Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Grammy Award for Best Traditional Gospel Album

2007-07-01T05:12:14Z

Anchor Link Bot: Notifying of internal link to section 2000s from Ben Harper

The [[Grammy Award]] for '''Best Traditional Soul Gospel Album''' has been awarded since 1991. A similar award, the [[Grammy Award for Best Soul Gospel Performance, Traditional]] was awarded from 1978 to 1983.

Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year.

== 2000s ==
*[[Grammy Awards of 2006]]
**[[Donnie McClurkin]] for ''Psalms, Hymns & Spiritual Songs''
*[[Grammy Awards of 2005]]
** [[Ben Harper]] & [[The Blind Boys of Alabama]] for ''[[There Will Be a Light]]''
*[[Grammy Awards of 2004]]
**[[The Blind Boys of Alabama]] for ''Go Tell It on the Mountain''
*[[Grammy Awards of 2003]]
**[[John Chelew]] (producer), Jimmy Hoyson (engineer/mixer) & [[The Blind Boys of Alabama]] for ''Higher Ground''
*[[Grammy Awards of 2002]]
**[[John Chelew]] (producer), Larry Hirsch, Jimmy Hoyson (engineers) & [[The Blind Boys of Alabama]] for ''Spirit of the Century''
*[[Grammy Awards of 2001]]
**[[Bubba Smith (producer)|Bubba Smith]], [[Michael E. Mathis]] (producers) & [[Shirley Caesar]] (producer & artist) for ''You Can Make It''
*[[Grammy Awards of 2000]]
**[[Shirley Caesar]] for ''Christmas with Shirley Caesar''

== 1990s ==
*[[Grammy Awards of 1999]]
**[[Cissy Houston]] for ''He Leadeth Me''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1998]]
**The [[Fairfield Four]] for ''I Couldn't Hear Nobody Pray''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1997]]
**[[Cissy Houston]] for ''Face to Face''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1996]]
**[[Shirley Caesar]] for ''Shirley Caesar Live - He Will Come''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1995]]
**[[Albertina Walker]] for ''Songs of the Church - Live in Memphis''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1994]]
**[[Shirley Caesar]] for ''Stand Still''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1993]]
**Shirley Caesar for ''He's Working It Out For You''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1992]]
**[[Mighty Clouds of Joy]] for ''Pray For Me''
*[[Grammy Awards of 1991]]
**[[Tramaine Hawkins]] for ''Tramaine Hawkins Live''

[[Category:Grammy Awards for gospel music]]

Spinal Lock (Kampfsport)

2007-06-30T10:34:58Z

Anchor Link Bot: Notifying of internal link to section Twister from Twister

A '''spinal lock''' is a multiple [[joint lock]] applied to the [[spinal column]], which is performed by forcing the spine beyond its normal ranges of motion. This is typically done by bending or twisting the head or upper body into abnormal positions. Commonly, spinal locks might [[strain]] the [[Vertebral column|spinal]] [[muscle|musculature]] or result in a mild spinal [[sprain]], while a forcefully and/or suddenly applied spinal lock may cause severe [[ligament]] damage or damage to the [[vertebrae]], and possibly result in serious [[spinal cord injury]], [[stroke]]s, or death.

Spinal locks can be separated into two categories based on their primary area of effect on the spinal column: spinal locks on the neck are called '''neck cranks''' and locks on the lower parts of the spine are called '''spine cranks'''.

==Neck crank==
A '''neck crank''' (sometimes also referred to as a '''neck lock''', and technically known as a '''cervical lock''') is a spinal lock applied to the [[neck#Anatomy of the human neck|cervical spine]] causing hyperextension, hyperflexion, lateral hyperflexion, hyperrotation or extension-distraction, either through bending, twisting or elongating. A neck crank is typically applied by pulling or twisting the head beyond its normal ranges of rotation. Neck cranks are included techniques in several martial arts such as [[Brazilian jiu-jitsu]] and [[Judo]], but are usually banned from sports competitions, with notable exceptions in [[combat sport]]s such as [[submission wrestling]] and [[mixed martial arts]], where they are used as [[grappling hold#Submission hold|submission holds]].

===Can opener===
The '''can opener''' (in [[Judo]] referred to as ''kubi-hishigi'') is a hyperflexing neck crank that can be applied from the opponents [[guard (grappling)|guard]] or from a [[mount (grappling)|mounted position]], by grabbing the opponents head using the hands, and forcing it towards the chest of the opponent. In competitions (where allowed) it is usually used as a taunting or distracting move, but if applied effectively in a competition, it may force the opponent to [[submission (combat sport term)|submit]].

This may also refer to a type of neck compression employed from a rear mount position in which the back of the thumbs are used to drive into the neck starting from the high trapezius muscle toward the sternocleidomastoid muscles, causing severe discomfort, and even submission. As of 2006, this is permitted in shiai as long as the judoka's thumbs remain straight, and not bent. Its most common uses are to open up an opponent's chin for shime-waza or as a diversionary tactic.

===Cattle catch===
The '''cattle catch''' (also referred to as '''reverse crucifix''', '''iron cross''' or '''stocks''') is a hyperflexing neck crank involving trapping the opponent's hands and forcing the head towards his or her chest. The technique is performed with the opponent lying on his or her back, and the combatant performing the neck crank perpendicularly face-down in a [[side mount]] position above the head of the opponent, with the opponent's head resting towards his armpit. The combatant traps one arm using the legs, and the other using the arms. By using the pinned arms and legs as a point of leverage, the combatant can forcefully crank the head towards the opponent's chest.

===Crucifix neck crank===
The '''crucifix neck crank''' is similar to the cattle catch, but involves the combatant performing the neck crank being [[mount (grappling)|mounted]] on the opponent. Both of the opponent's arms are controlled, and the opponent's head is held in the armpit. By cranking the body upwards while keeping a tight hold on the opponents arms, the opponents head is forced towards his or her chest.

Both the cattle catch and the crucifix neck crank are colloquially referred to simply as the '''crucifix''', which often leads to confusion with the traditional [[crucifix position]].

===Twister===
The '''twister''' (a similar move in [[wrestling]] is known as a '''guillotine''') is a sideways body bend and neck crank, which involves forcing the head towards the shoulder while controlling the body, hence causing lateral hyperflexion of the [[neck#Anatomy of the human neck|cervical spine]]. The technique involves tension in several bodyparts, and depending on the [[flexibility]] of the recipient, can also involve pain in the [[knee]]s, [[abdominals]] and [[torso]]. The twister is often confused as being a [[#Spine crank|spine crank]] since it involves a degree of lateral non-cervical spinal flexion. The main pressure is however on the cervical spine, hence making it a [[#neck crank|neck crank]].<ref>Cunliffe, Joseph. [http://www.onzuka.com/news_2003April3.html On the road to the 2003 Abu Dhabi Championships with Eddie “The Twister” Bravo]. ''www.onzuka.com''. URL last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].</ref>

==Spine crank==
A '''spine crank''' (the term '''spine lock''' is also often used to refer exclusively to this type) is a spinal lock that affects the [[thoracic]] and/or [[lumbar]] regions of the [[spinal column]]. A spine crank is applied by twisting or bending the upper body beyond its normal ranges of motion, causing hyperextension, hyperflexion, or hyperrotation of the spine. In [[martial arts]], spine cranks are generally rarer techniques than [[#Neck crank|neck cranks]] because they are more difficult to apply. Twisting or bending the upper body to apply pressure to the spinal column requres large amounts of leverage compared to twisting or bending the head.

One of the most well known spine cranks is the [[boston crab]], which is usually depicted in [[pro-wrestling]] context. Similary to neck cranks, spine cranks are illegal techniques in most [[combat sport]]s, excluding some [[submission wrestling]] and [[mixed martial arts]] competitions, where they are used as [[grappling hold#Submission hold|submission holds]]. Even if allowed, spine cranks are very rarely featured because of the difficulty applying them.

==See also==
* [[Armlock]]
* [[Leglock]]
* [[Small joint manipulation]]
* [[Wristlock]]

==References==
====Main references====
<div class="references-small">
* Bernard, Thomas. [http://www.hughston.com/hha/a_14_1_1.htm Cervical Spine Injuries in Olympic Athletes]. ''www.hughston.com''. URL last accessed [[February 8]] [[2006]].
* Gracie Barra Tampa. [http://www.tampabjj.com/2005/11/18/cattle-catch/ Cattle Catch], [http://www.tampabjj.com/2005/11/17/a-confusion-of-crucifixes/ A Confusion of Crucifixes]. ''www.tampabjj.com''. URL's last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].
* Kawaishi, Mikunosuke. [http://judoinfo.com/kubiwaza.htm Judo dislocation necklocks]. ''judoinfo.com''. URL last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].
* Radebold, Andrea. [http://www.emedicine.com/SPORTS/topic69.htm Lumbosacral Spine Sprain/Strain Injuries]. ''www.emedicine.com''. URL last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].
* Riccaldi, Alain. [http://www.fightordie.it/articolo_171.html Catch Wrestling: Boston Crab & Half-Boston Crab]. ''www.fightordie.it''. URL last accessed [[February 5]] [[2006]]. (In Italian)
* Wieder, Brian. [http://thecni.org/reviews/11-1-p03-wieder.htm Cervical Spine Injury in Athletes]. ''thecni.org''. URL last accessed [[February 8]] [[2006]].
</div>
====Other references====
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==External links==
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=57 Figure 4 Neck Crank]. Extension-distraction of the neck.
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=56 Neck Extension]. Hyperextension of the neck.
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=491 Neck Crank from All Fours]. Hyperextension and hyperrotation of the neck.
* [http://www.silverdragonpma.com/images/august/FULL/MVC-009S.JPG Image of a crucifix neck crank.]
* [http://www.bjj.com.au/eddie_bravo_twister.html Eddie "Twister" Bravo: Outside of the Box]. Image series showing how the twister is applied from the [[side mount]].
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=533 Twister from Head & Arm ]. Image series showing how the twister is applied when escaping from a [[sidecontrol#Kesa-gatame|scarf hold]].

[[Category:Joint locks]]

Benutzer:GreenLampion/Artikel

2007-06-30T01:35:26Z

Anchor Link Bot: Notifying of internal link to section Microsoft Windows from Windows 1.0

:''For the mechanical writing aid, see [[Clipboard]].
The '''clipboard''' is a [[software]] [[Computer program|program]] that is used for short-term storage of data as it is transferred between documents or applications, via [[copy and paste]] operations. It is most commonly a part of a [[Graphical user interface|GUI]] environment and is usually implemented as an anonymous, temporary block of memory that can be accessed from most or all programs within the environment.

== Basic Clipboard functions ==

The [[semantics]] of the clipboard facility varies from one operating environment to another, and can also vary between versions of the same system. They can sometimes be changed programmatically or by user preference. This can lead to user frustration when switching between environments with different clipboard semantics particularly as copy and paste operations often become embedded in the user's [[muscle memory]].

Most environments support a single clipboard transaction. Each cut or copy overwrites the previous contents. Normally paste operations copy the contents, leaving the contents available in the clipboard for further pasting operations.

== Clipboard data formats ==

Early implementations of the clipboard stored data as plain text without meta-information such as typeface, type style or color. More recent implemenations support the multiple '''flavors''' of data; a flavor is a type of data, allowing complex [[data structures]] to be stored. These range from styled text formats such as [[Rich Text Format|RTF]] or [[HTML]], through a variety of bitmap and vector image formats to complex data types like spreadsheets and database entries.

For example cutting a range of cells in a spreadsheet and then pasting them into another sheet may preserve the underlying formulae and data, and may even translate intra-cell references, so that a "SUM(...)" calculation on a sub-range of the cells is converted to refer to the newly pasted copies of those cells.

Not all applications can interpret every flavor that a clipboard supports. Often applications will attempt to translate complex formats into simpler ones they can handle. Many text editors, for example, translate structured data from the clipboard into plain text. This is a common way for users to convert small selections of data into plain text for various purposes.

== Clipboard Management ==

Modern GUIs often provide a [[clipboard manager]] which supports multiple cut and paste transactions. In this model the clipboard is treated as a stack or scrap book, with new cuts and copies being placed added to the top of the list of recent transations. The standard paste operation copies the most recent transaction, while specialized pastes provide access to the other stored transactions. These managers generally also provide a window that displays the transaction history and allows the user to select earlier copies, edit them, change their format and even search amongst them.

Most environments do not save the clipboard contents to any persistent storage - when a user logs out or reboots his or her system the clipboard contents are cleared and forgotten.

See also [[Snippet management]].

== Operating System Specific Clipboards ==
=== Microsoft Windows ===

In some versions of the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system, the contents of the clipboard can be viewed at any time by using the Clipboard Viewer (Clipbook Viewer in Windows XP) application (clipbrd.exe). In older versions of Windows the common practice was to open a copy of the "Notepad" or "Wordpad" editor, and paste into that. Often these operations are available from the "Edit" pull down menu and they may be available via a context menu, usually accessible by context-clicking in the window or dialog entry that is to be cut from or pasted into.

The standard Windows keybindings are:

* '''Ctrl-c''' to copy data onto the clipboard
* '''Ctrl-x''' to cut data to the clipboard
* '''Ctrl-v''' to paste data from the clipboard

The Clipbook Viewer was removed entirely in [[Windows Vista]].

=== Mac OS X ===

In the [[Mac OS|Macintosh Operating System]] the contents can be viewed by selecting the Show Clipboard menu item from the [[Finder]]'s Edit menu. The standard Mac OS keybindings are:

* '''[[Command key|Command]]-c''' to copy data into the clipboard
* '''Command-x''' to cut into it
* '''Command-v''' to paste data from the clipboard.

Also available as a secondary, text-only clipboard, is an [[emacs]]-style [[kill-ring]]. This works in all applications that use standard [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] [[Text box|text boxes]]:

*'''[[Ctrl]]-k''' to kill from cursor to end-of-line.
*'''[[Ctrl]]-y''' to yank from kill-ring to cursor.

=== X Window System ===

The [[X Window System]] commonly used on [[Unix]] and [[Linux]] systems provides a clipboard implementation via [[X_Window_selection|selections]]. Selections are asynchronous, so data is copied and converted into the desired format only on-demand.

The usage and handling of various selections is not standardized. However most modern toolkits and desktop environments, such as [[GNOME]] or [[KDE]], follow a widely accepted convention, outlined in the [[freedesktop.org]] specification. One selection, CLIPBOARD, is used for traditional clipboard semantics, with shortcuts similar to Windows. Another selection, PRIMARY, is an X11-specific mechanism. Data is "copied" immediately upon highlighting and pasted with the third (middle) mouse button. This is usually separate from the CLIPBOARD selection and does not change its contents.

==See Also==
[[List of Clipboard applications]]

==External links==
* [http://freedesktop.org/wiki/Specifications/clipboards-spec?action=show freedesktop.org - Clipboard standard specification]
* [http://www.thornsoft.com/developer_commonmistakes.htm Clipboard Developer Info - Common mistakes of clipboard implementation]
* [http://www.tucows.com/Windows/DesignTools/ClipBoards/?page=1&nsort=rating A list of popular clipboard managers]
* [http://acmgr.sourceforge.net/ ACM - Advanced Clipboard Manager]
* [http://www.lw-works.com/clipboard-recorder Clipboard Recorder - Clipboard management tool]

[[Category:System software]]
[[Category:Clipboard]]

[[cs:Schránka (software)]]
[[de:Zwischenablage]]
[[fr:Presse-papiers]]
[[he:לוח עריכה]]
[[nl:Klembord (computer)]]
[[ja:クリップボード]]
[[pl:Schowek]]
[[ru:Буфер обмена]]

Spinal Lock (Kampfsport)

2007-06-29T13:01:19Z

Anchor Link Bot: Notifying of internal link to section Cattle catch from Stock (disambiguation)

A '''spinal lock''' is a multiple [[joint lock]] applied to the [[spinal column]], which is performed by forcing the spine beyond its normal ranges of motion. This is typically done by bending or twisting the head or upper body into abnormal positions. Commonly, spinal locks might [[strain]] the [[Vertebral column|spinal]] [[muscle|musculature]] or result in a mild spinal [[sprain]], while a forcefully and/or suddenly applied spinal lock may cause severe [[ligament]] damage or damage to the [[vertebrae]], and possibly result in serious [[spinal cord injury]], [[stroke]]s, or death.

Spinal locks can be separated into two categories based on their primary area of effect on the spinal column: spinal locks on the neck are called '''neck cranks''' and locks on the lower parts of the spine are called '''spine cranks'''.

==Neck crank==
A '''neck crank''' (sometimes also referred to as a '''neck lock''', and technically known as a '''cervical lock''') is a spinal lock applied to the [[neck#Anatomy of the human neck|cervical spine]] causing hyperextension, hyperflexion, lateral hyperflexion, hyperrotation or extension-distraction, either through bending, twisting or elongating. A neck crank is typically applied by pulling or twisting the head beyond its normal ranges of rotation. Neck cranks are included techniques in several martial arts such as [[Brazilian jiu-jitsu]] and [[Judo]], but are usually banned from sports competitions, with notable exceptions in [[combat sport]]s such as [[submission wrestling]] and [[mixed martial arts]], where they are used as [[grappling hold#Submission hold|submission holds]].

===Can opener===
The '''can opener''' (in [[Judo]] referred to as ''kubi-hishigi'') is a hyperflexing neck crank that can be applied from the opponents [[guard (grappling)|guard]] or from a [[mount (grappling)|mounted position]], by grabbing the opponents head using the hands, and forcing it towards the chest of the opponent. In competitions (where allowed) it is usually used as a taunting or distracting move, but if applied effectively in a competition, it may force the opponent to [[submission (combat sport term)|submit]].

This may also refer to a type of neck compression employed from a rear mount position in which the back of the thumbs are used to drive into the neck starting from the high trapezius muscle toward the sternocleidomastoid muscles, causing severe discomfort, and even submission. As of 2006, this is permitted in shiai as long as the judoka's thumbs remain straight, and not bent. Its most common uses are to open up an opponent's chin for shime-waza or as a diversionary tactic.

===Cattle catch===
The '''cattle catch''' (also referred to as '''reverse crucifix''', '''iron cross''' or '''stocks''') is a hyperflexing neck crank involving trapping the opponent's hands and forcing the head towards his or her chest. The technique is performed with the opponent lying on his or her back, and the combatant performing the neck crank perpendicularly face-down in a [[side mount]] position above the head of the opponent, with the opponent's head resting towards his armpit. The combatant traps one arm using the legs, and the other using the arms. By using the pinned arms and legs as a point of leverage, the combatant can forcefully crank the head towards the opponent's chest.

===Crucifix neck crank===
The '''crucifix neck crank''' is similar to the cattle catch, but involves the combatant performing the neck crank being [[mount (grappling)|mounted]] on the opponent. Both of the opponent's arms are controlled, and the opponent's head is held in the armpit. By cranking the body upwards while keeping a tight hold on the opponents arms, the opponents head is forced towards his or her chest.

Both the cattle catch and the crucifix neck crank are colloquially referred to simply as the '''crucifix''', which often leads to confusion with the traditional [[crucifix position]].

===Twister===
The '''twister''' (a similar move in [[wrestling]] is known as a '''guillotine''') is a sideways body bend and neck crank, which involves forcing the head towards the shoulder while controlling the body, hence causing lateral hyperflexion of the [[neck#Anatomy of the human neck|cervical spine]]. The technique involves tension in several bodyparts, and depending on the [[flexibility]] of the recipient, can also involve pain in the [[knee]]s, [[abdominals]] and [[torso]]. The twister is often confused as being a [[#Spine crank|spine crank]] since it involves a degree of lateral non-cervical spinal flexion. The main pressure is however on the cervical spine, hence making it a [[#neck crank|neck crank]].<ref>Cunliffe, Joseph. [http://www.onzuka.com/news_2003April3.html On the road to the 2003 Abu Dhabi Championships with Eddie “The Twister” Bravo]. ''www.onzuka.com''. URL last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].</ref>

==Spine crank==
A '''spine crank''' (the term '''spine lock''' is also often used to refer exclusively to this type) is a spinal lock that affects the [[thoracic]] and/or [[lumbar]] regions of the [[spinal column]]. A spine crank is applied by twisting or bending the upper body beyond its normal ranges of motion, causing hyperextension, hyperflexion, or hyperrotation of the spine. In [[martial arts]], spine cranks are generally rarer techniques than [[#Neck crank|neck cranks]] because they are more difficult to apply. Twisting or bending the upper body to apply pressure to the spinal column requres large amounts of leverage compared to twisting or bending the head.

One of the most well known spine cranks is the [[boston crab]], which is usually depicted in [[pro-wrestling]] context. Similary to neck cranks, spine cranks are illegal techniques in most [[combat sport]]s, excluding some [[submission wrestling]] and [[mixed martial arts]] competitions, where they are used as [[grappling hold#Submission hold|submission holds]]. Even if allowed, spine cranks are very rarely featured because of the difficulty applying them.

==See also==
* [[Armlock]]
* [[Leglock]]
* [[Small joint manipulation]]
* [[Wristlock]]

==References==
====Main references====
<div class="references-small">
* Bernard, Thomas. [http://www.hughston.com/hha/a_14_1_1.htm Cervical Spine Injuries in Olympic Athletes]. ''www.hughston.com''. URL last accessed [[February 8]] [[2006]].
* Gracie Barra Tampa. [http://www.tampabjj.com/2005/11/18/cattle-catch/ Cattle Catch], [http://www.tampabjj.com/2005/11/17/a-confusion-of-crucifixes/ A Confusion of Crucifixes]. ''www.tampabjj.com''. URL's last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].
* Kawaishi, Mikunosuke. [http://judoinfo.com/kubiwaza.htm Judo dislocation necklocks]. ''judoinfo.com''. URL last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].
* Radebold, Andrea. [http://www.emedicine.com/SPORTS/topic69.htm Lumbosacral Spine Sprain/Strain Injuries]. ''www.emedicine.com''. URL last accessed [[January 7]] [[2006]].
* Riccaldi, Alain. [http://www.fightordie.it/articolo_171.html Catch Wrestling: Boston Crab & Half-Boston Crab]. ''www.fightordie.it''. URL last accessed [[February 5]] [[2006]]. (In Italian)
* Wieder, Brian. [http://thecni.org/reviews/11-1-p03-wieder.htm Cervical Spine Injury in Athletes]. ''thecni.org''. URL last accessed [[February 8]] [[2006]].
</div>
====Other references====
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>

==External links==
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=57 Figure 4 Neck Crank]. Extension-distraction of the neck.
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=56 Neck Extension]. Hyperextension of the neck.
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=491 Neck Crank from All Fours]. Hyperextension and hyperrotation of the neck.
* [http://www.silverdragonpma.com/images/august/FULL/MVC-009S.JPG Image of a crucifix neck crank.]
* [http://www.bjj.com.au/eddie_bravo_twister.html Eddie "Twister" Bravo: Outside of the Box]. Image series showing how the twister is applied from the [[side mount]].
* [http://www.lockflow.com/article_view.php?id=533 Twister from Head & Arm ]. Image series showing how the twister is applied when escaping from a [[sidecontrol#Kesa-gatame|scarf hold]].

[[Category:Joint locks]]

Benutzer:Snackroeg/Kernreaktoren der Generation 5

2007-06-26T13:18:27Z

Anchor Link Bot: Notifying of internal link to section Fast reactors from Nuclear reactor technology

'''Generation IV reactors''' (Gen IV) are a set of theoretical nuclear reactor designs currently being researched. Most of these designs are generally not expected to be available for commercial construction before 2030, with the exception of a version of the Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) called the Next Generation Nuclear Plant (NGNP). The NGNP is to be completed by 2021. Current reactors in operation around the world are generally considered second- or third-generation systems, with the first-generation systems having been retired some time ago. Research into these reactor types was officially started by the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) based on eight technology goals. The primary goals being to improve [[nuclear safety]], improve proliferation resistance, minimize waste and natural resource utilization, and to decrease the cost to build and run such plants.

An Integrated Nuclear Energy Model is central to standardized and credible economic evaluation of Generation IV nuclear energy systems. The innovative nuclear systems considered within Generation IV require new tools for their economic assessment, since their characteristics differ significantly from those of current [[generation II reactor|generation II]] and [[generation III reactor|III]] nuclear power plants. The current economic models were not designed to compare alternative nuclear technologies or systems but rather to compare nuclear energy with fossil alternatives.
[[Image:GenIVRoadmap.jpg|left|480px|Nuclear Energy Systems Deployable no later than 2030 and offering significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, and economics]]

== Reactor types ==

Many reactor types were considered initially; however, the list was downsized to focus on the most promising technologies and those that could most likely meet the goals of the Gen IV initiative. Three systems are nominally thermal reactors and three fast reactors. The VHTR is also being researched for potentially providing high quality process heat for hydrogen production. The fast reactors offer the possibility of burning actinides to further reduce waste and of being able to breed more fuel than they consume. These systems offer significant advances in sustainability, safety and reliability, economics, proliferation resistance and physical protection.

=== Thermal reactors ===
[[Image:Vhtr.gif|right|thumb|Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR)]]
==== Very-High-Temperature Reactor (VHTR) ====
{{Main|Very high temperature reactor}}

The '''Very High Temperature Reactor''' concept utilizes a [[graphite]]-moderated core with a once-through [[uranium]] fuel cycle. This reactor design envisions an outlet temperature of 1,000 °C. The reactor core can be either a prismatic-block or a [[pebble bed reactor]] design. The high temperatures enable applications such as process heat or [[hydrogen]] production via the thermochemical [[Sulfur-iodine cycle|iodine-sulfur]] process. It would also be passively safe.
[[Image:Scwr.gif|right|thumb|Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR)]]

==== Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor (SCWR) ====
{{Main|Supercritical water reactor}}

The '''Supercritical water reactor''' (SCWR) is a concept that uses [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical water]] as the working fluid. SCWRs are basically [[light water reactor]]s (LWR) operating at higher pressure and temperatures with a direct, once-through cycle. As most commonly envisioned, it would operate on a direct cycle, much like a Boiling Water Reactor ([[BWR]]), but since it uses supercritical water (not to be confused with [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]]) as the working fluid, would have only one phase present, like the Pressurized Water Reactor ([[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]]). It could operate at much higher temperatures than both current PWRs and BWRs.

Supercritical water-cooled reactors (SCWRs) are promising advanced nuclear systems because of their high [[thermal efficiency]] (i.e., about 45% vs. about 33% efficiency for current LWRs) and considerable plant simplification.

The main mission of the SCWR is generation of low-cost [[electricity]]. It is built upon two proven technologies, LWRs, which are the most commonly deployed power generating reactors in the world, and supercritical [[fossil fuel]] fired [[boiler]]s, a large number of which are also in use around the world. The SCWR concept is being investigated by 32 organizations in 13 countries.

[[Image:Msr.gif|right|thumb|Molten Salt Reactor (MSR)]]
==== Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) ====
{{Main|Molten salt reactor}}
A '''molten salt reactor''' is a type of [[nuclear reactor]] where the [[coolant]] is a molten salt. There have been many designs put forward for this type of reactor and a few prototypes built. The early concepts and many current ones had the [[nuclear fuel]] dissolved in the molten [[fluoride]] salt as [[uranium]] tetrafluoride (UF4), the fluid would reach [[Critical mass (nuclear)|criticality]] by flowing into a [[graphite]] core which also served as the [[neutron moderator|moderator]]. Many current concepts rely on fuel that is dispersed in a graphite matrix with the molten salt providing low pressure, high temperature cooling.

=== Fast reactors ===
[[Image:Gfr.gif|right|thumb|Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR)]]
==== Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor (GFR) ====
{{Main|Gas cooled fast reactor}}
The '''Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor''' (GFR) system features a fast-neutron spectrum and closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]] for efficient conversion of [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and management of [[actinide]]s. The reactor is [[helium]]-cooled, with an outlet temperature of 850 °C and using a direct [[Brayton cycle]] [[gas turbine]] for high thermal efficiency. Several fuel forms are being considered for their potential to operate at very high temperatures and to ensure an excellent retention of [[Nuclear fission|fission]] products: composite [[ceramic]] fuel, advanced fuel particles, or ceramic clad elements of actinide compounds. Core configurations are being considered based on pin- or plate-based fuel assemblies or prismatic blocks.

[[Image:Sfr.gif|right|thumb|Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR)]]
==== Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) ====
{{main|Sodium-cooled fast reactor}}

The SFR is a project that builds on two closely related existing projects, the [[LMFBR]] and the [[Integral Fast Reactor]].

The goals are to increase the efficiency of uranium usage by [[breeder reactor|breeding]] plutonium and eliminating the need for [[transuranic]] isotopes ever to leave the site. The reactor design uses an unmoderated core running on [[fast neutron]]s, designed to allow any transuranic isotope to be consumed (and in some cases used as fuel). In addition to the benefits of removing the long [[half-life]] transuranics from the waste cycle, the SFR fuel expands when the reactor overheats, and the chain reaction automatically slows down. In this manner, it is passively safe.

The IFR is a design for a nuclear reactor with a specialized [[nuclear fuel cycle]]. A prototype of the reactor was built, but the project was cancelled before it could be copied elsewhere.

The SFR reactor concept is cooled by liquid [[sodium]] and fueled by a metallic alloy of [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]]. The fuel is contained in steel cladding with liquid sodium filling in the space between the fuel and the cladding.
[[Image:Lfr.gif|right|thumb|Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR)]]

==== Lead-Cooled Fast Reactor (LFR) ====
{{Main|Lead cooled fast reactor}}
The '''Lead-cooled Fast Reactor''' features a fast-neutron-spectrum [[lead]] or [[lead]]/[[bismuth]] [[eutectic]] ([[Lead-bismuth eutectic|LBE]]) liquid-metal-cooled reactor with a closed [[Nuclear fuel cycle|fuel cycle]]. Options include a range of plant ratings, including a "battery" of 50 to 150 MW of electricity that features a very long refueling interval, a modular system rated at 300 to 400 MW, and a large monolithic plant option at 1,200 MW. (The term ''battery'' refers to the long-life, factory-fabricated core, not to any provision for electrochemical energy conversion.) The fuel is metal or nitride-based containing [[Fertile material|fertile uranium]] and [[transuranic]]s. The LFR is cooled by natural [[convection]] with a reactor outlet coolant temperature of 550 °C, possibly ranging up to 800 °C with advanced materials. The higher temperature enables the production of hydrogen by thermochemical processes.

==See also==

* [[Nuclear reactor]]
* [[Nuclear material]]
* [[Atomic physics]]
* [[Generation II reactor]]
* [[Generation III reactor]]

==External links==

* [http://www.gen-4.org/ Generation IV International Forum (GIF)]
* [http://nuclear.energy.gov/genIV/neGenIV1.html U.S. Department of Energy Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology]
* [http://www.engr.utk.edu/nuclear/colloquia/slides/Gen%20IV%20U-Tenn%20Presentation.pdf Gen IV presentation]

== Participating countries ==

* {{USA}} [http://gen-iv.ne.doe.gov]
* {{UK}} [http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/sources/nuclear/technology/fission/page17924.html]
* {{SUI}} [http://www.psi.ch/index_e.shtml]
* {{KOR}} [http://www.most.go.kr/index.html] (''Korean-only Web site'')
* {{RSA}} [http://www.eskom.co.za/live/index.php]
* {{JPN}} [http://www.jaeri.go.jp/]
* {{FRA}} [http://www.cea.fr/] (''French-only Web site'')
* {{CAN}} [http://www.aecl.ca/]
* {{BRA}} [http://www.cnen.gov.br/] (''Portuguese-only Web site'')
* [[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|25x15px|Flag of Argentina]] [[Argentina]] [http://www.cnea.gov.ar/] (''Spanish-only Web site'')
* [[Image:European flag.svg|25x15px]] [[European Union]] [http://www.euronuclear.org/info/generation-IV.htm]

{{Nuclear Technology}}

[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]

[[fr:Forum International Génération IV]]
[[it:Reattori nucleari di IV generazione]]
[[pt:Reatores Nucleares de Quarta Geração]]
[[fi:Reaktorisukupolvet]]

Andersonville (Georgia)

2007-06-26T13:08:33Z

Anchor Link Bot: Notifying of internal link to section History from November 10

[[Image:GAMap-doton-Andersonville.PNG|right|Location of Andersonville, Georgia]]

'''Andersonville''' is a city in [[Sumter County, Georgia|Sumter County]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[United States]]. The population was 331 at the 2000 census.(174 in [[1910]]). It is in the southwest part of the state, about 60 miles southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]]. During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]].

==Geography==
Andersonville is located at {{coor dms|32|11|49|N|84|8|30|W|city}} (32.197008, -84.141701){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 3.4 [[square kilometre|km²]] (1.3 [[square mile|mi²]]), all land.

== History ==
Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson. Andersonville is infamous as an [[American Civil War]] [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] [[Prisoner-of-war camp|POW camp]], [[Camp Sumter]]. The town, though very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the prison camp at the site. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonvillle POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the [[Andersonville National Historic Site]] was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvement with the site of the Andersonville POW camp.

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 98.3/km² (254.1/mi²). There were 142 housing units at an average density of 42.2/km² (109.0/mi²). The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% [[African American]]. 1.21% of the population were [[Hispanics in the United States|Hispanic]] or [[Race (United States Census)|Latino]]

There were 124 households out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.

In the city the population was spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.

==External links==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
* [http://www.americusgeorgia.net/ AmericusGeorgia.net - Area info... by and for Andersonville Locals]
*[http://andersonvillega.freeservers.com/ Official website of Andersonville]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|32.197008|-84.141701}}

[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]

[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]
[[lmo:Andersonville, Georgia]]