Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Zimtfarn

2017-02-13T17:02:11Z

Andwerp:

{{italic title}}
{{taxobox
| name = ''Osmundastrum''
| fossil_range = {{Geological range/linked|Campanian|Holocene}}
| image = Osmundastrum cinnamomeum May2015.jpg
| image_caption = Developing spore-bearing frond and several sterile fronds in late spring
| status = G4
| status_system = TNC
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Pteridophyta]]
| classis = [[Polypodiopsida]] / &emsp;Pteridopsida {{au|(disputed)}}
| ordo = [[Osmundales]]
| familia = [[Osmundaceae]]
| genus = '''''Osmundastrum'''''
| species = '''''O. cinnamomeum'''''
| binomial = ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[C. Presl]]
}}

'''''Osmundastrum''''' is genus of [[leptosporangiate fern]]s in the family [[Osmundaceae]] with one accepted species, '''''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum''''', the '''cinnamon fern'''. It is native to the [[Americas]] and eastern [[Asia]], growing in swamps, bogs and moist woodlands.

In [[North America]] it occurs from southern [[Labrador]] west to [[Ontario]], and south through the [[Eastern United States|eastern]] [[United States]] to eastern [[Mexico]] and the [[West Indies]]; in [[South America]] it occurs west to [[Peru]] and south to [[Paraguay]]. In Asia it occurs from southeastern [[Siberia]] south through [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[China]] and [[Taiwan]] to [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]].

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Cinnamon Fern Osmunda cinnamomea Closeup 3008px.JPG|left|thumb|Close-up of the pinnae of a sterile frond]]
[[Image:Cinnamon Fern Osmunda cinnamomea Plant 2000px.JPG|left|thumb|Sterile fronds in late summer]]

''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' is a [[deciduous]] [[herbaceous]] plant which produces separate fertile and sterile [[frond]]s. The sterile fronds are spreading, {{convert|30|-|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|15|-|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad, pinnate, with pinnae {{convert|5|-|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|-|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad, deeply lobed (so the fronds are nearly, but not quite, bipinnate). The fertile [[spore]]-bearing fronds are erect and shorter, {{convert|20|-|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall; they become [[cinnamon]]-colored, which gives the species its name. The fertile leaves appear first; their green color slowly becomes brown as the season progresses and the spores are dropped. The spore-bearing stems persist after the sterile fronds are killed by frost, until the next season. The spores must develop within a few weeks or fail.

The ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' fern forms huge clonal colonies in [[swamp]]y areas. These ferns form massive rootstocks with densely matted, wiry roots. This root mass is an excellent substrate for many [[Epiphyte|epiphytal]] plants. They are often harvested as [[osmunda fiber]] and used [[Horticulture|horticulturally]], especially in propagating and growing [[orchid]]s. Cinnamon Ferns do not actually produce cinnamon; they are named for the color of the fertile fronds.

==Classification==
[[File:Osmundastrum cinnamomeum bsl.JPG|thumb|left|Spore-bearing frond]]
Traditionally, this plant has been classified as ''Osmunda cinnamomea'' [[Linnaeus|L.]] However, recent genetic and morphological evidence (Metzgar et al. 2008; Jud et al. 2008) clearly demonstrate that the cinnamon fern is a sister species to the entire rest of the living '''[[Osmundaceae]]'''. [[Cladistics|Cladistically]], it is either necessary then to include all species of the Osmundaceae, including ''[[Todea]]'' and ''[[Leptopteris]]'' in the genus ''[[Osmunda]]'', or else it is necessary to segregate the genus ''Osmundastrum''. ''O. cinnamomeum'' is the sole living species in the genus,<ref name="weakley">{{cite web | url = http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/flora.htm | title = Flora of the Carolinas, Virginia, and Georgia, and Surrounding Areas | author = Alan S. Weakley | date = April 2008 }}</ref> although it is possible that some additional fossils should be assigned to ''Osmundastrum''.<ref name="jud">{{Cite journal | author = Jud, Nathan, Gar W. Rothwell, and Ruth A. Stockey | year = 2008 | title = ''Todea'' from the Lower Cretaceous of western North America: implications for the phylogeny, systematics, and evolution of modern Osmundaceae | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 95 | pages = 330–339 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.95.3.330 | postscript =  | issue = 3 | pmid = 21632358 }}</ref>

Formerly, some authors included the interrupted fern, ''[[Osmunda claytoniana]]'', in the genus or section ''Osmundastrum'', because of its gross apparent morphological similarities. However, detailed morphology and genetic analysis have proven that the interrupted fern is actually a true ''Osmunda''. This is borne out by the fact that it is known to hybridize with the American royal fern, ''[[Osmunda spectabilis]]'' to produce ''[[Osmunda × ruggii]]'' in a family in which hybrids are rare, while ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' has no known hybrids.

''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' is considered a [[living fossil]] because it has been identified in the geologic record as far back as 75 million years ago.<ref name="jud"/> A more recent discovery extends this value up to 180 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25269-lava-fossilised-this-jurassic-fern-down-to-its-cells.html|title=Lava fossilised this Jurassic fern down to its cells|newspaper=New Scientist|access-date=2017-02-13|language=en-US}}</ref>

The Asian and American populations of cinnamon fern are generally considered to be [[variety (botany)|varieties]] of a single species, but some botanists classify them as separate species.<ref name="weakley"/> The Asian taxon is thus named ''Osmundastrum asiaticum''.{{Clear left}}[[Image:cinnamon fern.jpg|thumb|A large cinnamon fern outcropping.]]

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
*Metzgar, Jordan S., Judith E. Skog, Elizabeth A. Zimmer, and Kathleen M. Pryer (2008). "The Paraphyly of ''Osmunda'' is Confirmed by Phylogenetic Analyses of Seven Plastid Loci." Systematic Botany, 33(1): pp. 31–36.
*Serbet, Rudolf, and Gar W. Rothwell (1999). "''Osmunda cinnamomea'' (Osmundaceae) in the Upper Cretaceous of western North America: Additional evidence for exceptional species longevity among filicalean ferns." International Journal of Plant Sciences, 160: 425-433.

==External links==
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=OSCI USDA Plants treatment: ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' (Cinnamon fern)]
*Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200002992 Flora of North America treatment: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/object_page.aspx?object_id=5109&flora_id=1 RangeMap: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*{{ITIS | id = 17219 | taxon = Osmunda cinnamomea}}
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?402103 Germplasm Resources Information Network-GRIN: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*[http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?bid=1&page=82 Flora of Taiwan: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*[http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/ferns/osmundacinn.html Rook.org - Cinnamon fern description & photo]
{{commons category|position=left|Osmundastrum cinnamomeum}}

[[Category:Osmundaceae]]
[[Category:Pteridophyta of the Americas]]
[[Category:Pteridophyta of Asia]]
[[Category:Ferns of Canada]]
[[Category:Ferns of Mexico]]
[[Category:Ferns of the United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Flora of Central America]]
[[Category:Flora of South America]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Canada]]
[[Category:Flora of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Monotypic Pteridophyta genera]]

Zimtfarn

2017-02-13T17:00:23Z

Andwerp:

{{italic title}}
{{taxobox
| name = ''Osmundastrum''
| fossil_range = {{Geological range/linked|Campanian|Holocene}}
| image = Osmundastrum cinnamomeum May2015.jpg
| image_caption = Developing spore-bearing frond and several sterile fronds in late spring
| status = G4
| status_system = TNC
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Pteridophyta]]
| classis = [[Polypodiopsida]] / &emsp;Pteridopsida {{au|(disputed)}}
| ordo = [[Osmundales]]
| familia = [[Osmundaceae]]
| genus = '''''Osmundastrum'''''
| species = '''''O. cinnamomeum'''''
| binomial = ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[C. Presl]]
}}

'''''Osmundastrum''''' is genus of [[leptosporangiate fern]]s in the family [[Osmundaceae]] with one accepted species, '''''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum''''', the '''cinnamon fern'''. It is native to the [[Americas]] and eastern [[Asia]], growing in swamps, bogs and moist woodlands.

In [[North America]] it occurs from southern [[Labrador]] west to [[Ontario]], and south through the [[Eastern United States|eastern]] [[United States]] to eastern [[Mexico]] and the [[West Indies]]; in [[South America]] it occurs west to [[Peru]] and south to [[Paraguay]]. In Asia it occurs from southeastern [[Siberia]] south through [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[China]] and [[Taiwan]] to [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]].

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Cinnamon Fern Osmunda cinnamomea Closeup 3008px.JPG|left|thumb|Close-up of the pinnae of a sterile frond]]
[[Image:Cinnamon Fern Osmunda cinnamomea Plant 2000px.JPG|left|thumb|Sterile fronds in late summer]]

''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' is a [[deciduous]] [[herbaceous]] plant which produces separate fertile and sterile [[frond]]s. The sterile fronds are spreading, {{convert|30|-|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|15|-|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad, pinnate, with pinnae {{convert|5|-|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|-|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad, deeply lobed (so the fronds are nearly, but not quite, bipinnate). The fertile [[spore]]-bearing fronds are erect and shorter, {{convert|20|-|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall; they become [[cinnamon]]-colored, which gives the species its name. The fertile leaves appear first; their green color slowly becomes brown as the season progresses and the spores are dropped. The spore-bearing stems persist after the sterile fronds are killed by frost, until the next season. The spores must develop within a few weeks or fail.

The ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' fern forms huge clonal colonies in [[swamp]]y areas. These ferns form massive rootstocks with densely matted, wiry roots. This root mass is an excellent substrate for many [[Epiphyte|epiphytal]] plants. They are often harvested as [[osmunda fiber]] and used [[Horticulture|horticulturally]], especially in propagating and growing [[orchid]]s. Cinnamon Ferns do not actually produce cinnamon; they are named for the color of the fertile fronds.

==Classification==
[[File:Osmundastrum cinnamomeum bsl.JPG|thumb|left|Spore-bearing frond]]
Traditionally, this plant has been classified as ''Osmunda cinnamomea'' [[Linnaeus|L.]] However, recent genetic and morphological evidence (Metzgar et al. 2008; Jud et al. 2008) clearly demonstrate that the cinnamon fern is a sister species to the entire rest of the living '''[[Osmundaceae]]'''. [[Cladistics|Cladistically]], it is either necessary then to include all species of the Osmundaceae, including ''[[Todea]]'' and ''[[Leptopteris]]'' in the genus ''[[Osmunda]]'', or else it is necessary to segregate the genus ''Osmundastrum''. ''O. cinnamomeum'' is the sole living species in the genus,<ref name="weakley">{{cite web | url = http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/flora.htm | title = Flora of the Carolinas, Virginia, and Georgia, and Surrounding Areas | author = Alan S. Weakley | date = April 2008 }}</ref> although it is possible that some additional fossils should be assigned to ''Osmundastrum''.<ref name="jud">{{Cite journal | author = Jud, Nathan, Gar W. Rothwell, and Ruth A. Stockey | year = 2008 | title = ''Todea'' from the Lower Cretaceous of western North America: implications for the phylogeny, systematics, and evolution of modern Osmundaceae | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 95 | pages = 330–339 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.95.3.330 | postscript =  | issue = 3 | pmid = 21632358 }}</ref>

Formerly, some authors included the interrupted fern, ''[[Osmunda claytoniana]]'', in the genus or section ''Osmundastrum'', because of its gross apparent morphological similarities. However, detailed morphology and genetic analysis have proven that the interrupted fern is actually a true ''Osmunda''. This is borne out by the fact that it is known to hybridize with the American royal fern, ''[[Osmunda spectabilis]]'' to produce ''[[Osmunda × ruggii]]'' in a family in which hybrids are rare, while ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' has no known hybrids.

''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' is considered a [[living fossil]] because it has been identified in the geologic record as far back as 75 million years ago.<ref name="jud"/> A more recent discovery extends this value up to 180 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25269-lava-fossilised-this-jurassic-fern-down-to-its-cells.html|title=Lava fossilised this Jurassic fern down to its cells|newspaper=New Scientist|access-date=2017-02-13|language=en-US}}</ref>

The Asian and American populations of cinnamon fern are generally considered to be [[variety (botany)|varieties]] of a single species, but some botanists classify them as separate species.<ref name="weakley"/> The Asian taxon is thus named ''Osmundastrum asiaticum''.

{{Clear right}}{{Clear left}}[[Image:cinnamon fern.jpg|thumb|A large cinnamon fern outcropping.]]

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
*Metzgar, Jordan S., Judith E. Skog, Elizabeth A. Zimmer, and Kathleen M. Pryer (2008). "The Paraphyly of ''Osmunda'' is Confirmed by Phylogenetic Analyses of Seven Plastid Loci." Systematic Botany, 33(1): pp. 31–36.
*Serbet, Rudolf, and Gar W. Rothwell (1999). "''Osmunda cinnamomea'' (Osmundaceae) in the Upper Cretaceous of western North America: Additional evidence for exceptional species longevity among filicalean ferns." International Journal of Plant Sciences, 160: 425-433.

==External links==
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=OSCI USDA Plants treatment: ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' (Cinnamon fern)]
*Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200002992 Flora of North America treatment: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/object_page.aspx?object_id=5109&flora_id=1 RangeMap: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*{{ITIS | id = 17219 | taxon = Osmunda cinnamomea}}
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?402103 Germplasm Resources Information Network-GRIN: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*[http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?bid=1&page=82 Flora of Taiwan: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*[http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/ferns/osmundacinn.html Rook.org - Cinnamon fern description & photo]
{{commons category|position=left|Osmundastrum cinnamomeum}}

[[Category:Osmundaceae]]
[[Category:Pteridophyta of the Americas]]
[[Category:Pteridophyta of Asia]]
[[Category:Ferns of Canada]]
[[Category:Ferns of Mexico]]
[[Category:Ferns of the United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Flora of Central America]]
[[Category:Flora of South America]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Canada]]
[[Category:Flora of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Monotypic Pteridophyta genera]]

Zimtfarn

2017-02-13T16:59:54Z

Andwerp:

{{italic title}}
{{taxobox
| name = ''Osmundastrum''
| fossil_range = {{Geological range/linked|Campanian|Holocene}}
| image = Osmundastrum cinnamomeum May2015.jpg
| image_caption = Developing spore-bearing frond and several sterile fronds in late spring
| status = G4
| status_system = TNC
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Pteridophyta]]
| classis = [[Polypodiopsida]] / &emsp;Pteridopsida {{au|(disputed)}}
| ordo = [[Osmundales]]
| familia = [[Osmundaceae]]
| genus = '''''Osmundastrum'''''
| species = '''''O. cinnamomeum'''''
| binomial = ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[C. Presl]]
}}

'''''Osmundastrum''''' is genus of [[leptosporangiate fern]]s in the family [[Osmundaceae]] with one accepted species, '''''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum''''', the '''cinnamon fern'''. It is native to the [[Americas]] and eastern [[Asia]], growing in swamps, bogs and moist woodlands.

In [[North America]] it occurs from southern [[Labrador]] west to [[Ontario]], and south through the [[Eastern United States|eastern]] [[United States]] to eastern [[Mexico]] and the [[West Indies]]; in [[South America]] it occurs west to [[Peru]] and south to [[Paraguay]]. In Asia it occurs from southeastern [[Siberia]] south through [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[China]] and [[Taiwan]] to [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]] and [[Vietnam]].

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Cinnamon Fern Osmunda cinnamomea Closeup 3008px.JPG|left|thumb|Close-up of the pinnae of a sterile frond]]
[[Image:Cinnamon Fern Osmunda cinnamomea Plant 2000px.JPG|left|thumb|Sterile fronds in late summer]]

''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' is a [[deciduous]] [[herbaceous]] plant which produces separate fertile and sterile [[frond]]s. The sterile fronds are spreading, {{convert|30|-|150|cm|ft|abbr=on}} tall and {{convert|15|-|20|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad, pinnate, with pinnae {{convert|5|-|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|-|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} broad, deeply lobed (so the fronds are nearly, but not quite, bipinnate). The fertile [[spore]]-bearing fronds are erect and shorter, {{convert|20|-|45|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall; they become [[cinnamon]]-colored, which gives the species its name. The fertile leaves appear first; their green color slowly becomes brown as the season progresses and the spores are dropped. The spore-bearing stems persist after the sterile fronds are killed by frost, until the next season. The spores must develop within a few weeks or fail.

The ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' fern forms huge clonal colonies in [[swamp]]y areas. These ferns form massive rootstocks with densely matted, wiry roots. This root mass is an excellent substrate for many [[Epiphyte|epiphytal]] plants. They are often harvested as [[osmunda fiber]] and used [[Horticulture|horticulturally]], especially in propagating and growing [[orchid]]s. Cinnamon Ferns do not actually produce cinnamon; they are named for the color of the fertile fronds.

==Classification==
[[File:Osmundastrum cinnamomeum bsl.JPG|thumb|left|Spore-bearing frond]]
Traditionally, this plant has been classified as ''Osmunda cinnamomea'' [[Linnaeus|L.]] However, recent genetic and morphological evidence (Metzgar et al. 2008; Jud et al. 2008) clearly demonstrate that the cinnamon fern is a sister species to the entire rest of the living '''[[Osmundaceae]]'''. [[Cladistics|Cladistically]], it is either necessary then to include all species of the Osmundaceae, including ''[[Todea]]'' and ''[[Leptopteris]]'' in the genus ''[[Osmunda]]'', or else it is necessary to segregate the genus ''Osmundastrum''. ''O. cinnamomeum'' is the sole living species in the genus,<ref name="weakley">{{cite web | url = http://www.herbarium.unc.edu/flora.htm | title = Flora of the Carolinas, Virginia, and Georgia, and Surrounding Areas | author = Alan S. Weakley | date = April 2008 }}</ref> although it is possible that some additional fossils should be assigned to ''Osmundastrum''.<ref name="jud">{{Cite journal | author = Jud, Nathan, Gar W. Rothwell, and Ruth A. Stockey | year = 2008 | title = ''Todea'' from the Lower Cretaceous of western North America: implications for the phylogeny, systematics, and evolution of modern Osmundaceae | journal = American Journal of Botany | volume = 95 | pages = 330–339 | doi = 10.3732/ajb.95.3.330 | postscript =  | issue = 3 | pmid = 21632358 }}</ref>

Formerly, some authors included the interrupted fern, ''[[Osmunda claytoniana]]'', in the genus or section ''Osmundastrum'', because of its gross apparent morphological similarities. However, detailed morphology and genetic analysis have proven that the interrupted fern is actually a true ''Osmunda''. This is borne out by the fact that it is known to hybridize with the American royal fern, ''[[Osmunda spectabilis]]'' to produce ''[[Osmunda × ruggii]]'' in a family in which hybrids are rare, while ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' has no known hybrids.

''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' is considered a [[living fossil]] because it has been identified in the geologic record as far back as 75 million years ago.<ref name="jud"/> A more recent discovery extends this value up to 180 million years ago.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25269-lava-fossilised-this-jurassic-fern-down-to-its-cells.html|title=Lava fossilised this Jurassic fern down to its cells|newspaper=New Scientist|access-date=2017-02-13|language=en-US}}</ref>

The Asian and American populations of cinnamon fern are generally considered to be [[variety (botany)|varieties]] of a single species, but some botanists classify them as separate species.<ref name="weakley"/> The Asian taxon is thus named ''Osmundastrum asiaticum''.

{{Clear right}}

[[Image:cinnamon fern.jpg|thumb|A large cinnamon fern outcropping.]]

==References==
<references />

==Further reading==
*Metzgar, Jordan S., Judith E. Skog, Elizabeth A. Zimmer, and Kathleen M. Pryer (2008). "The Paraphyly of ''Osmunda'' is Confirmed by Phylogenetic Analyses of Seven Plastid Loci." Systematic Botany, 33(1): pp. 31–36.
*Serbet, Rudolf, and Gar W. Rothwell (1999). "''Osmunda cinnamomea'' (Osmundaceae) in the Upper Cretaceous of western North America: Additional evidence for exceptional species longevity among filicalean ferns." International Journal of Plant Sciences, 160: 425-433.

==External links==
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=OSCI USDA Plants treatment: ''Osmundastrum cinnamomeum'' (Cinnamon fern)]
*Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=200002992 Flora of North America treatment: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*Flora of North America: [http://www.efloras.org/object_page.aspx?object_id=5109&flora_id=1 RangeMap: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*{{ITIS | id = 17219 | taxon = Osmunda cinnamomea}}
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?402103 Germplasm Resources Information Network-GRIN: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*[http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?bid=1&page=82 Flora of Taiwan: ''Osmunda cinnamomea'']
*[http://www.rook.org/earl/bwca/nature/ferns/osmundacinn.html Rook.org - Cinnamon fern description & photo]
{{commons category|position=left|Osmundastrum cinnamomeum}}

[[Category:Osmundaceae]]
[[Category:Pteridophyta of the Americas]]
[[Category:Pteridophyta of Asia]]
[[Category:Ferns of Canada]]
[[Category:Ferns of Mexico]]
[[Category:Ferns of the United States]]
[[Category:Flora of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Flora of Central America]]
[[Category:Flora of South America]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Asia]]
[[Category:Flora of Eastern Canada]]
[[Category:Flora of the Eastern United States]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Monotypic Pteridophyta genera]]

Fredonian Rebellion

2016-11-16T17:31:05Z

Andwerp: /* Conflict */

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Fredonian Rebellion
|partof=
|image= [[File:Map of Texas highlighting Nacogdoches County.svg|300px]]
|caption=Approximate location of the Republic of Fredonia
|date=December 21, 1826 – January 31, 1827
|place=[[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]
|result=Mexican victory
|combatant1={{flag|Mexico}}
|combatant2=[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|25px]] Texan rebels
|commander1=[[Guadalupe Victoria]]
|commander2=[[Haden Edwards]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|300px|thumb|right|Flag of the Fredonian Rebellion]]

The '''Fredonian Rebellion''' (December 21, 1826 – January 23, 1827) was the first attempt by [[Anglo]] settlers in [[Texas]] to secede from [[Mexico]]. The settlers, led by [[Empresario]] [[Haden Edwards]], declared independence from [[Mexican Texas]] and created the '''Republic of Fredonia''' near [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]. The short-lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican government had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled. Edwards's actions soon alienated these established residents, and the increasing hostilities between them and settlers recruited by Edwards led Victor Blanco of the Mexican government to revoke Edwards's contract.

In late December 1826, a group of Edwards's supporters took control of the region by arresting and removing from office several municipality officials affiliated with the established residents. Supporters declared their independence from Mexico. Although the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe initially signed a treaty to support the new republic because a prior agreement with the Mexican government negotiated by Chief Richard Fields was ignored, overtures from Mexican authorities and respected Empresario [[Stephen F. Austin]] convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion. On January 31, 1827, a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 250 [[militia]]men from Austin's colony marched into Nacogdoches to restore order. Haden Edwards and his brother Benjamin fled to the United States. Chief Richard Fields was killed by his own tribe. A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death, but later paroled.

The rebellion led Mexican President [[Guadalupe Victoria]] to increase the military presence in the area. As a result, several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty. The [[Comanche]] abided by this treaty for many years. Fearing that through the rebellion the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to the region from the US. This new immigration law was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the [[Texas Revolution]]. In the words of one historian, the rebellion was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success.<ref name=bates494>Bates (1956), p. 494.</ref>

==Background==
After winning independence in 1821, several of Spain's colonies in the [[New World]] joined together to create a new country, Mexico. The country divided itself into several states, and the area known as Mexican Texas became part of the border state [[Coahuila y Tejas]]. To assist in governing the large area, the state created several departments; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar. This department was further subdivided into municipalities, which were governed by [[alcalde]], similar to a modern-day [[mayor]].<ref name=ericson33>Ericson (2000), p. 33.</ref> A large portion of [[East Texas]], ranging from the [[Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)|Sabine]] to the [[Trinity River (Texas)|Trinity]] Rivers and from the [[Gulf Coast]] to the [[Red River of the South|Red River]], became part of the municipality of [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]].<ref name=ericson33/><ref name=ericson35>Ericson (2000), p. 35.</ref> Most residents of the municipality were Spanish-speaking families who had occupied their land for generations.<ref name=davis70>Davis (2006), p. 70.</ref> An increasing number were English-speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. Many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various military [[filibuster (military)|filibustering]] groups which had attempted to create independent republics within Texas during Spanish rule.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref group=Note>The most prominent of the filibustering groups were the [[Long Expedition]] and the [[Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition]].</ref>

To better control the sparsely populated border region, in 1824 the Mexican federal government passed the [[General Colonization Law]] to allow legal immigration into Texas. Under the law, each state would set its own requirements for immigration. After some debate, on March 24, 1825, Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to [[empresario]], who would recruit settlers for their particular colony.<ref name=ericson35/> In addition, for every 100 families an empresario settled on Texas, they would recive 23,000 acres of land to cultivate and settle on. During the state government's deliberations, many would-be empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants. Among these was [[Haden Edwards]], an American land speculator known for his quick temper and aggressiveness.<ref name=ericson37>Ericson (2000), p. 37.</ref> Despite his abrasiveness, Edwards was granted a colonization contract on April 14<ref name=mcdonald>{{citation|last=McDonald|first=Archie P.|title=Fredonian Rebellion|journal=Handbook of Texas online|publisher=Texas Historical Association|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/jcf01|accessdate=April 20, 2009}}</ref> allowing him to settle 800 families in East Texas. The contract contained standard language requiring Edwards to recognize all pre-existing Spanish and Mexican land titles in his grant area, to raise a militia to protect the settlers in the area, and to allow the state land commissioner to certify all deeds awarded.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson37/>

Edwards's colony encompassed the land from the [[Navasota River]] to 20 [[League (unit)|leagues]] west of the Sabine River, and from 20 leagues north of the Gulf of Mexico to 15 leagues north of the town of Nacogdoches.<ref name=ericson37/> To the west and north of the colony were lands controlled by several [[Native Americans in the United States|native tribes]] which had recently been driven out of the United States. The southern boundary was a colony overseen by [[Stephen F. Austin]], the son of the first empresario in Texas. East of Edwards's grant was the former [[Sabine Free State]], a neutral zone which had been essentially lawless for several decades.<ref name=ericson36>Ericson (2000), p. 36.</ref> The boundaries of the new colony and the municipality of Nacogdoches partially overlapped, leading to uncertainty over who had jurisdiction over which function.<ref name=ericson37/> The majority of the established settlers lived outside the eastern boundary of the Edwards colony.<ref name=ericson37/>

==Prelude==
Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in August 1825.<ref name=ericson37/> Mistakenly believing that he had the authority to determine the validity of existing land claims,<ref name=ericson38>Ericson (2000), p. 38.</ref> Edwards, in September, demanded written proof of ownership, or their land would be forfeited and sold at auction.<ref name="ericson38" /><ref name=samora79/> His action was at least partially driven by prejudice; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race than himself. By removing less-prosperous settlers, he could assign their lands to wealthy planters, like himself, from the southern United States.<ref name="ericson38"/>

Very few of the English-speaking residents had valid titles. Those who had not arrived as [[filibuster (military)|filibuster]]s had been duped by fraudulent land speculators.<ref name=samora79>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 79.</ref> Most of the Spanish-speaking landowners lived on grants made to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork.<ref name=davis70/> Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long-time residents of the area, the acting ''alcalde'' of the municipality, Luis Procela, and the municipality clerk, Jose Antonio Sepulveda, began validating old Spanish and Mexican land titles, a function legally assigned to the state land commissioner. In response, Edwards accused the men of forging deeds, further angering the residents.<ref name=ericson38and39>Ericson (2000), pp. 38–39.</ref>

By December 1825, Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States.<ref name=bates493/> As required under his contract, Edwards organized a local militia open to his colonists and established residents. When militia members elected Sepulveda as their captain, Edwards nullified the results and proclaimed himself head of the militia. Following this debacle, Edwards, acting outside his authority, called for elections for a new alcalde.<ref name=ericson39>Ericson (2000), p. 39.</ref> Two men were nominated for the position—Edwards's son-in-law, Chichester Chaplin, seen as the representative for the newly arrived immigrants,<ref name=mcdonald/> and Samuel Norris, an American who had married the daughter of a long-time resident and was sympathetic to the more established residents.<ref name=ericson39/> After Chaplin's victory, many settlers alleged vote-stacking in an appeal to [[Juan Antonio Saucedo]], the political chief of the Department of Bexar. In March, Saucedo overturned the election results and proclaimed Norris the winner. Edwards refused to recognize Norris's authority.<ref name=davis70/>

Shortly after Saucedo's ruling, Edwards left to recruit more settlers from the United States, leaving his younger brother [[Benjamin W. Edwards|Benjamin]] in charge of the colony. Benjamin could not maintain stability in the colony, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. A vigilante group of earlier settlers harassed many newcomers, and Benjamin Edwards made several complaints to state authorities. Unhappy with Benjamin's tone and the increasing tension, Mexican authorities revoked the land grant in October and instructed the Edwards brothers to leave Mexico.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson40>Ericson (2000), p. 40.</ref> Rumors that Haden Edwards had returned to the United States to raise an army and not just to recruit settlers likely influenced the government action.<ref name=everett43>Everett (1995), p. 43.</ref> Unwilling to abandon his $50,000 (about ${{formatnum:{{inflation|US|50000|1826|r=-5}}}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}) investment in the colony, Haden Edwards rejoined his brother in Nacogodoches in late October, continuing their business affairs despite the cancellation of his colonization contract.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=bates493>Bates (1956), p. 493.</ref><ref name=everett44>Everett (1995), p. 44.</ref>

==Conflict==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="0"
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: top; font-size: large; color: gray;" | “
| It appears as tho. the people in your quarter have run mad or worse.
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: bottom; font-size: large; color: gray" | ”
|-
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{spaced ndash}}excerpt from a letter [[Stephen F. Austin]] wrote to [[Haden Edwards]], after some of Edwards's men invaded Nacogdoches<ref name=davis71>Davis (2006), p. 71.</ref>
|}
In October, Norris ruled that Edwards had improperly taken land from an existing settler to give to a new immigrant. Norris evicted the immigrant, angering many of the colonists. Later that month, another new immigrant was arrested and ordered to leave the country after refusing to purchase a merchant license before trading with the Indian tribes.<ref name=jackson62>Jackson (2005), p. 62.</ref> On November 22, 1826, local militia colonel [[Martin Parmer]] and 39 other Edwards colonists entered Nacogdoches and arrested Norris, Sepulveda, and the commander of the small Mexican garrison, charging them with oppression and corruption.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=everett44/> Haden Edwards was also arrested for violating his expulsion order but was immediately paroled, possibly as a ploy to disguise his own involvement in the plot.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=everett44/> A [[kangaroo court]] found the other men guilty, removed them from their positions, and banned them from ever holding another public office. The court disbanded after appointing a temporary ''alcalde''.<ref name=ericson41>Ericson (2000), p. 41.</ref> These actions benefitted Parmer personally; several weeks before, after Parmer killed a man in a dispute, Norris had issued a warrant for Parmer's arrest. With Norris removed from office, the arrest warrant was voided.<ref name=jackson71>Jackson (2005), p. 71.</ref>

Throughout the fall, Benjamin Edwards had tried to gather support from the Edwards colonists for a potential armed revolt against Mexican authority. Largely unsuccessful, he approached the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe for assistance.<ref name=everett44/> Several years previously, the tribe had applied for title to the lands they occupied in northern East Texas. They were promised but never given a deed from the Mexican authorities. Benjamin Edwards offered the tribe clear title to all of Texas north of [[Nacogdoches]] in exchange for armed support for his plans.<ref name=everett45>Everett (1995), p. 45.</ref>

On December 16, the Edwards brothers invaded Nacogdoches with only 30 settlers, seizing one building in town, the [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]].<ref name=samora80>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 80.</ref> On December 21, they declared the former Edwards colony to be a new republic named Fredonia.<ref name=davis72/> Within hours of the announcement, the Fredonians signed a peace treaty with the Cherokee, represented by Chief [[Richard Fields (Cherokee)|Richard Fields]] and [[John Dunn Hunter]].<ref name=everett45/> Fields and Hunter claimed to represent an additional 23 other tribes and promised to provide 400 warriors.<ref name=jackson65>Jackson (2005), pp. 65, 67.</ref> In recognition of the agreement, above the Old Stone Fort flew a new flag containing two stripes–one red, one white–representing the two races.<ref name=weaver69>Weaver (1997), p. 69.</ref> Inscribed on the banner was the motto, "Independence, Liberty, and Justice".<ref name=davis72/> Haden Edwards also sent messengers to Louisiana to request aid from the [[United States military]], which refused to intervene.<ref name=davis72/> Another emissary sent to invite [[Stephen F. Austin|Austin]] and his colonists to join the rebellion garnered the rebuke, "You are deluding yourselves and this delusion will ruin you."<ref name=davis71/>

[[File:Old Stone Fort in Nacogdoches, Texas.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]] was seized during the Fredonian Rebellion.]]

Edwards's actions disturbed many of his colonists due to either their loyalty to their adopted country<ref name=davis72/> or fear of his alliance with the Cherokee.<ref name=bates493/> Mexican authorities were also concerned with the Cherokee alliance, and both [[Peter Ellis Bean]], the Mexican [[Indian agent]], and Saucedo, the political chief, began negotiations with Fields. They explained to the Cherokee that the tribe had not followed proper procedures to attain a land grant and promised that if they reapplied through official channels the Mexican government would honor their land request. These arguments and a planned Mexican military response convinced many Cherokee to repudiate the treaty with Edwards.<ref name=everett46>Everett (1995), p. 46.</ref>

On news of the November arrest of the ''alcalde'', the Mexican government began preparing to retaliate.<ref name="ericson41"/> On December 11, Lieutenant Colonel Mateo Ahumada, the military commander in Texas, marched from [[San Antonio de Béxar]] with 110 infantry,<ref name="ericson41" /> and initially stopped in Austin's colony to assess the loyalty of his settlers. On January 1, Austin announced to his colonists that "infatuated madmen at Nacogdoches have declared independence."<ref name=davis72>Davis (2006), p. 72.</ref> Much of his colony immediately volunteered to assist in quelling the rebellion.<ref name=davis72/> When the Mexican army left for Nacogdoches on January 22, they were joined by 250 militiamen from Austin's colony.<ref name="ericson41"/>

Impatient with the army response time, Norris led 80 men to retake the Old Stone Fort. Although Parmer had fewer than 20 supporters with him, his men routed Norris's force in less than ten minutes.<ref name=jackson75>Jackson (2005), p. 75.</ref> On January 31, Bean, accompanied by 70 militiamen from Austin's colony, rode into Nacogdoches.<ref name=jackson76>Jackson (2005), p. 76.</ref> By this time, Parmer and Edwards had learned that the Cherokee had abandoned any intention of waging war against Mexico.<ref name=everett46/> When not a single Cherokee warrior had appeared to reinforce the revolt, Edwards and his supporters fled.<ref name=everett46/> Bean pursued them to the Sabine River, but most, including both Edwards brothers, safely crossed into the United States.<ref name=jackson76/><ref name=ericson42>Ericson (2000), p. 42.</ref> Ahumada and his soldiers, accompanied by political chief Saucedo, entered Nacogdoches on February 8 to restore order.<ref name=jackson77>Jackson (2005), p. 77.</ref>

Although the Cherokee had not raised arms against Mexico, their treaty with the Fredonian revolutionaries caused Mexican authorities to question the tribe's loyalty. To demonstrate their loyalty to Mexico, the Cherokee council ordered both Fields and Hunter to be executed. Under tribal law, certain offenses such as aiding an enemy of the tribe were punishable by death. By sentencing Fields and Hunter to death for this reason, the Cherokee affirmed that Edwards and his cohorts were their enemies.<ref name=everett47>Everett (1995), p. 47.</ref> Both men fled, but were soon captured and executed. When the executions were reported to Mexican authorities on February 28, the [[Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas|commandant general of the Eastern Interior Provinces]], [[Anastasio Bustamante]], praised the Cherokee for their prompt action.<ref name="everett47" />

Bustamante ultimately offered a general amnesty for all who participated in the conflict except for Haden and Benjamin Edwards, Martin Parmer, and [[Adolphus Sterne]], a local merchant who had provided supplies to the rebel force. Like the Edwards brothers, Parmer escaped into Louisiana. Sterne remained and was sentenced to death for treason but was paroled on the condition that he swear allegiance to Mexico and never again take up arms against the Mexican government.<ref name=ericson43>Ericson (2000), p. 43.</ref>{{refn|Sterne technically upheld his oath to the Mexican government; during the [[Texas Revolution]], he did not personally fight against Mexico, but he did provide funds to raise two companies of soldiers for the [[Texian Army]].<ref name=ericson43/>|group="Note"}}

==Aftermath==
The rebellion changed the dynamic between settlers and local tribes. Although the Cherokee repudiated the rebellion, their initial support caused many settlers to distrust the tribe.<ref name=everett48>Everett (1995), p. 48.</ref> The rebellion, and subsequent Mexican army response, also changed the settlers' relationships with other tribes. In preceding years, the [[Tawakoni]] and [[Waco tribe]]s, allied with various Comanche bands, had regularly raided Texas settlements. Fearing that these tribes, like the Cherokee, could ally with other groups against Mexican control, Bustamante began preparations to attack and weaken all hostile tribes in East Texas. On learning of the imminent invasion, in April 1827 the Towakoni and Waco [[Suing for peace|sued for peace]].<ref name=smith121>Smith (2000), p. 121.</ref> In June, the two tribes signed a peace treaty with Mexico, promising to halt all raids against Mexican settlers. The Towakoni then assisted their allies, the Penateka Comanche, in reaching a treaty with Mexico. When Bustamante's troops left Texas later that year, the Towakoni and Waco resumed their raiding. The Comanche tribe upheld their treaty for many years and often assisted Mexican soldiers in recovering livestock stolen by the other tribes.<ref name=smith122>Smith (2000), p. 122.</ref>

The failed rebellion also affected Mexican relations with the United States.<ref name=morton33>Morton (1947), p. 33.</ref> Even before the revolt, many Mexican officials had worried that the United States was plotting to gain control of Texas.<ref name=morton34>Morton (1947), p. 34.</ref> Once the rebellion came to light, officials suspected that Edwards had been an agent of the United States. To help protect the region, a new, larger, garrison was established in Nacogdoches, to be commanded by Colonel Jose de las Piedras.<ref name=morton33/> As a direct result of Edwards's actions, the Mexican government authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General [[Manuel de Mier y Terán]], to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the [[Law of April 6, 1830]], which severely restricted immigration into Texas.<ref name=morton34/> Within Texas, the laws were widely denounced by both recent immigrants and native-born Mexicans and led to further armed conflict between Mexican soldiers and Texas residents.<ref name=davis77and85>Davis (2006), pp. 77, 85.</ref>

Some historians regard the Fredonian Rebellion as the beginning of the Texas Revolution. Historian W.B. Bates remarked that the revolt was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success".<ref name="bates494" /> The people of Nacogdoches played instrumental roles in other rebellions in Texas over the next few years; in 1832 they expelled Piedras and his troops from Nacogdoches, and many Nacogdoches residents participated in the Texas Revolution.<ref name="bates494"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Texas|Military history}}
*{{cite book|last=Bates|first=W.B.|title=A Sketch History of Nacogdoches|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|url=http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101162/m1/519/|accessdate=2013-11-20|volume=59|issue=4|date=April 1956}}
*{{cite book|last=Davis|first=William C.|authorlink=William C. Davis (historian)|title=Lone Star Rising|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-532-5}} originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press
*{{cite book|last=Ericson|first=Joe E.|title=The Nacogdoches story: an informal history|publisher=Heritage Books|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7884-1657-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Everett|first=Dianna|title=The Texas Cherokees: A People between Two Fires, 1819–1840|series=Civilization of the American Indian Series, v. 203|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|year=1995|isbn=978-0-585-16884-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Jack|year=2005|title=Indian Agent: Peter Ellis Bean in Mexican Texas|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, Texas |isbn=978-1-58544-444-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Ohland|title=Life of General Don Manuel de Mier y Teran|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|volume=47|issue=1|date=July 1943|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/shqonline/apager.php?vol=047&pag=035|accessdate=2009-01-29}}
*{{cite book|last=Samora|first=Julian|last2=Simon|first2=Patricia Vandel|last3=Candelaria|first3=Cordelia|last4=Pulido|first4=Alberto L.|title=A History of the Mexican-American People|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|year=1993|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-585-33332-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=F. Todd|title=The Wichita Indians: Traders of Texas and the Southern Plains, 1540–1845|series=Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students, Texas A&M University, No. 87|location=College Station, TX|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-585-37704-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Weaver|first=Jace|title=That the People Might Live: Native American Literatures and Native American Community|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-512037-0}}

{{Mexican Texas}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1826]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1827]]
[[Category:Former unrecognized countries]]
[[Category:Mexican Texas]]
[[Category:Texas border disputes]]
[[Category:Wars fought in Texas]]
[[Category:1826 in Texas]]
[[Category:1827 in Texas]]

Fredonian Rebellion

2016-11-16T17:25:46Z

Andwerp: /* Background */

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Fredonian Rebellion
|partof=
|image= [[File:Map of Texas highlighting Nacogdoches County.svg|300px]]
|caption=Approximate location of the Republic of Fredonia
|date=December 21, 1826 – January 31, 1827
|place=[[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]
|result=Mexican victory
|combatant1={{flag|Mexico}}
|combatant2=[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|25px]] Texan rebels
|commander1=[[Guadalupe Victoria]]
|commander2=[[Haden Edwards]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|300px|thumb|right|Flag of the Fredonian Rebellion]]

The '''Fredonian Rebellion''' (December 21, 1826 – January 23, 1827) was the first attempt by [[Anglo]] settlers in [[Texas]] to secede from [[Mexico]]. The settlers, led by [[Empresario]] [[Haden Edwards]], declared independence from [[Mexican Texas]] and created the '''Republic of Fredonia''' near [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]. The short-lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican government had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled. Edwards's actions soon alienated these established residents, and the increasing hostilities between them and settlers recruited by Edwards led Victor Blanco of the Mexican government to revoke Edwards's contract.

In late December 1826, a group of Edwards's supporters took control of the region by arresting and removing from office several municipality officials affiliated with the established residents. Supporters declared their independence from Mexico. Although the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe initially signed a treaty to support the new republic because a prior agreement with the Mexican government negotiated by Chief Richard Fields was ignored, overtures from Mexican authorities and respected Empresario [[Stephen F. Austin]] convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion. On January 31, 1827, a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 250 [[militia]]men from Austin's colony marched into Nacogdoches to restore order. Haden Edwards and his brother Benjamin fled to the United States. Chief Richard Fields was killed by his own tribe. A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death, but later paroled.

The rebellion led Mexican President [[Guadalupe Victoria]] to increase the military presence in the area. As a result, several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty. The [[Comanche]] abided by this treaty for many years. Fearing that through the rebellion the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to the region from the US. This new immigration law was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the [[Texas Revolution]]. In the words of one historian, the rebellion was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success.<ref name=bates494>Bates (1956), p. 494.</ref>

==Background==
After winning independence in 1821, several of Spain's colonies in the [[New World]] joined together to create a new country, Mexico. The country divided itself into several states, and the area known as Mexican Texas became part of the border state [[Coahuila y Tejas]]. To assist in governing the large area, the state created several departments; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar. This department was further subdivided into municipalities, which were governed by [[alcalde]], similar to a modern-day [[mayor]].<ref name=ericson33>Ericson (2000), p. 33.</ref> A large portion of [[East Texas]], ranging from the [[Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)|Sabine]] to the [[Trinity River (Texas)|Trinity]] Rivers and from the [[Gulf Coast]] to the [[Red River of the South|Red River]], became part of the municipality of [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]].<ref name=ericson33/><ref name=ericson35>Ericson (2000), p. 35.</ref> Most residents of the municipality were Spanish-speaking families who had occupied their land for generations.<ref name=davis70>Davis (2006), p. 70.</ref> An increasing number were English-speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. Many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various military [[filibuster (military)|filibustering]] groups which had attempted to create independent republics within Texas during Spanish rule.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref group=Note>The most prominent of the filibustering groups were the [[Long Expedition]] and the [[Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition]].</ref>

To better control the sparsely populated border region, in 1824 the Mexican federal government passed the [[General Colonization Law]] to allow legal immigration into Texas. Under the law, each state would set its own requirements for immigration. After some debate, on March 24, 1825, Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to [[empresario]], who would recruit settlers for their particular colony.<ref name=ericson35/> In addition, for every 100 families an empresario settled on Texas, they would recive 23,000 acres of land to cultivate and settle on. During the state government's deliberations, many would-be empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants. Among these was [[Haden Edwards]], an American land speculator known for his quick temper and aggressiveness.<ref name=ericson37>Ericson (2000), p. 37.</ref> Despite his abrasiveness, Edwards was granted a colonization contract on April 14<ref name=mcdonald>{{citation|last=McDonald|first=Archie P.|title=Fredonian Rebellion|journal=Handbook of Texas online|publisher=Texas Historical Association|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/jcf01|accessdate=April 20, 2009}}</ref> allowing him to settle 800 families in East Texas. The contract contained standard language requiring Edwards to recognize all pre-existing Spanish and Mexican land titles in his grant area, to raise a militia to protect the settlers in the area, and to allow the state land commissioner to certify all deeds awarded.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson37/>

Edwards's colony encompassed the land from the [[Navasota River]] to 20 [[League (unit)|leagues]] west of the Sabine River, and from 20 leagues north of the Gulf of Mexico to 15 leagues north of the town of Nacogdoches.<ref name=ericson37/> To the west and north of the colony were lands controlled by several [[Native Americans in the United States|native tribes]] which had recently been driven out of the United States. The southern boundary was a colony overseen by [[Stephen F. Austin]], the son of the first empresario in Texas. East of Edwards's grant was the former [[Sabine Free State]], a neutral zone which had been essentially lawless for several decades.<ref name=ericson36>Ericson (2000), p. 36.</ref> The boundaries of the new colony and the municipality of Nacogdoches partially overlapped, leading to uncertainty over who had jurisdiction over which function.<ref name=ericson37/> The majority of the established settlers lived outside the eastern boundary of the Edwards colony.<ref name=ericson37/>

==Prelude==
Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in August 1825.<ref name=ericson37/> Mistakenly believing that he had the authority to determine the validity of existing land claims,<ref name=ericson38>Ericson (2000), p. 38.</ref> Edwards, in September, demanded written proof of ownership, or their land would be forfeited and sold at auction.<ref name="ericson38" /><ref name=samora79/> His action was at least partially driven by prejudice; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race than himself. By removing less-prosperous settlers, he could assign their lands to wealthy planters, like himself, from the southern United States.<ref name="ericson38"/>

Very few of the English-speaking residents had valid titles. Those who had not arrived as [[filibuster (military)|filibuster]]s had been duped by fraudulent land speculators.<ref name=samora79>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 79.</ref> Most of the Spanish-speaking landowners lived on grants made to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork.<ref name=davis70/> Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long-time residents of the area, the acting ''alcalde'' of the municipality, Luis Procela, and the municipality clerk, Jose Antonio Sepulveda, began validating old Spanish and Mexican land titles, a function legally assigned to the state land commissioner. In response, Edwards accused the men of forging deeds, further angering the residents.<ref name=ericson38and39>Ericson (2000), pp. 38–39.</ref>

By December 1825, Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States.<ref name=bates493/> As required under his contract, Edwards organized a local militia open to his colonists and established residents. When militia members elected Sepulveda as their captain, Edwards nullified the results and proclaimed himself head of the militia. Following this debacle, Edwards, acting outside his authority, called for elections for a new alcalde.<ref name=ericson39>Ericson (2000), p. 39.</ref> Two men were nominated for the position—Edwards's son-in-law, Chichester Chaplin, seen as the representative for the newly arrived immigrants,<ref name=mcdonald/> and Samuel Norris, an American who had married the daughter of a long-time resident and was sympathetic to the more established residents.<ref name=ericson39/> After Chaplin's victory, many settlers alleged vote-stacking in an appeal to [[Juan Antonio Saucedo]], the political chief of the Department of Bexar. In March, Saucedo overturned the election results and proclaimed Norris the winner. Edwards refused to recognize Norris's authority.<ref name=davis70/>

Shortly after Saucedo's ruling, Edwards left to recruit more settlers from the United States, leaving his younger brother [[Benjamin W. Edwards|Benjamin]] in charge of the colony. Benjamin could not maintain stability in the colony, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. A vigilante group of earlier settlers harassed many newcomers, and Benjamin Edwards made several complaints to state authorities. Unhappy with Benjamin's tone and the increasing tension, Mexican authorities revoked the land grant in October and instructed the Edwards brothers to leave Mexico.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson40>Ericson (2000), p. 40.</ref> Rumors that Haden Edwards had returned to the United States to raise an army and not just to recruit settlers likely influenced the government action.<ref name=everett43>Everett (1995), p. 43.</ref> Unwilling to abandon his $50,000 (about ${{formatnum:{{inflation|US|50000|1826|r=-5}}}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}) investment in the colony, Haden Edwards rejoined his brother in Nacogodoches in late October, continuing their business affairs despite the cancellation of his colonization contract.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=bates493>Bates (1956), p. 493.</ref><ref name=everett44>Everett (1995), p. 44.</ref>

==Conflict==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="0"
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: top; font-size: large; color: gray;" | “
| It appears as tho. the people in your quarter have run mad or worse.
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: bottom; font-size: large; color: gray" | ”
|-
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{spaced ndash}}excerpt from a letter [[Stephen F. Austin]] wrote to [[Haden Edwards]], after some of Edwards's men invaded Nacogdoches<ref name=davis71>Davis (2006), p. 71.</ref>
|}
In October, Norris ruled that Edwards had improperly taken land from an existing settler to give to a new immigrant. Norris evicted the immigrant, angering many of the colonists. Later that month, another new immigrant was arrested and ordered to leave the country after refusing to purchase a merchant license before trading with the Indian tribes.<ref name=jackson62>Jackson (2005), p. 62.</ref> On November 22, 1826, local militia colonel [[Martin Parmer]] and 39 other Edwards colonists entered Nacogdoches and arrested Norris, Sepulveda, and the commander of the small Mexican garrison, charging them with oppression and corruption.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=everett44/> Haden Edwards was also arrested for violating his expulsion order but was immediately paroled, possibly as a ploy to disguise his own involvement in the plot.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=everett44/> A [[kangaroo court]] found the other men guilty, removed them from their positions, and banned them from ever holding another public office. The court disbanded after appointing a temporary ''alcalde''.<ref name=ericson41>Ericson (2000), p. 41.</ref> These actions benefitted Parmer personally; several weeks before, after Parmer killed a man in a dispute, Norris had issued a warrant for Parmer's arrest. With Norris removed from office, the arrest warrant was voided.<ref name=jackson71>Jackson (2005), p. 71.</ref>

Throughout the fall, Benjamin Edwards had tried to gather support from the Edwards colonists for a potential armed revolt against Mexican authority. Largely unsuccessful, he approached the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe for assistance.<ref name=everett44/> Several years previously, the tribe had applied for title to the lands they occupied in northern East Texas. They were promised but never given a deed from the Mexican authorities. Benjamin Edwards offered the tribe clear title to all of Texas north of Nacogdoches in exchange for armed support for his plans.<ref name=everett45>Everett (1995), p. 45.</ref>

On December 16, the Edwards brothers invaded Nacogdoches with only 30 settlers, seizing one building in town, the [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]].<ref name=samora80>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 80.</ref> On December 21, they declared the former Edwards colony to be a new republic named Fredonia.<ref name=davis72/> Within hours of the announcement, the Fredonians signed a peace treaty with the Cherokee, represented by Chief [[Richard Fields (Cherokee)|Richard Fields]] and [[John Dunn Hunter]].<ref name=everett45/> Fields and Hunter claimed to represent an additional 23 other tribes and promised to provide 400 warriors.<ref name=jackson65>Jackson (2005), pp. 65, 67.</ref> In recognition of the agreement, above the Old Stone Fort flew a new flag containing two stripes–one red, one white–representing the two races.<ref name=weaver69>Weaver (1997), p. 69.</ref> Inscribed on the banner was the motto, "Independence, Liberty, and Justice".<ref name=davis72/> Haden Edwards also sent messengers to Louisiana to request aid from the United States military, which refused to intervene.<ref name=davis72/> Another emissary sent to invite Austin and his colonists to join the rebellion garnered the rebuke, "You are deluding yourselves and this delusion will ruin you."<ref name=davis71/>

[[File:Old Stone Fort in Nacogdoches, Texas.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]] was seized during the Fredonian Rebellion.]]

Edwards's actions disturbed many of his colonists due to either their loyalty to their adopted country<ref name=davis72/> or fear of his alliance with the Cherokee.<ref name=bates493/> Mexican authorities were also concerned with the Cherokee alliance, and both [[Peter Ellis Bean]], the Mexican [[Indian agent]], and Saucedo, the political chief, began negotiations with Fields. They explained to the Cherokee that the tribe had not followed proper procedures to attain a land grant and promised that if they reapplied through official channels the Mexican government would honor their land request. These arguments and a planned Mexican military response convinced many Cherokee to repudiate the treaty with Edwards.<ref name=everett46>Everett (1995), p. 46.</ref>

On news of the November arrest of the ''alcalde'', the Mexican government began preparing to retaliate.<ref name="ericson41"/> On December 11, Lieutenant Colonel Mateo Ahumada, the military commander in Texas, marched from [[San Antonio de Béxar]] with 110 infantry,<ref name="ericson41" /> and initially stopped in Austin's colony to assess the loyalty of his settlers. On January 1, Austin announced to his colonists that "infatuated madmen at Nacogdoches have declared independence."<ref name=davis72>Davis (2006), p. 72.</ref> Much of his colony immediately volunteered to assist in quelling the rebellion.<ref name=davis72/> When the Mexican army left for Nacogdoches on January 22, they were joined by 250 militiamen from Austin's colony.<ref name="ericson41"/>

Impatient with the army response time, Norris led 80 men to retake the Old Stone Fort. Although Parmer had fewer than 20 supporters with him, his men routed Norris's force in less than ten minutes.<ref name=jackson75>Jackson (2005), p. 75.</ref> On January 31, Bean, accompanied by 70 militiamen from Austin's colony, rode into Nacogdoches.<ref name=jackson76>Jackson (2005), p. 76.</ref> By this time, Parmer and Edwards had learned that the Cherokee had abandoned any intention of waging war against Mexico.<ref name=everett46/> When not a single Cherokee warrior had appeared to reinforce the revolt, Edwards and his supporters fled.<ref name=everett46/> Bean pursued them to the Sabine River, but most, including both Edwards brothers, safely crossed into the United States.<ref name=jackson76/><ref name=ericson42>Ericson (2000), p. 42.</ref> Ahumada and his soldiers, accompanied by political chief Saucedo, entered Nacogdoches on February 8 to restore order.<ref name=jackson77>Jackson (2005), p. 77.</ref>

Although the Cherokee had not raised arms against Mexico, their treaty with the Fredonian revolutionaries caused Mexican authorities to question the tribe's loyalty. To demonstrate their loyalty to Mexico, the Cherokee council ordered both Fields and Hunter to be executed. Under tribal law, certain offenses such as aiding an enemy of the tribe were punishable by death. By sentencing Fields and Hunter to death for this reason, the Cherokee affirmed that Edwards and his cohorts were their enemies.<ref name=everett47>Everett (1995), p. 47.</ref> Both men fled, but were soon captured and executed. When the executions were reported to Mexican authorities on February 28, the [[Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas|commandant general of the Eastern Interior Provinces]], [[Anastasio Bustamante]], praised the Cherokee for their prompt action.<ref name="everett47" />

Bustamante ultimately offered a general amnesty for all who participated in the conflict except for Haden and Benjamin Edwards, Martin Parmer, and [[Adolphus Sterne]], a local merchant who had provided supplies to the rebel force. Like the Edwards brothers, Parmer escaped into Louisiana. Sterne remained and was sentenced to death for treason but was paroled on the condition that he swear allegiance to Mexico and never again take up arms against the Mexican government.<ref name=ericson43>Ericson (2000), p. 43.</ref>{{refn|Sterne technically upheld his oath to the Mexican government; during the [[Texas Revolution]], he did not personally fight against Mexico, but he did provide funds to raise two companies of soldiers for the [[Texian Army]].<ref name=ericson43/>|group="Note"}}

==Aftermath==
The rebellion changed the dynamic between settlers and local tribes. Although the Cherokee repudiated the rebellion, their initial support caused many settlers to distrust the tribe.<ref name=everett48>Everett (1995), p. 48.</ref> The rebellion, and subsequent Mexican army response, also changed the settlers' relationships with other tribes. In preceding years, the [[Tawakoni]] and [[Waco tribe]]s, allied with various Comanche bands, had regularly raided Texas settlements. Fearing that these tribes, like the Cherokee, could ally with other groups against Mexican control, Bustamante began preparations to attack and weaken all hostile tribes in East Texas. On learning of the imminent invasion, in April 1827 the Towakoni and Waco [[Suing for peace|sued for peace]].<ref name=smith121>Smith (2000), p. 121.</ref> In June, the two tribes signed a peace treaty with Mexico, promising to halt all raids against Mexican settlers. The Towakoni then assisted their allies, the Penateka Comanche, in reaching a treaty with Mexico. When Bustamante's troops left Texas later that year, the Towakoni and Waco resumed their raiding. The Comanche tribe upheld their treaty for many years and often assisted Mexican soldiers in recovering livestock stolen by the other tribes.<ref name=smith122>Smith (2000), p. 122.</ref>

The failed rebellion also affected Mexican relations with the United States.<ref name=morton33>Morton (1947), p. 33.</ref> Even before the revolt, many Mexican officials had worried that the United States was plotting to gain control of Texas.<ref name=morton34>Morton (1947), p. 34.</ref> Once the rebellion came to light, officials suspected that Edwards had been an agent of the United States. To help protect the region, a new, larger, garrison was established in Nacogdoches, to be commanded by Colonel Jose de las Piedras.<ref name=morton33/> As a direct result of Edwards's actions, the Mexican government authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General [[Manuel de Mier y Terán]], to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the [[Law of April 6, 1830]], which severely restricted immigration into Texas.<ref name=morton34/> Within Texas, the laws were widely denounced by both recent immigrants and native-born Mexicans and led to further armed conflict between Mexican soldiers and Texas residents.<ref name=davis77and85>Davis (2006), pp. 77, 85.</ref>

Some historians regard the Fredonian Rebellion as the beginning of the Texas Revolution. Historian W.B. Bates remarked that the revolt was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success".<ref name="bates494" /> The people of Nacogdoches played instrumental roles in other rebellions in Texas over the next few years; in 1832 they expelled Piedras and his troops from Nacogdoches, and many Nacogdoches residents participated in the Texas Revolution.<ref name="bates494"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Texas|Military history}}
*{{cite book|last=Bates|first=W.B.|title=A Sketch History of Nacogdoches|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|url=http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101162/m1/519/|accessdate=2013-11-20|volume=59|issue=4|date=April 1956}}
*{{cite book|last=Davis|first=William C.|authorlink=William C. Davis (historian)|title=Lone Star Rising|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-532-5}} originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press
*{{cite book|last=Ericson|first=Joe E.|title=The Nacogdoches story: an informal history|publisher=Heritage Books|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7884-1657-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Everett|first=Dianna|title=The Texas Cherokees: A People between Two Fires, 1819–1840|series=Civilization of the American Indian Series, v. 203|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|year=1995|isbn=978-0-585-16884-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Jack|year=2005|title=Indian Agent: Peter Ellis Bean in Mexican Texas|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, Texas |isbn=978-1-58544-444-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Ohland|title=Life of General Don Manuel de Mier y Teran|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|volume=47|issue=1|date=July 1943|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/shqonline/apager.php?vol=047&pag=035|accessdate=2009-01-29}}
*{{cite book|last=Samora|first=Julian|last2=Simon|first2=Patricia Vandel|last3=Candelaria|first3=Cordelia|last4=Pulido|first4=Alberto L.|title=A History of the Mexican-American People|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|year=1993|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-585-33332-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=F. Todd|title=The Wichita Indians: Traders of Texas and the Southern Plains, 1540–1845|series=Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students, Texas A&M University, No. 87|location=College Station, TX|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-585-37704-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Weaver|first=Jace|title=That the People Might Live: Native American Literatures and Native American Community|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-512037-0}}

{{Mexican Texas}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1826]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1827]]
[[Category:Former unrecognized countries]]
[[Category:Mexican Texas]]
[[Category:Texas border disputes]]
[[Category:Wars fought in Texas]]
[[Category:1826 in Texas]]
[[Category:1827 in Texas]]

Fredonian Rebellion

2016-11-14T19:31:30Z

Andwerp:

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Fredonian Rebellion
|partof=
|image= [[File:Map of Texas highlighting Nacogdoches County.svg|300px]]
|caption=Approximate location of the Republic of Fredonia
|date=December 21, 1826 – January 31, 1827
|place=[[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]
|result=Mexican victory
|combatant1={{flag|Mexico}}
|combatant2=[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|25px]] Texan rebels
|commander1=[[Guadalupe Victoria]]
|commander2=[[Haden Edwards]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
[[File:Fredonian Rebellion Flag of 1826.svg|300px|thumb|right|Flag of the Fredonian Rebellion]]

The '''Fredonian Rebellion''' (December 21, 1826 – January 23, 1827) was the first attempt by [[Anglo]] settlers in [[Texas]] to secede from [[Mexico]]. The settlers, led by [[Empresario]] [[Haden Edwards]], declared independence from [[Mexican Texas]] and created the '''Republic of Fredonia''' near [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]]. The short-lived republic encompassed the land the Mexican government had granted to Edwards in 1825 and included areas that had been previously settled. Edwards's actions soon alienated these established residents, and the increasing hostilities between them and settlers recruited by Edwards led Victor Blanco of the Mexican government to revoke Edwards's contract.

In late December 1826, a group of Edwards's supporters took control of the region by arresting and removing from office several municipality officials affiliated with the established residents. Supporters declared their independence from Mexico. Although the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe initially signed a treaty to support the new republic because a prior agreement with the Mexican government negotiated by Chief Richard Fields was ignored, overtures from Mexican authorities and respected Empresario [[Stephen F. Austin]] convinced tribal leaders to repudiate the rebellion. On January 31, 1827, a force of over 100 Mexican soldiers and 250 [[militia]]men from Austin's colony marched into Nacogdoches to restore order. Haden Edwards and his brother Benjamin fled to the United States. Chief Richard Fields was killed by his own tribe. A local merchant was arrested and sentenced to death, but later paroled.

The rebellion led Mexican President [[Guadalupe Victoria]] to increase the military presence in the area. As a result, several hostile tribes in the area halted their raids on settlements and agreed to a peace treaty. The [[Comanche]] abided by this treaty for many years. Fearing that through the rebellion the United States hoped to gain control of Texas, the Mexican government severely curtailed immigration to the region from the US. This new immigration law was bitterly opposed by colonists and caused increasing dissatisfaction with Mexican rule. Some historians consider the Fredonian Rebellion to be the beginning of the [[Texas Revolution]]. In the words of one historian, the rebellion was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success.<ref name=bates494>Bates (1956), p. 494.</ref>

==Background==
After winning independence in 1821, several of Spain's colonies in the [[New World]] joined together to create a new country, Mexico. The country divided itself into several states, and the area known as Mexican Texas became part of the border state [[Coahuila y Tejas]]. To assist in governing the large area, the state created several departments; all of Texas was included in the Department of Béxar. This department was further subdivided into municipalities, which were governed by [[alcalde]], similar to a modern-day [[mayor]].<ref name=ericson33>Ericson (2000), p. 33.</ref> A large portion of [[East Texas]], ranging from the [[Sabine River (Texas–Louisiana)|Sabine]] to the [[Trinity River (Texas)|Trinity]] Rivers and from the [[Gulf Coast]] to the [[Red River of the South|Red River]], became part of the municipality of [[Nacogdoches, Texas|Nacogdoches]].<ref name=ericson33/><ref name=ericson35>Ericson (2000), p. 35.</ref> Most residents of the municipality were Spanish-speaking families who had occupied their land for generations.<ref name=davis70>Davis (2006), p. 70.</ref> An increasing number were English-speaking residents who had immigrated illegally during the [[Mexican War of Independence]]. Many of the immigrants were adventurers who had arrived as part of various military [[filibuster (military)|filibustering]] groups which had attempted to create independent republics within Texas during Spanish rule.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref group=Note>The most prominent of the filibustering groups were the [[Long Expedition]] and the [[Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition]].</ref>

To better control the sparsely populated border region, in 1824 the Mexican federal government passed the [[General Colonization Law]] to allow legal immigration into Texas. Under the law, each state would set its own requirements for immigration. After some debate, on March 24, 1825, Coahuila y Tejas authorized a system granting land to [[empresario]], who would recruit settlers for their particular colony.<ref name=ericson35/> In addition, for every 100 families an empresario settled on Texas, they would recive 23,000 acres of land. During the state government's deliberations, many would-be empresarios congregated in Mexico to lobby for land grants. Among these was [[Haden Edwards]], an American land speculator known for his quick temper and aggressiveness.<ref name=ericson37>Ericson (2000), p. 37.</ref> Despite his abrasiveness, Edwards was granted a colonization contract on April 14<ref name=mcdonald>{{citation|last=McDonald|first=Archie P.|title=Fredonian Rebellion|journal=Handbook of Texas online|publisher=Texas Historical Association|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/jcf01|accessdate=April 20, 2009}}</ref> allowing him to settle 800 families in East Texas. The contract contained standard language requiring Edwards to recognize all pre-existing Spanish and Mexican land titles in his grant area, to raise a militia to protect the settlers in the area, and to allow the state land commissioner to certify all deeds awarded.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson37/>

Edwards's colony encompassed the land from the [[Navasota River]] to 20 [[League (unit)|leagues]] west of the Sabine River, and from 20 leagues north of the Gulf of Mexico to 15 leagues north of the town of Nacogdoches.<ref name=ericson37/> To the west and north of the colony were lands controlled by several [[Native Americans in the United States|native tribes]] which had recently been driven out of the United States. The southern boundary was a colony overseen by [[Stephen F. Austin]], the son of the first empresario in Texas. East of Edwards's grant was the former [[Sabine Free State]], a neutral zone which had been essentially lawless for several decades.<ref name=ericson36>Ericson (2000), p. 36.</ref> The boundaries of the new colony and the municipality of Nacogdoches partially overlapped, leading to uncertainty over who had jurisdiction over which function.<ref name=ericson37/> The majority of the established settlers lived outside the eastern boundary of the Edwards colony.<ref name=ericson37/>

==Prelude==
Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in August 1825.<ref name=ericson37/> Mistakenly believing that he had the authority to determine the validity of existing land claims,<ref name=ericson38>Ericson (2000), p. 38.</ref> Edwards, in September, demanded written proof of ownership, or their land would be forfeited and sold at auction.<ref name="ericson38" /><ref name=samora79/> His action was at least partially driven by prejudice; Edwards scorned those who were poorer or of a different race than himself. By removing less-prosperous settlers, he could assign their lands to wealthy planters, like himself, from the southern United States.<ref name="ericson38"/>

Very few of the English-speaking residents had valid titles. Those who had not arrived as [[filibuster (military)|filibuster]]s had been duped by fraudulent land speculators.<ref name=samora79>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 79.</ref> Most of the Spanish-speaking landowners lived on grants made to their families 70 or more years previously and were unable to produce any paperwork.<ref name=davis70/> Anticipating the potential conflict between the new empresario and the long-time residents of the area, the acting ''alcalde'' of the municipality, Luis Procela, and the municipality clerk, Jose Antonio Sepulveda, began validating old Spanish and Mexican land titles, a function legally assigned to the state land commissioner. In response, Edwards accused the men of forging deeds, further angering the residents.<ref name=ericson38and39>Ericson (2000), pp. 38–39.</ref>

By December 1825, Edwards had recruited 50 families to emigrate from the United States.<ref name=bates493/> As required under his contract, Edwards organized a local militia open to his colonists and established residents. When militia members elected Sepulveda as their captain, Edwards nullified the results and proclaimed himself head of the militia. Following this debacle, Edwards, acting outside his authority, called for elections for a new alcalde.<ref name=ericson39>Ericson (2000), p. 39.</ref> Two men were nominated for the position—Edwards's son-in-law, Chichester Chaplin, seen as the representative for the newly arrived immigrants,<ref name=mcdonald/> and Samuel Norris, an American who had married the daughter of a long-time resident and was sympathetic to the more established residents.<ref name=ericson39/> After Chaplin's victory, many settlers alleged vote-stacking in an appeal to [[Juan Antonio Saucedo]], the political chief of the Department of Bexar. In March, Saucedo overturned the election results and proclaimed Norris the winner. Edwards refused to recognize Norris's authority.<ref name=davis70/>

Shortly after Saucedo's ruling, Edwards left to recruit more settlers from the United States, leaving his younger brother [[Benjamin W. Edwards|Benjamin]] in charge of the colony. Benjamin could not maintain stability in the colony, and the situation deteriorated rapidly. A vigilante group of earlier settlers harassed many newcomers, and Benjamin Edwards made several complaints to state authorities. Unhappy with Benjamin's tone and the increasing tension, Mexican authorities revoked the land grant in October and instructed the Edwards brothers to leave Mexico.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=ericson40>Ericson (2000), p. 40.</ref> Rumors that Haden Edwards had returned to the United States to raise an army and not just to recruit settlers likely influenced the government action.<ref name=everett43>Everett (1995), p. 43.</ref> Unwilling to abandon his $50,000 (about ${{formatnum:{{inflation|US|50000|1826|r=-5}}}} as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}) investment in the colony, Haden Edwards rejoined his brother in Nacogodoches in late October, continuing their business affairs despite the cancellation of his colonization contract.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=bates493>Bates (1956), p. 493.</ref><ref name=everett44>Everett (1995), p. 44.</ref>

==Conflict==
{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="0"
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: top; font-size: large; color: gray;" | “
| It appears as tho. the people in your quarter have run mad or worse.
| style="text-align: left; font-family:'Times New Roman',serif; font-weight:bold; padding:0px 5px; vertical-align: bottom; font-size: large; color: gray" | ”
|-
| colspan=3 style="text-align: center;" |{{spaced ndash}}excerpt from a letter [[Stephen F. Austin]] wrote to [[Haden Edwards]], after some of Edwards's men invaded Nacogdoches<ref name=davis71>Davis (2006), p. 71.</ref>
|}
In October, Norris ruled that Edwards had improperly taken land from an existing settler to give to a new immigrant. Norris evicted the immigrant, angering many of the colonists. Later that month, another new immigrant was arrested and ordered to leave the country after refusing to purchase a merchant license before trading with the Indian tribes.<ref name=jackson62>Jackson (2005), p. 62.</ref> On November 22, 1826, local militia colonel [[Martin Parmer]] and 39 other Edwards colonists entered Nacogdoches and arrested Norris, Sepulveda, and the commander of the small Mexican garrison, charging them with oppression and corruption.<ref name=davis70/><ref name=everett44/> Haden Edwards was also arrested for violating his expulsion order but was immediately paroled, possibly as a ploy to disguise his own involvement in the plot.<ref name=mcdonald/><ref name=everett44/> A [[kangaroo court]] found the other men guilty, removed them from their positions, and banned them from ever holding another public office. The court disbanded after appointing a temporary ''alcalde''.<ref name=ericson41>Ericson (2000), p. 41.</ref> These actions benefitted Parmer personally; several weeks before, after Parmer killed a man in a dispute, Norris had issued a warrant for Parmer's arrest. With Norris removed from office, the arrest warrant was voided.<ref name=jackson71>Jackson (2005), p. 71.</ref>

Throughout the fall, Benjamin Edwards had tried to gather support from the Edwards colonists for a potential armed revolt against Mexican authority. Largely unsuccessful, he approached the nearby [[Cherokee]] tribe for assistance.<ref name=everett44/> Several years previously, the tribe had applied for title to the lands they occupied in northern East Texas. They were promised but never given a deed from the Mexican authorities. Benjamin Edwards offered the tribe clear title to all of Texas north of Nacogdoches in exchange for armed support for his plans.<ref name=everett45>Everett (1995), p. 45.</ref>

On December 16, the Edwards brothers invaded Nacogdoches with only 30 settlers, seizing one building in town, the [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]].<ref name=samora80>Samora ''et al.'' (1993), p. 80.</ref> On December 21, they declared the former Edwards colony to be a new republic named Fredonia.<ref name=davis72/> Within hours of the announcement, the Fredonians signed a peace treaty with the Cherokee, represented by Chief [[Richard Fields (Cherokee)|Richard Fields]] and [[John Dunn Hunter]].<ref name=everett45/> Fields and Hunter claimed to represent an additional 23 other tribes and promised to provide 400 warriors.<ref name=jackson65>Jackson (2005), pp. 65, 67.</ref> In recognition of the agreement, above the Old Stone Fort flew a new flag containing two stripes–one red, one white–representing the two races.<ref name=weaver69>Weaver (1997), p. 69.</ref> Inscribed on the banner was the motto, "Independence, Liberty, and Justice".<ref name=davis72/> Haden Edwards also sent messengers to Louisiana to request aid from the United States military, which refused to intervene.<ref name=davis72/> Another emissary sent to invite Austin and his colonists to join the rebellion garnered the rebuke, "You are deluding yourselves and this delusion will ruin you."<ref name=davis71/>

[[File:Old Stone Fort in Nacogdoches, Texas.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The [[Old Stone Fort Museum (Texas)|Old Stone Fort]] was seized during the Fredonian Rebellion.]]

Edwards's actions disturbed many of his colonists due to either their loyalty to their adopted country<ref name=davis72/> or fear of his alliance with the Cherokee.<ref name=bates493/> Mexican authorities were also concerned with the Cherokee alliance, and both [[Peter Ellis Bean]], the Mexican [[Indian agent]], and Saucedo, the political chief, began negotiations with Fields. They explained to the Cherokee that the tribe had not followed proper procedures to attain a land grant and promised that if they reapplied through official channels the Mexican government would honor their land request. These arguments and a planned Mexican military response convinced many Cherokee to repudiate the treaty with Edwards.<ref name=everett46>Everett (1995), p. 46.</ref>

On news of the November arrest of the ''alcalde'', the Mexican government began preparing to retaliate.<ref name="ericson41"/> On December 11, Lieutenant Colonel Mateo Ahumada, the military commander in Texas, marched from [[San Antonio de Béxar]] with 110 infantry,<ref name="ericson41" /> and initially stopped in Austin's colony to assess the loyalty of his settlers. On January 1, Austin announced to his colonists that "infatuated madmen at Nacogdoches have declared independence."<ref name=davis72>Davis (2006), p. 72.</ref> Much of his colony immediately volunteered to assist in quelling the rebellion.<ref name=davis72/> When the Mexican army left for Nacogdoches on January 22, they were joined by 250 militiamen from Austin's colony.<ref name="ericson41"/>

Impatient with the army response time, Norris led 80 men to retake the Old Stone Fort. Although Parmer had fewer than 20 supporters with him, his men routed Norris's force in less than ten minutes.<ref name=jackson75>Jackson (2005), p. 75.</ref> On January 31, Bean, accompanied by 70 militiamen from Austin's colony, rode into Nacogdoches.<ref name=jackson76>Jackson (2005), p. 76.</ref> By this time, Parmer and Edwards had learned that the Cherokee had abandoned any intention of waging war against Mexico.<ref name=everett46/> When not a single Cherokee warrior had appeared to reinforce the revolt, Edwards and his supporters fled.<ref name=everett46/> Bean pursued them to the Sabine River, but most, including both Edwards brothers, safely crossed into the United States.<ref name=jackson76/><ref name=ericson42>Ericson (2000), p. 42.</ref> Ahumada and his soldiers, accompanied by political chief Saucedo, entered Nacogdoches on February 8 to restore order.<ref name=jackson77>Jackson (2005), p. 77.</ref>

Although the Cherokee had not raised arms against Mexico, their treaty with the Fredonian revolutionaries caused Mexican authorities to question the tribe's loyalty. To demonstrate their loyalty to Mexico, the Cherokee council ordered both Fields and Hunter to be executed. Under tribal law, certain offenses such as aiding an enemy of the tribe were punishable by death. By sentencing Fields and Hunter to death for this reason, the Cherokee affirmed that Edwards and his cohorts were their enemies.<ref name=everett47>Everett (1995), p. 47.</ref> Both men fled, but were soon captured and executed. When the executions were reported to Mexican authorities on February 28, the [[Commandancy General of the Provincias Internas|commandant general of the Eastern Interior Provinces]], [[Anastasio Bustamante]], praised the Cherokee for their prompt action.<ref name="everett47" />

Bustamante ultimately offered a general amnesty for all who participated in the conflict except for Haden and Benjamin Edwards, Martin Parmer, and [[Adolphus Sterne]], a local merchant who had provided supplies to the rebel force. Like the Edwards brothers, Parmer escaped into Louisiana. Sterne remained and was sentenced to death for treason but was paroled on the condition that he swear allegiance to Mexico and never again take up arms against the Mexican government.<ref name=ericson43>Ericson (2000), p. 43.</ref>{{refn|Sterne technically upheld his oath to the Mexican government; during the [[Texas Revolution]], he did not personally fight against Mexico, but he did provide funds to raise two companies of soldiers for the [[Texian Army]].<ref name=ericson43/>|group="Note"}}

==Aftermath==
The rebellion changed the dynamic between settlers and local tribes. Although the Cherokee repudiated the rebellion, their initial support caused many settlers to distrust the tribe.<ref name=everett48>Everett (1995), p. 48.</ref> The rebellion, and subsequent Mexican army response, also changed the settlers' relationships with other tribes. In preceding years, the [[Tawakoni]] and [[Waco tribe]]s, allied with various Comanche bands, had regularly raided Texas settlements. Fearing that these tribes, like the Cherokee, could ally with other groups against Mexican control, Bustamante began preparations to attack and weaken all hostile tribes in East Texas. On learning of the imminent invasion, in April 1827 the Towakoni and Waco [[Suing for peace|sued for peace]].<ref name=smith121>Smith (2000), p. 121.</ref> In June, the two tribes signed a peace treaty with Mexico, promising to halt all raids against Mexican settlers. The Towakoni then assisted their allies, the Penateka Comanche, in reaching a treaty with Mexico. When Bustamante's troops left Texas later that year, the Towakoni and Waco resumed their raiding. The Comanche tribe upheld their treaty for many years and often assisted Mexican soldiers in recovering livestock stolen by the other tribes.<ref name=smith122>Smith (2000), p. 122.</ref>

The failed rebellion also affected Mexican relations with the United States.<ref name=morton33>Morton (1947), p. 33.</ref> Even before the revolt, many Mexican officials had worried that the United States was plotting to gain control of Texas.<ref name=morton34>Morton (1947), p. 34.</ref> Once the rebellion came to light, officials suspected that Edwards had been an agent of the United States. To help protect the region, a new, larger, garrison was established in Nacogdoches, to be commanded by Colonel Jose de las Piedras.<ref name=morton33/> As a direct result of Edwards's actions, the Mexican government authorized an extensive expedition, conducted by General [[Manuel de Mier y Terán]], to inspect the Texas settlements and recommend a future course of action. Mier y Teran's reports led to the [[Law of April 6, 1830]], which severely restricted immigration into Texas.<ref name=morton34/> Within Texas, the laws were widely denounced by both recent immigrants and native-born Mexicans and led to further armed conflict between Mexican soldiers and Texas residents.<ref name=davis77and85>Davis (2006), pp. 77, 85.</ref>

Some historians regard the Fredonian Rebellion as the beginning of the Texas Revolution. Historian W.B. Bates remarked that the revolt was "premature, but it sparked the powder for later success".<ref name="bates494" /> The people of Nacogdoches played instrumental roles in other rebellions in Texas over the next few years; in 1832 they expelled Piedras and his troops from Nacogdoches, and many Nacogdoches residents participated in the Texas Revolution.<ref name="bates494"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
{{Portal|Texas|Military history}}
*{{cite book|last=Bates|first=W.B.|title=A Sketch History of Nacogdoches|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|url=http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth101162/m1/519/|accessdate=2013-11-20|volume=59|issue=4|date=April 1956}}
*{{cite book|last=Davis|first=William C.|authorlink=William C. Davis (historian)|title=Lone Star Rising|year=2006|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, TX|isbn=978-1-58544-532-5}} originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press
*{{cite book|last=Ericson|first=Joe E.|title=The Nacogdoches story: an informal history|publisher=Heritage Books|year=2000|isbn=978-0-7884-1657-6}}
*{{cite book|last=Everett|first=Dianna|title=The Texas Cherokees: A People between Two Fires, 1819–1840|series=Civilization of the American Indian Series, v. 203|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|location=Norman, OK|year=1995|isbn=978-0-585-16884-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Jackson|first=Jack|year=2005|title=Indian Agent: Peter Ellis Bean in Mexican Texas|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|location=College Station, Texas |isbn=978-1-58544-444-1}}
*{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Ohland|title=Life of General Don Manuel de Mier y Teran|journal=Southwestern Historical Quarterly|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|volume=47|issue=1|date=July 1943|url=http://www.tshaonline.org/shqonline/apager.php?vol=047&pag=035|accessdate=2009-01-29}}
*{{cite book|last=Samora|first=Julian|last2=Simon|first2=Patricia Vandel|last3=Candelaria|first3=Cordelia|last4=Pulido|first4=Alberto L.|title=A History of the Mexican-American People|publisher=University of Notre Dame Press|year=1993|location=Notre Dame, IN|isbn=978-0-585-33332-8}}
*{{cite book|last=Smith|first=F. Todd|title=The Wichita Indians: Traders of Texas and the Southern Plains, 1540–1845|series=Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students, Texas A&M University, No. 87|location=College Station, TX|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0-585-37704-9}}
*{{cite book|last=Weaver|first=Jace|title=That the People Might Live: Native American Literatures and Native American Community|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=1997|isbn=978-0-19-512037-0}}

{{Mexican Texas}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Conflicts in 1826]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1827]]
[[Category:Former unrecognized countries]]
[[Category:Mexican Texas]]
[[Category:Texas border disputes]]
[[Category:Wars fought in Texas]]
[[Category:1826 in Texas]]
[[Category:1827 in Texas]]