sold a minority interest in the service to MTV Networks as well. Canadian programs that aired on MTV Canada included ''[[Pepsi Breakout]]'', ''[[Versus]]'', ''[[MTV Select]]'' (later renamed ''[[969 (TV series)|969]]'') and more, while foreign MTV programs that aired were ''[[Punk'd]]'', ''[[Total Request Live|TRL]]'', ''[[The Real World]]'' and more.

CHUM soon complained to the CRTC that MTV Canada was violating its conditions of licence, becoming a direct competitor to MuchMusic. Craig was forced to make changes to reduce its percentage of music-related programming. However these changes were soon rendered moot as Craig was acquired by [[CHUM Limited]] in [[December 1]], [[2004]], prompting MTV Networks to exercise its right to terminate the agreement with Craig if a change in control were to happen. CHUM was also required to pay remaining licence fees for MTV Canada and MTV2 of approximately $10 million to MTV Networks which also meant MTV Networks was no longer able to retain interest in the channels. Plans to rebrand the channel as Razer were announced on [[June 9]], [[2005]] and took effect on [[June 30]] of that year. CTV acquired the rights to MTV programming later in the year, launching its [[MTV (Canada)|own MTV channel]] (previously known as talktv) in early 2006. Ownership changed hands once again on June 22, 2007 when CTVglobemedia took over CHUM Limited.

On August 1, 2008, Razer channel will change its name to [[MTV2]] in line with its U.S. counterpart.
[[Image:MTV2.png|150px|thumb|Proposed logo for Razer when it becomes '''MTV2''']]
==Programming==
{{see|List of programs broadcast by Razer}}

==External links==
* [http://www.razer.ca/ Official Razer website]
* [http://www.mtv2.ca MTV2 website containing countdown to the rebrand]
* [http://www.ctvglobemedia.ca CTVglobemedia]

{{CHUM Limited}}

[[Category:Canadian television networks]]
[[Category:CTVglobemedia]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 2001]]

Universität der Arktis

2008-05-23T21:33:06Z

Anetode: rm deleted image

{{Infobox University
|name = '''University of the Arctic'''
|native_name =
|image_name = Medium_UArctic_logo.gif‎
|image_size =
|caption = The UArctic Logo|
|latin_name = |
|motto = "In the North, for the North, by the North"|
|established = [[2001]]|
|type = Cooperative network|
|president = Lars Kullerud|
|city = [[Rovaniemi]] (International Secretariat)|
|country =[[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], [[USA]]|
|website =[http://www.uarctic.org/ www.uarctic.org]|
}}
The '''University of the Arctic''' (UArctic) is an international cooperative network based in the circumpolar region, consisting of [[universities]], [[colleges]] and other organizations with an interest in promoting education and research in the [[Arctic|North]]. UArctic was launched on [[June 12]] [[2001]], endorsed by the [[Arctic Council]] and in conjunction with the 10th anniversary of the [[Rovaniemi Process]] and the Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy.

The overall goal of the University of the Arctic is to create a strong, sustainable circumpolar region by empowering indigenous peoples and other northerners through education, mobility and shared knowledge.

==Member institutions==
[[Image:Íslandsklukkan_við_Sólborg.jpeg|right|200px|Akureyri (Iceland)]]
[[Image:Ilisagvik-College-bowhead-whale-skull.jpg|right|200px|Ilisagvik, Alaska (USA)]]
[[Image:UNISbuilding.jpg|right|200px|Longyearbyen, Svalbard (Norway)]]
[[Image:Arkhangelsk_technology_university.jpg|right|200px|Arkhangelsk, Arkhangelsk Province (Russia)]]
[[Image:McGill_Campus_Twilight_smaller.jpg|right|200px|Montreal, Quebec (Canada)]]
[[Image:Jaetkaenkynttilaebridge in Jyvaeskylae.JPG|right|200px|Rovaniemi, Lapland (Finland)]]
[[Image:Nuuk_Panorama_image_small.jpg|right|200px|Nuuk, Greenland (Denmark)]]
[[Image:Tirake_Metal_Che_Zaad.JPG|right|200px|Umeå, Western Bothnia (Sweden)]]

There are 110 member institutions of UArctic, 85 of which are educational institutions from the 8 Arctic states (listed below). In addition, the [[University of the Highlands and Islands]] in [[Scotland]] is a member. The other institutions are mostly circumpolar indigenous organizations and research institutions.

===Canada===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Athabasca University]]
|[[Aurora College]]
|[[Grande Prairie Regional College]]
|[[Lakehead University]]
|-
|[[Memorial University of Newfoundland]]
|[[McGill University]]
|[[Northlands College]][http://www.canadian-universities.net/Community-Colleges/Northlands_College.html]
|[[Northwest Community College]]
|-
|[[Nunavut Arctic College]]
|[[Saint Mary's University, Halifax|Saint Mary's University]]
|[[Royal Military College of Canada]]
|[[University College of the North]]
|-
|[[University of Northern British Columbia]]
|[[Université Laval]]
|[[University of Alberta]]
|[[University of Manitoba]]
|-
|[[University of Regina]]
|[[University of Saskatchewan]]
|[[University of Winnipeg]]
|[[Yukon College]]
|-
|}

===Denmark===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Roskilde University]]
|[[University of Greenland]]
|[[University of the Faroe Islands ]]
|-
|}

===Finland===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Helsinki University of Technology]]
|[[Kemi-Tornio University of Applied Sciences]]
|[[Oulu University of Applied Sciences]]
|-
|[[Rovaniemi University of Applied Sciences]][http://www.ramk.fi/?DeptID=11638]
|[[Saami Education Institute]]
|[[University of Helsinki]]
|-
|[[University of Lapland]]
|[[University of Oulu]]
|[[University of Turku]]
|-
|[[Diaconia University of Applied Sciences]][http://english.diak.fi/]
|[[HUMAK University of Applied Sciences]][http://www.humak.edu/english/index.php]
|-
|}

===Iceland===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Iceland University of Education]]
|[[University of Akureyri]]
|-
|}

===Norway===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Bodø University College]]
|[[Finnmark University College]]
|[[Harstad University College]]
|[[Narvik University College]]
|-
|[[Northern Feminist University]][http://www.kun.nl.no/english.html]
|[[Northern State Medical University]]
|[[Sámi University College]]
|[[Tromsø University College]]
|-
|[[University Centre in Svalbard]]
|[[University of Tromsø]]
|-
|}

===Russia===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Arkhangelsk State Technical University]][http://www.agtu.ru/]
|[[Buryat State University]][http://www.bsu.ru/]
|[[Kamchatka State University of Education]][http://www.kamgu.ru/english/]
|-
|[[Murmansk Humanities Institute]][http://www.mginet.ru/web/eng/index.htm]
|[[Murmansk State Pedagogical University]][http://www.mspu.edu.ru/]
|[[Murmansk State Technical University]][http://eng.mstu.edu.ru/]
|-
|[[Pomor State University]][http://www.pomorsu.ru/]
|[[Professional Specialized School No.26]]
|[[Sakha State University of Russia]][http://www.ysu.ru/]
|-
|[[Surgut State University]][http://www.surgu.ru/]
|[[Syktyvkar State University]][http://syktsu.ru/en/]
|[[Technical Institute Yakutsk State University]]
|-
|[[Ukhta State Technical University]][http://www.ugtu.net/]
|[[Yakutsk Agricultural Academy]]
|}

===Sweden===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Luleå University of Technology]]
|[[Mid Sweden University]]
|-
|[[Skeria Utveckling]][http://www.skelleftea.se/default.asp?id=2185&ptid=&refid=21068]
|[[Umeå University]]
|-
|}

===United States===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Dartmouth College]]
|[[Hunter College]]
|-
|[[Ilisagvik College]]
|[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
|-
|}

==Organization and Governance==

===The Council and Toyon===
The Council of the University of the Arctic consists of representatives of all UArctic member institutions. The Council gives strategic guidance on academic priorities, is a forum for cooperation, and has the authority and primary responsibility for the following items.
* Initiating and overseeing program development and delivery
* Prioritizing academic programs within the approved program structure
* Representing UArctic's members in its overall governance.
* Changing the Governance Structure, which is the "constitution" of UArctic.
* Forming standing committees on different issues.
* Electing the Chair of the Council.
* Electing the Board of Governors, where the Chair is an ex officio member.

Issues requiring attention during the intervals between meetings of the Council, are handled by the Executive Committee of the Council - ''Toyon'' - which consists of the Chair, the vice-secretary, and the chairs of all standing committees of the Council.

===The Board of Governors===
UArctic's highest decision-making body is the Board of Governors (Board), which consists of up to 11 individuals who are elected by the Council to serve in their personal capacities and act on behalf of UArctic. At the Board meetings, the President and leader of the International Secretariat also participate. The Board has the authority and primary responsibility for the following items:
* Strategic planning and setting institutional priorities.
* Organizational development and institutional accountability.
* Fundraising, finances, and budgeting (including personnel)
* Public and external relations.
* Electing the President of the University of the Arctic for a three year (renewable) term.

The Board works with the Council and Administration on relevant issues. It may delegate specific tasks on the understanding that the Board maintains ultimate control over and responsibility for these functions.

===Administration===
'''The President'''
The President of UArctic is the organization's chief executive officer and is responsible for overall administration and the development and delivery of its programs. S/he is accountable to the Board for the overall management of the University.
The President participates ex officio in meetings of the Council, Toyon and the Board; and works closely with these bodies to ensure that programmatic activities are initiated and implemented in a timely manner. The President may form such committees or other subsidiary bodies as s/he deems necessary to carry out the programmatic activities of the University.

'''The International Secretariat'''
The Secretariat has the primary responsibility for coordinating internal and external information, particularly the production of the monthly UArctic newsletter, Shared Voices, and maintaining the website and news services. The Secretariat provides support for UArctic’s Council, Board of Governors, management, and the Director of UArctic. It is located at the [[University of Lapland]] in Rovaniemi, Finland.

===The Programs, Pomot and Ofelas===

===The Rectors' Forum===
The Rectors' Forum brings together university and college Presidents, Rectors, Provosts, Chancellors as well as Vice-Presidents around specific themes. The Forum is reserved for institutional leadership and is not intended as an institutional representative forum; the Council of UArctic serves that function. Still, it serves the important function of letting member institutions' top leaders meet to debate the activity of the organization. In UArctic's history two Rectors' Forums have been held, in 2006 and 2008. The latter meeting coincided with the meeting of the Parliamentarians of the Arctic, and was held in [[Rovaniemi]], Finland.

==Programs==
===Bachelor of Circumpolar Studies===
The Circumpolar Studies program is an exciting way for students attending University of the Arctic member institutions to learn about the North, with courses held in the classroom, online, outdoors, and around the world.

The Circumpolar Studies program gives you the opportunity to learn about the lands, peoples, and issues of the circumpolar world and prepares you for advanced study or professional employment in fields as diverse as sustainable resource management, self-government, Arctic engineering, and northern tourism. Special emphasis is given to matters concerning Indigenous people of the Circumpolar North.
The Circumpolar Studies program consists of two required components: The BCS Core and an Advanced Emphasis.

The BCS Core consists of a single lower-level introductory course and six upper-level advanced courses in three interdisciplinary fields of study. Together, the core enables students to gain a broad knowledge and understanding of the lands, peoples, and critical issues of the circumpolar world. Advanced Emphases are programs of study, roughly equivalent to a semester of schooling, that focus on the advanced research of an area, issue, or problem of particular relevance to the North and for its people.
===north2north===
The north2north student exchange program provides opportunities for students from UArctic member institutions to experience different northern regions firsthand, and to share experiences face-to-face by allowing students to study at other UArctic institutions.

As a north2north participant, students travel to another circumpolar institution for a period of 3-12 months. This time period is dependent on the needs of the student, as well as the structures of their home and host institutions. Students have the advantage of taking courses that may not be available at their home institution and the courses taken during the exchange year are credited toward your degree. Of course, the value of the knowledge students gain outside the classroom in their new communities is beyond measurement. Successful applicants will receive a mobility grant to facilitate their stay at the host institution.
===GoNorth===
GoNorth offers opportunities for students from the south to go study at a northern higher education institution and experience life in the Circumpolar North. GoNorth is a two-year Erasmus Mundus project with 12 member institutions of the UArctic. The project partners cooperate to make higher education in the North more visible and accessible worldwide. The result of the Erasmus Mundus project will subsequently be used by UArctic's GoNorth Mobility Program, which aims at recruiting students to higher education institutions in the circumpolar areas.
===Studies Catalog===
The Studies Catalog is a tool for UArctic programs and members to market and display their northern relevant study opportunity. The catalog will link to already existing online electronic material, updating the information automatically every 24 hours based on the information provided on the web-site of the institution that does the teaching.
===Field School===
The UArctic Field School incorporates a selection of short, thematically focussed courses that provide training for young researchers at member institutions in relevant fields. The Field School provides specialized study in authentic northern locations organized by northern institutions. The UArctic Field School catalogue is an online database of field excursion courses in which students from UArctic member institutions can participate.
===northTREX===
Northern Teaching Resources Exchange program, northTREX, provides opportunities for northern teachers to gain circumpolar experiences and perspectives, and strengthens northern institutions' abilities to share faculty resources. The program allows institutions to draw on a circumpolar pool of academic faculty, enabling UArctic partner institutions to enrich their curricular offerings. Mobility in this program normally lasts for less than 3 months. Faculty assignments are usually linked to thematic networks and student exchange in the north2north program.
===Northern Research Forum===
The Northern Research Forum provides a platform for effective, policy-relevant discussion and the sharing of research on northern issues. Meetings are held biennially with the participation of a wide variety of scientists, policy makers and representatives of other stakeholders.

The purpose of the Northern Research Forum is to promote intensive dialogue among members of the research community and a wide range of other northern stakeholders. This dialogue addresses the critical issues, problems and opportunities facing circumpolar peoples in the context of social and environmental changes and economic globalization. The Forum provides an open meeting for policy-relevant discussion on the role of research in addressing issues of sustainable development, community viability, peace and security, social and environmental policy, and the impacts of global change.

===Thematic Networks===
UArctic Thematic Networks are independent and thematically focused networks of experts in specific areas of northern relevance. Thematic Networks encourage faculty and institutional cooperation on subjects of shared interest among UArctic members. UArctic Thematic Networks aim at stimulating cooperation, sharing of resources, and are important tools for developing the stable relations among member institutions that form the backbone of UArctic activities. This includes student and faculty exchange, and joint curriculum and degree development as well as research.

A Thematic Network may focus its activities on one or several of the following: research cooperation, knowledge sharing, curriculum development, joint education programs in a specific field, or form the umbrella for UArctic participants in international workgroups. Examples of Thematic Networks includes: UArctic Indigenous Thematic Network on Community-based Natural Resource Co-management; Thematic Network in Arctic Agriculture and Nature Use - the Northern Agriculture PhD Network; Thematic Network on World Images of Indigenous Peoples of the North; Thematic Networks on Indigenous Arts and Crafts; and, Thematic Network on Northern Governance.

== External links ==
*[http://www.uarctic.org University of the Arctic]
*[http://www.uarctic.org/orgs2full.aspx?group=GOvCouncil&title=Council&m=79 Members of the University of the Arctic]
*[http://www.uarctic.org/governance_structure_os_230507_asosradn_RbRaX.pdf.file Governance Structure] (PDF)

[[Category:Arctic]]
[[Category:University organizations]]
[[Category:University research collaboratives]]

Maffra

2008-01-29T08:56:27Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 121.219.243.76 (talk) to last version by Mattinbgn

{{Infobox Australian Place | type = town
| name = Maffra
| state = vic
| image = Maffra_AerialView.jpg
| caption = Maffra from the air, 1948
| lga = Shire of Wellington
| postcode = 3860
| est =
| pop = 5333 (2006)<ref name="abs">{{Census 2006 AUS | id = SSC26071 | name = Maffra (State Suburb) | accessdate = 2007-10-01 | quick = on}}</ref>
| elevation= 27
| maxtemp = 20.0
| mintemp = 8.1
| rainfall = 581.9
| stategov = [[Electoral district of Gippsland East|Gippsland East]]
| fedgov = [[Division of Gippsland|Gippsland]]
| dist1 = 221
| dir1 =
| location1= [[Melbourne]]
| dist2 = 24
| dir2 =
| location2= [[Sale, Victoria|Sale]]
| dist3 = 62
| dir3 =
| location3= [[Bairnsdale, Victoria|Bairnsdale]]
}}
'''Maffra''' ({{coor dm|37|57|S|146|59|E|type:city(4200)_region:AU-VIC}}) is a [[town]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]], 225km east of Melbourne. It is in the [[Shire of Wellington]] local government area. It relies mainly on dairy farming and other agriculture. Maffra is a detour off the [[Princes Highway]] near [[Stratford, Victoria|Stratford]], [[Rosedale, Victoria|Rosedale]], [[Tinamba, Victoria|Tinamba]] and [[Heyfield, Victoria|Heyfield]]. At the 2006 [[Census in Australia|census]], Maffra had a population of 5333.

It was long the beef cattle capital of West Gippsland and, for many years, the only [[beet sugar]] processing centre in the country. The town began as an outstation of the region’s first cattle run, Boisdale, named by pioneer grazier Lachlan Macalister after a village in the [[Outer Hebrides]].

The village was originally known as Sheepfold, but Macalister renamed it Maffra after a town in [[Portugal]] ([[Mafra]]) where he served during the [[Peninsular War]].

The town hosts a Mardi Gras in March, the Maffra and District Agricultural, Pastoral and Horticultural Show in October and a [[tennis]] tournament at [[Easter]].

Maffra is known to have one of the prettiest main streets (Johnson St) in Victoria. The Wellington Shire Council removed the 100+ year old trees that line it because of disease, but has since replaced them with young oaks.

Maffra has two primary schools, the Maffra Primary School and St Mary's Primary School (Catholic). Maffra also has a public secondary school, Maffra Secondary College, which has a student enrolment of around 800. Maffra Secondary has a strong academic program and is involved in a number of community service progams.

The Maffra Meat Pie is famous and has won many awards. {{Fact|date=August 2007}}

The Maffra Shed is now completed. This is for old car lovers. It is a huge old sugar beet building which the Car Club has cleaned and given new life. They hold car shows and draw crowds from miles around.

The historical society is working at Bellbird Corner restoring the area to the popular picnic area it was in the 1900s.

The Beet Museum, set in the Port of Maffra Park, has relics from the defunct [[sugar beet]] industry. The building is a relocated historic weighbridge building, and is lined with pine boards from the home of Charles and Grace Quirk, one of Maffra's first cottages. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Refimprove|date=November 2007}}
{{Towns in Central Gippsland}}

[[Category:Towns in Victoria]]
[[Category:Gippsland]]

{{Victoria-geo-stub}}

Symbole des Islams

2008-01-27T22:07:56Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 24.187.45.149 (talk) to last version by Alexfusco5

{{Islam}}
'''Islamic symbols''' are non-textual and non-verbal ''visual'' [[symbols]] that have been used, or are used, to express identification with [[Islam]] or a particular tradition within Islam, to evoke feelings of joy, sadness, devotion, etc., or even to stand for beliefs and ideas. Some symbols, such as the color green, have been associated with Islam for a long time and in many areas; others are of more limited duration and extent. [[Islamic art|Muslim art]] often uses such symbols to represent complex ideas (see [[Iconography]]). [[Islamic architecture]] may also incorporate such symbols in the decoration of religious edifices such as [[mosque]]s, [[khanqah]]s, [[dargah]]s, etc.
__TOC__
==Star and crescent==
{{TotallyDisputed-section}}
The [[star and crescent]] is commonly regarded as a symbol of Islam. It is featured prominently on the flags of many countries in the [[Islamic world]], notably [[Turkey]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Pakistan]]. Critics point out that the symbol was not used by [[Muhammad]] and therefore has no basis in Islam, however it has undeniably become associated with the Ottoman Empire.

The crescent and star are believed to be the traditional insignia {{Fact|date=February 2007}} of the city of [[Constantinople]] (now [[Istanbul]]), capital of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. They were proudly adopted by the [[Ottoman Turks]] when they conquered Constantinople and put an end to many centuries of Byzantine rule. The Ottomans established the [[Ottoman Empire]], which ruled much of the Middle East and North Africa for centuries. The Ottomans claimed to have inherited the [[caliphate]] and the right to represent all Islam; hence their star and crescent banner was, for a time, the banner of much of Sunni Islam.

[[image:CStar.png|left|thumb|Star and Cresent]]However, some say that the crescent is ultimately derived from the cult of the goddess [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] or [[Artemis]], the Greek and Roman goddess of the moon, and that it was retained even after the Roman Empire converted to Christianity {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.

* The [[Umayyad]]s fought under white banners
* The [[Abbasid]]s chose black
* The [[Fatimid]]s used a Green standard, as well as White with gold inlay.
* Various countries on the [[Persian Gulf]] have chosen red flags

These four colors, white, black, green and red, dominate the flags of Arab states. <ref>http://www.fotw.net/flags/islam.html</ref><ref>http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/197802/flags.of.the.arab.world.htm</ref>

The color white is often believed to symbolize purity and [[peace]]. Many Muslims wear the color white when they attend Friday prayers.
The color black is considered the color of mourning in Western and Mediterranean countries. It is often worn by Shi'a Muslims, who mourn the death of [[Husayn ibn Ali]], killed at the [[Battle of Karbala]]. It is the color of the [[chador]] worn by devout [[Iran]]ian Shi'a women and of the cloaks worn by the [[ayatollah]]s, the Shi'a clergy. In many Shi'a countries, a black [[turban]] is worn only by male [[sayid]]s, men who descend from [[Muhammad]] though his daughter [[Fatima]] and his son-in-law Ali.

While the color red has no special significance in Islam, it is commonly used on the flags of Muslim countries. Also, the [[Red Crescent]] is the Muslim equivalent of the [[Red Cross]].

The color [[green]] has a special place in Islam. It is used in the decoration of mosques, the bindings of [[Qur'an]]s, the silken covers for the graves of [[Sufism|Sufi]] saints, and in the flags of various Muslim countries.

The color green has been associated with Islam for many centuries. It is not clear why this is so. Some say green was [[Muhammad]]’s favorite color and that he wore a green cloak and [[turban]]. Others believe that it symbolizes nature and life, hence the physical manifestation of [[God]]. In the Qur'an (Surah 18:31), it is said that the inhabitants of paradise will wear green garments of fine [[silk]]. While the reference to the Qur'an is verifiable, it is not clear if other explanations are reliable or mere folklore. Regardless of its origins, the color green has been considered especially Islamic for centuries. [[Crusade]]rs avoided using any green in their [[Heraldry|coats of arms]], so that they could not possibly be mistaken for their Muslim opponents in the heat of battle.

Crosley Motors

2008-01-23T22:54:08Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by Ed.minutia (talk) to last version by Altzinn

The '''Crosley''' was an [[automobile]] manufactured by the ''Crosley Corporation'' and later by ''Crosley Motors Incorporated'' in the [[United States]] from 1939 to 1952. (It should not be confused with the [[Crossley Motors|Crossley]] made by ''Crossley Motors'' of [[Manchester]], [[England]].)

==History==
Industrialist [[Powel Crosley, Jr.]], of [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], owner of [[Crosley Broadcasting Corporation]] and the [[Cincinnati Reds]] baseball team, had ambitious plans to build a [[subcompact car]] and developed assembly plants at [[Richmond, Indiana]], and [[Marion, Indiana]]. In May 1939, the first car was shown at the [[Indianapolis Speedway]]. It was a two-door [[convertible]] that weighed under 1000 lb (450 kg) and sold for $250. It wasn't an instant success, but in 1941 more body styles were introduced.

[[Image:1940Crosley.jpg|left|thumb|A 1940 Crosley]]
The chassis had an 80-inch (203 cm) [[wheelbase]], half elliptic springs with beam [[axle]] in front and quarter elliptics in the rear. The power came from a two-cylinder [[Waukesha]] air-cooled engine that had the fan as a part of the [[flywheel]]. The engine was connected with a three-speed [[Transmission (mechanics)|transmission]] and then directly via a torque tube to the rear axle, thus eliminating the need for [[joint]]s. However, this arrangement was found to be less than optimal from a reliability standpoint. Conventional u-joints were fitted in 1941

In 1941, the body styles available were expanded to include two- and four-passenger convertibles, a convertible [[sedan]], a [[station wagon]], a panel [[truck]], a [[Pickup truck|pickup]], and two models called "Parkway Delivery" (a mini-panel with no roof over the front seat) and "Covered Wagon" (a convertible pickup truck with a removable back seat).

During [[World War II]], the Crosley became attractive because of gasoline rationing and the good mileage (50 miles per U.S. gallon, 5 L/100 km). Crosley was the last company to cease production of civilian vehicles in 1942, partly to allow car buyers the opportunity to purchase as many Crosleys as possible to aid in fuel rationing, and partly because the War Production Board needed some time to determine a useful purpose for Crosley's small factories.

[[Image:1950 crosley.jpg|thumb|A 1950 Crosley station wagon on display at the Central Texas Museum of Automotive History.]]
Civilian car production resumed in 1945 with the aerodynamic CC, but only at the Marion plant; the Richmond facility had been sold during the war years. Crosely was responsible for a number of "firsts" in the American sutomobile industry, including the first mass market [[SOHC]] engine in [[1946], first slab sided post-war car also in 1946, first all steel bodied wagon [[1947]], first American car to be fitted with 4 wheel disc brakes [[1949]], first American sports car, the Hotshot, also in 1949. 1950 brought the FarmORoad model, a 63-inch wheelbase utility vehicle predictive of the [[John Deere Gator]] and other [[UTV]]s.

Pre-war production with Waukesha air cooled [[I2]]
1939: Series 1A including convertible Coupe and convertible Sedan
1940: Series 2A including Sedan, Deluxe Sedan, Coupe, Covered Wagon, and Wagon
1941: Series CB41 including Sedan, Deluxe Sedan, Coupe, Covered Wagon, and Wagon
1942: Series CB42 including Sedan, Deluxe Sedan, Coupe, and Wagon 2-Door

Post-war production with COBRA water cooled [[I4]]
1946: CC Four including Sedan and Coupe
1947: CC Four including Sedan, Coupe, and Wagon 2-Door
1948: CC Four including Sedan, Sport Utility Sedan, convertible Coupe, and Wagon

Post-war production with CIBA water cooled [[I4]]
1949: CD Four including Deluxe Sedan, Coupe, Wagon, and Hotshot Roadster
1950: CD Four including Sedan, Super Sedan, Coupe, Super Coupe, Wagon, Super Wagon, Hotshot Roadster, Super Sports Roadster, and FarmORoad.
1951: CDFour including Business Coupe, Super Sedan, Wagon, Super Wagon, Super Coupe, Hotshot Roadster, Super Sports Roadster, and FarmORoad.
1952: CD Four including Standard Business Coupe, Super Sedan, Wagon, Super Wagon, Super Coupe, Hotshot Roadster, Super Sports Roadster and FarmORoad. (Crosley, Encylopedia of American Cars, 2003,)

With 24,871 cars sold, the best year was 1948. Sales started to slip in 1949 and adding the Crosley Hotshot and a combination farm tractor-jeep called the Farm-O-Road in 1950, could not stop the decline. In 1952, only 1522 Crosley vehicles were sold. Production ceased after the July 3rd shift that year, and the plant was sold to the General Tire and Rubber Company.

Regardless of its short life, and small size, the Hotshot is well remembered as phenomenal sports car with in its own class. The Hotshot not only won the Index of Performance at Sebring in 1951, but also the Grand de la Suisse that year as well. A [[Siata]] 300 fit with Crosely power won the SCCA's 12 hour Vero Beach race. Through out the 1950's Crosely engines dominated 750cc sports car racing, winning 10 out of 12 SCCA west coast races alone. (http://auto.howstuffworks.com/1949-1952-crosley-hotshot-and-super-sports.htm)

== Engines ==
[[Image:Cobra engine.JPG|275px|left|thumb|''Crosley CoBra Engine Complete with Transmission'']]
The original engine is the Waukesha Model 150 Cub Twin, a 580 [[Cubic centimetre|cc]] air-cooled L-head opposed twin-cylinder engine built by [[Waukesha Engines]] of [[Waukesha]], [[Wisconsin]] and utilized from 1939 through 1942. It was replaced in 1946 with the CoBra (for "Copper Brazed"), a 721 cc overhead-cam four. That engine in turn was replaced in 1949 by the new and more reliable CIBA (Crosley Cast Iron Block Assembly) engine utilizing five main bearings.

=== Crosley CoBra (1945–1949) ===
The CoBra (Copper Brazed, also known as "The Mighty Tin") was originally developed by [[Lloyd Taylor]], of [[Taylor Engines]] in [[California]], for [[military]] use aboard [[PT boat]]s and [[B-17 Flying Fortress]] [[bombers]]. The engine was made from [[sheet metal]] rather than [[cast iron]] like most other engines. This was done to get a thin, uniform wall thickness and
[[Image:Cobra block.JPG|275px|right|thumb|''Crosley CoBra Block and Valve Cover'']]
thus avoid the creation of hot spots around the combustion chamber that could ignite the fuel, causing [[pre-ignition]] (knocks). The engine wasn't adopted for automobile use until 1946. It was a very lightweight engine; the block weighed only 14.8 lb (6.7 kg); complete with all accessories (including the [[flywheel]]) weighing only 133 lb (60 kg). The engine produced 26 hp (19 kW) at 5200 rpm.

=== CIBA (1949–1952; 1955) ===
The CIBA (Crosley Cast Iron Block Assembly) was a more traditional and more reliable engine utilizing a cast-iron block. When Crosley Motors, Inc. was sold, the engine was renamed "[[AeroJet]]" and production continued. Production of the AeroJet ended in 1955 and the engine rights were sold to [[Fageol]] and later to a series of different companies ending in 1972 with the Fisher Pierce Bearcat 55. Maritime modifications mostly included increasing displacement and converting the engine to run with a vertical axis.

In Europe the Crosley CIBA would be used to great advantage in 750cc sports car class, eventually maturing to a [[dohc]] design used in the Bandi 750 (http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandini_750_sport_internazionale) as well as Nardi and Siata customs.

==Notable Crosley owners==
*[[Omar Bradley|General Omar Bradley]]
*[[Humphrey Bogart]] (Two-cylinder Crosley)
* Kathy Godfrey (1951 CD sedan)
* President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1951 CD Surrey)
*[[Geraldine Farrar]] (Two-cylinder Crosley)
*[[Paulette Goddard]] (Two-cylinder Crosley)
*[[Pamela Harriman]] (purchased the first 1939 Crosley)
*[[George M. Humphrey]], Secretary of the Treasury
*[[Art Linkletter]] (1952 CD Sport Convertible)
*[[Alex Raymond]], '''[[Flash Gordon]]''' cartoonist ([[Bandini Automobili|Crosley-Bandini]])
*[[Nelson Rockefeller]], Governor of New York (1950 HotShot)
*[[Gloria Swanson]] (Two-cylinder Crosley)
*[[Fred Waring]] (Two-cylinder Crosley)
*[[Frank Lloyd Wright]] (1952 VC Super Sports)
*[[Henry N.Manney III]] '''[[Road and Track]]''' contributor (Hotshot)

==See also==
*[[Crosley Car Owners Club]] (CCOC) History
*[[Powel Crosley Jr.]]
*[[Lewis M. Crosley]]
*[[Crosley Pup]]
*[[WLW]]
*[[List of defunct United States automobile manufacturers]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Crosley}}
*[http://www.geocities.com/motorcity/garage/7896/crosley.htm CROSLEY A Compact born 30 years too soon!]
*[http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/Crosley Crosley Car Owners Club (CCOC)]
*[http://cac.crosley.net/ Crosley Automobile Club Inc.]
*[http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/West_Coast_Crosleys West Coast Crosleys]
*[http://cac.crosley.net/EngineTree/Crosley_Eng_Tree.html Crosley Engine Family Tree]
*[http://cac.crosley.net/Mighty_Tin.html The Mighty Tin (CoBra)]
*[http://dmoz.org/Recreation/Autos/Makes_and_Models/Crosley/ Category at ODP]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~mherman/crosley.html The Crosley Automobile — A Fine Car]
*[http://www.crosleyradio.com Crosley Radio Corporation]
*[http://chiefrooney.blogspot.com/2007/12/crosley.html Review of the book, <i>Crosley</i>]

[[Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Cincinnati]]
[[Category:Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Indiana]]
[[Category:Compact cars]]

Trojan Limited

2008-01-23T22:53:48Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by Ed.minutia (talk) to last version by Malcolma

{{Merge|Trojan (Racing team)|date=August 2007}}
'''Trojan''' was a [[Great Britain|British]] [[automobile]] [[automobile manufacturer|manufacturer]]; the eponymous [[marque]] thereof was produced between 1914 and 1974.

==Early history==
The company was founded by Leslie Hayward Hounsfield (1877–1957)<ref name=Beaulieu>{{cite book |last=Georgano |first=N. |title=Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile |year=2000 |publisher=HMSO |location=London |id=ISBN 1-57958-293-1}}</ref> who went into business as a general engineer called the Polygon Engineering Works in a small workshop in [[Clapham]], South London. He got the idea to make a simple, economical car that would be easy to drive and started design work in 1910. In 1913 the prototype was ready. It had a [[two stroke]] engine with four cylinders arranged in pairs and each pair shared a common [[combustion chamber]] - essentially a doubled [[twingle engine]]. The pistons in each pair drove the [[crankshaft]] together as they were coupled to it by a V shaped [[connecting rod]]. For this arrangement to work it is necessary for the [[connecting rod]] to flex slightly which goes completely against normal practice. The claim was that each engine had only seven moving parts, four [[piston]]s, two [[connecting rod]]s and a crankshaft. This was connected to a two speed [[Epicyclic gearbox|epicyclic gearbox]], to simplify gear changing, and a chain to the rear wheels. Solid tyres were used, even though these were antiquated for car use, to prevent punctures and very long springs used to give some comfort.

Before production could start war broke out and from 1914 to 1918, Trojan Ltd, as the company had become in 1914, made production tools and gauges. In 1920 the first series of six cars were made from a works in [[Croydon]] and the final production version was shown at the 1922 [[British_International_Motor_Show|London Motor Show]]. An agreement was reached with [[Leyland Motors]] to produce the cars at their [[Kingston upon Thames]] factory where work on reconditioning ex [[RAF]] wartime trucks was running down. This arrangement would continue until 1928 when [[Leyland_Motors|Leyland]] wanted factory space for truck production. During the nearly seven years of the agreement 11,000 cars and 6700 vans were made.<ref name=Beaulieu />

==Trojan Utility Car==
The car known as the Trojan Utility Car went onto the market at £230, reducing to £125 in 1925, the same as a [[Model T Ford]].<ref name=AZ1920>{{cite book |last=Baldwin |first=N. |title=A-Z of Cars of the 1920s|year=1994 |publisher=Bay View Books |location=Devon, UK |id=ISBN 1-870979-53-2}}</ref> Nothing was conventional. Rather than a [[chassis]] the car had a [[Punt (boat)|punt]] shaped tray which housed the engine and transmission below the seats. The 1527 cc engine to the ingenious Hounsfield design was started by pulling a lever on the right of the driver. To prove how economical the car was to run, the company ran the slogan "Can you afford to walk?" and calculated that over 200 miles it would cost more in shoes and socks than to cover the distance by Trojan car.<ref name=Beaulieu/>

A modified car was released in 1920 with a smaller 1488 cc engine to bring it into the sub 1.5 litre class and with [[tyres|pneumatic tyres]] available as an option. The car was guaranteed for 5000 miles.<ref name=AZ1920/> A major contract was agreed with [[Brooke Bond]] tea for delivery vans making the car familiar all over Britain and with a top speed of 38 mph (60 km/h) <ref name=BritishCars>{{cite book |last=Culshaw |first= |coauthors=Horrobin |title=Complete Catalogue of British Cars |year=1974 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |id=ISBN 0-333-16689-2}}</ref>, not causing too much worry over speeding drivers.

==The RE Trojan and the 1930s==
With the ending of the [[Leyland_motors|Leyland]] partnership, Leslie Hounsfield took over production himself back in Croydon but at new premises with Leyland continuing to supply some parts until the early 1930s.<ref name=Beaulieu/> In spite of new body styles, sales of the cars were falling and so a new model, the RE, or Rear Engine capable of 45 mph (70 km/h) was announced in 1931.<ref name=AZ1930>{{cite book |last=Sedgwick |first=M. |coauthors= |title=A-Z of Cars of the 1930s|year=1989 |publisher=Bay View Books |location=Devon, UK |id=ISBN 1-870979-38-9}}</ref> It still did without [[Automobile_self_starter|electric starter]] and had only rear wheel braking and was beginning to look very old fashioned and although new modern bodies were fitted only about 250 were sold.<ref name=Beaulieu/> A final attempt was the Wayfarer of 1934 with the engine back in the middle but now with three speed gearbox and [[shaft drive]] but only three were sold and the 6 cylinder Mastra did no better with only two produced.<ref name=Beaulieu/> The original van continued to sell well however and the Utility car could still be ordered, the last one was delivered in 1937.<ref name=Beaulieu/>

Leslie Hounsfield had left the company in 1930 to set up a new enterprise making amongst other things the "Safari" camp bed<ref name=Beaulieu/> which would be made in thousands during [[ww2|World War II]].

Trojan Ltd continued to make vans until war broke out and during hostilities made bomb racks and parachute containers. With peace, van production restarted still with the original engine until 1952 when it was replaced by a [[Perkins_Engines|Perkins diesel]].

==Bubble and sports cars==
In 1959 the company was bought by Peter Agg and from 1960 to 1965 he built under licence [[Heinkel]] [[microcar|bubble cars]] selling them as the Trojan 200, the last vehicle to bear the Trojan name.<ref name=Beaulieu /> From 1966 to 1968 he built [[Elva (car manufacturer)|Elva]] Courier sports cars<ref name=Beaulieu /> followed by racing cars until 1974.

The company still exists, though no longer operating from the [[Croydon]] factory which has been sold.

==Trojan Trobike==
Trobike was one of the early makes of mini-bike and also one of the earliest to be sold in kit form to avoid purchase tax.
The Trojan Lambretta group was founded in 1959 when Lambretta Concessioinaires Ltd took over Trojan Ltd, one of the oldest firms in the British motor industry. At about the time the group owned the Clinton Engine Corporation of [[Maquoketa]], [[Iowa]], USA.
[[Image:Trojan_emblem.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Photograph of Trojan decal fitted to Trobike front mudguard]]

Clinton were world famous for their engines used in [[lawnmower]]s and [[chainsaw]]s. At this time many were supplied for use in portable [[generator]]s, paint sprayers etc.

During the late 1950s the British public were becoming aware of the craze sweeping teenage America – [[karting]] (or go-karting). The sport arrived in Britain with US servicemen bringing outfits over and even making their own.

At first, the most popular engine was the 2.5 HP 95cc Clinton engine – being both readily available and cheap. By 1959 Trojan began making the Trokart using this engine and sold as a kit to avoid purchase tax, it sold for only £25. By 1963 it was estimated that 250,000 engines in the US and 10,000 in Britain had been sold; all for [[karting]].

The first printed mention of the Trobike is June 1960 and the first road test published on Thursday 22nd December 1960 in Motor Cycling with Scooter Weekly. The price then quoted was £35 in kit form although two adverts in 1962 quoted £29.

By November 1961 the factory, also producing the [[Lambretta_(motorscooter)|Lambretta]] scooters, had also tooled up to produce the [[Heinkel]] three-wheeled [[bubble car]], then know as the Trojan Cabin Cruiser. It seems that the Trobike was a limited success with perhaps only 500-600 being sold over the two-year period – the last confirmed despatch being 6th March 1962. Known frame numbers range from TB504 to TB1090.

The very last machines were sold to a farmer and known as the Sussex Miniscooter. Later still, a variant known as the Lowline Chimp appeared using a very similar frame and again a Clinton engine.

Originally, machines had black handlebar rubbers but some later models were fitted with buff-coloured rubbers. The twistgrip on early machines (as appear on factory literature) was manufactured by [[Amal_(motorcycle)|Amal]] with the cable entering parallel to the handlebars. Later bikes had the more typical [[Amal_(motorcycle)|Amal]] twistgrip with the cable entering from below.
Later models were fitted with a [[bashplate]] between the lower frame downtubes (by frame number TB879). The [[bashplate]] was dual purpose; to stop dirt entering the [[Air_filter#Internal_combustion_air_filters|air filter]] and also to protect the [[carburettor]] from damage. Even later models (by frame number TB1029) were fitted with a further small light steel plate shielding the [[carburettor]] [[Carburetor#Float_chamber|float bowl]] and fitted under the heads of the front two engine mounting bolts.

===Specification===

Manufacturer: Trojan Ltd, Purley Way, [[Croydon]], [[Surrey]]. Telephone [[Telephone_number#Alphanumeric_trivia|MUN]]<nowiki>icipal</nowiki> 2499.<br />
Model: Trobike.<br />
Wheels: Trojan pressed steel 5 inch split rim with [[Roller_bearing#Tapered_roller_bearing|tapered roller bearings]].<br />
Tyres: Front 3.00 x 5 [[Dunlop_Tyres|Dunlop]], Rear 3.50 x 5 [[Dunlop_Tyres|Dunlop]].<br />
Tyre pressures: 20 [[Pounds_per_square_inch|pounds per square inch]].<br />
Accelerator and Brake linkage: Enclosed cable.<br />
Brakes: two 5 inch [[drum_brake|drums]].<br />
Chassis: ⅞ inch tubular steel, [[Motorcycle_frame#(Full)_duplex_cradle_frame|duplex]].<br />
Colour: White frame, red mudguards, black seat, yellow engine.<br />
[[Roller_chain|Chain]]: ⅜ inch [[Gear#Pitch2|pitch]] x 7/32 inch wide. 105 links.<br />
Engine [[sprocket]]: 12 tooth.<br />
Rear [[sprocket]]: 64 tooth.<br />
Starter: Recoil.<br />
Cut-out switch: Push button.<br />
'''Dimensions''' <br />
Overall length: 48 inches.<br />
Width over [[Motorcycle_handlebar|handlebars]]: 21 inches.<br />
[[Wheelbase]]: 37 inches.<br />
Height over top of [[Motorcycle_handlebar|handlebars]]: 28½ inches.<br />
Seat height: 23 inches.<br />
Engine: Clinton A490 Panther [[two_stroke|2-stroke]] ([[Centrifugal_governor|de-governed]] for Trobike application).<br />
Lubrication: [[Two-stroke_cycle#Lubrication|Petroil]], 16:1 ratio.<br />
Cylinder size: [[Bore_(engines)|Bore]] 2⅛ inch (54mm), [[Stroke_(engines)|Stroke]] 1⅝ inch (41mm).<br />
Capacity: 95[[Cubic_centimetre|cc]]<br />
Power: 2.5 [[Horsepower#Brake_horsepower_(bhp)|b.h.p.]] at 3800 [[rpm|R.P.M.]]<br />
Fuel tank: All-welded ⅜ gall tank mounted on engine.<br />
Transmission: Single speed via Clinton [[centrifugal clutch]].<br />
Electrical: [[Flywheel]] [[magneto_(electrical)|magneto]].<br />
[[Suspension_(motorcycle)|Suspension]]: None.<br />
Weight: 60 pounds.<br />
'''Performance'''<br />
Max speed: 32mph<br />
0-30mph: 21 seconds<br />
Braking distance: 28ft @ 30mph<br />

'''Quote from Trobike brochure:'''
“The really featherweight runabout.” “Build it yourself for garden or road use.”

'''Frame.'''
The frame is manufactured from high-quality steel tube which is electrically welded to resist shock and impact. The steering head is mounted on [[ball bearings]] to provide ease and smoothness of movement. The front [[mudguard]] and the integral rear chain and [[mudguard]] are built of resin reinforced [[glassfibre|glass fibre]] and finished in red to contrast with the white [[enamel_paint|enamel]] finish of the frame assembly.

'''Engine.'''
The Clinton A490 Panther 2-stroke engine is centrally mounted to ensure perfect balance at all speeds. The engine position is adjustable to suit chain tension. The starting is by recoil starter, power being delivered to the rear wheel through and automatic [[centrifugal clutch]] which comes into effect upon opening of the [[throttle]].

'''Models.'''
Two models – the Garden Model and Road Model – are basically similar, with the difference that the Garden Model does not include number plates, front wheel brake and brake lever, hooter or [[tax disc]]. Trobikes have and eye-catching colour scheme – white frames, forks, handlebars, and wheels – yellow engines – red chain/mudguards. A [[foam rubber]] [[motorcycle_saddle|saddle]] covered with black plastic leather cloth is fitted to each machine.

'''Wheels.'''
Wheels are made from extremely strong pressed steel and are of the split rim type for easy tyre removal. Both front and rear wheels run on opposed high-grade taper [[roller bearing]]s on an alloy steel spindle, which is designed for easy wheel removal. Highly efficient car type [[drum_brake|internal expanding brakes]] are used.

For VERSATILITY – MOBILITY – ADAPTABILITY – RELIABILITY – ACCESSIBILITY – STABILITY - - and for SHEER FUN!

==See also==
*[[Trojan (Racing team)]]

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
<div class="references-small">
:*{{cite book |last=Rance|first=E. |authorlink= |coauthors=Don Williams |title=Can You Afford to Walk? The History of the Hounsfield Trojan|year=1999 |publisher=Bookmarque |location=Oxfordshire, UK |id=ISBN 1-870519-45-0}}
</div>

==External links==
* [http://www.trojanmuseumtrust.org/machine.htm Trojan Museum and Trust]

[[Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Vintage vehicles]]
[[Category:Vehicle manufacture in London]]

—

Cyclecar

2008-01-23T22:53:45Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by Ed.minutia (talk) to last version by Madduck

[[Image:LaVigneCyclecar1914.jpg|right|thumb|367px|1914 La Vigne cyclecar advertisement.]]
'''Cyclecars''' were small, generally inexpensive cars manufactured mainly between 1910 and the late 1920s.

==General description==
Cyclecars were propelled by single cylinder, V-twin or more rarely four cylinder engines, often air cooled. Sometimes these had been originally used in [[motorcycle]]s and other components from this source such as gearboxes were also employed. Cyclecars were half way between motorcycles and cars and were fitted with lightweight bodies, sometimes in a tandem two-seater configuration and could be primitive with minimal comfort and weather protection. They used various layouts and means of transmitting the engine power to the wheels, such as [[Belt (mechanical)|belt drive]] or [[chain drive]] often to one rear wheel only to avoid having to provide a [[differential]].

The rise of cyclecars was a direct result of reduced taxation both for registration and annual licences of lightweight small engined cars. In France, for example, a car classed for reduced rates if it weighed less than 350 kg.

On [[14 December]] [[1912]], at a meeting of the Federation Internationale des Clubs Moto Cycliste, it was formally decided that there should be an international classification of cyclecars to be accepted by the United Kingdom, Canada, United States, France, Holland, Belgium, Italy, Austria and Germany. It was also decided to establish two classes of cyclecars, as follows;
*(i) Large class
**Maximum weight 350 kg
**Maximum engine capacity 1100 cc
**Minimum tyre section 60 mm.
*(ii) Small class
**Minimum weight 150 kg
**Maximum weight 300 kg
**Maximum engine capacity 750 cc
**Minimum tyre section 55 mm.

All cyclecars were to have clutches and change-speed gears. This requirement could be fulfilled by even the simplest devices such as provision for slipping the belt on the pulley to act as a clutch, and varying of the pulley diameter to change the gear ratio.

==The cyclecars appear==
From 1898 to 1910, [[automobile]] production quickly expanded. Light cars of that era were commonly known as [[voiturette]]s. The smaller cyclecars appeared around 1910 with a boom shortly before the outbreak of [[World War I]].

The first successful cyclecars were [[Bédélia]] of [[France]] and [[G.N.]] from Britain.

==Sporting cars and cyclecar races==
Some cyclecars such as [[Amilcar]], [[Major (automobile)|Major]] or [[Salmson]] of [[France]] had good enough performance and handling to be regarded as sports cars.

Races dedicated for cyclecars were also run with the first event of this kind organised by the [[Automobile Club de France]] in 1913 and a Cyclecar GP at [[Le Mans]] in 1920.

==The decline of cyclecars==
By the early 1920s, the days of the cyclecar were numbered. Mass producers, such as [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], were able to reduce their prices to undercut those of the usually small cyclecar makers. Similar affordable cars were offered in Europe such as the [[Citroën Type C|Citroën 5CV]], [[Austin 7]] or [[Morris Cowley]].

The cyclecar boom was over. The majority of cyclecar manufacturers closed down. Some companies such as [[Chater-Lea]] survived by returning to the manufacture of motorcycles.

After [[World War II]], small, economic cars were again in demand and a new set of manufacturers appeared. The cyclecar name did not reappear however and the cars were called [[microcar]]s by enthusiasts and [[bubble car]]s by the general population.

==Cyclecars by countries==

===Argentina===
*[[Viglione]]

===Austria===
*[[Grofri]]

===Belgium===
*[[SCH]]

===Canada===
*[[Dart Cycle Car Co]]
*[[Glen Motor Company]]
*[[Gramm (automobile)|Gramm]]

===Czechoslovakia===
*[[Vaja]]

===France===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[Able (1920 automobile)|Able]]
*[[Ajams]]
*[[Alcyon]]
*[[Amilcar]]
*[[Ardex (car manufacturer)|Ardex]]
*[[Arzac]]
*[[Astatic]]
*[[Austral (cyclecar)]]
*[[Bédélia]]
*[[Benova]]
*[[Bignan]]
*[[Bucciali|Buc]]
*[[Causan]]
*[[Coadou et Fleury]]
*[[Contal]]
*D'Yrsan
*[[Grouesy]]
*[[Huffit]]
*[[Ipsi]]
*[[Jack Sport]]
*[[Janoir]]
*[[JG Sport]]
*[[Jouvie]]
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[Laetitia (cyclecar)|Laetitia]]
*[[La Confortable]]
*[[Le Cabri]]
*[[Le Favori]]
*[[Le Roitelet]]
*[[Major (automobile)|Major]]
*[[Marr (Cyclecar)|Marr]]
*[[Molla]]
*[[Orial]]
*[[Quo Vadis (automobile)|Quo Vadis]]
*[[Roll (automobile)|Roll]]
*[[Salmson]]
*[[Sénéchal]]
*[[SIMA-Violet]]
*[[Sphinx (cyclecar)|Sphinx]]
*[[Spidos]]
*[[Super (automobile)|Super]]
*[[Vaillant (automobile)|Vaillant]]
*[[Villard (cyclecar)|Villard]]
*[[Violet-Bogey]]
*[[Violette (cyclecar)|Violette]]
*[[Viratelle]]
*[[Virus (automobile)|Virus]]
*[[Weler]]
</div><br clear="all">

===Germany===
*[[Arimofa]]
*[[Koco]]
*[[Pluto (automobile)|Pluto]]
*[[Spinell]]
*[[Staiger]]

===Italy===
*[[Amilcar Italiana]]
*[[Anzani]]

===Spain===
*[[Alvarez (automobile)|Alvarez]]
*[[David (car)|David]]
*[[Izaro]]
*[[JBR]]
*[[Salvador (automobile)|Salvador]]

===Sweden===
*[[Mascot (car)|Mascot]]
*[[Self (car)|Self]]

===United Kingdom===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[Adamson]]
*[[Aero Car (1919 automobile)|Aerocar]]
*[[Allwyn]]
*[[Alvechurch (automobile)|Alvechurch]]
*[[Amazon (automobile)|Amazon]]
*[[Archer (automobile)|Archer]]
*[[Armstrong (cyclecar)|Armstrong]]
*[[Athmac]]
*[[Atomette]]
*[[Autotrix]]
*[[AV (cyclecar)|AV]]
*[[Baby Blake]]
*[[Baker & Dale]]
*[[Bantam (car)|Bantam]]
*[[Barnard (cyclecar)|Barnard]]
*[[Baughan]]
*[[Bell (cyclecar)|Bell]]
*[[Black Prince (car)|Black Prince]]
*[[Blériot-Whippet]]
*[[Bound (car)|Bound]]
*[[Bow-V-Car]]
*[[BPD (car)|BPD]]
*[[Bradwell (car)|Bradwell]]
*[[Britannia (cyclecar)|Britannia]]
*[[Broadway (cyclecar)|Broadway]]
*[[Brough (cyclecar)|Brough]]
*[[Buckingham (automobile)|Buckingham]]
*[[Cambro]]
*[[Campion (automobile)|Campion]]
*[[C & H]]
*[[Carden (cyclecar)|Carden]]
*[[Carlette]]
*[[Carter (automobile)|Carter]]
*[[Castle Three]]
*[[CFB (car)|CFB]]
*[[CFL (automobile)|CFL]]
*[[Chater-Lea]]
*[[Chota (automobile)|Chota]]
*[[Coventry Premier]]
*[[Coventry-Victor]]
*[[Crescent (automobile)|Crescent]]
*[[Cripps (car)|Cripps]]
*[[Crompton (car)|Crompton]]
*[[CWS (car)|CWS]]
*[[Dallison]]
*[[Dennis (car)|Dennis]]
*[[DEW]]
*[[Douglas (motorcycles)|Douglas]]
*[[Duo (car)|Duo]]
*[[Dursley-Pedersen]]
*[[Economic (Cyclecar)|Economic]]
*[[Edmond (car)|Edmond]]
*[[Edmund (cyclecar)|Edmund]]
*[[Edwards (automobile)|Edwards]]
*[[EYME]]
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[GB (car)|GB]]
*[[Gerald Cyclecar Company|Gerald]]
*[[Gibbons (automobile)|Gibbons]]
*[[Gillyard]]
*[[Glover (cyclecar)|Glover]]
*[[GN (car)|GN]]
*[[Gnome(automobile)|Gnome]]
*[[Graham-White]]
*[[Guildford (car)|Guildford]]
*[[G.W.K.]]
*[[Hampton (car)|Hampton]]
*[[HCE]]
*[[Heybourn]]
*[[Hill & Stanier]]
*[[HMC (cyclecar)|HMC]]
*[[Howard (car)|Howard]]
*[[Howett]]
*[[HP (automobile)|HP]]
*[[Imperial (car)|Imperial]]
*[[Invicta (cyclecar)|Invicta]]
*[[Jappic]]
*[[JBS (car)|JBS]]
*[[Jewel (cyclecar)|Jewel]]
*[[Jones (cyclecar)|Jones]]
*[[Kendall (cyclecar)|Kendall]]
*[[LAD (car)|LAD]]
*[[La Rapide]]
*[[Lambert (cyclecar)|Lambert]]
*[[LEC (cyclecar)|LEC]]
*[[Lecoy]]
*[[Lester Solus]]
*[[Lington]]
*[[Little Midland|LM]]
*[[Matchless (car)|Matchless]]
*[[Marcus (automobile)|Marcus]]
*[[Menley (cyclecar)|Menley]]
*[[Morgan_Motor_Company |Morgan]]
*[[Norma (cyclecar)|Norma]]
*[[Perry (car)|Perry]]
*[[Princess (cyclecar)|Princess]]
*[[Richardson (cyclecar)|Richardson]]
*[[Simplic]]
*[[Skeoch]]
*[[Sterling (automobile)|Sterling]]
*[[Tamplin]]
*[[Tiny]]
*[[Truner]]
*[[VAL (automobile)|VAL]]
*[[Vee Gee]]
*[[Victor (cyclecar)|Victor]]
*[[Warne (car)|Warne]]
*[[Westall]]
*[[Wherwell]]
*[[Wilbrook (car)|Wilbrook]]
*[[Willis (cyclecar)|Willis]]
*[[Winson]]
*[[Winter (automobile)|Winter]]
*[[Woodrow (automobile)|Woodrow]]
*[[Xtra (automobile)|Xtra]]
</div><br clear="all">

===United States===
<div style="float:left; width:48%;">
*[[American (1914 automobile)|American]]
*[[Asheville (cyclecar)|Asheville]]
*[[Coey]]
*[[Comet (cyclecar)|Comet]]
*[[Cycle-Car]]
*[[Cyclops (cyclecar)]]
*[[Dayton (cyclecar)|Dayton]]
*[[Delco (cyclecar)|Delco]]
*[[Dodo (cyclecar)|Dodo]]
*[[Dudly Bug]]
*[[EIM (Cyclecar)|EIM]]
*[[Falcon (cyclecar)|Falcon]]
*[[Fenton (cyclecar)|Fenton]]
*[[Geneva (cyclecar)|Geneva]]
*[[Greyhound (cyclecar)|Greyhound]]
*[[Hanover(automobile)|Hanover]]
*[[Hawk (cyclecar)|Hawk]]
*[[Hawkins (cyclecar)|Hawkins]]
*[[Hoosier Scout (cyclecar)|Hoosier Scout]]
*[[IMP (cyclecar)|IMP]]
*[[JPL (cyclecar)|JPL]]
*[[Kearns LuLu]]
*[[Keller (cyclecar)|Keller]]
</div><div style="float:right; width:48%;">
*[[La Vigne]]
*[[Limit (cyclecar)|Limit]]
*[[Malcolm Jones]]
*[[Merz (cyclecar)|Merz]]
*[[Michaelson]]
*[[Mecca (cyclecar)|Mecca]]
*[[Mercury (cyclecar)|Mercury]]
*[[Motor Bob]]
*[[O-We-Go]]
*[[Pioneer (cyclecar)|Pioneer]]
*[[Post (cyclecar)|Post]]
*[[Prigg (cyclecar)|Prigg]]
*[[Pacific (automobile)|Pacific]]
*[[Real (cyclecar)|Real]]
*[[Scripps-Booth]]
*[[Trumbull (cyclecar)|Trumbull]]
*[[Twombly (cyclecar)|Twombly]]
*[[Vixen (cyclecar)|Vixen]]
*[[Winthur (cyclecar)|Winthur]]
*[[Wizzard (cyclecar)|Wizzard]]
*[[Woods Mobilette]]
*[[Xenia (automobile)|Xenia]]
</div><br clear="all">

==See also==
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
* [[Kei car]]
* [[List of microcars by country of origin]]

==Books==
*'From Cyclecar to Microcar - The Story of the Cyclecar Movement'. Author - Michael Worthington-Williams. Publisher Beaulieu Books 1981.
*'Minimal Motoring - From Cyclecar to Microcar'. Author - David Thirlby. Publisher Tempus Publishing Ltd ISBN 0-7524-2367-3, 2002.

==External links==

*[http://canadiandriver.com/articles/bv/cyclecars.htm North American Cyclecars]
*[http://morgan3w.de/rivals/rivals.htm Cyclecar rivals to the Morgan 3 wheeler]

[[Category:Car classifications]]

[[it:Autociclo]]
[[ja:サイクルカー]]

Andersonville (Georgia)

2008-01-21T16:50:49Z

Anetode: Revert previous revision by 206.74.170.123

{{Infobox Settlement


|official_name = Andersonville, Georgia
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|subdivision_type2 = [[List of counties in Georgia (U.S. state)|County]]
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|postal_code_type = [[ZIP code]]
|postal_code = 31711
|area_code = [[Area code 229|229]]
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'''Andersonville''' is a city in [[Sumter County, Georgia|Sumter County]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[United States]]. The population was 331 at the 2000 census (174 in [[1910]]). It is in the southwest part of the state, about {{nowrap|60 miles}} southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]]. During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]].

==Geography==
Andersonville is located at {{coor dms|32|11|49|N|84|8|30|W|city}} (32.197008, -84.141701){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 1.3 [[square mile]]s (3.4 [[km²]]), all of it land.

== History ==
Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson. Andersonville is infamous as an [[American Civil War]] [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[Prisoner-of-war camp|POW camp]], [[Camp Sumter]]. The town, though very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the prison camp at the site. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonvillle POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the [[Andersonville National Historic Site]] was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvement with the site of the Andersonville POW camp.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 254.1 people per square mile (98.3/km²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 109.0/sq mi (42.2/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% [[African American]]. 1.21% of the population were [[Hispanics in the United States|Hispanic]] or [[Race (United States Census)|Latino]].

There were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.

==External links==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
* [http://www.americusgeorgia.net/ AmericusGeorgia.net - Area info... by and for Andersonville Locals]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|32.197008|-84.141701}}

{{Sumter County, Georgia}}

[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]

[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]
[[lmo:Andersonville, Georgia]]
[[nl:Andersonville]]
[[pt:Andersonville]]
[[vo:Andersonville]]

David Brock

2007-12-27T04:22:00Z

Anetode: Removing instance of image Davidbrock.jpg that has been speedily deleted per (CSD I7); using TW

{{Infobox Person
| name = David Brock

| image_size = 250px
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1962|11|2}}
| birth_place = [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]]
| occupation = [[journalist]], [[political pundit]], [[author]])}}

'''David Brock''' (born [[1962]]) is an American journalist and author and the founder of [[Media Matters for America]]. He was a [[conservative]] journalist during the [[1990s]].[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=19564] During that time he was best known for his book ''[[The Real Anita Hill]]'' and authoring the [[Troopergate]] story, which led to [[Paula Jones]] filing a lawsuit against [[Bill Clinton]]. After declaring his [[homosexuality]], he became a [[liberal]]. He tells his personal story in his memoir ''[[Blinded by the Right]]'' and criticizes the "conservative media machine" in his book ''[[The Republican Noise Machine]]''. His work on the latter book led him to found [[Media Matters for America]], a non-profit organization that describes itself as a "progressive research and information center dedicated to comprehensively monitoring, analyzing and correcting conservative misinformation in the U.S. media."[http://mediamatters.org/etc/about.html]

== Conservative ==
Brock graduated from [[Paramus High School]] in [[Paramus, New Jersey]] and then attended the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. There he worked as a reporter and editor for ''[[The Daily Californian]]'', the campus newspaper, sometimes expressing conservative views. He was an intern at ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. He graduated from Berkeley with a [[B.A.]] in History in [[1985]].

In [[1986]], he joined the staff of the weekly conservative news magazine [[Insight (magazine)|''Insight,'']] a sister publication of ''[[The Washington Times]]''. After a stint as a research fellow at the [[Heritage Foundation]], in March [[1992]] Brock authored a sharply critical story about [[Clarence Thomas]]' accuser, [[Anita Hill]], in ''[[The American Spectator]]'' magazine, in which he said Hill might be "a bit nutty and a bit slutty." A little over a year later, in April [[1993]] Brock published a book titled ''[[The Real Anita Hill]]'' which expanded upon previous assertions that had cast doubt on the verity of Anita Hill's claims of sexual harassment.

The book became a best-seller. It was later attacked in a book review in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' by [[Jane Mayer]], a reporter for ''The New Yorker'', and Jill Abramson, a reporter for ''The Wall Street Journal''. The two later expanded their article into the book ''Strange Justice'', which cast Anita Hill in a much more sympathetic light. It, too, was a best-seller. Brock replied to their book with a book review of his own in ''The American Spectator''.

In the January [[1994]] issue of ''The American Spectator,'' Brock, by then on staff at the magazine, published a story about [[Bill Clinton]]'s time as governor of [[Arkansas]] that made accusations that bred [[Troopergate]]. Among other things, the story contained the first printed reference to [[Paula Jones]], referring to a woman named "Paula" who state troopers said offered to be Clinton's girlfriend. Jones called Brock's account of her encounter with Clinton "totally wrong," and she later sued Clinton for [[sexual harassment]], a case which became entangled in the Independent Counsel's investigation of [[Whitewater scandal]] and eventually led to the impeachment of the president. The story received an award later that year from the Western Journalism Center, and was partially responsible for a meteoric rise in the 25-year-old magazine's circulation, from around 70,000 to over 300,000 in a very short period.

== Conservative to Liberal ==
Three years later, Brock surprised conservatives by publishing a somewhat sympathetic [[biography]] of [[Hillary Clinton]], titled ''[[The Seduction of Hillary Rodham]]''. Having received a $1 million advance and a tight one-year deadline from [[Simon & Schuster|Simon & Schuster's]] then-conservative-focused Free Press subsidiary, Brock was under tremendous pressure to produce another best-seller. However, the book contained no major scoops. In ''Blinded by the Right'' ([[2002]]), Brock said that he had reached a turning point — he had thoroughly examined charges against the Clintons, could not find any evidence of wrongdoing, and did not want to make any more misleading claims. Brock further said that his former friends in right-wing politics shunned him because ''Seduction'' did not adequately attack the Clintons. He also argued that his "friends" had not really been friends at all, due to the open secret that Brock was [[gay]].

In July [[1997]], Brock published a confessional piece in ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' magazine titled "I Was a Conservative Hit Man," in which he recanted much of what he said in his two best-known ''American Spectator'' articles and criticized his own reporting methods. Discouraged at the reaction his [[Hillary Clinton]] biography received, he said, "I... want out. David Brock the Road Warrior of the Right is dead." Four months later, ''The American Spectator'' declined to renew his employment contract, under which he was being paid over $300,000 per year.

Writing again for ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' in April [[1998]], Brock apologized to Clinton for his contributions to [[Troopergate]], calling it simply part of an anti-Clinton crusade. He told a more detailed story of his time inside the right wing in his [[2001]] memoir, ''Blinded by the Right: The Conscience of an Ex-Conservative,'' in which he settled old scores and provided inside details about the [[Arkansas Project]]'s efforts to bring down Clinton. Later, he also apologized to [[Anita Hill]].

Brock directly addressed the right-wing "machine" in his [[2004]] book, ''The Republican Noise Machine'', in which he detailed an alleged interconnected, concerted effort to raise the profile of conservative opinions in the press through false accusations of [[liberal media bias]], dishonest and highly-[[partisan (political)|partisan]] columnists, partisan news organizations and academic studies, and other methods. Also in 2004, he featured briefly in the [[BBC]] series [[The Power of Nightmares]], giving his updated account on what was behind conservative allegations against Bill Clinton.

About the same time he founded [[Media Matters for America]], an Internet-based [[liberalism|liberal]] [[political]] organization "dedicated to comprehensively monitoring, analyzing, and correcting conservative misinformation in the U.S. media." MMFA employees have previously worked for the presidential campaigns of Democrats Al Gore, [[John Edwards|Sen. John Edwards]], and [[Wesley Clark|Gen. Wesley Clark]], the [[National Organization for Women]], the [[Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee]], the Democratic National Committee, the Alliance for Justice, and [[Greenpeace]]. MMFA receives significant funding from pro-[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] foundations.

==Books==
*''Real Anita Hill''. Free Press, 1993. ISBN 978-0029046562
*''The Seduction of Hillary Rodham Clinton''. 1996, Free Press. ISBN 978-0684837703
*''Blinded by the Right. The Conscience of an Ex-Conservative.'' 2002, Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1400047284
*''The Republican Noise Machine: Right-Wing Media and How It Corrupts Democracy.'' 2004, Crown. ISBN 978-1400048755

==External links==
*[http://mediamatters.org/ Media Matters for America]
* [http://www.dane101.com/current/2007/01/14/media_reform_bonus_video_david_brock_of_media_matters David Brock speaks at the National Conference for Media Reform in Memphis - Video] (January 13, 2007)
*[http://www.will.uiuc.edu/willmp3/mediamatters050102.mp3 Media Matters with Bob McChesney Interview of David Brock] (Jan 2, 2005)
*[http://www.buzzflash.com/interviews/2002/03/David_Brock_031802.html BuzzFlash Interview of David Brock]
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/atc/features/2001/jul/010702.brock.html David Brock Interview, "All Things Considered," National Public Radio] (July 2, 2001)
* [http://www.slate.com/id/3654/entry/23928/ Right-Wing Journalism dialog with David Brock and Tucker Carlson, Slate] (June 25, 1997)
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~030116/153/articles/brock03.htm David Brock, "Strange Lies," The American Spectator] (January 1995) (unofficial site) (Book review of Mayer & Abramson's book on Anita Hill, "Strange Justice")
* [http://www.spectator.org/dsp_article.asp?art_id=6736 David Brock, "His Cheatin’ Heart," The American Spectator] (January 1994) (The "Troopergate" Story)
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~030116/153/articles/brock01.htm David Brock, "The Real Anita Hill," The American Spectator] (March 1992) (unofficial site)

===Articles and commentary===
====Critical====
* [http://www.nationalreview.com/york/york200405281333.asp David Brock Is Buzzing Again] (May 28, 2004)
* [http://slate.msn.com/id/2100712/ Laura Kipnis, "Brock Attack: The formerly right-wing shark behind Media Matters," Slate] (May 18, 2004)
* [http://www.eastbayexpress.com/issues/2002-05-15/news/feature_1.html Will Harper, "The Unreal David Brock," East Bay Express] (May 15, 2002)
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20020527&s=hitchens Christopher Hitchens, "The Real David Brock," The Nation] (May 9, 2002)
* [http://www.salon.com/news/col/horo/2002/04/17/brock/index_np.html David Horowitz, "Believe David Brock at your own risk," Salon] (April 17, 2002)
* [http://slate.msn.com/id/2063759/ Timothy Noah "David Brock, Liar: A lifelong habit proves hard to break," Slate] (March 27, 2002)
* [http://www.mediaresearch.org/cyberalerts/2002/cyb20020314.asp Today Showcases Brock's Smears] (Thursday March 14, 2002)
* [http://www.nationalreview.com/goldberg/goldberg062801.shtml Brock's Self-Borking] (June 28, 2001)
* [http://www.nationalreview.com/flashback/flashback-ponnuru051001.shtml Ramesh Ponnuru, "The Real David Brock," National Review] (May 10, 2001)

====Supportive====
* [http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/spingola/060702 Checkbook Journalism] (July 2, 2006)
* [http://www.motherjones.com/news/qa/2004/09/09_400.html The Republican Noise Machine, David Brock, Interviewed By Bradford Plumer] (September 1, 2004)
* [http://www.prospect.org/web/page.ww?section=root&name=ViewWeb&articleId=7680 Bias Crimes: David Brock once worked inside the "Republican noise machine." Now, with a new Web site, he's trying to silence it.] (May 4, 2004)
* [http://www.salon.com/news/letters/2002/04/30/conway "Brock, Horowitz and the anti-gay slur." Chad Conway responds to David Horowitz, Salon] (April 30, 2002)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brock, David}}
[[Category:American political writers]]
[[Category:Gay writers]]
[[Category:Bradley Foundation]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category: University of California, Berkeley alumni]]

{{Cleanup|date=August 2006}}

VinylDisc

2007-10-30T22:15:33Z

Anetode: split up a bit

The '''VinylDisc''' is a combination of an [[audio CD]] and [[gramophone record|vinyl record]] developed by German company Optimal Media Production. It consists of a silver layer containing [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book audio]] and a black [[polyvinyl chloride]] layer which can be played on a regular [[phonograph]]. The first record to be released in the hybrid format is [[Fightstar]]'s ''[[Deathcar]]'' single in a limited run of 3000 copies.<ref>{{cite news |first= Allen |last= Katie |title=
Half vinyl, half CD, all new format |url= http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,,2191129,00.html |work= Guardian Unlimited Business |publisher= Guardian News and Media Limited |date= 2007-10-15 |accessdate=2007-10-30}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{stub|date=October 2007}}

[[Category:Audio storage]]

VinylDisc

2007-10-30T20:58:01Z

Anetode:

The '''VinylDisc''' is a combination of an [[audio CD]] and [[gramophone record|vinyl record]] created by German company Optimal Media Production for [[Fightstar]]'s ''[[Deathcar]]'' single. It consists of a silver layer containing [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book audio]] and a black [[polyvinyl chloride]] layer which can be played on a regular [[phonograph]].<ref>{{cite news |first= Allen |last= Katie |title=
Half vinyl, half CD, all new format |url= http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,,2191129,00.html |work= Guardian Unlimited Business |publisher= Guardian News and Media Limited |date= 2007-10-15 |accessdate=2007-10-30}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{stub|date=October 2007}}

[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:CD]]

VinylDisc

2007-10-30T20:55:59Z

Anetode: rewrite, add ref/cats

The '''VinylDisc''' is a combination of an [[audio CD]] and [[gramophone record]] created by German company Optimal Media Production for [[Fightstar]]'s ''[[Deathcar]]'' single. It consists of a silver layer containing [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book audio]] and a black [[polyvinyl chloride]] layer which can be played on a regular [[phonograph]].<ref>{{cite news |first= Allen |last= Katie |title=
Half vinyl, half CD, all new format |url= http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,,2191129,00.html |work= Guardian Unlimited Business |publisher= Guardian News and Media Limited |date= 2007-10-15 |accessdate=2007-10-30}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{stub|date=October 2007}}

[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:CD]]

Confusion – Sommer der Ausgeflippten

2007-10-09T04:27:16Z

Anetode: /* References in popular culture */ because actual editorial judgment is a good thing

{{Infobox Film
| name = Dazed and Confused
| image = DazedandConfusedmoviecover.jpg
| caption = ''Dazed and Confused'' film poster
| director = [[Richard Linklater]]
| producer = [[Sean Daniel]]<br>[[James Jacks]]<br>Richard Linklater
| writer = Richard Linklater
| narrator =
| starring = [[Jason London]]<br>[[Matthew McConaughey]]<br>[[Ben Affleck]]<br>[[Milla Jovovich]]<br>[[Rory Cochrane]]<br>[[Parker Posey]]<br>[[Cole Hauser]]<br>[[Joey Lauren Adams]]
| music =
| cinematography = [[Lee Daniel]]
| editing = [[Sandra Adair]]
| distributor = [[Universal Studios]]<br>[[Gramercy Pictures]]
| released = [[September 24]], [[1993]]
| runtime = 102 min
| country = [[USA]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| budget = 
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
| website =
| amg_id = 1:121426
| imdb_id = 0106677
}}

'''''Dazed and Confused''''' is a 1993 [[United States|American]] [[film]] written and directed by [[Richard Linklater]]. The movie's large [[ensemble cast]] featured a number of future stars.

The film took in no more than $8 million at the U.S. box office, but in recent years has achieved [[cult film]] status. [[Quentin Tarantino]] included it on his list of the twelve greatest films of all time in voting in the 2002 ''[[Sight and Sound]]''.<ref>[http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/voter.php?forename=Quentin&surname=Tarantino poll]</ref> It also ranked third on ''[[Entertainment Weekly|Entertainment Weekly's]]'' list of the 50 Best High School Movies. <ref>[http://www.ew.com/ew/gallery/0,,1532588,00.html 50 Best High School Movies]</ref>

The title of the film is derived from the [[Led Zeppelin]] [[Dazed and Confused (song)|song of the same name]].<ref>[http://www.mindjack.com/interviews/linklater1.html]</ref> Linklater approached members of the band for permission to use some of their songs in the movie but, although [[Jimmy Page]] agreed, [[Robert Plant]] refused.<ref>[http://nsfc.zap2it.com/nsfc/cda/index.jsp?p_state=8&DvdId=100068&ts=1173833040623]</ref>

==Plot==

The film takes place on [[May 28]], [[1976]], the last day of school at Lee High School in Austin, Texas. The seniors are preparing for the annual [[hazing]] of incoming freshmen by building paddles and buying cooking supplies; meanwhile, Randall "Pink" Floyd, the school's star football player, is asked to sign a school pledge, promising not to take drugs or do anything else that could "jeopardize the goal of a championship season in '76". When classes end, the freshman boys are hunted down by the senior boys for paddling while the freshman girls are rounded up in a parking lot, covered in condiments, forced to propose to senior boys, and taken through a carwash. During this time, freshman Sabrina strikes a chord with senior Tony.

A major evening plan is ruined when Pickford's parents discover that he is planning to host a [[party#kegger|keg party]] that night. Meanwhile, freshman Mitch is violently paddled by the seniors, most of all by O'Bannion, the nastiest and dumbest of the class. Mitch gets a ride home with Pink, who is shown to be sympathetic and offers to take Mitch riding with the others that night. Meanwhile, Tony drives around with his friends Cynthia and Mike, who is uncertain about what to do after high school. Mitch rides with Pink and Wooderson, who graduated years ago but still hangs out with highschoolers.

The three of them stop at the Emporium, a popular pool hall. Mitch is introduced to sophomore Julie, and they seem to be mutually attracted to each other. Mitch goes driving again with some of the seniors. They play [[mailbox baseball]] and pretend to steal beer, but an owner of one of the mailboxes catches them and threatens them with a gun before they escape. They return to the Emporium, where Mitch meets up with his freshmen friends. They come up with a plan to get revenge on O'Bannion and dump paint on him in front of everybody else.

A new keg party is planned at one of the [[Austin Moontowers]], which attracts essentially the entire senior class and several of the freshmen. Mike has a confrontation with toughguy Clint while Tony meets up with Sabrina again and Cynthia exchanges phone numbers with Wooderson. Ben confronts Pink about his refusal to sign the pledge but he is still unsure, believing it violates students' privacy and lifestyles. Mike picks a fight with Clint but ends up getting beaten-up and humiliated. Mitch runs into Julie and they hit it off again, and are later shown making out. Tony offers Sabrina a ride home, and kisses her when he drops her off at her house.

As night turns to dawn, Pink, Wooderson, Don, Slater, Simone and Shavonne smoke on the school football field, which the police soon notice. The school football coach is called and tells Pink that his friends are part of a bad crowd. Pink throws the pledge at the coach and leaves with his friends to get tickets to an [[Aerosmith]] concert. Meanwhile, Mitch arrives home at sunrise but his mother decides to go easy on him. The film ends with Pink and his friends driving on a highway.

==Themes==

The film's overarching themes involve [[angst]]-ridden teenagers bristling at authority, [[coming of age]] stories and [[anomie]]. These themes are played out in various ways across the film's major characters.

* Mitch and Sabrina are both transitioning from middle school to high school, and transitioning away from their younger groups of friends to an older, more sophisticated group. Both characters also make their first romantic connections, and both with older characters.
* Pink resists the pressure from his peers, authority figures and citizens in town and refuses to sign the pledge.
* Cynthia, Tony and Mike have several conversations about where they see themselves going in life.
* Cynthia transitions from a platonic relationship with her male friends to a potential sexual relationship with Wooderson.
* O'Bannion is accused of failing his senior year of high school specifically so he can prey on and continue to haze younger high school students.
* Wooderson and Don both have monologues that outline the characters' rejection of the ordinary, adult culture that surrounds them. Wooderson disparages the idea of pursuing higher education, preferring instead to work a steady job with the city that provides him the means to continue hanging out with high-schoolers, while Don proclaims that his only goal is to have as much fun as possible while he is stuck in high school.
* Wooderson also advises Pink that the pledge he is being asked to sign is merely the first of similar accommodations to authority he will be asked to make throughout his life.

It's notable that the film's release coincided with the rising popularity of [[grunge]] music, which was significantly influenced by late 70s rock featured in the film, and the popular notion of teenagers in the seventies as a "[[lost generation]]." The film offered up comparisons and contrasts between [[slacker]] culture in the early 90s and late 70s culture.

==Reception==
When the film was first released on September 24th, 1993, it was not one of the most prominent or talked-about film of the year, and not many critics were bothered to review it. Indeed, in the years since the film's release, only 42 reviews have been counted on website [[Rotten Tomatoes]]. Still, of those reviews, only one is negative, and the film has achieved the status of a cult classic over the years. [[Roger Ebert]] awarded the film three stars out of four, praising the film as "art crossed with [[anthropology]]" with a "painful underside."<ref>[http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19930924/REVIEWS/309240302/1023]</ref>

==Dazed and Confused Soundtrack (1993)==
[[Image:Dazedandconfused.jpg‎|200px|frame|right|''Dazed and Confused'' [[1993]] Motion Picture Soundtrack]]
# Rock and Roll, Hoochie Koo - [[Rick Derringer]]
# [[Slow Ride]] - [[Foghat]]
# [[School's Out (song)|School's Out]] - [[Alice Cooper]]
# Jim Dandy - [[Black Oak Arkansas]]
# Tush - [[ZZ Top]]
# [[Love Hurts]] - [[Nazareth]]
# Stranglehold - [[Ted Nugent]]
# Cherry Bomb - [[The Runaways]]
# Fox on the Run - [[Sweet (band)|Sweet]]
# [[Low Rider (song)|Low Rider]] - [[War (band)|War]]
# [[Tuesday's Gone]] - [[Lynyrd Skynyrd]]
# [[Highway Star]] - [[Deep Purple]]
# [[Rock and Roll All Nite]] - [[Kiss (band)|KISS]]
# [[Paranoid (song)|Paranoid]] - [[Black Sabbath]]

==Even More Dazed and Confused Soundtrack (1994)==
# Free Ride - [[Edgar Winter Group]]
# No More Mr. Nice Guy - [[Alice Cooper]]
# Livin' In The USA - [[The Steve Miller Band]]
# Never Been Any Reason - [[Head East]]
# Why Can't We Be Friends? - [[War (band)|War]]
# Summer Breeze - [[Seals and Crofts]]
# Right Place, Wrong Time - [[Dr. John]]
# Balinese - [[ZZ Top]]
# Lord Have Mercy On My Soul - [[Black Oak Arkansas]]
# I Just Want To Make Love to You - [[Foghat]]
# Show Me The Way - [[Peter Frampton]]
# Do You Feel Like We Do? - [[Peter Frampton]]

==Book==
In September of 1993, St. Martin's Press published a 127-page, softcover book (ISBN #0-312-09466-3) that was inspired by the screenplay by Richard Linklater and compiled by Richard Linklater, Denise Montgomery and others. It was presented as a kind of yearbook that contained essays written by characters from the film as well as profiles on the characters, a timeline focusing on the years 1973 to 1977 and various 1970s pop culture charts and quizzes. It also featured dozens of black-and-white photos from the film. It is said to be based on the happenings at Stephen F. Austin High School in Austin, Texas.

Some of the material contained in the original 1993 book was reprinted in the 72-page book included with the Criterion DVD release in 2006.

==Criterion Collection DVD==
A two-disc [[Criterion Collection]] boxed-set edition was released on [[June 6]], [[2006]], in the USA and Canada only. The set features an audio commentary by Richard Linklater, deleted scenes, the original trailer, the 50 minute "Making Dazed" documentary that aired on the [[American Movie Classics]] channel on September 18, 2005, on-set interviews, behind-the-scenes footage, cast auditions and footage from the ten-year anniversary celebration. Also included is a 72-page book featuring new essays by Kent Jones, Jim DeRogatis, and Chuck Klosterman as well as memories from the cast and crew, character profiles (as seen in the original 1993 book) and a mini reproduction of the original film poster designed by [[Frank Kozik]].

The film has also been released on [[HD DVD]].

==Main cast==
{| class="wikitable"
! Actor || Role
|-
| [[Jason London]] || Randall "Pink" Floyd
|-
| [[Matthew McConaughey]] || David Wooderson
|-
| [[Sasha Jenson]] || Don Dawson
|-
| [[Shawn Andrews (actor)|Shawn Andrews]] || Kevin Pickford
|-
| [[Ben Affleck]] || Fred O'Bannion
|-
| [[Milla Jovovich]] || Michelle Burroughs
|-
| [[Rory Cochrane]] || Ron Slater
|-
| [[Anthony Rapp]] || Tony Olson
|-
| Christine Harnos || Kaye Faulkner
|-
| Jason O. Smith || Melvin Spivey
|-
| [[Wiley Wiggins]] || Mitch Kramer
|-
| [[Adam Goldberg]] || Mike Newhouse
|-
| [[Marissa Ribisi]] || Cynthia Dunn
|-
| [[Cole Hauser]] || Benny O'Donnell
|-
| [[Joey Lauren Adams]] || Simone Kerr
|-
| [[Michelle Burke]] || Jodi Kramer
|-
| [[Christin Hinojosa]] || Sabrina Davis
|-
| [[Parker Posey]] || Darla Marks
|-
| Catherine Avril Morris || Julie Simms
|-
| Deena Martin || Shavonne Wright
|-
| [[Esteban Powell]] || Carl Burnett
|-
| Mark Vandermeulen || Tommy Houston
|-
| Jeremy Fox || John Hirschfelder
|-
| [[Nicky Katt]] || Clint Bruno
|-
| [[Rick Moser]] || Assistant Football Coach
|}

==Reunions of cast members==
*In the movie ''[[Empire Records]]'', a ''Dazed and Confused'' sticker can be seen on the cash register. Rory Cochrane appeared in both films.
*[[Ben Affleck]] and [[Joey Lauren Adams]] would reunite on screen a number of times in [[Kevin Smith|Kevin Smith's]] movies, including ''[[Mallrats]]'', ''[[Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back]]'', and ''[[Chasing Amy]]'', in the latter of which they both had lead roles. Coincidentally, the first movie they had roles in, ''[[Mallrats]]'', starred [[Jeremy London]], [[Jason London]]'s twin brother. Affleck would also reunite with [[Nicky Katt]] in the films ''[[Phantoms (novel)|Phantoms]]'' and ''[[Boiler Room]]'', and with [[Cole Hauser]] in ''[[Good Will Hunting]]'', which was written by Affleck.
*[[Adam Goldberg]] and [[Anthony Rapp]] are once again cast together in the [[Academy award]] winning film, ''[[A Beautiful Mind]]'', as colleagues of the main character, [[John Forbes Nash|John Nash]], played by [[Russell Crowe]].
*The pinball machine in the Emporium can also be seen in Richard Linklater's film ''[[Waking Life]]'', which stars Wiley Wiggins; [[Nicky Katt]] and [[Adam Goldberg]] also appear in the film.
*[[Nicky Katt]] and [[Parker Posey]] appear in Linklater's film [[SubUrbia]].

==Lawsuit==
* In October 2004, three of Linklater's former classmates, whose surnames are Wooderson, Slater, and Floyd, filed a defamation lawsuit against Linklater, claiming to be the basis for the similarly named characters on the film. The lawsuit was filed in New Mexico rather than Texas because New Mexico has a longer [[statute of limitations]]<ref> [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A45614-2004Dec7.html]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Almost Famous]]
*[[Detroit Rock City (film)]]

==References==
{{reflist|1}}

==External links==
{{wikiquotepar|Dazed and Confused}}
*{{imdb title|id=0106677|title=Dazed and Confused}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|id=dazed_and_confused|title=Dazed and Confused}}
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A45614-2004Dec7.html Bummer, Man] - Washington Post article on Wooderson, Slater and Floyd suing Linklater for "defamation" and "negligent infliction of emotional distress."
*[http://www.fbi945movies.libsyn.com/index.php?post_id=143918 Radio Interview with Richard Linklater]
*[http://www.criterion.com/asp/release.asp?id=336&eid=476&section=essay Criterion Collection essay by Kent Jones]
*[http://www.criterion.com/asp/release.asp?id=336&eid=477&section=essay Criterion Collection essay by Jim DeRogatis]

{{Richard Linklater}}

[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Coming-of-age films]]
[[Category:Drug-related films]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Richard Linklater]]
[[Category:Films set in Texas]]
[[Category:Independent films]]
[[Category:Films set in the 1970s]]
[[Category:Teen comedy films]]

[[de:Confusion – Sommer der Ausgeflippten]]
[[it:La vita è un sogno]]
[[nl:Dazed and Confused]]
[[pl:Uczniowska balanga]]
[[ru:Под кайфом в смятении (фильм)]]

Confusion – Sommer der Ausgeflippten

2007-10-09T04:27:16Z

Anetode: /* References in popular culture */ because actual editorial judgment is a good thing

Ljuba (Mammut)

2007-09-19T04:20:59Z

Anetode: Removing instance of image Mammothzu2.jpg that has been speedily deleted per (CSD G12); using TW

'''Lyuba''' (Люба) is a female [[mammoth]] calf which died ca 40,000 years ago at the age of six months. Discovered in [[May 2007]] by reindeer breeder and hunter Yuri Khudi in [[Russia]]'s Arctic [[Yamal Peninsula]], it was named "Lyuba" after the discoverer's wife. The calf weighed 50 kg (110 lb), was 85 centimeters high and measured 130 centimeters from trunk to tail, roughly the same size as a large dog.<ref name='BBC-Mammoth-2007'>{{cite news | first=Paul | last=Rincon | coauthors= | title=Baby mammoth discovery unveiled | date=2007-07-10 | publisher=The BBC | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6284214.stm | work =news.bbc.co.uk | pages = | accessdate = 2007-07-13 | language = }}</ref><ref name='Reuters-Mammoth-2007'>{{cite news | first=Dmitry | last=Solovyov | coauthors= | title=Baby mammoth find promises breakthrough | date=2007-07-11 | publisher=[[Reuters]] | url =http://www.reuters.com/article/scienceNews/idUSL1178205120070711 | work =reuters.com | pages = | accessdate = 2007-07-13 | language = }}</ref>

Upon finding, the calf was remarkably well-preserved; its eyes and trunk were intact and some fur remained on its body. The mammoth is to be transferred to [[Jikei University]] in [[Japan]] for further studying, including [[computer tomography]] scans.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20070711/ts_nm/russia_mammoth_dc_2

{{archaeology-stub}}
[[Category:Prehistoric_elephants]]
[[Category:Pleistocene_mammals]]

Meat Pie

2007-08-22T03:38:16Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by Groggles (talk) to last version by 121.45.235.85

[[Image:Meat pie.jpg|thumb|250px|A typical Australian Meat pie with Tomato Sauce]]
'''Australian meat pie''' is the most common variety of [[meat pie]] consumed by [[Bob Carr]]. It is a hand-sized pie containing largely [[Ground beef|minced meat]] and [[gravy]] and often consumed as a takeaway food snack.

It is considered [[Cultural icon|iconic]] by [[Bob Carr]] and has been described by former [[New South Wales]] Premier [[Bob Carr]] as Australia's "national dish".<ref name="abc1">[http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/transcripts/s803054.htm Sausage Roll Policy]</ref>

The popular brand [[Four'N Twenty Pie]] produce 50,000 pies per hour and Australians consume an average of 12 meat pies each per year. <ref>http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/07/20/1058639657123.html</ref>. The meat pie is heavily associated with sporting codes such as [[Rugby League]], [[Australian rules football]] and other sports as one of the most popular consumed food items whilst watching a game.

==Commercial production==
Manufacturers of pies in Australia tend to be state based, reflecting the long distances involved with interstate transport and lack of refrigeration capabilities in the early years of pie production. Many pies sold ready-to-eat at smaller outlets are sold unbranded and may be locally produced, produced by a brand-name vendor, or even imported, frozen pies heated prior to serving.

The Australian meat pie manufacturer [[Four'N Twenty Pie|Four'N'Twenty]] claims that their pie was invented in 1947 by L. T. McClure in a small Bendigo bakery, to become the brand Four'N'Twenty. Due to their relationship with [[Australian rules football]] Four'N Twenty has iconic status in Victoria and high popularity outside the state.

Other manfacturers predate this, and the pie manufacturer [[George Sargent (businessman)|Sargent]] can trace their pie making back to 1906. Sargent meat pies were served at the opening of the [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|Old Parliament House]] in 1927 — or rather 10,000 pies were not served and the left-over pies had to be buried nearby.

In [[South Australia]], Balfours has been making pies since the early 1900s and remains (with Vili's) one of two major pie manufacturers in the state.

Produced in [[Western Australia]], [[Mrs Mac's Pies]] are now sold nationwide, found mostly in service stations and corner stores, competing with other brands in the contested takeaway hotbox market on the basis of quality and fillings other than the normal fare.

In [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], some of the well known and famous pie makers are Clarke's Pies from [[Mortlake, Victoria|Mortlake]], Kings Pies from [[Hamilton, Victoria|Hamilton]], Gillies from [[Bendigo]], Beaumont's Pies from [[Geelong]] and Patties Pies from [[Bairnsdale]].

In [[New South wales]], the main manufacturer of pies is [[Bob Carr]]'s wife. Ironically, [[Bob Carr]] does not like his wife's cooking and prefers to purchase his pies from popular frozen pie distributors such as [[Four'N Twenty Pie|Four'N'Twenty]].

In [[Tasmania]], the main manufacturer of pies is National Pies{{fact|date=June 2007}}, ironically a Tasmanian only company, as they have not yet started interstate sales. National Pies make typical beef mince pies, as well as "Cottage Pies", which are topped with mashed potato. National Pies' mince pies are rectangular in shape, as opposed to most other brands, which are round.

==Nutritional value==
{{unreferenced|section|date=August 2007}}
[[New South Wales]] Premier [[Bob Carr]] launched a Childhood Obesity Summit in 2002 where he told participants that feeding children a diet of meat pies, [[sausage roll]]s and [[chiko rolls]] was akin to child cruelty.

In April 2002, the [[Australian Consumers Association]] conducted a study of 22 frozen meat pies available in supermarkets. They found three brands did not meet the minimum 25 per cent meat content requirement set by [[Food Standards Australia New Zealand]] (FSANZ), they also found that the fat content ranged from 15 to 35 grams of fat per pie. The ACA study was of a select group of frozen meat pies in supermarkets, thus the study does not account for freshly baked meat pies of which the meat content and nutritional value varies from bakery to bakery. Another study by ACA in 2006 found 5 of the 23 pie products tested had less than the minimum 25% meat required. The ACA awarded pie manufacturer [[Black and Gold]] The Shonky Award for "unAustralian Content" for being found to have just 17% meat.{{fact|date=August 2007}}

The meats allowed by FSANZ in a meat pie are beef, buffalo, camel, cattle, deer, goat, hare, pig, poultry, rabbit and sheep. [[Kangaroo]] meat, a leaner alternative, is also sometimes used. It may include snouts, ears, tongue roots, tendons and blood vessels. Only offal (such as brain, heart, kidney, liver, tongue, tripe) must be specified on the label. Wild animals ("slaughtered ... in the wild state") may not be used.{{fact|date=August 2007}}

==Varieties==
There are a number of varieties of meat pie available in the marketplace, including but not limited to:
* Chunky steak
* Peppered steak
* Plain mince
* Chicken and vegetable
* Curry
* Egg and bacon
* Bob Carr and cheese
* Shepherd's pie (mince and mashed potato)
* Steak and onion
* Steak and kidney
* Steak and cheese
* Steak and mushy peas
* Steak and bacon
* Steak, tomato and onion
* Steak, tomato and cheese
* Steak, bacon and cheese

==The Great Aussie Meat Pie Contest==
Started in 1990 and held annually since, the Great Aussie Pie Contest was created to find the best everyday commercially produced meat pie produced in Australia, to promote the higher quality pie production as well as attempting to increase media attention upon the foodstuff, the iconic meat pie often dwarfed by the omnipresent advertising of fast food chains. [[New South Wales]] Premier [[Bob Carr]] remarked that this contest owns face.

The contest attracts various pie makers Australia wide, the pies for the contest are judged anonymously to avoid bias towards or against specific bakeries or states. Run in parallel to the main contest is one for gourmet pies, with categories for such fillings as chicken, seafood and even vegetarian pies. As well as the main prize, certificates of excellence are awarded for entries that reach set quality standards. The main award is highly coveted due to the greatly increased sales it generates, with many people travelling interstate to sample the winning pie.

==Other cultural references==
In the 1970s meat pies were mentioned in an advertising jingle for General Motors [[Holden]] Australia. The jingle — ''[[Australian rules football|Football]], meat pies, [[Kangaroo]]s and [[Holden]] Cars, they go together underneath the [[Crux|Southern Stars]]'' — was an adaptation of an American jingle for the [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] [[Chevrolet]] brand. Holden is owned by General Motors.

[[Cut-Me-Own-Throat Dibbler]], of [[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] series, is famous for selling "meat" pies to his unsuspecting customers.

The meat pie is [[Bob Carr]]'s favourite food.

In [[2007]], [[Domino's Pizza Enterprises|Domino's Australia]] released a meat pie pizza, consisting of minced beef, peas, onions, gravy, thick pastry and tomato sauce<ref>[http://www.news.com.au/story/0,23599,21510044-2,00.html Pie technology breakthrough] - news.com.au ''5 April 2007''</ref>.

==See also==
* [[Bob Carr]]
* [[Pie floater]]
* [[Meat pie]]
* [[Bob Carr]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.greataussiepiecomp.com.au The Great Aussie Meat Pie Contest]
* [http://www.choice.com.au/viewArticle.aspx?id=105214&catId=100286&tid=100008&p=1&title=Test%3a+Meat+pies Choice Magazine - Meat Pies]
* [http://www.mrsmacs.com.au/MediaCentre/MeatPieTrivia.php Meat Pie history & trivia]

[[Category:Australian pies]]
[[Category:Australian rules football culture]]
[[Category:Savoury pies]]
[[Category:National dishes]]

Bangor Base

2007-08-18T04:05:24Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 202.172.238.216 (talk) to last version by CoolGuy

:''This article is about the U.S. Navy base of Bangor in Washington, USA. For other places named Bangor, see [[Bangor]].''

'''Bangor, Washington''' is a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] base, as of 2004 part of [[Naval Base Kitsap]], located on [[Washington]] state's [[Kitsap Peninsula]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the base had a total population of 7,253.

== Geography ==
[[Image:WAMap-doton-Bangor_Trident_Base.png|right|Location of Bangor, Washington]]
Bangor is located at {{coor dms|47|43|15|N|122|42|47|W|}}[[Geographic references|<sup>1</sup>]], on [[Hood Canal]] northwest of [[Silverdale, Washington|Silverdale]].

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the base has a total area of 28.6 [[square kilometer|km²]] (11.0 [[square mile|mi²]]). 28.6 km² (11.0 mi²) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]] of [[2000]], there are 7,253 people, 1,282 households, and 1,275 families residing on the base. The [[population density]] is 253.7/km² (657.1/mi²). There are 1,316 housing units at an average density of 46.0/km² (119.2/mi²). The racial makeup of the town is 76.73% White, 8.05% [[African American]], 1.28% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 4.69% [[Asia|Asian]], 0.79% Pacific Islander, 3.92% from other races, and 4.55% from two or more races. 10.24% of the population are [[Hispanic]] or [[Latino]] of any race.

There are 1,282 households out of which 79.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 93.4% are married couples living together, 4.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 0.5% are non-families. 0.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 0.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 3.55 and the average family size is 3.54.

On the base the population is spread out with 27.5% under the age of 18, 23.4% from 18 to 24, 47.1% from 25 to 44, 2.0% from 45 to 64, and 0.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 25 years. For every 100 females there are 198.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 263.1 males.

The median income for a household on the base is $32,246, and the median income for a family is $32,105. Males have a median income of $28,856 versus $21,000 for females. The per capita income on the base is $16,383. 9.8% of the population and 8.5% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total people living in poverty, 12.4% are under the age of 18 and 0.0% are 65 or older.

==External Links==
[http://visitkitsap.com/cities.asp?ID=40 Bangor Tourism Information]

[[Category:Kitsap County, Washington]]
[[Category:United States Navy bases]]

[[es:Bangor (Washington)]]
{{Washington}}

Erdbebenskala

2007-08-17T23:30:31Z

Anetode: Removing backlinks to Tom Hanks (scientist) that has been speedily deleted per (CSD A7); using TW

A '''seismic scale''' is used to measure and compare the relative severity of [[earthquake]]s.

Two fundamentally different but equally important types of scales are commonly used by seismologists to describe earthquakes. The original force or energy of an earthquake is measured on a ''magnitude scale'', while the intensity of shaking occurring at any given point on the Earth's surface is measured on an ''intensity scale''.

:''See the table of seismic scales at the end of this article.''

==Severity==
The severity of an earthquake is described by both '''magnitude''' and '''intensity'''. These two frequently-confused terms refer to different, but related, observations. ''Magnitude,'' usually expressed as an [[Arabic numeral]], characterizes the size of an earthquake by measuring indirectly the energy released. By contrast, ''intensity'' indicates the local effects and potential for damage produced by an earthquake on the Earth's surface as it affects humans, animals, structures, and natural objects such as [[Water body|bodies of water]]. Intensities are usually expressed in [[roman numerals]], and represent the severity of the shaking resulting from an earthquake. Ideally, any given earthquake can be described by only one ''magnitude'', but many ''intensities'' since the earthquake effects vary with circumstances such as distance from the [[epicenter]] and local soil conditions. In practise, the same earthquake might have magnitude estimates typically differing by few tenths of a unit, depending on which magnitude scale is used and which data are included in the analysis.

[[Charles Richter]], the creator of the [[Richter magnitude scale]], distinguished ''intensity'' and ''magnitude'' as follows: "I like to use the analogy with [[radio transmission]]s. It applies in [[seismology]] because [[seismograph]]s, or the [[Receiver (radio)|receivers]], record the waves of elastic disturbance, or radio waves, that are radiated from the earthquake source, or the [[Radio station|broadcasting station]]. Magnitude can be compared to the power output in [[kilowatt]]s of a [[Radio station|broadcasting station]]. Local intensity on the [[Mercalli scale]] is then comparable to the signal strength on a receiver at a given [[locality]]; in effect, the quality of the signal. Intensity, like signal strength, will generally fall off with distance from the source, although it also depends on the local conditions and the pathway from the source to the point."

==Seismic intensity scales==
The first simple classification of earthquake intensity was devised by Domenico Pignataro in the 1780s. However, the first recognisable intensity scale in the modern sense of the word was drawn up by P.N.G. Egen in 1828; it was ahead of its time. The first widely adopted intensity scale, the '''[[Rossi-Forel scale]]''', was introduced in the late 19th century. Since then numerous intensity scales have been developed and are used in different parts of the world: the scale currently used in the United States is the '''[[Mercalli Intensity Scale|Modified Mercalli scale (MM)]]''', while the '''[[European Macroseismic Scale]]''' is used in [[European Union|Europe]], the '''[[Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale|Shindo scale]]''' is used in [[Japan]], and the '''[[MSK-64|MSK-64 scale]]''' is used in [[India]], [[Israel]], [[Russia]] and throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]]. Most of these scales have twelve degrees of intensity, which are roughly equivalent to one another in values but vary in the degree of sophistication employed in their formulation.

==Magnitude scales==
The first attempt to qualitatively define a single, absolute value to describe the size of earthquakes was the magnitude scale (the name being taking from similarly formulated scales used to represent the brightness of stars).

===Local magnitude scale===
{{main|Richter magnitude scale}}
The '''local magnitude scale (M<sub>L</sub>)''', also popularly known as the '''Richter Scale''', is a quantitative logarithmic scale. In the [[1930s]], California seismologist [[Charles F. Richter]] devised a simple numerical scale to describe the relative sizes of earthquakes in Southern California. The name "[[Richter magnitude scale|Richter Scale]]" was coined by journalists and is not generally used by seismologists in technical literature. M<sub>L</sub> is obtained by measuring the maximum amplitude of a recording on a Wood-Anderson torsion [[seismometer]] (or one calibrated to it) at a distance of 600 km from the earthquake. Other more recent magnitude measurements include: [[body wave (seismology)|body wave]] magnitude (m<sub>b</sub>), [[surface wave]] magnitude (M<sub>s</sub>), and duration magnitude (M<sub>D</sub>). Each of these is scaled to give values similar to those given by the local magnitude scale; but because each is based on a measurement of one aspect of the [[seismogram]], they do not always capture the overall power of the source. Specifically, some can be affected by '''saturation''' at higher magnitude values—meaning that they systematically underestimate the magnitude of larger events. This problem sets in at around magnitude 6 for local magnitude; surface-wave magnitude saturates above 8. Despite the limitations of older magnitude scales, they are still in wide use, as they can be calculated rapidly, catalogues of them dating back many years are available, they are sufficient for the vast majority of observed events, and the public is familiar with them.

===Moment magnitude scale===
{{main|Moment magnitude scale}}
Because of the limitations of the magnitude scales, a new, more uniformly applicable extension of them, known as '''moment magnitude (M<sub>W</sub>)''' scale for representing the size of earthquakes, was introduced by Tom Hanks and [[Hiroo Kanamori]] in 1979. In particular, for very large earthquakes moment magnitude gives the most reliable estimate of earthquake size. This is because seismic moment is derived from the concept of [[moment (physics)|moment]] in physics and therefore provides clues to the physical size of an earthquake—the size of fault rupture and accompanying slip displacement — as well as the amount of energy released. So while seismic moment, too, is calculated from [[seismogram]]s, it can also be obtained by working backwards from geologic estimates of the size of the fault rupture and displacement. The values of moments for observed earthquakes ranges over more than 15 orders of magnitude, and because they are not influenced by variables such as local circumstances, the results obtained make it easy to objectively compare the sizes of different earthquakes.

==See also==
*[[Earthquake]]

{{Seismic scales}}

[[Category:Seismic scales| ]]

[[ta:பூகம்ப அளவுகள்]]

Liste der Massaker an Aborigines

2007-08-13T09:24:30Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 211.30.109.100 (talk) to last version by Grant65

This is a '''list of massacres of indigenous Australians'''. For discussion of the historical arguments around these conflicts see the articles on the [[History Wars]] and the [[Black armband view of history]], plus the section on [[Indigenous Australians#Impact of European settlement|impact of European settlement]] in the article on [[Indigenous Australians]] .

==1800s==
* The [[Black War]] refers to a period of intermittent conflict between the [[United Kingdom|British]] colonists and [[Tasmanian Aborigine|Aborigines]] in [[Van Diemen's Land]] (now [[Tasmania]]) in the early years of the [[1800s]]. The conflict has been described as a [[genocide]] resulting in the decimation of the full-blood Tasmanian Aboriginal population, though there are presently many thousands of individuals with degrees of Tasmanian Aboriginal background. The culmination of this period was the forcible removal of the survivors, in the 1830s, to [[Flinders Island]] in [[Bass Strait]]. The specially built settlement was not suitable, with terrible living conditions and many died from disease introduced by Europeans. Later they were moved to a settlement at [[Oyster Cove]] south of Hobart. Some of the descendants of the Tasmanian Aborigines still live on Flinders Island and nearby [[Cape Barren Island]]. <ref>[http://www.hreoc.gov.au/bth/text_versions/timeline/#1834 Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission 'Bringing Them Home' website]</ref>

===1820s===
* '''1824''' [[Bathurst massacre]]: Following the killing of seven Europeans by Aboriginal people around [[Bathurst, New South Wales]], martial law was declared and around 100 Aboriginal people killed. <ref>[http://www.hreoc.gov.au/bth/text_versions/timeline/#1824 Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission 'Bringing Them Home' website]</ref> <ref>[http://www.nsw.nationaltrust.org.au/ida/link_d3_1824war.html National Trust account of the 1824 Bathurst war]</ref>

===1830s===
* '''1830''' [[Fremantle, Western Australia]],: The first official 'punishment raid' on Aboriginal people in Western Australia, led by Captain Irwin took place in May 1830. A detachment of soldiers led by Irwin attacked an Aboriginal encampment north of Fremantle in the belief that it contained men who had 'broken into and plundered the house of a man called Paton' and killed some poultry. Paton had called together a number of settlers who, armed with muskets, set after the Aborigines and came upon them not far from the home. 'The tall savage who appeared the Chief showed unequivocal gestures of defiance and contempt' and was accordingly shot. Irwin stated, ''"This daring and hostile conduct of the natives induced me to seize the opportunity to make them sensible to our superiority, by showing how severely we could retaliate their aggression."'' In actions that followed over the next few days, more Aborigines were killed and wounded. <ref>[http://www.facp.iinet.net.au/teachingnotes/myplaceback.html Study guide to "My Place" by Sally Morgan]</ref> <ref>Tom Stannage, (1979), The People of Perth: a social history of Western Australia’s Capital City, p. 27</ref>

* '''1833-34''' [[Gunditjmara#Convincing_Ground_massacre|Convincing Ground massacre (Gunditjmara)]]: On the shore near [[Portland, Victoria]] was one of the largest recorded massacres in Victoria. Whalers and the local Kilcarer Gunditjmara people disputed rights to a beached whale carcass. <ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/encounters/Journeys/Robinson/Convincing_Ground.htm | title = Convincing Ground | accessdate = 2007-05-18 | author = Clark, Ian D. | authorlink = | coauthors = | date = | year = 1998
| month = | format = | work = Scars in the Landscape: A Register of Massacre Sites in Western Victoria, 1883 - 1859 | publisher = [[Museum Victoria]] | pages = | language = | archiveurl = | archivedate = | quote = ... and the whalers having used their guns beat them off and hence called the spot the Convincing Ground. }}</ref>

* '''1834''': [[Battle of Pinjarra]], [[Western Australia]]: Official records state 14 Aboriginal people killed, but other accounts put the figure much higher <ref>[http://www.hreoc.gov.au/bth/text_versions/timeline/#1834 Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission 'Bringing Them Home' website]</ref> <ref>[http://www.walkabout.com.au/locations/WAPinjarra.shtml Fairfax Walkabout Australian travel guide on the Pinjarra]</ref>

* '''1838''' [[Myall Creek massacre]] - [[9 June]]: 28 people killed at Myall Creek near [[Inverell, New South Wales]]. This was the first Aboriginal massacre for which European settlers were tried. Eleven men were charged with murder but acquitted. A new trial was held and the seven men charged with the murder of one Aboriginal child. They were found guilty and hanged.

* '''1838''' [[Waterloo Creek massacre]]: A [[Sydney]] mounted police detachment attacked an encampment of [[Kamilaroi]] people at a place called Waterloo Creek in remote bushland. <ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/frontier/education/slavery.htm#waterloo Australian Broadcasting Corporation Frontier Education history website]</ref>

* '''1838''' [[Benalla]] ([[Benalta run]] - [[musk duck]]): [[Grantville Stapylton]] named the river 'Broken'. In April of that year a party of some 18 men, in the employ of [[George Faithful]] and [[William Faithfull]], were searching out new land to the south of [[Wangaratta]]. Then, in the vicinity of, or possibly on, the present townsite of Benalla, it is alleged that a large number of [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]] attacked the party's camp. At least one [[Koori]] and somewhere between eight and thirteen [[Europeans]] died in what became known as the [[Faithfull Massacre]]. Local reprisals lasted a number of years, resulting in the deaths of up to 100 Aborigines. The reason for the attack is unclear although some sources claim that the men took shots at local Aborigines and generally [[provoked]] them. It also seems they were [[camping]] on a [[hunting ground]]

:This "hunting ground" would have been a ceremonial ground probably called a 'Kangaroo ground'. Hunting grounds were all over so not something that would instigate an attack. The colonial government decided to "open up" the lands south of Yass after the Faithful Massacre and bring them under British rule. This was as much to try and protect the Aboriginal people from reprisals as to open up new lands for the colonists. The Aboriginal people were (supposedly) protected under British law.

*'''1830s''' - '''1840s''' [[Wiradjuri Wars]]: Clashes between European settlers and [[Wiradjuri]] were very violent, particularly around the [[Murrumbidgee]]. The loss of fishing grounds and significant sites and the killing of Aboriginal people was retaliated through attacks with spears on cattle and stockmen. In the 1850s there were still corroborees around Mudgee but there were fewer clashes. Known cermeony continued at the Murrumbidgee into the 1890s. European settlement had taken hold and the Aboriginal population was in temporary decline.

===1840s===
*'''1840-1850''' [[Gippsland massacres]] of the [[Gunai]] people in [[East Gippsland]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]] in response to their resistance to European settlement on their land. The real death toll is unclear as few records exist or were made at the time, from available evidence (letters and diaries), it appears<ref> Gardner, P.D. (2001), ''Gippsland massacres: the destruction of the Kurnai tribes, 1800-1860''. Ngarak Press, Ensay, Victoria ISBN 1-875254-31-5</ref>:
:1840 - Nuntin- unknown number killed by [[Angus McMillan]]'s men
:1840 - Boney Point - "[[Angus McMillan]] and his men took a heavy toll of Aboriginal lives"
:1841 - Butchers Creek - 30-35 shot by [[Angus McMillan]]'s men
:1841 - [[Maffra]] - unknown number shot by [[Angus McMillan]]'s men
:1842 - [[Skull Creek]] - unknown number killed
:1842 - [[Bruthen Creek]] - "hundreds killed"
:1843 - [[Warrigal Creek]] - between 60 and 180 shot by [[Angus McMillan]] and his men
:1844 - [[Maffra]] - unknown number killed
:1846 - South [[Gippsland]] - 14 killed
:1846 - [[Snowy River]] - 8 killed by Captain Dana and the Aboriginal Police
:1846-47 - Central [[Gippsland]] - 50 or more shot by armed party hunting for [[White woman of Gippsland|a white woman supposedly held by Aborigines]]; no such woman was ever found.
:1850 - East [[Gippsland]] - 15-20 killed
:1850 - [[Murrindal]] - 16 poisoned

* '''1841''' [[Wonnerup Massacre]]: George Layman was speared by a Wardandi (from Wardan = Ocean) man, Gaywer, at Wonnerup House, Capel, [[Western Australia]] when he refused to release an Aboriginal woman held at the house. This led to the Wonnerup Massacre where white settlers rode abreast through the tuart forest killing over 250 people on their tribal land. The dead are reputed to be buried at Ludlow Forest, currently being mined for mineral sands by Cable Sands. <ref>[http://savethetuarts.org/indighist.html Indigenous history at Save the Tuarts]</ref>

* '''1841''' [[Rufus River Massacre]] - August: 35 [[Maraura]] people killed in a two-day conflict with a number of police and volunteers from [[Adelaide]] after sheep and cattle were stolen and several months of violent tension.

* '''1842''' [[Deen Maar Indigenous Protected Area|Deen Maar]] - [[Eumerella Wars]] took place over 20 years in the mid-1800s. The remains of people involved in the conflict are at Deen Maar.

===1850s-1890s===

* '''1864''' [[Richmond River massacre]] - January: 100 people killed at [[Richmond River]], [[New South Wales]].

* '''1865''' The [[La Grange expedition]] was a search expedition carried out in the vicinity of La Grange Bay in the [[Kimberley region of Western Australia]] led by [[Maitland Brown]] that led to the death of up to 20 Aboriginal people. The expedition has been celebrated with the [[Explorers' Monument]] in [[Fremantle, Western Australia]].

* '''1868''' Flying Foam massacre, [[Dampier Archipelago]], Western Australia. Following the killing of two police and two settlers by local [[Jaburara|Yaburara people]], two parties of settlers from the [[Roebourne]] area, led by prominent [[rangeland|pastoralists]] [[Alexander McRae]] and [[John Withnell]], killed an unknown number of Yaburara. Estimates of the number of dead range from 20 to 150.<ref>http://pals.dia.wa.gov.au/timelines.aspx </ref>

* '''1874''' [[Barrow Creek]] Massacre - February ([[Northern Territory|NT]]): Mounted Constable Samuel Gason arrived at Barrow Creek and a police station was opened. Eight days later a group of [[Kaytetye]] men attacked the station, either in retaltiation for treatment of Kaytetye women, the closing off of their only water source, or both. Two white men were killed and one wounded. Samuel Gason mounted a large police hunt against the Kaytetye resulting in the killing of many Aboriginal men, women and children - some say up to 90. <ref>http://www.clc.org.au/media/publications/landalive/barrow.asp</ref> [[Skull Creek]] takes its name from the bleached bones found there long after <ref>http://www.connectingthecontinent.com/ctcwebsite/stories/story5.htm</ref>.

* '''1880s-90s''' [[Arnhem Land]]: Series of skirmishes and "wars" between [[Yolngu]] and whites. Several massacres at Florida Station [http://www.english.unimelb.edu.au/antithesis/new2005/forum-4/02_Riseman.html]. Richard Trudgen[http://www.ards.com.au/whywarriors.htm] also writes of several massacres in this area, including an incident where Yolngu were fed poisoned horsemeat after they killed and ate some cattle (under their law, it was their land and they had an inalienable right to eat animals on their land). Many people died as a result of that incident. Trudgen also talks of a massacre ten years later after some Yolngu took a small amount of barbed wire from a huge roll to build fishing spears. Men, women and children were chased by [[mounted police]] and men from the Eastern and African Cold Storage Company and shot.

* '''1884''' Battle Mountain: 200 [[Kalkadoon]] people killed near [[Mount Isa, Queensland]] after a Chinese shepherd had been murdered.

* '''1887''' [[Halls Creek]] Western Australia. [[Mary Durack]] suggests there was a conspiracy of silence about the massacres of Djara, Konejandi and Walmadjari peoples about attacks on Aborigines by white gold-miners, Aboriginal reprisals and consequent massacres at this time. [[John Durack]] was speared, which led to a local massacre in the Kimberley.

* '''1890''' Speewah Massacre, Qld: Early settler, John Atherton, took revenge on the [[Djabugay]] by sending in native troopers to avenge the killing of a [[bullock]]. Other unconfirmed reports of similar atrocities occurred locally. <ref>http://www.kuranda.org/?p=53</ref>

* '''1890-1920''' [[Kimberley region]] - The Killing Times - East Kimberleys: About half of the Kimberley Aboriginal people massacred as a result of a number of reprisals for cattle spearing, and payback killings of European settlers.

==1900s==
*[[Kimberley region]] - The Killing Times - 1890-1920: The massacres listed below have been depicted in modern [[Australian Aboriginal art]] from the Warmun/Turkey Creek community who were members of the tribes affected. Oral history of the massacres were passed down and artists such as the late [[Rover Thomas]] have depicted the massacres.

* '''1906-7''' [[Canning Stock Route]]: an unrecorded number of Aboriginal men and women were raped and massacred when [[Martu (Indigenous Australian)|Mardu]] people were captured and tortured to serve as 'guides' and reveal the sources of water in the area after being 'run down' by men on horseback, restrained by heavy chains 24 hours a day, and tied to trees at night. In retaliation for this treatment, plus the party's interference with traditional wells, and the theft of cultural artefacts, Aborigines destroyed some of Canning's wells, and stole from and occasionally killed white travellers. A [[Royal Commission]] in 1908, exonerated Canning, after an appearance by [[Kimberley (Western Australia)|Kimberley]] Explorer and Lord Mayor of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Alexander Forrest]] claimed that all explorers had acted in such a fashion. <ref>[http://www.remoteareatours.com/history.html Remote Area Tours - History]</ref>

* '''1920s''' [[Mistake Creek]]: Seven [[Kija]] people were alleged to have been killed by men under the control of a Constable Rhatigan, at Mistake Creek, East Kimberley. The massacre was as a reprisal for allegedly killing Rhadigan's cow, however, the cow was found alive after the massacre had already taken place. Rhatigan was arrested for wilful murder, but the charges were dropped, for lack of "evidence". <ref>{{cite news | author=[[William Deane|Deane, William]] | url= http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/26/1038274302698.html | title=Decrying the memories of Mistake Creek is yet further injustice | work= Opinion | publisher= [[Sydney Morning Herald]] | date= [[2002-11-27]] | accessdate= 2006-06-17}}</ref> The historian [[Keith Windschuttle]] disputes the version put forward by former [[Governor-General of Australia]], [[William Deane]], in November 2002. Windschuttle found the massacre took place on March 30, 1915, not in the 1930s, and was not a reprisal attack by whites over a cow, but "an internal feud between Aboriginal station hands" over a woman. "No Europeans were responsible. There was no dispute over a stolen cow, and it had nothing to do with theories about terra nullius or of Aborigines being subhuman."<ref>{{cite news | author=[[Miranda Devine|Devine, Miranda]] | url= http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/truce-and-truth-in-history-wars/2006/04/19/1145344151509.html | title= Truce, and truth, in history wars | work= Opinion | publisher= Sydney Morning Herald | date= [[2006-04-20]] | accessdate=2006-06-17}}</ref>. However, members of the Gija tribe, from the Warmun (Turkey Creek) community have depicted the massacre in their artworks (see [http://www.warmunart.com Warmun Art].

===1920s===
* '''1924''' [[Bedford Downs massacre]]: a group of [[Kija]] or [[Gija]] men were jailed for spearing a bullock. On release from jail they had to walk the 200 kilometers back to [[Bedford Downs]], where they were set to work to cut the wood that was later used to burn their bodies. Once the work was finished they were fed [[Strychnine]], and the bodies were burned. <ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2002/s475292.htm ABC 7:30 report]</ref> This massacre has been depicted in artworks by members of the Gija tribe.

* '''1926''' [[Forrest River massacre]] in the [[Kimberley region of Western Australia|East Kimberleys]]): in May 1926, Fred Hay, a pastoralist, was speared and killed by an Aboriginal man, Lumbia. A police patrol led by Constables James St Jack and Denis Regan left [[Wyndham, Western Australia|Wyndham]] on June 1, to hunt for the killer, and in the first week of July, Lumbia, the accused man, was brought into Wyndham. In the months that followed rumours circulated of a massacre by the police party. The Rev. [[Ernest Gribble]] of [[Oombulgurri Community, Western Australia|Forrest River Mission]] (later Oombulgurri) alleged that 30 people had been killed by the police party. A Royal Commission, conducted by G. T. Wood sent an evidence-gathering party and heard evidence regarding Gribble's allegations. The Royal Commission found that 11 people had been massacred and the bodies burned. In May 1927, St Jack and Regan were charged with the murder of Boondung, one of the 11. However, at a preliminary hearing, Magistrate Kidson found there was insufficient evidence to proceed to trial. Subsequent attacks on the credibility of Gribble led to his departure from the region. <ref>[http://www.quadrant.org.au/php/article_view.php?article_id=237 Quadrant Magazine]</ref> In 1999, journalist Rod Moran, published a book which reviewed the evidence and found that the massacre was a fabrication by Gribble.{{cn|August 2007}} No eyewitnesses or survivors were ever found. Gribble had a history of making false claims about mistreatment of Aborigines and was known to have had a history of mental illness. The evidence-gathering party found no graves. All of the bones found either could not be identified as human or were animal bones. Of the people listed as missing by Gribble, Moran was able to account for all but one as not being killed in the massacre, from mission and police records. One woman had been killed by her husband before the Hay killing and another was listed twice.

* '''1928''' [[Coniston massacre]]: A WW1 veteran shot 32 Aborigines at [[Coniston, Northern Territory|Coniston]] in the [[Northern Territory]] after a white dingo trapper and station owner were attacked by Aborigines. A survivor of the massacre, [[Billy Stockman Tjapaltjarri]], later became part of the first generation of [[Papunya]] painting men. Billy Stockman was saved by his mother who put him in a [[coolamon (vessel)|coolamon]] [see 'The Tjulkurra': Billy Stockman Tjapaltjarri, ISBN 1-876622-37-7] A court of inquiry said the European action was ‘justified'. <ref>[http://www.hreoc.gov.au/bth/text_versions/timeline/#1928 Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunities Commission 'Bringing Them Home' website]</ref> <ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/frontier/education/coniston.htm Australian Broadcasting Corporation Frontier Education history website]</ref>

===After 1930===
* '''1932-34 ''' [[Caledon Bay crisis]]: In 1932, five Japanese poachers, two white men, and a policeman were killed by [[Yolngu]] people in retaliation for rapes. A "punitive expedition" from Darwin was proposed, just as had happened at the [[Coniston massacre]] four years earlier, but this was averted, and the matter was settled in the courts. This event is marked as a significant turning point in the history of the treatment of Aboriginal people.

==References==

<references/>

===External links===
* [http://www.smh.com.au/specials/historywars/ History Wars Special] in the [[Sydney Morning Herald]]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/16/1063625030438.html Who plays Stalin in our History Wars?] Stuart Macintyre

==See also==
*[[Gippsland massacres]]
*[[Cullin-La-Ringo massacre]]
*[[Skull Creek]]

{{Template:Indigenous Australians}}

{{listdev}}

[[Category:Australian crime-related lists|Massacres]]
[[Category:History of Indigenous Australians|Massacres]]
[[Category:Lists of massacres|Australian Aborginal massacres]]
[[Category:History of Australia|Australian Aborginal massacres]]
[[Category:Racial massacres|Australian Aborigines]]
[[Category:Massacres in Australia|Australian Aborigines]]

Justin Roberts

2007-07-03T22:20:25Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 208.254.22.50 (talk) to last version by Danleclair

{{Unreferenced|date=January 2007}}
{{Infobox Wrestler
|name=Justin Roberts
|names='''Justin Roberts'''<br />Jason Roberts<br />JJ Roberts<br />Enzo Reed
|image=
|height= 5 ft 10 inches
|weight= 173lbs
|birth_date=[[December 29]] [[1979]]
|birth_place=[[Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]]
|death_date=
|death_place=
|resides=[[Phoenix, Arizona]]
|billed=
|trainer=
|debut= [[November 1996]]
}}
{{about|the ring announcer|the [[singer-songwriter]]|Justin Roberts (musician)}}

'''Justin Jason Roberts''' ([[December 29]] [[1979]]) [http://www.jjroberts.com/bio.html], is a ring announcer currently signed to [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] working on its RAW live shows and ECW live television shows appearing on Smackdown, Monday Night RAW, Saturday Night's Main Event and pay-per-views too.
Roberts began ring announcing at 16 years of age for local [[professional wrestling promotion]] Pro Wrestling International. He then worked for other independent promotions such as the American Wrestling Alliance while studying Media Arts and Communications at the [[University of Arizona]] in [[2002]]. In the same year, Roberts was hired by World Wrestling Entertainment as a backup announcer for ''[[WWE Friday Night SmackDown!|SmackDown]]'' , followed later by a move to the ''[[WWE Raw|RAW]]'' brand. He also worked on ''[[WWE Velocity|Velocity]]'' and ''[[WWE Heat|Heat]]'' shows while touring as the full time RAW live event announcer. Most recently, Roberts announced on the inaugural episode of the new [[Extreme Championship Wrestling (WWE)|ECW]] show and continues to announce each week on the Sci Fi network.

Aside from professional wrestling, Roberts has also announced for the [[Toughman Contest]]. Roberts has also done some acting and was featured in such movies as ''[[Stuart Saves His Family]]'', the upcoming [[The Guardian]] and ''[[Soul Food (film)|Soul Food]]''. He also appeared in an episode of ''[[The Jerry Springer Show]]'' .

==Trivia==
*Roberts was such a big fan of [[Curt Hennig|Mr. Perfect]], that he learned to referee so he could work a tour with him. [http://www.jjroberts.com/bio.html]

== External links ==
* [http://www.jjroberts.com/ Official Justin Roberts website]
* {{imdb name|id=1043062|name=Justin Roberts}}


[[Category:1979 births|Roberts, Justin]]
[[Category:Living people|Roberts, Justin]]
[[Category:People from Chicago|Roberts, Justin]]
[[Category:Professional wrestling announcers|Roberts, Justin]]

{{Prowrestling-bio-stub}}

Sarah Harding

2007-06-10T10:18:17Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by Glommysquor33 (talk) to last version by Rob Lindsey

{{dablink|For the Jurassic Park character, Dr. Sarah Harding, see [[List of characters in Jurassic Park]]}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| Name = Sarah Harding
| Img = Sarah Harding.jpg
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name = Sarah Nicole Harding
| Alias =
| Born = {{birth date and age|1981|11|17}}
| Died =
| Origin = {{flagicon|England}} [[Manchester]], [[England]]
| Instrument = [[Singing]]
| Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]]
| Occupation = [[Singer]]
| Years_active = 2002—present
| Label = [[Polydor]] <small> ([[2002]]-present) </small> <br />[[Fascination Records]] <small> ([[2006]]-present)</small> <br>
| Associated_acts = [[Girls Aloud]]
| URL =
}}

'''Sarah Nicole Harding''' (born [[17 November]] [[1981]], in [[Ascot, Berkshire|Ascot]]) is an [[England|English]] singer in the [[girl group]] [[Girls Aloud]] and has recently gone into [[Model (person)|modelling]], who grew up as a Catholic in [[Heald Green]], [[Stockport]], [[Greater Manchester]], [[England]]. She is the oldest member of Girls Aloud.

==Early career==
Harding attended [[Hazel Grove High School]] and [[Stockport College]], along with [[Chelsea Norris]], worked as part of the promotions team for 2 nightclubs in [[The Grand Central Leisure Park]] in Stockport. Harding was also a regular singer at [[Karaoke]] nights in the Puss and Boots pub and did some vocals for Project G on some unreleased tracks.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Project G was a band for which Harding provided backing vocals, long before Girls Aloud came along. She did some photoshoots for promotion but no album, nor known singles exist. Some tracks that have leaked onto the internet include "Searching" and "Don't Wanna Be Alone". Whilst working as a waitress and barmaid in [[Manchester]], she entered the UK talent-search show ''[[Popstars|Popstars: The Rivals]]''.

Harding also entered [[FHM]]'s ''High Street Honeys'', the magazine's [[national beauty contest]], and her pictures appeared in the first Top 100, but she later withdrew, upon achieving success on ''Popstars''. A year later, she was voted one of the Top 30 sexiest women in the world, by readers of the same magazine. In [[2005]], she entered the same Top 10 at Number 8, slipping to Number 15 in [[2006]], and to Number 17 in [[2007]].

==Girls Aloud==
In the finale of the "Popstars" show, she was picked as the final member of the five-piece group, Girls Aloud, that formed the female half of the eponymous 'rivals'. She defeated [[Javine Hylton]] for the final place, in a result that provoked a measure of surprise and controversy.

As a member of Girls Aloud, Harding has taken part in many events and TV shows, such as the [[August 25]] [[2006]] episode of [[The Friday Night Project]]. Sarah co-hosted the show with [[Cheryl Cole]] and [[Kimberley Walsh]]. During her time with the group she has co-written numerous songs, including "Hear Me Out", which appeared on the group's second album ''[[What Will The Neighbours Say?]]''. She's also credited as one of the writers of "Why Do It?", the b-side for "I Think We're Alone Now" single, but is believed not to have had input since she does not have any vocals on the track.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

Outside of Girls Aloud, Harding signed a £100,000 deal to model [[Ultimo (designer lingerie brand)|Ultimo]] lingerie, following the likes of [[Penny Lancaster]], [[Rachel Hunter]] and [[Helena Christensen]]. Reports claim that Sarah was chosen to model the underwear range after she was seen wearing a bikini on holiday in the papers.<ref name="undies">{{cite news | url=http://www.thesun.co.uk/article/0,,4-2006410189,,00.html | title=It's Sarah Bra-ding | publisher=[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]] | date=[[September 5]] [[2006]] }}</ref>

Harding has filmed a cameo appearance in a British independent film called ''Bad Day'', due for release in [[2007]]. She plays a brunette girl called Jade Jennings who sits in the back of a cab and swears down the phone. The film also stars [[Donna Air]] and [[Claire Goose]].<ref name="movie">{{cite news | url=http://www.thesun.co.uk/article/0,,4-2006470449,00.html | title=Sexy Girl Sarah Does A Runner | publisher=[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]] | date=[[October 12]] [[2006]] }}</ref>

Harding has recently been seen as the face of [[Coke Zero]], upon it's launch in [[Ireland]]. She will also advertise and promote [[Sunsilk]] with the rest of [[Girls Aloud]].

==Personal life==
Harding once blagged a first-class flight to [[Dubai]] with good friend [[Danielle Lloyd]].<ref>http://www.newsoftheworld.co.uk/cbb/bio_danielle.shtml</ref> They later fell out when Lloyd became more serious with her boyfriend Teddy Sherringham. Harding stated this in an interview with OK! magazine saying that she and Lloyd "drifted apart."

Harding's love-life has been in constant speculation since becoming famous. She met her ex-boyfriend [[Mikey Green]] on Popstars: The Rivals, who went on to become a member of the boyband [[Phixx]]. After going out for two years, they split up, got back together, and then broke up again. She was also linked to [[Liverpool F.C.]] footballer [[John Arne Riise]]<ref name="riise">{{cite news | url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/3am/tm_objectid=15264900&method=full-name_page.html | title=Kiss me Harding | publisher=[[The Daily Mirror]] | date=[[March 7]] [[2005]]}}</ref> and the actor [[Stephen Dorff]], a rumour denied by Sarah during a short interview on [[BBC Radio 1]] with JK & Joel on [[July 13]], [[2006]]. From late 2006 to mid-2007, Sarah was in a relationship with [[Daily Star]] gossip columnist [[Joe Mott]].<ref>http://www.dailystar.co.uk/blog/?p=101</ref>

On [[September 10]] [[2005]], Harding was one of the celebrity bridesmaids for [[Katie Price|Jordan]]'s wedding to [[Peter Andre]] in [[Berkshire]].

Sarah is also friends with [[Gary Mounfield|Mani]] from [[Primal Scream]], the [[Arctic Monkeys]] and [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] singer [[Liam Gallagher]]. In the forthcoming Oasis rockumentary ''"[[Lord Don't Slow Me Down]]"'' Liam invites Girls Aloud to a concert during an Oasis photoshoot.

She receives most of her attention from her constant partying and drinking. The Sun newspaper has her in their "Caner's League".

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
* [http://www.girlsaloud.co.uk/ Official Girls Aloud Website]
*{{imdb name|id=1282067|name=Sarah Harding}}

* [http://www.missharding.com/ MissHarding.Com] (fansite)

* [http://www.sarahhardingaddicts.bravehost.com/ SarahHarding] (fansite)
{{Girls Aloud}}

[[Category:1981 births|Harding, Sarah]]
[[Category:Living people|Harding, Sarah]]
[[Category:People from Stockport|Harding, Sarah]]
[[Category:English female singers|Harding, Sarah]]
[[Category:Girls Aloud members|Harding, Sarah]]
[[Category:Reality show winners|Harding, Sarah]]
[[Category:People of Irish descent in Great Britain]]

[[id:Sarah Harding]]
[[pl:Sarah Harding]]
[[sv:Sarah Harding]]

Mato-Grosso-Feldzug

2007-06-09T18:53:11Z

Anetode: rm dead link

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Mato Grosso campaign
|partof=the [[War of the Triple Alliance]]
|image=
|caption=
|date=December 1864
|place=[[Mato Grosso]], [[Brazil]]
|casus=
|territory=
|result=Initial Paraguayan conquest
|combatant1= [[Paraguay]]
|combatant2= [[Uruguay]],<br> [[Argentina]],<br> [[Brasil]]
|commander1= [[Francisco Solano López]]
|commander2=
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Triple Alliance}}

The '''Mato Grosso campaign''' was an early [[Paraguay]]an offensive in the [[War of the Triple Alliance]]. [[Paraguay]] captured the Brazilian province of [[Mato Grosso]], but it was a [[Pyrrhic victory]], since the attackers obtained little gain in it.
The Province of [[Mato Grosso]] was scarcely populated and with no more than two hundred soldiers and officers to defend it in 1864.

[[Category:Conflicts in 1864]]
[[Category:War of the Triple Alliance battles]]

[[pt:Campanha do Mato Grosso]]

Disney’s Contemporary Resort

2007-05-23T18:49:53Z

Anetode: rm images

[[Image:Contemporary Resort Color.png|right|200px|thumbnail|Older Logo]]

'''''Disney's Contemporary Resort''''' is a [[resort]] [[hotel]] located at [[Walt Disney World Resort]] near [[Orlando, Florida]]. It is owned and operated by [[The Walt Disney Company]], and first opened on [[October 1]], [[1971]], at which time it featured state-of-the-art facilities. It is currently in the process of renovation to make it state-of-the-art again. It is categorized as a 'Deluxe' Disney resort.

==Resort facts==
*'''Category''': Deluxe/Upscale
*'''Theme''': Modern
*'''Location''': [[Magic Kingdom Area Resorts]]
*'''Opened''': October 1, 1971
*'''Last Renovated''': 2005-Current
*'''Areas''': Contemporary Tower and South Garden Rooms. North Garden Rooms have been torn down.
*'''Rooms''': 1053

[[Image:Disneys-contemporary-resort-mosaic.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A prominent mosaic by [[Mary Blair]] seen in the Grand Canyon Concourse.]]

== Design ==

The most prominent of the hotel's four stand-alone buildings is the Contemporary Tower, built as an [[A-frame]] with outer walls which slope inwards around an inner atrium. This design was a collaboration by Disney, the [[United States Steel Corporation]], and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] [[architect]] [[Welton Becket]]. To construct it, [[steel]] frames were erected on site and modular pre-constructed rooms were lifted into place by [[crane (machine)|crane]]. Approximately 500 guest rooms line the outer walls of this building. Room renovation should have been a simple matter of replacing modules when refurbishment was needed; however, it was found that the modules settled and became stuck in place, rendering them irremovable. Most of [[Disney's Polynesian Resort]] was built this way also.
Another resort in Orlando that was built by [[US Steel]] was the [[Court of flags resort]]<ref>http://www.bigfloridacountry.com/courtofflags.htm</ref> in 1972. They also had the slide-in modular units.

The Contemporary Tower houses most of the resort's key facilities, including resort registration and guest services ([[concierge]]). The main hall, named the Grand Canyon Concourse, is also located in the main Tower, and houses two restaurants and a variety of shops. The [[Walt Disney World Monorail System]] runs through the inside of this building, providing a monorail station here for resort guests. Also adorning the concourse walls is an enormous [[mosaic]] designed by [[Mary Blair]].

Two three-story wings flank the north and south sides of the Tower, and offer an additional two 250 rooms each. A [[convention center]] was added to the resort and opened on November 11, 1991, with more than 90,000 square feet (more than 8,300 square meters) of convention space.

As of [[November]], [[2006]], the North Wing has been closed and surrounded by construction walls that also encompass portions of the guest parking lot. By [[January 30]], [[2007]], Disney's Racquet Club has been demolished<ref>http://photos.joelandkristine.com/Walt_Disney_World/Resorts/Disney's_Contemporary_Resort/2007.01.28.13.47.33.htm</ref> and demolition on the North Wing began. The North Wing has also been removed from the Contemporary's maps and signs. Demolition began on [[January 31]], 2007 and as of April 6, 2007, the North Wing has been removed.<ref>http://www.wdwmagic.com/resorts_contemporarydvc.htm</ref>. These developments, as well as online photographs of a newly designed 16-story, crescent-shaped tower leads to speculation that a [[Disney Vacation Club]] building will be constructed in the former location of the North Garden Wing.<ref>http://www.screamscape.com/html/walt_disney_world_resort.htm</ref>

== Guest rooms ==
[[Image:Contemporary Room2.JPG|thumb|A renovated room]]
While rooms vary slightly, standard guest rooms contain two queen beds (or one king bed), a [[bed (furniture)|day bed]]/couch, a sitting table, a [[credenza]] with a [[TV]] and a coffee maker, a small [[refrigerator]], and a fairly large closet. Bathrooms for standard rooms at the Contemporary usually have dual sinks and vanity, a standard western toilet and a bathtub. The Guest Rooms make use of muted Browns, Reds, Purples and Greens as a part of their theming, partially inspired from current Asian interior design trends. Rooms previously made use of vivid [[primary colors]] red, yellow and blue, to match the theming of the hotel, which was said to be influenced by [[contemporary art]] from the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. As one of the original resorts on property, the Contemporary Resort sports some of the largest rooms on Disney property, matched only by [[Disney's Polynesian Resort]] which also opened in 1971.

The Contemporary Resort also offers a variety of suites, as well as two levels of [[concierge]] (sometimes referred to as "club") service on the 12th and 14th floors.

== Restaurants ==

There are several restaurants in the Contemporary Resort's main building.

*The California Grill provides a high-class and critically acclaimed dining experience featuring exotic dishes and attentive service. Located at the top of the Contemporary Resort's main building, the California Grill offers sweeping views of the [[Magic Kingdom]], the Seven Seas Lagoon, Bay Lake, [[Disney's Grand Floridian Resort]], and [[Disney's Polynesian Resort]]. It offers a magnificent view of the Magic Kingdom's fireworks shows also.

*Chef Mickey's, on the Grand Canyon Concourse, is a buffet which features appearances from Disney characters. Open for breakfast and dinner. Chef Mickey's offers a view of the monorail entering the resort and constant character appearances. There are childrens items including Goofy's pizza, Mickeyroni and cheese, and other novelties. There is also an adult buffet which includes pot roast, steak, potatoes etc. Dessert bars are available to all. The characters may vary, but include [[Mickey Mouse]], [[Minnie Mouse]], [[Donald Duck]], [[Goofy]], [[Pluto]], and [[Chip 'n Dale]].

*The Concourse Steakhouse, also on the Grand Canyon Concourse, is a casual sit-down restaurant. Open for breakfast, lunch and dinner. There are rumors of the closing of the Concourse Steakhouse. It is said that it is to be replaced by an Asian influenced restaurant called Wave. Wave will be located in the area where The Food and Fun Center is now located. The Food and Fun Center is said to be moved to the Concourse Steakhouse's area.

*The Food and Fun Center, in the main lobby area, is a counter-service eatery serving light fare and snacks with a large [[video game]] arcade. It is open 24 hours a day at peak times of the year. The Food and Fun Center and arcade will be moved during the current renovations.

[[Image:Disneys-contemporary-resort.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The monorail runs through the interior of the Contemporary Resort.]]

== Entertainment and activities ==

The Contemporary Resort offers two pools and a private beach on Bay Lake. A marina offers several water activities, such as boat rentals, [[personal watercraft]] rides, fishing tours and rentals.

The [[Magic Kingdom]]'s nightly [[fireworks]] show "[[Wishes]]" is visible from the Contemporary Resort, with the show's soundtrack played over speakers in various locations from which the fireworks can be seen. The [[Electrical Water Pageant]] also passes the Contemporary Resort nightly at around 10:05 p.m., pending any inclement weather or other technical conditions.

== 2005-2009 refurbishments ==

During 2005-06, Disney completed a renovation of all guest rooms and many public areas throughout the resort. The decor changed little through the resort's history and has been replaced with more modern decor and furnishings.

=== New guest rooms ===
Using muted colors, updated furnishings and linens, guest rooms of the resort will receive the most drastic of changes, creating a modern appearance consistent with the resort's name. New beds will be installed with white duvets and sheets, with a suede headboard that runs the height of the room. A clear glass desk workspace will be added to rooms, while a new light-green [[futon]]-style [[futon|day bed]]/[[couch]] will also be introduced. Carpet and wall colors now incorporate a soft "chocolate" brown color, while the new entertainment center brings in rich wood touches to the room. This entertainment center includes a 32" [[high-definition television|high-definition ]] [[LCD television]], however the rooms still receive analog video signals, so HD video is still unavailable to these televisions. Bathrooms also receive similar treatment, with new modern "flat sinks", new mirrors and new wallpaper.

=== Restaurants renewed ===

Restaurants have also been subject to speculation on pending renovations, with the [[Orlando Sentinel]] reporting that all of the restaurants at the resort will be entirely reworked. California Grill and Chef Mickey's are both rumored to receive design updates to compliment the rest of the resort refurbishment, while the Concourse Steakhouse and Food & Fun Center will be completely demolished and will move locations, putting the steakhouse on the lobby level, and have a new name. Food & Fun Center and arcade will be on the Grand Canyon Concourse fourth floor. A new restaurant, possibly called ''"The Wave"'', is rumored to also be in the works, but few details are available. It could possibly have Asian food.{{Fact|date=May 2007}}

=== Schedule, current resort conditions ===

Current refurbishment of the Contemporary Resort includes a portion of each of the resort's garden wings, and various floors of the main resort Tower. Work has been fully completed on the tenth, ninth and eighth floors of the resort tower, in addition to some rooms on the end of the South Garden Wing. Work is continuing on a rolling basis, by certain areas of the resort at a time. Work is expected to be completed in the fall 2006.

== Resort photos ==

<gallery>
Image:Disneys-contemporary-resort-mosaic-closeup.jpg|Among the stylized denizens of the mosaic is a five-legged goat. It can only be seen from the monorail level.
Image:Disneys-contemporary-resort-monorail.jpg|The Resort Monorail stops here; the Express Monorail goes through without stopping.
Image:Disneys-contemporary-resort-mickeywatch.jpg|The landscaping leading up to the main entrance is arranged to look like a Mickey Mouse wristwatch. This view can only be seen from the resort monorail or from rooms on the west-facing side of the building.
</gallery>

==References==
<references />

==External links==

{{External links}}

* [http://disneyworld.disney.go.com/wdw/resorts/resortLanding?id=ContemporaryResortLandingPage Disney's Contemporary Resort]
* [http://allearsnet.com/acc/g_contm.htm AllEarsNet's photos of the Contemporary Resort (includes photos of the newly refurbished rooms)]
*[http://disneyworld.disney.go.com/wdw/dining/diningDetail?id=CaliforniaGrillDiningPage&bhcp=1 California Grill]
* [http://disney-dining.blogspot.com/ Disney Dining]
* [http://www.bigfloridacountry.com/contemporary.htm Contemporary Resort Pictures]
* {{Geolinks-US-streetscale|28.414794|-81.574015}}
* [http://www.bigfloridacountry.com Video & Contruction pics compliments of BigFloridaCountry]
* [http://www.bigfloridacountry.com/storyofwdw/WDW%20page%2040%20(Large).jpg Construction Pictures]
* [http://www.bigfloridacountry.com/storyofwdw/WDW%20page%2034%20(Large).jpg More Pictures]
* [http://www.bigfloridacountry.com/freevideos/Contemporary%20Construction%20USS.wmv Construction video from [[US Steel]]]
* [http://www.bigfloridacountry.com/freevideos/Contemporary%20Wing%20Demolition%20%20Widescreen%2003-16-2007%20web.wmv Contemporary North Wing Demo]
[[Category:Hotels in Walt Disney World Resort|Contemporary Resort]]
[[Category:1971 architecture]]

[[fr:Disney's Contemporary Resort]]

Oni (Computerspiel)

2007-04-10T10:09:55Z

Anetode: rm oddly-placed icon, doesn't quite jibe with the manual of style

{{This|the computer game|Oni}}
{{Infobox CVG| title = ONI
|image = [[Image:Oni PC cover.jpg|185px|Box art for European PC version of Oni]]
|developer = [[Bungie Studios]]<br />[[The Omni Group]] ([[Mac OS X]] port)
|publisher = [[Gathering of Developers]] (PC); [[Rockstar Games]] (PS2), [[Feral Interactive]] (Mac - Rest Of World), [[MacSoft]] (Mac - North America)
|designer =
|engine =
|released = [[2001]]
|genre = [[Third-person shooter]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = [[ESRB]]: Teen (T), [[ELSPA]]: 15+
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]], [[PlayStation 2|PS2]], [[Mac OS 9]], [[Mac OS X]]
|media = 1 [[Compact Disc|CD]]
|requirements =
|input = [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]] and [[Computer mouse|Mouse]]
}}
'''''Oni''''' is a [[Third-person shooter|third-person]] [[Action game|action]] [[Video game|game]] developed by Bungie West, a division of [[Bungie Studios]] (now part of [[Microsoft]]), and released in [[2000]]. It was Bungie West's first and only game. It was innovative and broke new grounds by blending weaponry with [[hand-to-hand combat]], resulting in a unique, yet familiar game for third-person shooter enthusiasts. Due to concerns that the [[bandwidth]] of the average consumer at that time was inadequate to handle most of Konoko's moves (specifically weapon stealing), [[Multiplayer game|multiplayer]] was omitted from the released version. This disappointed players and affected the game's longevity.

== Storyline ==

The story takes place on or after the year [[2032]],<ref>There have been debates as to whether 2032 is the actual year of the game's setting as the manual has never clearly stated this to be so. It is only given that the World Coalition Government was formed in January 12th 2032, and as the game progresses, the possibility of the in-game storyline actually being set in 2032 gets lesser.</ref><ref>According to Konoko's in-game diary, November 22 was a Monday. This is true for the years 2032, 2038, 2049, etc.</ref><ref>Officially confirmed to be set in 2032 by Bungie.net's Oni FAQ, although this is still debated due to how tightly the events of Oni would have been packed together, and that the FAQ went up during the Bungie/Microsoft take over.</ref> shortly after the establishment of a political entity named the World Coalition Government (WCG). This entity currently controls 80% of the world's land area that is livable (the rest, under the guise of wilderness reserves, is toxic), and was created as a solution to the world's economic problems.

The Technological Crimes Task Force (TCTF) is a paramilitary law-enforcement agency within the WCG. When the WCG came to power, they blamed abuse of technology for the world's previous difficulties. The TCTF serves to oppose this abuse, to prevent a return to these difficulties (or so say the WCG politicians). In truth, the TCTF is a kind of [[secret police]] - they enforce the law, but more for the suppression of loose technology and the government's opposition than for the public good.

As the various governments were combined under a single banner, the various criminal societies did likewise. The TCTF's largest foe is a worldwide crime network called The Syndicate. The Syndicate is led by a single individual named Muro, who has been outwitting the TCTF for years.

The story's main character is '''Konoko''' ([[Voice acting|voiced]] by [[Amanda Winn-Lee]]), a TCTF special agent fresh out of training. Konoko is under the authority of '''Commander Terrance Griffin''', and is teamed with a Simulated Life Doll (an SLD: an android) named '''Shinatama'''. The game's story revolves around Konoko's activities for the TCTF, her hidden past, and her special abilities.

{{spoiler}}
It starts with an assault on laboratories by a criminal organization named simply as The Syndicate; who is being led by a mysterious, yet dangerous man named Muro. Konoko, through her neural link with the TCTF's AI Shinatama (actually known as an SLD, or Simulated Life Doll: an android programmed with Konoko's brain patterns), her connection with Commander Griffin and Dr. Kerr, moves in to investigate. All the while, Commander Griffin and Doctor Kerr are seen arguing over Konoko's situation, cut in from time to time by Shinatama reporting on her bodily functions (adrenaline spikes, likewise).

Konoko ventures into the Syndicate Warehouse and the mole of TCTF, Chung, is found dead at the scene. Konoko clears out the warehouse, and then is sent to the Musashi Manufacturing Plant, belonging to the BGI corporation, the company that used the warehouse previously. The BGI corporation is some kind of "shadow front" for the Syndicate, and Musashi Manufacturing is BGI's daughter-company.

Konoko and her team are sent to the Manufacturing Plant. Inside the plant, Konoko and Commander Griffin realise that the plant is just a diversion/trap; while Konoko and her team are inside the plant, the Syndicate is attacking a bio-research lab. But later on, Konoko has to stop a deadly AI brain (not surprisingly, also called "Deadly Brain") which can potentially destroy the entire city if reaching full potential, or even dominate the entire digital world.

Upon her exit, she is called to a Bio-Research Lab, which is under the attack of The Syndicate. Muro and his strikers are raiding the lab to steal experimental gene surgery equipment. Upon her arrival, Konoko faces Barabas; a hybrid creature (part human, part machine; possibly a Chrysalis Symbiote) that is one of the main figures of The Syndicate. Upon Barabas' retreat, Barabas messages to Muro, telling him that "She (Konoko) is too strong.".

Muro moves towards the Vansam Regional Airport. He was trying to escape by plane, while Syndicate troops attack the airport as a diversion. He was using the airport cargo hangars as a temporary base of operations. But Konoko was in hot pursuit. She loses Muro, but manages to land a tracking device on the plane. Muro, while departing, speaks to his henchmen, who inform him that "They do not know of the condition of the Chrysalis". Meanwhile, the TCTF loses the tracking signal from Muro´s plane, allowing him to finally escape. Konoko then returns to her regular life.

Shortly after, the TCTF Regional Headquarters itself becomes compromised by an excessive attack of The Syndicate. Inside the HQ, Konoko finds out that Barabas has kidnapped Shinatama. Unable to control herself, Konoko first defeats Barabas, and then experiences a strange feeling overtaking her: what the game refers to as a "Daodan Spike".

Konoko tracks down Shinatama, and despite Griffin's objections, rushes to save her. All the while, Muro is torturing Shinatama to retrieve information in a nearby Atmospheric Conversion Center (a central facility to the recent civilization which filters poisons from the air). While venturing deeper into the facility, Konoko finally finds Shinatama. Shinatama says that she won't live, and in a heart-wrenching scene, reveals that Konoko's real name is Mai Hasegawa, and that she was involved in some sort of project. Griffin, in a desperate attempt to prevent Konoko from getting further with that information, sets the auto-destruct sequence of Shinatama, revealing that the tiny android was armed with a bomb with enough explosive power to be classified as a small nuclear warhead. Konoko flees, and TCTF starts pursuit.

Looking for her origins, Konoko goes to the Regional State Building, and there, is encountered by both TCTF and The Syndicate. She finds a terminal to access to the information, but as she is doing it, Muro's elite ninja, Mukade (possibly another Chrysalis Symbiote) swipes away the data concerning her. Konoko follows Mukade through the city's rooftops and finally, corners him. Mukade states that they are one and the same; that they should surrender to their essence, and revel in it. Enraged, Konoko kills Mukade and retrieves the disk.

Konoko goes back to Dr. Hasegawa's laboratory, where she discovers most of her past. Apparently, Dr. Hasegawa was a college teacher, and had fallen in love with a student of his, Jamie Kerr, who was also an activist who believed that the government was hiding secrets. One day, Jamie and Dr. Hasegawa venture into a forbidden zone of wild life (overgrown plants were covering it), and Jamie cuts her leg. However, in a matter of moments ("almost immediately", Dr. Hasegawa suggests) the wound gets infected and starts to kill her. Unable to bear seeing her in pain, Dr. Hasegawa shoots Jamie (to "ease her pain"). He has made a discovery through that incident, that the world outside of the atmospheric converters was extremely poisonous and destructive towards human biology. He leaves one note, "I will not let this tragedy happen again. Her brother will help me. He misses her as much as I do." Konoko learns that Jamie's maiden name was Kerr, and that she was Doctor Kerr's sister.

Konoko infiltrates the TCTF Science Prison #112 to find Dr. Kerr, who tells her about the solution they developed. They had named it a "Daodan Chrysalis" which was basically a hyper-evolved form of a cancer cell. By implanting a person with the chrysalis, they would let it adapt to the biology which contained it, and grow as the host suffered damage, or experienced negative emotions (which are met with hormonal spikes). However, further than that, over a duration of time, the chrysalis would start to grow the host as well, replacing the organs of the host with its own extensions. As Konoko asks about her past, Dr. Kerr tells that The Syndicate had discovered it, and Konoko's father was killed. Dr. Kerr also reveals that, Muro is Konoko's brother, the child he left behind as he escaped with Konoko to TCTF; in order to use the technology of TCTF and establish their security. Griffin, however, opposed greatly to the self-sustaining nature of the chrysalis and wanted it kept under strict control. Before he can reveal more, Dr. Kerr is killed by a TCTF Black Ops member, who attempted to shoot Konoko. After killing Kerr's killer, Konoko then decides to claim revenge on TCTF. To escape the Science Prison, she is forced to test the theory she has just heard, by attempting to escape through acid vats.

Konoko doesn't stop; she infiltrates the TCTF Regional HQ single-handedly, all to learn that Griffin had used Shinatama to do something. Upon tracking Griffin down to his Omega Bunker, Konoko finds out that Griffin constructed his own security cell with the defenses involving Shinatama, one that knows Konoko the best. As Konoko shuts Shinatama down, Shinatama begs Konoko to stop her, to kill her. In the end, as Shinatama's leftover body marches to Griffin, and Griffin shoots it down, Konoko takes the gun and holds Griffin at gunpoint.

At this point, the player is faced with the choice of shooting Griffin or walking away. The choice has no effect on the overall plot, but changes the final fight sequence at the game's end.

After this, Konoko reaches the Syndicate Mountain Compound that Muro is using. Upon her arrival, she discovers Muro´s master plan, Project "Sturmanderung": Muro is planning to reroute the atmospheric conversion centers to pollute the clean world; a disaster from which only the Chrysalis can save humankind. As Konoko quotes, "He's planning to kill everyone who doesn't sell his soul to him for a Chrysalis." Quickly devising a counter-measure, Konoko tries to reroute the atmospheric conversion centers, but doesn't interfere in time. Instead, she has a single choice left: destroy the mountain compound and the conversion centers connected to it. Then, she heads to the rooftop to face Muro.

Here, if the player killed Griffin, the final showdown ensues between Konoko and Muro's new self as he has accomplished to pass to the next stage of Chrysalis evolution - the Imago stage. This choice makes the game somewhat more difficult to complete, as instead of fighting a large number of weaker enemies, one must face a superboss -- periods of invunerability, massive size and damage, etc. However, if the player chose to walk away, then Muro stays in human form, he and his henchmen face Konoko, upon which Griffin comes along to help her. The overall plot remains the same, the ending included.

After the explosion, Konoko is shown roaming the ruins of the city, and monologuing to herself that, the Chrysalis may save humankind in the form of evolution after the disaster that had occurred, but that the fate of humankind is unclear.
{{endspoiler}}

== Gameplay and features ==
In ''Oni'', there are several ballistic and energy cell weapons, including handguns, rifles, and rocket launchers.

[[Image:Oni PC screenshot.jpg|thumb|256px|left|Screenshot (PC)]]
''Oni'' features hand-to-hand combat, a genre of gameplay previously found only in console games. Since the player is only allowed to carry one gun at a time and ammunition can be scarce, hand-to-hand combat eventually turns out to be more common than the use of weapons. The heroine has punches, kicks, throws, and flips at her disposal, as well special [[Combo (fighting)|combos]] and "super moves" that unlock as she progresses through levels. The various moves are executed through varying combinations of attack, directional, and/or jump keys. Each enemy class also has its own set of moves.

The main character, Konoko, can use the entire level as her combat arena. She can explore and move about freely, instead of being confined to a small arena and fighting a small group of enemies (as in the case in many console games of that era).

The game allows Konoko to explore 14 levels of varied sizes, ranging from medium-sized to large, entire-building levels. Bungie hired a professional architect to design the buildings for authenticity. When released, one criticism often leveled at the game was that of the sparse, [[bauhaus]] nature of the levels, citing a lack of malleable in-game objects and an overall sterile feel. For the game's enthusiasts, however, the size and explorability of the levels more than compensates for this perceived weakness.

The animation engine implements a method of interpolation which [[tweening|tweens]] key frames, enabling the characters to execute combat moves smoothly.

==Comic Book==
A 4-issue comic book mini series was published by [[Dark Horse Comics]]. The pilot issue (#0 of 3) was packaged with the PC version of the game.

==Awards==
*[[E3]] 1999 [[Game Critics Awards]]: Best Action/Adventure Game

==Footnotes==
<references/>
The number seven is a number often used in Bungie games. In the date of the game add all the numbers: 2+0+3+2=7.

==External links==
*[http://www.bungie.net/Projects/Oni/default.aspx Bungie Studios Oni section]
*[http://oni.bungie.org/ ONI Central]
*[http://www.3dactionplanet.com/oni/ ONI Online]
*{{moby game|id=/oni|name=''Oni''}}
*[http://oni2.net/ Oni2-all oni related]
*[http://wiki.oni2.net/ ONI Wiki]
*[http://script10000.oni2.net/ Script10k oni site]

{{Bungie Studios}}

[[Category:2001 video games]]
[[Category:Bungie Studios games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 2 games]]
[[Category:Third-person shooters]]
[[Category:Mac OS games]]
[[Category:Mac OS X games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Rockstar Games]]

[[ru:Oni]]
[[sv:Oni (spel)]]

Lafayette College

2007-04-04T02:16:27Z

Anetode: /* WJRH 104.9FM */ delete image licensed as "for non-commercial use only" or "used with permission for use on Wikipedia only" (CSD I3).

{{Infobox University |
image = [[image:Seal_Lafayette_College.jpg|center]] |
name = Lafayette College |
motto = {{lang|la|''Veritas liberabit''}}<br>([[Latin]] for "The truth shall make you free")<ref name="inauguration">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/community/president/inaug/history.html | title = Inauguration of Daniel Weiss | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-04-01}}</ref> |
established = [[1826]] |
type = [[Private school|Private]] |
endowment = [[United States dollar|$]]727 million<ref name="ataglance">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/promos/glance/index.html | title=Lafayette at a Glance | publisher=Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-03-27}}</ref> |
president = [[Daniel Weiss]] |
city = [[Easton, Pennsylvania|Easton]] |
state = [[Pennsylvania|PA]] |
country = [[United States|USA]] |
undergrad = 2,381 <ref name="ataglance"/>|
faculty = 198 <ref name="ataglance" />|
campus = [[Suburban]] <br> 110 [[acre]] (0.4 [[square kilometer|km²]]) main campus <br> additional 340 acres (1.37 km²)<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/admissions/campus_tour/aerial.html | title=Aerial View of 110-acre Main Campus | publisher=Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-21}}</ref>|
free_label = Student Life |
free = 250 groups, clubs, & sports |
colors = [[Maroon (color)|Maroon]] and [[White]] |
mascot = Leopard [[Image:Lafayette college leopard logo.gif|75px]] |
fightsong = "Lafayette Fight Song 1898" |
website = [http://www.lafayette.edu www.lafayette.edu]
}}

'''Lafayette College''' is a [[private school|private]] [[coeducation]]al [[liberal arts college]] located in [[Easton, Pennsylvania|Easton]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]]. The school, founded in [[1826]] by the citizens of Easton, first began holding classes in [[1832]].<ref name="historyoflaf">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/community/history.html | title = History of Lafayette College | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref> The founders voted to name the school after [[Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette|Marquis de Lafayette]], then in a farewell tour of the country, as "a testimony of respect for [his] talents, virtues, and signal services... the great cause of freedom."<ref name="historyoflaf"/>

The student body, consisting entirely of [[undergraduate]]s, come from 42 [[U.S. State]]s and 72 countries.<ref name="lafstudentlife">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/student_life/ | title = Student Life at Lafayette College | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref> In its 2007 edition, ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' ranked Lafayette thirtieth out of all liberal arts colleges in the nation,<ref name="usnews">{{cite web | url=http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/t1libartco_brief.php | title = America's Best Colleges 2007 | publisher = ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' | accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref> while [[Barron's Educational Series|Barron's]] ranked it as among the top 65 most competitive colleges and universities.<ref name="ataglance"/> Its varsity sports teams participate in the [[Patriot League]], with its football team claiming the league championship in each of the past three years.<ref name="laffootball">{{cite web | url=http://goleopards.cstv.com/sports/m-footbl/lafa-m-footbl-body.html | title = Lafayette College Football | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-22}}</ref>

==History==

A group of Easton citizens, led by [[lawyer]] James Madison Porter, met on [[December 27]], [[1824]] at White's Hotel to explore the possibility of opening a nearby college.<ref name="inauguration"/> The recent visit of [[Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette|Marquis de Lafayette]] to [[Philadelphia]] prompted the founders to name the school after the [[France|French]] [[military officer]].<ref name="historyoflaf"/> The group also established the 35-member Board of Trustees, a system of governance that has remained at the college since its inception.<ref name="inauguration"/> In need of an education plan, the meeting gave the responsibility to Porter, laywer Jacob Wagener, and [[Yale]] educated lawyer Joel Jones.<ref name="inauguration"/> The charter gained approval and on [[March 9]], [[1826]], [[Pennsylvania Governor]] [[John Andrew Shulze]]'s signature made the college official.<ref name="inauguration"/>

[[Image:Lafayette-statue.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Statue of the Marquis de Lafayette in front of Colton Chapel.]]

The school did not open until six years later when the Rev. George Junkin, a [[Presbyterian]] [[minister]], took up the charter and moved the all-male Manual Labor Academy of Pennsylvania from [[Germantown, Pennsylvania]] to Easton.<ref name="historyoflaf"/> Classes began on [[May 9]], [[1832]], with the instruction of 43 students on the south bank of the [[Lehigh River]] in a rented farmhouse.<ref name="historyoflaf"/> Students had to earn money to support the program by laboring in the fields and workshops.<ref name="historyoflaf"/> Later that year, Lafayette purchased what is now known as "College Hill" - nine [[acre]]s of elevated land across [[Bushkill Creek]].<ref name="historyoflaf"/> The college's first building was constructed two years later on the current site of South College.<ref name="historyoflaf"/>

Lafayette College became affiliated with the [[Presbyterian Church]] in [[1854]],<ref name="missionstatement">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/academics/mission.html | title = Mission Statement and Accreditation | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-02-02}}</ref> although recently the ending of this official relationship has been discussed.<ref name="chaplainposition">{{cite web | url=http://media.www.thelaf.com/media/storage/paper339/news/2004/02/20/News/Chaplain.Position.To.Be.Eliminated.Upon.Millers.Retirement.This.Spring-612945.shtml?sourcedomain=www.thelaf.com&MIIHost=media.collegepublisher.com | title = Chaplain position to be eliminated upon Miller's retirement this spring | publisher = The Lafayette | accessdate=2007-02-02}}</ref> In [[1857]], [[Francis March]] became the first professor of [[English studies|English]] at an American college when Lafayette introduced the program of study.<ref name="historyoflaf"/>

''The Lafayette'', Lafayette's weekly student newspaper, was founded in [[1870]] and claims to be the oldest college newspaper in Pennsylvania.<ref name="thelafgeninfo">{{cite web | url=http://www.thelaf.com/generalinfo | title = About ''The Lafayette'' | publisher = The Lafayette | accessdate=2007-02-02}}</ref>

In [[1970]], the college increased total enrollment after changing from an all-male school to a coeducational institution.<ref name="inauguration"/>

==Academics==
[[Image:Kirby Hall of Civil Rights library at Lafayette College.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The library in the Kirby Hall of Civil Rights.]]
Lafayette's student body consists of 2,381 undergraduate students hailing from 42 [[U.S. State]]s and 72 countries. For the class of 2010, the acceptance rate was 37%, with 76% of those accepted ranking in the top 10% of their high school classes.<ref name="classprofile">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/admissions/requirements.html | title = Requirements and Class Profile | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-23}}</ref> The middle 50% of enrolled students have [[SAT]] scores ranging from 580-670 Critical Reading and 620-710 Math.<ref name="classprofile"/> The college has 198 full-time faculty members, giving it an 11:1 student to faculty ratio.<ref name="ataglance"/>

Lafayette students have been honored in recent years with national and international scholarships,<ref name="scholarships">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/news.php/view/5819 | title = Recent Lafayette Recipients of National and International Scholarships... | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-23}}</ref> including the most [[Goldwater Scholarship]]s obtained by a liberal arts college over the past six years.<ref name="goldwater">{{cite web | url=http://lafayette.edu/news.php/view/10044/ | title = Jaryd Freedman ’08 Receives Goldwater Scholarship | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-03-24}}</ref> For the class of 2010, Lafayette gave financial aid to 46% of the students, with the average package amounting to $28,270.<ref name="collegecosts">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/admissions/finaid/costs_awards.html| title = College Costs and Financial Aid Awards | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-23}}</ref> The college also offers two merit-based academic scholarships - the Marquis Scholarship, which provides $16,000 a year, and the Trustee Scholarship, which provides $8,000 a year.<ref name="academicscholarships">{{cite web | url=http://www.lafayette.edu/admissions/finaid/scholarships.html | title = Scholarships | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-01-23}}</ref> Lafayette's [[financial endowment|endowment]] is valued at more than $727 million, placing it in the top 2% of all colleges and universities in endowment per student,<ref name="inauguration"/> with total assets amounting to more than $1 billion. <ref name="ataglance"/>

In its 2007 edition, ''[[U.S. News & World Report]]'' ranked Lafayette 30th out of all liberal arts colleges in the nation,<ref name="usnews"/> with its engineering program ranked 12th out of non-doctoral schools.<ref name="kettering">{{cite web | url=http://www.kettering.edu/visitors/storydetail.jsp?storynum=474 | title = America's Best Colleges 2007 | publisher = Kettering College | accessdate=2007-01-23}}</ref> [[Barron's Educational Series|Barron's]] ranked it among the top 65 most competitive colleges and universities.<ref name="ataglance"/> In ''[[Kiplinger's Personal Finance]]'' magazine, a study on the best valued schools ranked Lafayette 14th among liberal arts colleges. <ref name="kiplingerlist">{{cite web | url=http://content.kiplinger.com/tools/privatecolleges/privatecollege.php?schoollist=lib_arts&sortby=RANK&orderby=flip&states%5B%5D=ALL&myschool%5B%5D=none&outputby=table | title = 50 Best Value Liberal Arts Colleges | publisher = Kiplinger.com | accessdate=2007-05-18}}</ref>

==Campus==
[[Image:LafayetteCollegeTheQuad.JPG|thumb|left|250px|The Quad is at the center of Lafayette's 110 acre main campus.]]
Pardee Hall was devastated by fire twice in the 1800s. One fire began when a science experiment was carelessly left in a drawer. The other fire was arson, deliberately set by a professor of moral philosophy, who reportedly enjoyed watching the building burn from across the [[Delaware River]] in [[Phillipsburg, New Jersey]]. During the winter, or after a drenching spring rain, sledding is popular on the hill "behind" Pardee Hall. Although Pardee Hall is truly oriented southward, with the gently sloping hill leading to its front entrance, the students refer to this as the "back" of Pardee because the other side (the true back) faces the Quad. The most popular sleds are stolen trays from one of the two main dining halls on campus.

Farinon College Center, the student union, was architecturally inspired by the McKelvy House, a college-owned mansion just off campus. It is located in the original location of the Delta Upsilon fraternity, and the fireplace in the lobby is the original fireplace from the fraternity. While the top floor of Farinon is an "all-you-can-eat" style buffet paid for in blocks from a meal plan, the downstairs is a station-based food court in which students pay itemized fees for food. The dining area for the downstairs area also serves as the stage for comedy acts brought in by the activities committee of the college.

[[Image:South College at Lafayette College.jpg|thumb|right|250px|South College is Lafayette's largest residence hall, housing approximately 220 students.]]

Gilbert's Cafe, a coffeehouse located on the ground floor of Kirby House, was opened in 1999 to provide a late-night hangout for students. Its name was the subject of a contest, and the winning student selected one of the Marquis de Lafayette's middle names: Gilbert. Recently, a sinkhole was discovered underneath Kirby House, and the much-beloved coffeehouse (as well as the residence hall) was closed for the spring semester of 2006. However, it was reopened for the subsequent fall semester. Gilbert's Cafe is the site of many open mic nights where student bands can perform for their fellow classmates. In the fall of 2006, Lafayette College signed a deal with MTV to designate the campus as an MTVu campus. As a result, Lafayette hosted an MTVu concert in the spring of 2006, as opposed to the regular concert chosen by the student government.

The Kirby Hall of Civil Rights, the interior of which is constructed of travertine marble, was rumored to have been the most expensive collegiate building, per square foot, built at its time. Fred Morgan Kirby was criticized by many for spending too much money ($7 million) on the building during the Great Depression. To answer them, he had emblazoned across the front of the building a quote from the Bible that states "is it my right to do what I will with mine own." The building was designed by the same architectural firm that designed [[New York City]]'s [[Grand Central Terminal]].

Although Markle Hall is now an administrative building, housing the Offices of Admissions and Financial Aid, it was originally the Hall of Mining Engineering.

==Athletics==
[[Image:KSC.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Allan P. Kirby Sports Center]]
Lafayette has made three consecutive appearances in the NCAA Division I-AA football tournament. The men's basketball program has a long history, peaking in the late nineties under the leadership of Fran O'Hanlon, who led the Leopards to back-to-back Patriot League championships and NCAA Tournament appearances in 1999 and 2000. These seasons were documented by [[John Feinstein]] in his book,[[The Last Amateurs]]. American football innovations at Lafayette include the first use of the huddle<ref name="huddle">{{cite web | url=http://www.usatoday.com/sports/preps/football/2006-11-21-1a-cover-centenary-game_x.htm | title = Every year fields the game of the century | publisher = USA Today | last=Brady | first=Erik | accessdate=2007-03-22}}</ref> and the invention of the head harness, precursor to the football helmet.<ref name="riddell">{{cite web | url=http://www.home-team-sports.com/riddell_helmets/ | title = Evolution of the Football Helmet | publisher = Riddell | last=Riffenburgh | first=Beau | accessdate=2007-03-22}}</ref>

* '''Affiliation:''' [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division I]]
* '''Conference:''' [[Patriot League]]
* '''Team name:''' Leopards
* '''Team colors:''' Maroon and white
* '''Main rival:''' [[Lehigh University]], [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]].
* '''Stadiums:''' [[Fisher Field at Fisher Stadium]] (Football), [[Kirby Sports Center]] (Basketball), Metzger Athletic Complex
* '''National Football Championships:'''
**Football: 1896 (National Championship Foundation, Parke Davis)
**Football: 1921 (Boand, Parke Davis)
**Football: 1926 (Parke Davis)
* '''Conference Championships:'''
**Football: 1992, 1994, 2004 (Co-Champions with Lehigh), 2005 (Co-Champions with Colgate), 2006 (Co-Champions with Lehigh)
**Basketball: 1999, 2000
* '''National Championship:'''
**[[College Bowl]]: Undefeated Champions, 1962

===[[The Rivalry (college football)| The Rivalry]]===

[[Image:Lafayette2006PLchampsboard.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Lafayette wins the 142nd edition of The Rivalry]]

Lafayette College's athletic program is notable for [[The Rivalry (college football)| The Rivalry]] with nearby [[Lehigh University]]. Since [[1884]], the two football teams have met 142 times, making it the most played rivalry in the history of college football.<ref name="gwinnett">{{cite web | url=http://www.gwinnettdailypost.com/index.php?s=&url_channel_id=36&url_article_id=21935&url_subchannel_id=&change_well_id=2 | title = Lafayette-Lehigh above all others | publisher = Gwinnett Daily Post| last=Reed | first=Howard | accessdate=2007-04-02 | date=2006-11-25}}</ref> It is also the longest running rivalry in college football, with the teams playing at least once every year since [[1897]].<ref name="gwinnett"/> The Rivalry is considered one of the best in all of college athletics, and ESPNU recently ranked it #8 among the Top Ten College Football Rivalries.<ref name="espnu">{{cite web | url=http://goleopards.cstv.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/101106aaa.html | title = Lafayette-Lehigh Rivalry to be Featured by ESPN | publisher = Lafayette College | accessdate=2007-04-02 | date=2006-10-11}}</ref> The game is sold out long before gameday each year.

Lafayette leads the all-time series 75-62-5. In the latest contest, Lafayette beat Lehigh on Saturday, November 18, 2006 by a score of 49-27 at Fisher Stadium, their fourth win in 5 years over the Mountain Hawks. Quarterback Brad Maurer '07 and running back Jonathan Hurt '07 shared the MVP title. Lehigh and Lafayette thus shared the Patriot League Championship, while the win earned Lafayette the automatic bid to the I-AA playoff tournament.

==Fraternities and sororities==
Lafayette has six fraternities and six sororities, all of which are located on campus. Approximately one-third of students participate in Greek Life at Lafayette, making it a viable living option.

[[Alpha Phi Omega]] National Service Fraternity was founded in [[1925]] at Lafayette College by [[Frank Reed Horton]] in Hogg Hall.

The Rho Chapter of the [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] fraternity is the oldest fraternity and the oldest student organization at Lafayette College, having been chartered on October 15, 1855. Among the distinguished members of this chapter are [[Peyton C. March]], U.S. Army Chief of Staff during World War I, and [[William E. Simon]], former U.S. Secretary of the Treasury.

The [[Phi Kappa Psi]] fraternity house was in the ''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' for a number of years as the largest free standing structure to undergo transportation. The "Old Grey Barn", as it is often called, is now located along March Field.

==WJRH 104.9FM==

The campus radio station, WJRH 104.9FM, first established licensure with the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) in 1946, broadcasting under a Class D educational license on 90.5 FM. As [[FM]] frequencies grew in demand, the FCC mandated that stations operating in the frequency range currently provided to WJRH increase their power to serve larger audiences. Since WJRH was only to serve the Lafayette community, it was decided to give the frequency to another facility and relocate to its current home frequency, 104.9. WJRH alumni have become influential individuals in the broadcasting field, ranging from Engineering Directors for networks such as the [[American Broadcasting Company]], to public broadcasting policy makers.

The station is constantly being upgraded with the latest broadcasting technology. Several additions have included the relaunch of WJRH Broadband (a live [[Windows Media Player]] stream available to Lafayette students) and [http://ww2.lafayette.edu/~wjrh/podcastdatabase.htm WJRH PC] (an online database of MP3 [[Podcasts]] of select shows as part of an overall website renovation).

WJRH has been housed for over 30 years in its current location, Hogg Hall. The station's web site is: [http://www.lafayette.edu/~wjrh WJRH 104.9FM]. Lafayette College sporting events can also be watched on the Lafayette Sports Network at various [http://goleopards.cstv.com/multimedia/lafa-outlets.html cable and satellite outlets], listed at [http://www.goleopards.com GoLeopards.com].

==Notable alumni==
[[Image:William E Simon.jpg|right|thumb|William E. Simon, class of 1952, served as the United States Secretary of the Treasury from 1974-1977.]]
A number of Lafayette College alumni have held prominent positions in the United States government. [[William E. Simon]], class of 1952, served as the 63rd [[Secretary of the Treasury]] and later acted as the President of the [[United States Olympic Committee]]. [[George H. Decker]], class of 1924, was [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]] from 1960 to 1962. Lafayette alumni who served in [[United States Congress|Congress]] include [[William Sebring Kirkpatrick]], member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] from Pennsylvania, and [[Robert C. Smith|Bob Smith]], class of 1952 and former [[United States Senator|Senator]] of [[New Hampshire]]. [[Joseph Force Crater|Joesph F. Crater]], class of 1910 and object of a famous unsolved disappearance case from [[1930]], was an [[Associate Justice]] of the [[New York Supreme Court]],

Two Lafayette alumni have won the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]. [[Philip S. Hench]], class of [[1916]], won in [[1950]], while [[Haldan K. Hartline]], class of [[1923]], received the honor in [[1967]]. Other notable alumni in academia include [[James McKeen Cattell]], the first professor of [[psychology]] in the United States, and [[Jay Parini]], a poet and [[Middlebury College]] professor. [[Dominique Lapierre]] is a noted author, [[Brent Glass]] is the director [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]] [[National Museum of American History]], [[Frank Reed Horton]] founded the [[Alpha Phi Omega]] fraternity, and [[William Alexander Parsons Martin|W.A.P. Martin]] was a [[Presbyterian]] missionary and translator. The Kirby family (Fred M. Kirby and Allen P. Kirby) helped found the [[F. W. Woolworth Company|Woolworth's]] [[five and dime]] store chain. [[Charles Bergstresser]] was one of the three founders of [[Dow Jones & Company]]. [[Ian Murray]] co-founded the [[Vineyard Vines]] clothing company.

Alumni that have made their name in sports and entertainment include [[Joe Maddon]], current manager of [[Major League Baseball]]'s [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]], and [[Joel Silver]], head of [[Hollywood]]'s [[Silver Pictures]] and producer of films including the ''[[Die Hard]]'', ''[[Lethal Weapon]]'', and ''[[The Matrix]]'' series. In addition, the founders of the [[1960s]] [[pop music|pop]] group [[The Cyrkle]], guitarists Don Danneman and Tom Dawes, were graduates of Lafayette.

==Notable non-alumni attendees and faculty==
*[[Stephen Crane]], author of ''The Red Badge of Courage''. Attended for one semester before leaving to live the life of a vagrant in order to do research for his writing.
*[[Theodore Roethke]], poet, served on faculty, prior to his publication and fame.

==References==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references/></div>

==External links==
* [http://www.lafayette.edu/ Lafayette College] - official web site
* [http://goleopards.collegesports.com/ Lafayette College Leopards] - official athletics web site
* [http://www.thelaf.com ''The Lafayette''] - student newspaper
{{Geolinks-US-streetscale|40.698|-75.208}}

[[Category:Lafayette College| ]]
[[Category:Easton, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Eastern Pennsylvania Rugby Union]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1826]]
[[Category:Northampton County, Pennsylvania]]
[[category:Posse schools]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Pennsylvania]]

{{Patriot_League}}

420 (Cannabis-Kultur)

2007-03-30T00:47:25Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 75.15.20.206 (talk) to last version by 76.173.120.108

[[Image:420_Grafitti.jpg|thumb|right|250px| Graffiti showing "4:20"]]
'''420''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') is a term used in [[North America]] as a discreet way to refer to [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] and, by extension, a way to identify oneself with [[Cannabis culture]]. It is widely accepted that in the early 1970s, a group of teenagers at [[San Rafael High School]] in [[San Rafael, California]] used to meet every day after school at 4:20 p.m. to smoke [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue.<ref name="snope">[http://www.snopes.com/language/stories/420.htm Snopes.com - Urban Legends Reference Pages]</ref><ref>[http://www.hightimes.com/ht/lounge/index.php?page=420 Hightimes magazine]</ref>

Cannabis users gather on [[April 20]] ("4/20" in the [[United States]] dating shorthand) to celebrate and consume cannabis. "420 friendly" is sometimes seen on advertisements for roommates, indicating that the current occupants are tolerant of cannabis users.<ref>[http://www.newwest.net/index.php/topic/article/boulder_still_a_bastion_of_hippies_and_radicals_apparently/C82/L40/ New West - The Voice of the rocky mountains]</ref><ref name="snope"/>

A well-known proposition on the legalization of cannabis <ref>http://www.chrisconrad.com/expert.witness/sb420-03.htm</ref> was entitled Proposition 420. This bill promoted use of marijuana for medical purposes, stating that persons possessing or cultivating marijuana for personal medical purposes with approval by a physician is not subject to conviction.
==Citations==

<div class="references-small"><references/>
</div>

== External links ==
* Halnon, Karen Bettez. [http://hempfest.org/420.php The Power of 420: Transforming the universal code into a collective consciousness for stoners]. Seattle Hempfest site; originally published in High Times, May 2003.
* Manjoo, Farhad. [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,51986-0.html High Holy Day for Potheads]. Wired News, April 20, 2001.
* Paiyne, Viper. [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/viperslair/lair_ready/tales/420revealed.htm 4:20 Revealed]. Viper's Lair, March 22, 2004.
* Phish.net FAQ [http://www.phish.net/faq/420.html What does the number 420 signify, and why?]
* [http://www.hightimes.com/ht/lounge/index.php?page=420 420 Timeline/When's Your 420?] from High Times
* [http://www.chrisconrad.com/expert.witness/sb420-03.htm California Senate Bill 420] medical marijuana implementation, effective January 1, 2004.

[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Numbers in pop culture]]
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]
[[Category:Urban legends]]
[[ja:420 (大麻)]]
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]
{{Cannabis resources}}

420 (Cannabis-Kultur)

2007-03-27T20:55:31Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 24.231.226.245 (talk) to last version by Leafyplant

Ze Frank

2007-03-15T04:05:27Z

Anetode: Replaceable fair use images as of 25 February 2007

'''Ze Frank''' (born '''Hosea Jan Frank''' on [[March 31]], [[1972]], first name {{IPA2|'zei}}, rhymes with "say") is an online [[performance art]]ist, composer, humorist and public speaker based in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]].<ref name = "Warren St. John">{{cite web | last = St. John | first = Warren | title = "And You're So Funny? Write My Script" | publisher = [[The New York Times]] | date = [[June 18]], [[2006]] | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/18/fashion/sundaystyles/18ze.html?ex=1308283200&en=75012f528a1baac1&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss | accessdate = 2006-12-20 }}</ref>

==Personal Life==
Frank was born to German-American parents and raised in a suburb of [[Albany, New York]]. He graduated from [[Brown University]] in 1995 where he studied [[neuroscience]].<ref name = "Warren St. John" /> Information given in ''[[the show with zefrank|the show]]'' indicates that he has a sister and that he was educated at a [[Montessori]] school.

Beginning at Brown, Frank played guitar and sang lead vocals for a funk/jam band called [[Dowdy Smack]] until its dissolution in 1998.

==Career==
In 2001, Frank created an [http://www.zefrank.com/invite/swfs/index2.html online birthday invitation] and sent it to seventeen of his closest friends. Forwarded wildly, the invitation soon generated millions of hits and over 100 gigabytes of daily web traffic to Frank's personal Web site.<ref>{{cite news | last = Kukec | first = Anna Marie | title = Web designer's email invite forwarded millions of times | publisher = [[Daily Herald (Arlington Heights, Illinois newspaper)|Daily Herald]] | date = [[April 23]], [[2001]]}}</ref> The site grew to include interactive group projects, short films, animations, and video games, many [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]-based, including children's educational videos featuring handy tips such as "Don't vacuum your face".

Frank won a 2002 [[Webby Awards|Webby Award]] for Best Personal Website and was featured in Time Magazine's "50 Coolest Websites" in 2005.<ref>{{ cite web | last = Murray Buechner | first = Marryanne | title = 50 Coolest Websites 2005 | publisher = [[Time (magazine)|Time]] | date = [[June 20]], [[2005]] | url = http://www.time.com/time/business/article/0,8599,1073316,00.html | accessdate = 2006-12-20 }}</ref> Frank debuted onstage at the [[Gel conference]] in 2003, and later spoke at the [[TED (conference)|TED Conference]] in 2004 and 2005.<ref>[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1895918195820925057&hl=en Ze Frank's speech] at the [[TED (conference)|TED Conference]] (2004) Monterey, California (video)</ref>

In March of 2006, Frank launched a daily video blog known simply as ''[[the show with zefrank]]''. Each tightly-edited, three-to-five minute episode combined ''[[The Daily Show with Jon Stewart|Daily Show]]''-style commentary on world events with songs, observations, and occasional games or challenges for his viewers to participate in. ''the show'' quickly became the most popular portion of his site and helped to increase Frank's visibility in the [[blogosphere]].

Frank has served as an [[Professor#Other positions|adjunct professor]] at [[Tisch School of the Arts#Interactive Telecommunications Program|ITP]]/[[New York University|NYU]], [[Parsons School of Design]], and [[SUNY Purchase]].

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.zefrank.com/ Ze Frank's site]
*[http://www.zefrank.com/wiki/ zefrank.com wiki]
*[http://imdb.com/name/nm1427421/ ''Ze Frank''] on [[IMDB]]
*[http://video.on.nytimes.com/ifr_main.jsp?nsid=a3f1beb18:10c67e2af0b:5ddc&fr_story=c6bc3a3add5740b12bc8f490af760e3480993468&st=1152804756661&mp=FLV&cpf=false&fr=052406_063357_168bc0f0x10b64aed161x5842&rdm=790799.5194153858 Warren St. John interviews Ze Frank] ([[June 18]], [[2006]]) for ''[[The New York Times]]'' (video)
*[http://www.goodexperience.com/blog/archives/000191.php/ Interview: Ze Frank, performance artist] by Mark Hurst of goodexperience.com on [[December 4]], [[2002]]
*[http://blogs.wbur.org/arts/?p=356 "Net Neutrality and the Arts"] by [[Adrienne LaFrance]], ''NPR Boston'', [[June 26]], [[2006]].
*[http://www.businessweek.com/the_thread/blogspotting/archives/2006/07/ze_frank_youtub.html "Ze Frank, YouTube, and Making Money"] by Heather Green, ''BusinessWeek'', [[July 28]], [[2006]]
*[http://ted.com/tedtalks/tedtalksplayer.cfm?key=z_frank Video] of Ze Frank discussion of the internet at the February 2004 [[TED (conference)|TED Conference]] in Monterey, CA. Duration 19:42

[[Category:1972 births|Frank, Ze]]
[[Category:Living people|Frank, Ze]]
[[Category:American humorists|Frank, Ze]]
[[Category:Brown University alumni|Frank, Ze]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Frank, Ze]]
[[Category:Internet personalities|Frank, Ze]]
[[Category:People from Brooklyn|Frank, Ze]]
[[Category:Video bloggers|Frank, Ze]]

Namensgenerator

2007-03-12T23:45:23Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by SyreX (talk) to last version by 71.29.135.233

{{Orphan|November 2006}}
'''Name generator''' is a program that uses certain language rules or word combining techniques to come up with new unused [[names]]. Usually used by [[marketing]] professionals to [[brainstorm]] for brandable product name ideas. People seeking for unusual baby and pet names can also find unique names with name generators.

Registering a meaningful domain name has become problematic as most of the dictionary words are already registered by organizations or individuals. Meaningful word combinations word are also scarce.
The introduction of alternative [[gTLD]]s solved the problem partially; however, most of the businesses still prefer the "[[.com]]" extension. The are several different strategies for selecting a good domain name: incorporating company's name or its abbreviation into the domain name, use some industry-specific word or a phrase, or use a short and easy to memorize name. These strategies are usually employed by domain name generators that combine a key word provided by the user with a database of prefixes and suffixes.
A domain name generator creates a list of names and simultaneously queries the [[Whois]] database to see whether the resulting names still have unregistered [[Domain name|domains]]. Such tools are also used by [[domainers]] hoping to find domains that can later be traded in the domain name aftermarket.

Another type of name generator is that which creates names for people and characters as used by authors, [[role-playing game|role players]] and [[wargaming]] scenarios. This type of name generator may create a name of specific nationality by combing typical given name and family names together. More sophisticated rules may create the female form of family name as used in countries such as Russian and Greece. Other generators may create totally fictional names based on syllabals arranged by formula in such a way that they create the right sound for a genre: elf names, troll names, Dickensian names etc.

== External links ==

* [http://www.makewords.com/ MakeWords.com Name Generator]
* [http://noemata.net/nbng/ Random Name Generator]
* [http://www.domainfellow.com/ Domain fellow - The first free domain name generator launched in 1999]
* [http://www.youandwhosearmy.co.uk/youandwhosearmy/names.asp People/Character name generator]
* [http://www.necrotales.com/necroGames/zombiename.php Zombie Name Generator]

{{www-stub}}

[[Category: Names]]
[[Category: Naming rights]]

E-UTRA

2007-02-27T11:29:55Z

Anetode: Reverted edits by 121.247.160.154 (talk) to last version by Uzume

{{Table Mobile phone standards}}

{{future product}}

'''High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA)''' is a proposed part of [[3GPP]]'s [[3GPP_Long_Term_Evolution|Long Term Evolution (LTE)]] upgrade path for [[UMTS]] systems. HSOPA is also often referred to as ''Super 3G''. If adopted, HSOPA succeeds [[HSDPA]] and [[HSUPA]] technologies specified in 3GPP releases 5 and 6. Unlike HSDPA or HSUPA, HSOPA is an entirely new air interface system, unrelated to and incompatible with [[W-CDMA]].

== Features ==

HSOPA has the following features:

* Flexible bandwidth usage with 1.25MHz to 20MHz bandwidths. By comparison, W-CDMA uses fixed size 5MHz chunks of spectrum.
* Increased spectral efficiency at 2-4 times more than in 3GPP release 6, peak transfer rates of 100Mbps for downlink and 50Mbps for uplink.
* Latency times of around 20 ms for round trip time from user terminal to [[Radio_access_network|RAN]], approximately the same as a combined HSDPA/HSUPA system, but much better than "classic" W-CDMA.

== Design ==

Originally proposed by [[Nortel]], HSOPA uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing ([[OFDM]]) and multiple-input multiple-output ([[Multiple-input multiple-output communications|MIMO]]) antenna technology to support up to 10 times as many users as W-CDMA based systems, with lower processing power required on each handset.<ref>[http://www.nortel.com/corporate/news/collateral/ntj2_hsopa.pdf HSOPA: Exploiting OFDM and MIMO to take UMTS beyond HSDPA/HSUPA] (Philippe Duplessis, Nortel)</ref>. Still in development, experimental performance is 37Mbps in the downlink over a 5MHz channel, close to the theoretical maximum of 40Mbps.

== Rationale for HSOPA ==

A working version of HSOPA will help achieve the goals set by the 3GPP LTE project. The improvements in performance this implies will allow [[wireless]] operators to offer 'quadruple play' services - voice, high-speed interactive applications including large data transfer and feature-rich [[IPTV]] with full mobility.

Although [[UMTS]], with [[HSDPA]] and [[HSUPA]], delivers high data transfer rates, wireless data usage is expected to increase significantly over the next few years. The emergence of competitive technologies, such as [[WiMAX]], is driving UMTS operators to upgrade their networks to support better data rates.

As a part of UMTS, HSOPA would be designed to provide a simple evolution path for UMTS service providers, providing increases in data speeds, and spectral efficiency, and allowing the provision of more functionality.

For most situations, the cost to evolve a UMTS network to a next generation air interface, including HSOPA, will be minimal compared to the cost of deploying a new network, as most of the existing infrastructure will remain the same, requiring only major upgrades at a tower level and on handsets.

==Technology demos==
HSOPA demonstrations and trials are planned for the year 2007 and onwards.

* Researchers in [[Heinrich Hertz]] [[Heinrich Hertz Institute|Institute]], a research division of the [[Germany|German]] government-founded [[Fraunhofer Institute]] have demonstrated 100 Mb/s transfer speeds.<ref>[http://www.tgdaily.com/2006/12/20/100mbs_cellphones/ Researchers demo 100 Mb/s MIMO cellphone technology]</ref>

==Deployment==
* [[NTT DoCoMo]] of [[Japan]] plans to launch new network based on HSOPA technology by [[2010]]. The network upgrade will cost 200 billion yen ($1.7 billion USD/1.3 billion euros).<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/news/Technology/Report-Japans-DoCoMo-to-spend-up-to-US17-bln-on-new-highspeedSuper-3G-cell-phones/2007/01/04/1167777219593.html Report: Japan's DoCoMo to spend up to US$1.7 bln on new high-speed Super 3G cell phones]</ref>

==Competitive technologies ==
=== [[WiMAX]] vs HSOPA ===
As both systems are using air interfaces radically different from those already deployed, neither standard can operate in the same physical spectrum as prior standards, though an [[Frequency_division_duplex|FDD]] version of HSOPA can share licensed cellular spectrum allocations as long as those allocations are greater than the 6.25MHz (5MHz for W-CDMA and 1.25MHz for HSOPA) minimum required for both standards to co-exist.

In practice, most UMTS networks should be possible to migrate at the tower level to HSOPA without the need to obtain more spectrum, except where legal barriers exist preventing the use of non-[[IMT-2000]] air interface technologies.

A major reason for the shift from CDMA is the ability of OFDM to make better use of MIMO and AAS multi-antenna and signal path technologies. Debates about core spectral efficiencies are dwarfed by improvements already achievable via the use of MIMO and limited AAS. The evolutionary road map of wireless calls for greater gains from the synergistic combination of these technologies.

While both WiMAX and the HSOPA use OFDM/OFDMA, HSOPA enhanced UMTS will most likely be optimized for wide area mobile voice communications. HSOPA will use OFDMA for the down-link and [[Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA)]] for the up-link. WiMAX/802.16e-2005 uses OFDMA for both the up and down links.

SC-OFDM can maintain connections at longer distance but has lower bandwidth than OFDMA. However, WiMAX advocates perceive evolution of WBB as also shifting the 'architectural evolution' of wireless networks to more granular, symmetrical, higher bandwidth micro-cell and mobile multi-hop relay network topologies.

Multi-mode WiMAX plus CDMA and other technologies can work together to fulfill both long range, low bandwidth and shorter range, high bandwidth requirements on the basis of providing the user with 'always best connected' experience.

== References ==

<references/>

== See also ==

* [[3GPP Long Term Evolution]]
* [[4G|Fourth Generation Networks]]
* [[UMTS]], [[UMTS-TDD]], [[WiMAX]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.3gpp.org/Highlights/LTE/LTE.htm 3GPP UMTS Long Term Evolution page]

{{Telecomm-stub}}

[[Category:Mobile telephony standards]]
[[Category:UMTS]]

[[de:High Speed OFDM Packet Access]]

Hubbard-Gletscher

2007-02-11T22:52:49Z

Anetode: /* Image gallery */ +2 striking photos

{{Infobox_Glacier | glacier_name = Hubbard Glacier
| image_name = Hubbard landsat-tn.jpg
| caption = Hubbard Glacier
| type = Tidewater/Mountain glacier
| location = [[Alaska]], [[United States|U.S.]], [[Yukon|Yukon]], [[Canada]]
| coordinates = {{coor dms|60|00|54|N|139|29|31|W|}}
| area =
| length = 122 km (76 miles)
| thickness =
| terminus = Sealevel
| status = Stable/Advancing
}}
[[Image:Hubbard Glacier Alaska Map.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Map of Hubbard Glacier]]

'''Hubbard Glacier''' is a tidewater [[glacier]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Alaska]] and the [[Yukon]] Territory of [[Canada]]. From its source <ref> The Hubbard Glacier’s longest source, 122 km from its snout, is at about 11,000 feet above sea level at about 61-00N 140-09 W, about eight kilometers west of Mt. Walsh. A shorter tributary glacier begins at the easternmost summit on the Mt. Logan ridge at about 18,300 feet at about 60-35 N 140-22-40 W.</ref> in the Yukon, the glacier stretches 122 km (76 mi) to the sea at [[Yakutat Bay]] and [[Disenchantment Bay]]. It is the longest tidewater glacier in Alaska, with an open calving face over ten kilometres (6 mi) wide.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.nps.gov/wrst/hubbardglacier.htm| title = Hubbard Glacier: Geology in Action!| publisher = National Park Service| accessdate = 2007-01-17}}</ref> Before it reaches the sea, Hubbard is joined by the [[Valerie Glacier]] to the west, which, through forward surges of its own ice, has contributed to the advance of the ice flow that experts believe will eventually dam the [[Russell Fiord]] from Disenchantment Bay waters.

The Hubbard Glacier ice margin has continued to advance for about a century. In [[May 1986]], the Hubbard Glacier surged forward, blocking the outlet of Russell Fiord and creating "Russell Lake." All that summer the new lake filled with runoff; its water level rose 25 metres, and the decrease in [[salinity]] threatened its sea life.<ref name="USGS">{{cite web| url = http://water.usgs.gov/pubs/fs/fs-001-03/| title = USGS Report: Hubbard Glacier, Alaska: Growing and Advancing in Spite of Global Climate Change and the 1986 and 2002 Russell Lake Outburst Floods|publisher = U.S. Geological Survey| accessdate = 2007-01-18}}</ref>

Around midnight on October 8th the dam began to give way. In the next 24 hours an estimated 5.3 km³ of water gushed through the gap, and the [[fiord]] was reconnected to the ocean at its previous level.<ref name="USGS"/> This was the second largest [[glacial lake outburst flood]] (GLOF) recorded in historical times.

In spring 2002, the glacier again approached Gilbert Point. It pushed a terminal [[moraine]] ahead of its face and closed the opening again in July. On August 14, the terminal moraine was washed away after rains had raised the water level behind the dam it formed to 18 m (61 ft) above sea level. The fiord could become dammed again, and perhaps permanently. If this happens, the fiord could overflow its southern banks and drain through the [[Situk River]] instead, threatening [[trout]] habitat and a local airport.

The ice at the foot of Hubbard Glacier is about 400 years old: it takes that long for ice to traverse the length of the glacier. The glacier routinely calves off [[iceberg]]s the size of a ten-story building. Where the glacier meets the shore, most of the ice is below the waterline, and newly calved icebergs can shoot up quite dramatically, so that ships must keep their distance from it as they ply their way up and down the coast.

==Cited references==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==See also==
*[[Glacial lake outburst flood]]

==Image gallery==
<center><gallery>
Image:HubbardGlacierFar.jpg|The glacier from a distance
Image:HAL_Hubbard.JPG|[[Holland America Line]]'s Oosterdam passing Turner Glacier while leaving [[Disenchantment Bay]]
Image:Hubbard_Ice.JPG|Hubbard Glacier and icebergs formed by calving
Image:HubbardGlacierBoat.jpg|Closeup of Hubbard Glacier
Image:Hubbard Glacier honeymoon.jpg
Image:Hubbard Glacier honeymoon 2.jpg
</gallery></center>

==External links==
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=60.031244,-139.551773&spn=0.163902,0.463142&t=k&hl=en Interactive satellite view of where Hubbard Glacier meets the sea]
[[Image:Hub_Glacier.jpg|center|800px|Panoramic view of the glacier]]

[[Category:Geography of the Yukon]]
[[Category:Glaciers of Alaska]]
[[Category:Glaciers of Canada]]

IDEAL (Bezahlsystem)

2007-02-03T07:21:16Z

Anetode: {{db-spam}}

{{db-spam}}
{{lowercase|title=iDEAL}}

[[Image:ideal.jpg|thumb|right]]

iDEAL is an Internet payment method in The Netherlands, based on online banking. Introduced in 2005, this payment method allows customers to buy securely on the Internet using direct online transfers from their bank account.

The participating banks in iDEAL are: [[Rabobank]], [[SNS Bank]], [[ABN AMRO]], [[Postbank]] and [[ING Bank]], together serving the vast majority of the Dutch online banking market.

iDEAL offers merchants a low-cost, virtually risk-free and real-time payment method to accept Internet payments. For customers, iDEAL uses the same familiar environment as their banks' online banking sites. A high level of security is realized by using [[two-factor authentication]] (2FA), such as a [[challenge-response]] [[token]] based on the chip embedded in the [[debit card]] or [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]] card. Furthermore, there is no need to share any sensitive information with the merchant, such as account or credit card numbers. There is no [[chargeback]] right however, which can be considered a disadvantage for the consumer using this payment method.

The concept of iDEAL is based on Rabobank Direct Betalen, an [[Internet payment]] method initially launched in 1997 by Dutch Rabobank which allowed Rabobank customers to pay directly from their bank account to Internet merchants, without using a [[credit card]].

iDEAL works as follows:

* Merchant offers iDEAL as payment method, often in addition to the regular credit card payment options
* Consumer selects iDEAL and selects his bank
* Consumer is redirected to his bank's login page
* Participating bank displays transaction data
* Customer enters account number and signs the transaction digitally using a [[2FA]] token
* Bank authorizes transaction in real-time, deducting the amount directly from the consumer's account (if there is not enough balance, the transaction will be refused)
* Merchant received real-time confirmation of the payment by the bank
* Consumer is redirected back to the merchant page with a confirmation that the payment has been successful

== External links ==

* iDEAL site [http://www.ideal-betalen.nl] (Dutch)

* Rabobank [http://www.rabobank.nl]

* ABN AMRO Bank [http://www.abnamro.nl]

* Postbank [http://www.postbank.nl]

* ING Bank [http://www.ingbank.nl]

[[nl:IDEAL]]

[[Category:Electronic commerce]]
[[Category:Payment systems]]

420 (Cannabis-Kultur)

2007-01-25T17:28:55Z

Anetode: rv

[[Image:Weeed1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' plant]]
For some people (particularly some of those within [[Cannabis culture]], but also more widely), the number '''420''' (pronounced '''four-twenty''') relates to the consumption of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] as a drug, and elements of its associated [[culture]]. The exact origin of the term is unknown. Cannabis users gather on [[April 20]] ("4/20" in the [[United States]] dating shorthand) every year to celebrate and consume cannabis. 4:20p.m. (or even a.m.) is also a popular time to consume cannabis.[http://www.snopes.com/language/stories/420.htm] "420 friendly" is seen on advertisements for roommates, indicating that the housemates are tolerant of smoking cannabis[http://www.newwest.net/index.php/topic/article/boulder_still_a_bastion_of_hippies_and_radicals_apparently/C82/L40/].

==Origin==
The origin of the term "420" is the subject of some dispute and much speculation, and so no theory can be said conclusively to be correct, but the term seems to have been coined in [[North America]] in the early 1970s.[http://www.hightimes.com/ht/lounge/index.php?page=420]

===Commonly accepted origin===
*[[Snopes.com]], ''[[High Times]]'' magazine, [[The Marijuana-Logues]], and ''[[The Straight Dope]]'' claim that in the early 1970s, a group of teenagers at [[San Rafael High School]] in [[San Rafael, California]], used to meet every day after school at 4:20 p.m. to smoke [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] at the [[Louis Pasteur]] statue. One piece of evidence supporting an origin of the term from the time 4:20 is the fact that the number is always said "four twenty". This theory is also the most cited and the most widely accepted.[http://www.snopes.com/language/stories/420.htm]


===Alternative origins===
* Karen Bettez Halnon summarizes and analyzes several popular [[theories]] about 420, explaining how it functions as a multi-faceted expression of pot-smoker identity and community.[http://hempfest.org/420.php]
*[[H. P. Lovecraft]]'s short story, [[In the Walls of Eryx]], which contains the line, "My route must have been far from straight, for it seemed hours before I was free of the mirage-plant's pervasive influence... When I did get wholly clear I looked at my watch and was astonished to find that the time was only 4:20." Lovecraft describes these "curious mirage-plants" as having a "shaggy stalk", "spiky leaves", and "mottled blossoms whose gaseous, dream-breeding exhalations penetrate every existing make of mask." This theory for the origin of 4:20 was postulated on the official website for the band [[Tool (band)|Tool]].[http://www.toolband.com/news/letter/2002_04.php]

==References in popular culture==

===Occurrences in music===
*The song "I'm A Weed Plant" by [[Fishbone]] contains the lyric, "I'm a weed plant, and when you say 420 you'll think of me / It's sort of illegal, but not in reality."[http://www.asklyrics.com/display/Fishbone/I%60m_A_Weed_Plant_Lyrics/96650.htm]
* Rap artist [[Afroman]] released an album called '[[4RO20]]' and [http://www.afromanmusic.com his website] runs under the slogan "Where it's always 4RO20." Also, he changed the label on his "Colt 45" bottle to say "Cult 420," as seen on his website. Also, the clock shown on his website is stopped at 4:20.
*The album ''[[Royal Highness (album)|Royal Highness]]'' by the [[Kottonmouth Kings]] lists all song durations as 4:20; actual song times vary. They also have a song called "4-2-0."
*The song "Take Me to Your Leader" by [[Incubus (band)|Incubus]] contains the lyric, "What if my watch read four dot dot two oh every hour, every day, you could bet your dollar I'd be happy!"
*The song "Trouble in 421" by [[Incubus (band)|Incubus]] has the subject of the song living in apartment "420 G," and contains the lyrics, "his pupil was wide open...it was indubitably dose derived," and, "I beg my common sense to keep my neighbor out away from my front door until I find a way to hide myself from those in 4-2-1...one away from the good one."
*The song "Stoned Part I" (from the album ''Stoned'' by [[Lewis Taylor]]) was also released in a "420 Mix" by [http://www.hacktone.com HackTone Records], with a duration of 4:20.
*The [[Megadeth]] song "Mary Jane," from their third album ''[[So Far, So Good...So What!]]'', has its last beat stop at exactly four minutes and twenty seconds, even though the total running time is 4:24. "Mary Jane" is a common slang term for cannabis.
*The [[death metal]] band [[Six Feet Under (band)|Six Feet Under]] recorded a song called "420" with a running time of four minutes and twenty seconds for their [[1997]] album ''[[Warpath (album)|Warpath]]''. A vocal proponent of legalizing cannabis, frontman [[Chris Barnes (musician)|Chris Barnes]] wrote the song about the effects of cannabis and often refers to the act of smoking when the band plays the song live. <ref>One recorded instance is the live album ''Live In San Francisco 2002'', released as a bonus disc with the limited edition of SFU album ''[[13 (Six Feet Under album)|13]]''.</ref> According to the album liner notes, the song was recorded at 4:20 p.m. on [[April 20]], 1997.
*Rapper [[Method Man]]'s fourth studio album was named ''[[4:21...The Day After]]'', because, according to the rapper himself, "The national weed smoking day is 4/20, so I named my album 4/21 the day after. Because after that day, you have this moment of clarity when you’re not high and you see things clearly."{{fact}}

===Occurrences in film and television===
* The number also prominently featured in the 2005 made-for-television [[Reefer Madness (2005 film)|musical version of ''Reefer Madness'']], which is based on the [[Reefer Madness (musical)|''Reefer Madness'' stage show]], which itself is based on the aforementioned 1936 film.
* In the [[Showtime]] Drama, [[Weeds]], a love interest of Nancy, who happens to be a DEA agent, has a house with the street number 420.

===Other popular culture occurrences===
[[Image:420 clock.jpg|thumb|250px|A speaking digital clock marketed as displaying the time 4:20.]]

* A [[cannabis]] [[coffeeshop]] named ''De Kuil'', located at Oude Brugsteeg 27 in [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]] has an alternate name - the "420 Cafe".
* In the game [[Kingdom of Loathing]], eating 420 herb brownies earns you the "Bouquet of Hippies" trophy.
* A chain of [[head shops]] in Japan are all named 4:20.
* 42 Degrees is the name of a U.S. [[head shop]] operation, with locations in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]], [[Athens, Georgia|Athens]], and [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]]. When written out with the symbol for temperature degrees, '''42°''' is a play on 420.
* In Auckland, New Zealand, there is a nightclub called 4:20 in The K-Road nightlife district. While all forms of smoking are illegal inside clubs and bars in New Zealand (including tobacco), this club maintains cannabis themed branding and frequently features musical acts in genres typically associated with cannabis culture, such as reggae, dub and roots-electronica.

==See also==
{{Cannabis resources}}

==References==
<references/>
* Halnon, Karen Bettez. [http://hempfest.org/420.php The Power of 420: Transforming the universal code into a collective consciousness for stoners]. Seattle Hempfest site; originally published in High Times, May 2003.
* Manjoo, Farhad. [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,51986-0.html High Holy Day for Potheads]. Wired News, April 20, 2001.
* Paiyne, Viper. [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/viperslair/lair_ready/tales/420revealed.htm 4:20 Revealed]. Viper's Lair, March 22, 2004.
* Phish.net FAQ [http://www.phish.net/faq/420.html What does the number 420 signify, and why?]

== External links ==
* [http://www.hightimes.com/ht/lounge/index.php?page=420 420 Timeline/When's Your 420?] from High Times
* [http://www.420times.com 420 Magazine] online cannabis community
* [http://www.always420forum.com Always 420 Forum]
* [http://www.chrisconrad.com/expert.witness/sb420-03.htm California Senate Bill 420] medical marijuana implementation, effective January 1, 2004.
* [http://www.toolband.com/news/letter/2002_04.php Origin of H.P. Lovecraft 4:20 myth]

[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Numbers in pop culture]]
[[Category:Cannabis culture]]

[[ja:420 (大麻)]]
[[fi:420 (kannabiskulttuuri)]]

Cliff Bleszinski

2006-11-06T20:40:24Z

Anetode: +photo

[[Image:Cliff_Bleszinski.jpg|thumb|right|Cliff Bleszinski at the ''[[Gears of War]]'' promotional event held at the [[Hollywood Forever Cemetary]], October 25, 2006]]
'''Cliff Bleszinski''', also known under the [[monicker]] '''CliffyB''', is a lead game [[designer]] for the successful game development company [[Epic Games]] in [[Raleigh]]. He is most famous for his continuing hand in the development of the [[Unreal series|''Unreal'' franchise]]. He is the brother of [[Tyler Bleszinski]], a sports [[wikt:Blogger|blogger]].

He has his own website where he often shares his thoughts on the world, American culture, gaming, and life in general. He is occasionally cited for his charitable nature like helping fans get jobs in the industry. He has co-hosted award shows like ''[[G-Phoria]]''. During one of his appearances as a guest commentator on [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G4_%28TV_channel%29 G4 TV ], the show focused on multiplayer team battles, ''Arena''.

Bleszinski's first game was ''The Palace of Deceit: Dragon's Plight,'' a 1991 [[Hunt-the-pixel|pixel-hunting]] [[adventure game]] for [[Windows PC]]. He is also known for the games ''[[Dare to Dream]]'' and ''[[Jazz Jackrabbit (game)|Jazz Jackrabbit]].'' [[As of 2006]], he serves as lead designer on the upcoming ''[[Gears of War]]'' for the [[Xbox 360]].

Cliff lives in Cary, North Carolina and in 2006 lists himself in Myspace as 31 years old.

==Trivia==
*In ''[[Unreal Tournament 2004]]'', there is a sound file reading "You're almost as good as CliffyB!," though it is never typically heard in game.

*Known to post on the [[Something Awful forums]], as well as [[1UP.com]].

*His name can be found in the 1st issue of [[Nintendo Power]] on top of the highscore list for [[Super Mario Bros]].

==External links==
*[http://www.cliffyb.com/ Cliffy's Personal Website]
*[http://cliffyb.1up.com/ Cliffy's Page On 1UP.com]
*[http://cliffyb-club.1up.com Cliffy's Fan Club On 1UP.com]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/developer/sheet/view/developerId,1298/ Cliffy's Wiki On MobyGames.com]

[[Category:Computer and video game designers|Bleszinski, Cliff]]
[[Category:Living people|Bleszinski, Cliff]]

[[pl:Cliff Bleszinski]]
[[pt:Cliff Bleszinski]]

Paul Moody

2006-11-06T02:33:05Z

Anetode:

:''See [[Paul Dwight Moody]] for the [[Presbyterian]] clergyman.''
{{unreferenced}}
'''Paul Moody''' ([[1779]] - [[1831]]) was a [[United States of America|U.S.]] textile machinery inventor. Moody was head machinist at the Lowell Machine Shop, in what was later called [[Lowell, Massachusetts]], when it was established in 1824. Working with [[Francis Cabot Lowell]], he created America's first [[power loom]], a revolutionary device that could turn cotton threads into finished fabric at a fast speed. Lowell and Moody conceived of a new way of manufacturing textiles in America by amassing hundreds of power looms that were connected by water-powered line shafts and belts. These looms were operated almost entirely by young female laborers as part of the paternalistic [[Lowell system]] of employment. Paul Moody was later honored by having streets in [[Waltham, Massachusetts|Waltham]] and [[Lowell, Massachusetts]] named after him.

{{engineer-stub}}
[[Category:1779 births|Moody, Paul]]
[[Category:1831 deaths|Moody, Paul]]

Paul Moody

2006-11-06T02:32:43Z

Anetode: cleanup, unverified

:''See [[Paul Dwight Moody]] for the [[Presbyterian]] clergyman.''
{{unverified}}
'''Paul Moody''' ([[1779]] - [[1831]]) was a [[United States of America|U.S.]] textile machinery inventor. Moody was head machinist at the Lowell Machine Shop, in what was later called [[Lowell, Massachusetts]], when it was established in 1824. Working with [[Francis Cabot Lowell]], he created America's first [[power loom]], a revolutionary device that could turn cotton threads into finished fabric at a fast speed. Lowell and Moody conceived of a new way of manufacturing textiles in America by amassing hundreds of power looms that were connected by water-powered line shafts and belts. These looms were operated almost entirely by young female laborers as part of the paternalistic [[Lowell system]] of employment. Paul Moody was later honored by having streets in [[Waltham, Massachusetts|Waltham]] and [[Lowell, Massachusetts]] named after him.

{{engineer-stub}}
[[Category:1779 births|Moody, Paul]]
[[Category:1831 deaths|Moody, Paul]]