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Siyawasch

2009-01-30T00:10:50Z

AllGloryToTheHypnotoad: /* Siavash and Afrasiab */

{{unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
'''Siyâvash''' (in {{lang-fa|'''سياوش'''}}) or '''Siavush''' or '''Siavukhsh''' is a major figure in [[Ferdowsi]]'s epic, the [[Shahnameh]]. He was a legendary [[Persian people|Persian]] prince from the earliest days of the [[Persian Empire]]. He was a son of [[Kay Kāvus]], then [[Shah]] of Iran, and due to the treason of his stepmother, [[Sudabeh]] (with whom he refused to have sex and betray his father), self-exiled himself to [[Turan]] where he was killed innocently by order of The Turanian king [[Afrasiab]]. He was later avenged by his son [[Kai Khosrow]]. He is a symbol of innocence in [[Persian Literature]]. His name literally means "the one with the black horse". Ferdowsi in Shahnameh dubs his horse as ''Shabrang Behzād'' ({{lang-fa|شبرنگ بهزاد}}) literally meaning "night-colored purebred".

==Early life==
As soon as Siavash was born, [[Rostam]] took him to [[Zabul]]. When a lad of twelve, [[Rostam]] instructed him in riding, archery and the use of lasso. Other teachers taught him to hold his court, his feasts, and to rule the kingdom. When Siavash was young, he felt anxious to pay a visit to his father [[Kay Kāvus]], and Rostam accompanied his pupil to the royal court.

Siavash had fulfilled [[Kay Kāvus]] expectations and was received warmly. In [[Kay Kāvus]]'s house Siavash fared well, seeing that he prospered in all what he did, his father appointed him a ruler of Tisfun. But one of his father's wives, [[Sudabeh]] daughter of [[Hamavaranshah]] conceived a passion for him. Sudabeh went to the Shah and praising the character of his son, proposed that he should marry one of the damsels of royal linage under her care. She requested that Siavash might be sent to the harem, to see all the ladies and choose any of them as his lawful wife. The Shah approved of the proposal, and intimated it to Siavash, but Siavash being "modest and bashful" suspected in this overture some artifice of Sudabeh and hesitated. By the Shah's command, Siavash, finally entered the [[harem]]. In his first visit, Siavash did not pay attention to Sudabeh and went straightly to other damsels, who placed him on a golden chair and talked to him for some time.

[[Kay Kāvus]] repeated to him his wish that he would at once choose a woman of the harem for his wife, but Siavash excused himself from going again to the harem. Sudabeh sent Hirbad to tell Siavash that he was even ready to kill her husband so that he might marry her lawfully, but Siavash denied his request. Her repeated advances being repulsed, she finally attempted compulsion; still failing, she brought a false accusation against him before her husband.

The Shah, on hearing that Siavash had preferred her wife, thought that death alone could expiate his crime. He first smelt the hands of Siavah, which had the scent of rose water ; and then he took the garments of Sudaveh, which, on the contrary, had a strong flavour of wine. Upon this discovery, the king resolved on the death of Sudaveh, being convinced of The falsehood of the accusation she had made against his son.

At length he resolved to ascertain the innocence of Saivash by the ordeal of fire; and Siavash prepared to undergo the terrible trial to which he was sentenced, telling his father to be under no alarm. A fire was lighted and Siavash, wearing a helmet and a white robe, rushed among the fire on [[Siah]], his black horse. When Siavash returned safe from the ordeal, his innocence was proved. Kavus now determined to put Sudabeh to death, not only for her own guilt, but for exposing his son to such imminent danger.
Siavash, however, interceded for her and Sudabeh was not executed.

==Siavash and Afrasiab==
[[Afrasiab]] threatened another invasion of Iran but was defeated.Suddenly intelligence was received that Afrasiab had assembled another army, for the purpose of making an irruption into [[Iran]]; and Kaus, seeing that it Tartar could neither be bound by promise nor oath, resolved that he would on this occasion take the field himself, penetrate as far as [[Balkh]], and seizing the country, make an example of the inhabitants.But Siavash requested to be employed, adding that, with the advice of Rustam, he would successful.The Shah referred the matter to Rustem, who candidly declared that there was no necessity whatever for his majesty proceeding personally to the war; and upon this assurance he threw open his treasury, and supplied all the resources of the empire to equip the troops appointed to accompany them.

After one month the army marched towards Balkh, the point of attack.

On the other side [[Garsiwaz]], the ruler of [[Balghar]], joined the [[Tartar]] legions at [[Balkh]], commanded by [[Barman]], who both sallied forth to oppose the Persian host, and after a conflict of three days were defeated, and obliged to abandon the fort. When the accounts of this calamity reached Afrasiab, he had previously dreamed of a forest abounding with serpents, and that the air was darkened by the appearance of countless eagles.He referred to his astrologers, but they hesitated, and were unwilling to afford an explanation of the vision. Finally, a sage named Saqim concluded from the dream that he will be defeated within three days. Afrasiab, therefore deputed Garsiwaz to the head quarters of Siavash, with presents, consisting of horses, armour and swords and demanded peace.

In the meantime Saiawnsh was anxious to pursue the enemy across the Jihun. When Gersiwaz arrived on his embassy he was received with distinction, and the object of his mission being understood, a secret council was held upon what answer should be given. It was then deemed proper to demand:first, one hundred distinguished heroes as hostages; and secondly, the restoration of all the provinces which the Turanians had taken from Iran.

Garsiwaz sent immediately to Afrasiyab to inform him of the conditions required, and without the least delay they were approved.A hundred warriors were soon on their way; and Bokhara, and Samerkand, and Haj, and the Punjab, were faithfully delivered over to Saiavash. Afrasiab himself retired towards Gungduz.

The negotiations being concluded, Saiawush sent a letter to his father by the hands of Rustam. Kavus disapproved of the terms and supersedes his son, Saiavash. On this account Kavus appointed Tus the leader of the Persian army, and commanded him to march against Afrasiab, ordering Saiavash at the were time to return, and bring with him his hundred hostages, At this command Saiawush was grievously offended, Siavash consulted Zanga og Shavaran and he advised him to write a letter to Kavus, expressing his readiness to renew the war and kill the hostages. But Siavash thought he should keep his promise and so he decided to abandon Iran and go to the country of Afrasiab, [[Turan]].

== Siavash in Turan ==
In [[Turan]], Afrasiab received Siavash warmly. The old Turanian vizier, [[Piran Visah]] gave his daughter [[Jurairah]] to Siavash in marriage. Afterwards, Siavash married [[Farangis]] daughter of [[Afrasiab]].The second marriage accordingly took place, and Afrasiyab was so pleased with the match that he bestowed on the bride and her husband the sovereignty of Khotan. In Khotan, Siavash built the city of [[Siavashgird]] and the [[Gang Castle]]. Both Piran Visah and Garsiwaz visited Siavash's city. Garsiwaz began to vilify before Afrasiab.

The news of Afrasiyab's warlike preparations satisfied the mind of Saiawush that Gersiwaz had given him good advice. Siavash and his followers, did not fight with the large army opposing them. All of Siavash's men were killed and beheaded. Women were taken as slave girls and prisoners to Kiman.

In the meantime Afrasiab came up, and surrounding him, wanted to shoot Siavash with an arrow, but he was restrained from the act. Siavash himself was beheaded. His death is commemorated by some Persians, especially in [[Shiraz]], in the day called [[Suvashon]].

{{Shahnameh}}

[[Category:History stubs]]
[[Category:Persian mythology]]

{{MEast-myth-stub}}

[[ar:سياوش]]
[[ceb:Seyāvash]]
[[fa:سیاوش پسر کاووس]]
[[ko:시야바슈]]
[[tl:Seyāvash]]

Gemischtorientierte Ehe

2009-01-05T00:12:41Z

AllGloryToTheHypnotoad: deleted brokeback reference - see talk page

{{nofootnotes}}
{{Close Relationships}}
A '''mixed orientation marriage''' is a [[marriage]] between a [[man]] and a [[woman]] in which one of the partners has a [[non-heterosexual]] orientation. Many gay men and lesbians marry people of the opposite sex and go on to have children.<ref>{{cite news
|title=How to tell if your husband is gay
|first=Rochelle
|last=Hentges
|publisher=[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]
|date=October 4, 2006
|url=http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/tribpm/s_473458.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|title=Straight Spouses -- What to Do and What Not to Do If Your Spouse is Gay
|accessdate=2008-01-31
|author=Sheri & Bob Stritof
|url=http://marriage.about.com/cs/straightspouses/a/straightspouse.htm}}</ref> Some men are able to express with minimal conflict their homosexual and heterosexual impulses within the framework of a conventional marriage,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Brownfain JJ |title=A study of the married bisexual male: paradox and resolution |journal=J Homosex. |volume=11 |issue=1-2 |pages=173–88 |year=1985 |pmid=4056387 |doi=10.1300/J082v11n01_13 }}</ref> with openness and communication being a key factor.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Coleman E |title=Integration of male bisexuality and marriage |journal=J Homosex. |volume=11 |issue=1-2 |pages=189–207 |year=1985 |pmid=4056388 |doi=10.1300/J082v11n01_14 }}</ref>

== Reasons for getting married ==
Usually, gay people do not heterosexually marry out of convenience or for a cover, but for complex reasons, including everything from discrimination and wishful thinking to real affection, sexual love,
<ref name=Brokeback>{{cite news
|title=Many Couples Must Negotiate Terms of 'Brokeback' Marriages
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/07/health/07broke.html?_r=2&oref=slogin&oref=slogin
|last=Butler
|first=Katy
|date=March 7, 2006
|publisher=[[New York Times]]}}</ref> and desire for family.<ref>[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=11230 Gay Men from Heterosexual Marriages: Attitudes, Behaviors, Childhood Experiences, and Reasons for Marriage]</ref> Joe Kort, a counselor specializing in mixed-orientation marriages, said "These men genuinely love their wives. They fall in love with their wives, they have children, they're on a chemical, romantic high, and then after about seven years, the high falls away and their gay identity starts emerging. They don't mean any harm."<ref name=Brokeback /> Others cite spiritual reasons for getting married.<ref>[http://www.rickross.com/reference/mormon/mormon336.html Gay, Mormon, married]</ref> One married gay man said his "spiritual identity" had always been "marriage and family."<ref name=Moore07>{{cite news
|url=http://deseretnews.com/dn/view/0,1249,660207378,00.html
|title=Gay LDS men detail challenges
|publisher=[[Deseret Morning News]]
|last=Moore
|first=Carrie A.
|date=March 30, 2007}}</ref> While many hide their orientation from their spouse, others tell their spouse before marriage.<ref name=Moore07/> Others may not have been aware of their sexual orientation prior to marriage, or their sexual orientation was realized after marriage. Some bisexual women are almost exclusively heterosexual in behavior and fantasies before marriage, but grow toward a more homosexual orientation during marriage.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Coleman E |title=Bisexual women in marriages |journal=J Homosex. |volume=11 |issue=1-2 |pages=87–99 |year=1985 |pmid=4056398 |doi=10.1300/J082v11n01_08 }}</ref>

A [[lavender marriage]] is a mixed-orientation marriage used to cover up one's sexual orientation, often for their career.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Lavender marriage| |http://www.odps.org/glossword/index.php?a=term&d=8&t=8186|}}</ref> If one of the partners is straight, they may be referred to as the [[Beard (female companion)|beard]] or [[merkin]].

== Family members ==
Many women are attracted to gay men and proceed to marry them.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Büntzly G |title=Gay fathers in straight marriages |journal=J Homosex. |volume=24 |issue=3-4 |pages=107–14 |year=1993 |pmid=8505530 |doi=10.1300/J082v24n03_07 }}</ref> Kort said "straight individuals rarely marry gay people accidentally."<ref>{{cite journal
|url=http://www.joekort.com/joekort_the_new_mixed_marriage.htm
|publisher=[[Psychotherapy Networker]]
|date=Sept 2005
|last=Kort
|first=Joe
|title=The New Mixed Marriage: When One Partner is Gay}}</ref> He theorized that some women find gay men less judgmental and more flexible, while others unconsciously seek partnerships that are not sexually passionate.<ref name=Brokeback />

Wives of gay men who did not know of their husband's sexual orientation may feel deceived or stupid for not having known. It is often difficult for them to seek support from family and friends because of fear of encountering social disapproval or ostracism.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hays D, Samuels A |title=Heterosexual women's perceptions of their marriages to bisexual or homosexual men |journal=J Homosex. |volume=18 |issue=1-2 |pages=81–100 |year=1989 |pmid=2794500 |doi=10.1300/J082v18n01_04 }}</ref> Findings suggest that wives struggled less with the homosexuality itself than with problems of isolation, stigma, loss, cognitive confusion and dissonance, and lack of knowledgeable, empathic support or help in problem solving.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gochros JS |title=Wives' reactions to learning that their husbands are bisexual |journal=J Homosex. |volume=11 |issue=1-2 |pages=101–13 |year=1985 |pmid=4056383 |doi=10.1300/J082v11n01_09 }}</ref> LGB parents must also decide how and when to come out to their children. For many this may be a difficult process.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dunne EJ |title=Helping gay fathers come out to their children |journal=J Homosex. |volume=14 |issue=1-2 |pages=213–22 |year=1987 |pmid=3655343 |doi=10.1300/J082v14n01_16 }}</ref>

== Support ==
Many LGB people go to therapy or support groups, either before or after their marriage, specifically to deal with issues involved in a mixed-orientation marriage.<ref>{{cite book |author=Rust, Paula C. |title=Bisexuality in the United States: a social science reader |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=2000 |pages= |isbn=0-231-10227-5 |url= http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=EwcABAApgR8C&oi=fnd&pg=RA1-PA307&ots=VWErXedbQU&sig=yD1zyU4COaXUwjBl-P-S3tafBPg#PRA1-PA307,M1}}</ref> A significant number of men and women experience conflict surrounding homosexual expression within marriage.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wolf TJ |title=Group psychotherapy for bisexual men and their wives |journal=J Homosex. |volume=14 |issue=1-2 |pages=191–9 |year=1987 |pmid=3655341 |doi=10.1300/J082v14n01_14 }}</ref> Although a strong homosexual identity was associated with difficulties in marital satisfaction, viewing the same-sex activities as compulsive facilitated commitment to the marriage and to monogamy.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schneider JP, Schneider BH |title=Marital satisfaction during recovery from self-identified sexual addiction among bisexual men and their wives |journal=J Sex Marital Ther. |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=230–50 |year=1990 |pmid=2079706 }}</ref> However, research by Coleman suggest that some develop a positive homosexual identity while maintaining a successful marriage.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Matteson DR |title=Bisexual men in marriage: is a positive homosexual identity and stable marriage possible? |journal=J Homosex. |volume=11 |issue=1-2 |pages=149–71 |year=1985 |pmid=4056386 |doi=10.1300/J082v11n01_12 }}</ref> Therapy may include helping the client feel more comfortable and accepting of same-sex feelings and to explore ways of incorporating same-sex and opposite-sex feelings into life patterns.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Coleman E |title=Bisexual and gay men in heterosexual marriage: conflicts and resolutions in therapy |journal=J Homosex. |volume=7 |issue=2-3 |pages=93–103 |year=1981 |pmid=7346553 |doi=10.1300/J082v07n02_11 }}</ref> Peers provide the most support, while therapists are often unfamiliar with sexual orientation, mixed orientation couples, or societal attitudes that impact mixed orientation families.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Buxton AP |title=A Family Matter: When a Spouse Comes Out as Gay, Lesbian, or Bisexual |journal=J GLBT Family Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=49–70 |year=2005 |issn=1550-428X |doi=10.1300/J461v01n02_04 |url=http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=55278}}</ref>

Some attempt [[conversion therapy]], often because of religious/moral conflict, opportunity for heterosexual marriage and family, maintenance of existing marriage and family, or desire to avoid the non-monogamy and risky sexual behaviors that create serious risk for HIV infection.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Rosik CH |title=Motivational, ethical, and epistemological foundations in the treatment of unwanted homoerotic attraction |journal=J Marital Fam Ther. |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=13–28 |year=2003 |month=Jan |pmid=12616795 |doi=10.1111/j.1752-0606.2003.tb00379.x }}</ref> Some also attend [[ex-gay]] groups, either before or after their marriage.<ref>[http://www.wlos.com/shared/newsroom/top_stories/wlos_vid_1032.shtml Top Stories]</ref> Dr. Robinson interviewed seven men in a mixed-orientation marriage who had been through an ex-gay group. They believe they had a spiritual transformation and that their orientation was changed. They were no longer troubled by feeling different or rejected by heterosexual men, emotional attraction to men, sexual attraction to men, feeling bad about same-sex desires, social isolation, or compulsive sexual thoughts and behaviors. Robinson found that their change came from a new understanding that prior [[same-sex attraction]]s did not require them to be gay.<ref>{{cite journal
|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]
|journal=Professional Psychology: Research and Practice
|title=Initial empirical and clinical findings concerning the change process for ex-gays
|url=http://www.drthrockmorton.com/article.asp?id=1
|date=June 2002
|volume=33
|number=3
|pages=242–248
|last=Throckmorton
|first=Warren
|doi=10.1037/0735-7028.33.3.242}}</ref>

=== Support groups ===
Several groups who have started to be a support to those involved in a mixed-orientation marriage. The ''[[New York Times]]'' states "Although precise numbers are impossible to come by, 10,000 to 20,000 wives of gay husbands have contacted online support groups, and increasing numbers of them are women in their 20s or 30s."<ref name=Brokeback />

== Media ==
''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' helped bring the issue of mixed-orientation marriages to public attention,<ref name=Brokeback /> but several other movies had already dealt with the issue. Talk shows, such as [[Oprah]], have also dealt with the issue.<ref>[http://www2.oprah.com/tows/pastshows/200410/tows_past_20041027.jhtml My Husband is gay]</ref> Some of the movies that deal with mixed-orientation marriages include:

* ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' - A story of two married male cowboys who fall in love.
* ''[[De-Lovely]]'' - The story of Cole Porter, a bisexual man and his wife, Linda Lee Thomas.
* ''[[Far From Heaven]]'' - The story of a woman whose husband has an affair with another man.
* ''[[Imagine Me & You]]'' - Story of a straight woman who falls in love with a lesbian at her wedding.
* ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' - Story of a gay Taiwanese immigrant man who marries a mainland Chinese woman to placate his parents and get her a green card

== Famous couples ==
There have been several famous LGB celebrities who are married to a member of the opposite sex, including:

* [[Anne Heche]] married Coleman Laffoon after breaking up with [[Ellen DeGeneres]]. She told [[Advocate]] "I have been very clear to everybody that just because I'm getting married does not mean I call myself a straight."
* [[Julie Cypher]] married [[Matthew Hale]] after breaking up with [[Melissa Etheridge]].
* [[Anthony Perkins]] married [[Berry Berenson]]. He had previous relationships with [[Rock Hudson]] and [[Tab Hunter]], dancer [[Rudolf Nureyev]], composer/lyricist [[Stephen Sondheim]] and dancer-choreographer [[Grover Dale]], but underwent [[conversion therapy|therapy]] after meeting [[Victoria Principal]].
* [[Cole Porter]], who was described as "an openly closeted gay man,"<ref name="glbtq">{{citation |last=Frontain |first=Raymond-Jean |title=Porter, Cole |periodical=[[glbtq.com]] |year=2002 |url=http://www.glbtq.com/arts/porter_c.html |accessdate=[[2007-10-17]]}}</ref> was married to [[Linda Lee Thomas]]. Their marriage was the subject of ''[[Night and Day (1946 film)|Night and Day]]'', but his sexuality was ignored. A later film, [[De-Lovely]], dealt more openly with his sexuality.
* [[Billie Joe Armstrong]] of [[Green Day]] married [[Adrienne Armstrong|Adrienne Nesser]] in 1994 and together they have two kids. In a 1995 interview with ''[[The Advocate]]'', he said "I think I've always been bisexual. I mean, it's something that I've always been interested in."<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20050309020312/http://www.advocate.com/html/stories/822/822_greenday672_3.asp "Coming Clean"] January 24, 1995 </ref><ref>[http://www.theadvocates.org/celebrities/billie-joe-armstrong.html Libertarian Celebrities - Advocates for Self-Government]</ref>
* [[David Bowie]] came out as bisexual in 1972<ref>{{cite news |last=Collis| first=Clark| title =
Dear Superstar: David Bowie | publisher =''Blender'' | date= 2002-08 | url =http://www.blender.com/guide/articles.aspx?id=366}}</ref> and married [[Iman (model)|Iman Abdulmajid]] in 1992.
* [[Oscar Wilde]] married Constance Lloyd, but may have had significant sexual relationships with [[Frank Miles]], [[Robert Baldwin Ross]], and [[Lord Alfred Douglas]].
* [[Little Richard]] was married in 1959 and his biography, ''The Life and Times of Little Richard'' details his involvement with [[homosexuality]].
* [[Andrea Dworkin]] and [[John Stoltenberg]] were a gay man and lesbian who were married to each other and continued to be gay rights activists.
* [[Adrian (costume designer)]] was openly gay, but married [[Janet Gaynor]] in 1939. Together they had a son named Robin Gaynor Adrian, born in 1940. They remained married until Adrian's death on March 3, 1959. Though Gaynor later remarried, she & Adrian are buried in the [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery]] in [[Hollywood, California]].
* [[Laurel Holloman]] identifies herself as a bisexual and she has been married to production designer Paul Macherey since [[July 13]], [[2002]]; they have a daughter, Lola Reiko Macherey, who was born on [[November 4]], [[2004]]. They adopted a second daughter in [[April 2008]]. <ref>[http://www.laurelhollomanonline.com/biography.html Laurel Holloman]</ref>
* [[Megan Mullally]] married [[Nick Offerman]] in 2003. She commented in an interview in ''[[The Advocate]]'' magazine, "I consider myself [[bisexual]], and my philosophy is, everyone innately is."<ref name="advocate">{{citation |title=The Advocate's 25 Coolest Women |date=[[November 23]], [[1999]] |periodical=[[The Advocate]]}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

*[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/csmt/2006/00000021/00000002/art00009 Same-sex attraction in heterosexually partnered men: Reasons, rationales and reflections]
*[http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=11230 Gay Men from Heterosexual Marriages: Attitudes, Behaviors, Childhood Experiences, and Reasons for Marriage]
* [http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=60495 Gay and Bisexual Married Men's Attitudes and Experiences: Homophobia, Reasons for Marriage, and Self-Identity]
* [http://www.haworthpress.com/store/ArticleAbstract.asp?sid=3Q4EE45JK40W8L1DN0HJVF3U8WFT5DSC&ID=82829 The Married Lesbian]
* Gay husbands and fathers: Reasons for marriage among homosexual men ET Ortiz, PR Scott - Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 1994
*{{cite book |author=Bozett, Frederick W. |title=Gay and lesbian parents |publisher=Praeger |location=New York |year=1987 |isbn=0-275-92541-2 |url=http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yffzsKWvP6AC&oi=fnd&pg=PA138&ots=8RVKJpMsQh&sig=cV1xTjj9Is2BYObvw7DLb4bd7fw#PPA138,M1}}
*{{cite journal |author=Latham JD, White GD |title=Coping with homosexual expression within heterosexual marriages: five case studies |journal=J Sex Marital Ther. |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=198–212 |year=1978 |pmid=722822 }}
*{{cite journal |author=van der Geest H |title=Homosexuality and marriage |journal=J Homosex. |volume=24 |issue=3-4 |pages=115–23 |year=1993 |pmid=8505531 |doi=10.1300/J082v24n03_08 }}

{{Bisexuality topics}}
{{Sexuality and gender subcultures}}
{{LGBT|history=yes|culture=yes|rights=yes}}

[[Category:Bisexual community| ]]
[[Category:Marriage]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and society]]
[[Category:LGBT terms]]

Robert Soloway

2008-07-27T02:33:10Z

AllGloryToTheHypnotoad: /* Arrested in May 2007 */ past tense - he pled out

{{redirect6|Robert Soloway|the logician|Robert M. Solovay|people with similar names|Soloway (disambiguation)}}
'''Robert Alan Soloway''' is the founder of the so-called "Strategic Partnership Against Microsoft Illegal Spam," or SPAMIS, but is said to be one of the Internet's biggest [[Email spam|spammers]] through his company, Newport Internet Marketing (NIM).<ref name="yahoo">{{cite news |url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070531/ap_on_hi_te/spam_arrest
|title=Man described as a top spammer arrested
|last=Jesdanun
|first=Anick
|date=2007-05-31
|publisher=[[Yahoo!]]
|accessdate=2007-05-31
}}</ref> He was arrested on [[May 30]], [[2007]] after a [[grand jury]] indicted him on charges of [[identity theft]], [[money laundering]], and mail, wire, and e-mail [[fraud]].<ref name="timesofindia">{{cite web
|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/World/The_United_States/US_Internet_Spam_King__Robert_Soloway_arrested/articleshow/2087913.cms
|title=US Internet 'Spam King' arrested
|accessdate=2007-05-31
|date=[[May 31]] [[2007]]
|work=[[The Times of India]]}}</ref> He was nicknamed the "Spam King" by prosecutors.

==Spamming tactics==
Soloway is charged with using hijacked [[zombie computer]]s and [[email spoofing|spoofing]] to send out millions of spam e-mails since 2003.<ref name="yahoo" /><ref name="eweek1">{{cite web
|url=http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,2141418,00.asp?kc=EWKNLBOE060907FEA2
|title=Podcast: How the 'Spam King' Was Caught
|accessdate=2007-06-04
|date=[[June 04]] [[2007]]
|work=[[eWeek]]}}</ref>
Some e-mails sent by Soloway's company contained false header information making them appear to have been sent from [[MSN]] and [[Hotmail]] addresses. As a result of this he was sued by [[Microsoft]] and ordered to pay $7 million in damages in December 2003.<ref name="yahoo" /> He also was sued by a small [[Oklahoma]] company and was ordered to pay $10 million in damages.<ref>[http://www.spamdailynews.com/publish/Spam_King_Robert_Soloway_smacked_down.asp Spam King Robert Soloway smacked down], September 23, 2005</ref>

However, an injunction to cease his activities did not stop him from spamming: Soloway's company was responsible, from around June 2004 until April 2005, for a spam campaign (sent from [[open proxy]]) on behalf of various websites including ''broadcastingtoday.biz'' and ''broadcastadvertise.org'' (all since suspended), which promised to send recipients' Web site addresses to several million "opt-in email addresses." He later claimed that as the service was free, the campaign was not illegal under the anti-spam law [[CAN-SPAM]]. A disclaimer in the spams stated, "the above emailing is only free if you are a nonprofit organization that aids child abuse victims."<ref name="oreilly">{{cite news
|url=http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/network/2005/04/29/spamkings.html
|title=Spammers Can't Hide Behind Affiliates
|first=Brian
|last=McWilliams
|date=2005-04-29
|publisher=O'Reilly Network
|accessdate=2007-05-31
}}</ref>

Soloway insisted that NIM removed all MSN and Hotmail addresses from his mailing lists. He asserted that it was his company's subcontractors, or "spam affiliates," who had carried out the illegal activity (though he remained liable under both state and federal laws, including Washington's Commercial Electronic Mail Act and [[CAN-SPAM]]). He insisted he had fired all his subcontractors (none of whom he named) and had himself taken charge of emailing, using spam program [[Dark Mailer]]. However, a Washington [[superior court]] judge ruled that Soloway was in [[default (law)|default]].<ref name="oreilly" />

Soloway is presently awaiting sentence, having pled guilty to three counts on 14 March 2008. He formerly operated a company based in [[Seattle, Washington]] which he is calling "Broadcast E-mail Service" that offers "mailing services" by contract as well as a software program which the site promises will allow the buyer to "email your Web site to 2,500,000 opt-in email addresses for free."<ref name="oreilly" /> E-mails advertising Soloway's company have been sent with forged headers (the headers purport to be "from" the person they were sent "to").<ref name="timesofindia" />

Soloway reportedly switched [[Internet Protocol|IP]] addresses for his Web sites to avoid detection.<ref name="timesofindia" /> In 2006 he registered them through [[China|Chinese]] [[internet service providers]] (ISP) in an apparent ploy to mask his involvement.<ref name="timesofindia" />

==Legal troubles==
===2005 judgments===
In 2005, Microsoft won a $7.8 million civil judgment against Soloway, for spam sent through MSN and Hotmail services. That money, however, was never collected because Soloway's bank accounts remained elusive.<ref>Shukovsky, Paul and Vanessa Ho. "'Spam King' suspect seized." ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer'' May 31, 2007 [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/317795_soloway31.html] [http://www.dailytech.com/article.aspx?newsid=7521]</ref>

Later in 2005, Robert Braver, an internet services provider based in Oklahoma, was awarded $10,075,000.00 in another spam-related case against Soloway. In this lawsuit, a permanent injunction was issued against Soloway, enjoining him from further spam activities.<ref>United States District Court #CIV-05-210-T. "ROBERT H. BRAVER, Plaintiff, v. NEWPORT INTERNET MARKETING CORPORATION, and ROBERT ALAN SOLOWAY, Defendants" [http://www.spamhaus.org/rokso/evidence.lasso?rokso_id=ROK5656]</ref>

Those judgments, however, did not stop Soloway's illegal spamming; in fact, he mocked them.<ref>[http://www.spamhaus.org/rokso/evidence.lasso?rokso_id=ROK5164 E-Mail from Robert Soloway to spamhaus.org, May 17, 2005]{{dead link|url=http://www.spamhaus.org/rokso/evidence.lasso?rokso_id=ROK5164|date=March 2008}}</ref>

===Arrested in May 2007===
He was arrested on [[May 30]], [[2007]], after a federal grand jury indicted him on 35 charges including mail fraud, wire fraud, e-mail fraud, identity theft and money laundering.<ref name="yahoo" /> If convicted as charged, he could have faced decades in prison.<ref name="yahoo" /> Prosecutors wanted to seize [[United States dollar|$]]773,000 that Soloway made from his firm.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6707333.stm
|title=US arrests internet 'spam king'
|accessdate=2007-05-31
|date=2007-05-31
|publisher=[[BBC]]
}}</ref>

=== Pleaded guilty in March 2008 ===
On [[March 14]], [[2008]], Robert Soloway reached an agreement with federal prosecutors, two weeks before his scheduled trial on 40 charges. Soloway pleaded guilty to three charges — felony mail fraud, fraud in connection with e-mail, and failing to file a 2005 tax return.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2004283998_spamking15m.html
|title='Spam king' pleads guilty to felony fraud
|accessdate=2008-03-16
|date=2008-03-15
|publisher=[[Seattle Times]]
}}</ref>
In exchange, federal prosecutors dropped all other charges. Soloway faced up to 26 years in prison on the most serious charge, and up to $625,000 total in fines.

=== Prison sentence ===
On [[22 July]] [[2008]] Robert Soloway was sentenced 47 months in [[federal prison]]. Prosecutors had asked for a 9-year sentence. <ref>{{cite web
|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/pcworld/20080722/tc_pcworld/148780
|title=Top Spammer Sentenced to Nearly Four Years
|publisher=[[Yahoo]]
|date=2008-07-22}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Soloway, Robert}}
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:E-mail spammers]]
[[Category:People from Washington]]
[[Category:American computer criminals]]

[[fr:Robert Soloway]]

Republik Ostturkestan

2008-06-29T19:43:39Z

AllGloryToTheHypnotoad: /* Abolition of the East Turkistan Republic */ make spelling consistent

{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name=
|conventional_long_name= East Turkestan Republic
|common_name= East Turkestan
|continent= Asia
|status_text=
|status=
|year_start= 1944
|year_end= 1949
|life_span= [[1944]] - [[1949]]
|capital= [[Yining|Ghulja]]
|common_languages=
|religion=
|currency=
}}

[[Image:Location of Ili Prefecture within Xinjiang (China).png|Ili, Tarbagatay and Altay Districts of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of People's Republic of China|thumb|right]]
The '''Second East Turkestan Republic''', usually known simply as the '''East Turkestan Republic''' ('''ETR'''), was a short-lived [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-backed separatist republic which existed in the 1940s ( [[November 12]],[[1944]]- [[October 20]],[[1949]] ) in three northern districts ( [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Ili]], [[Tacheng Prefecture|Tarbaghatai]], [[Altay Prefecture|Altai]] ) of [[Xinjiang]] province of the [[Republic of China]], what is now the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]].

==Background==
From 1934 to 1941 [[Xinjiang]] was under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]] in a way similar to [[Outer Mongolia]]. The local warlord [[Sheng Shicai]] (盛世才) was dependent on the Soviet Union for military support and trade. The Soviet government kept a regiment of soldiers from the Ministry of Internal Affairs at [[Kumul]] since October, 1937 in order to prevent the possible offensive of [[Imperial Japanese Army|Japanese Army]] into [[Sinkiang]] through [[Inner Mongolia]] and in exchange was allowed concessions for [[oil well]]s, [[tin]] and [[tungsten|wolfram]] mines, as well as conducting trade on terms highly favorable to the USSR. On [[November 27]] 1940, Sheng Shicai concluded Agreement, granting USSR additional concessions in the whole province of Sinkiang, including areas bordering with [[India]] and [[Tibet]], and virtually turning Sinkiang under full political and economical control of the USSR, making it to be the part of China by name only (as Sheng Shicai himself recalled in his ''Memoirs'' "Red failure in Sinkiang", published by [[Michigan University]] in 1958, the pressure from [[Stalin]] on him in 1940 was so hard that refusal to sign this agreement would be resulted in sharing by Sinkiang the fate of [[Poland]], as he was explained by Soviet representatives in [[Urumchi]]). Following this Agreement a large-scale geological exploration expeditions were sent by Soviets to Sinkiang in 1940-1941 and large deposits of diverse mineral resources, including [[uranium]] and [[beryllium]] ([[ore]]s of both minerals were being delivered later from Sinkiang Altai mines to USSR till end of 1949 and used in [[nuclear weapon design]] and creating of the first [[ Soviet atomic bomb project|Soviet atomic bomb]] ) in the mountains near [[Kashgar]] and in [[Altai]] region, were discovered. Following the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion]] of the Soviet Union in June 1941, and the entry of the [[United States]] into the war in December 1941, the Soviet Union became far less attractive, and the [[Kuomintang]] far more attractive as a patron. At the end of 1942 Sheng demanded that the Soviet Union withdraw all military forces and political officers from Xinjiang. In 1943 Sheng was appointed the head of the Kuomintang branch in Xinjiang and allowed KMT cadres into the province. In summer of 1944, following the German defeat at [[Eastern Front]], he attempted to reassert control over Xinjiang and turned to the Soviet Union for support once more. This time [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] refused to deal with him and the Kuomintang in August,1944 removed him from the province by appointing him to a low-level post in the Ministry of Forestry in [[Chongqing]].

==Rebellion==
Following Sheng Shicai's departure from Xinjiang, the new Kuomintang administration had increasing trouble maintaining law and order. On September 16, 1944, troops that had been sent to Gongha county, a majority [[Kazakhs|Kazak]] region, were unable to contain a group of rioters. By October 8, the rioters had captured [[Nilka]], the county seat. During October the ''Three District Rebellion'' broke out generally south of [[Ghulja]] in the [[Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture|Ili]], [[Altay Prefecture|Altay]] and [[Tacheng|Tarbagatay]] districts of northern Xinjiang. Aided by the Soviet Union, and backed by a number of Xinjiang exiles trained in the Soviet Union, the rebels quickly established control over the three districts, capturing Ghulja in November. The ethnic Chinese population of the region was reduced by massacre and expulsion. According to United States consular officials the Islamic scholar [[Elihan Tore|Elihan Töre]] declared a "Turkistan Islam Government" declaring:

''"The Turkestan Islam Government is organized: praise be to Allah for his manifold blessings! Allah be praised! The aid of Allah has given us the heroism to overthrow the government of the oppressor Chinese. But even if we have set ourselves free, can it be pleasing in the sight of our God if we only stand and watch while you, our brethren in religion ... still bear the bloody grievance of subjection to the black politics of the oppressor Government of the savage Chinese? Certainly our God would not be satisfied. We will not throw down our arms until we have made you free from the five bloody fingers of the Chinese oppressors' power, nor until the very roots of the Chinese oppressors' government have dried and died away from the face of the earth of East Turkestan, which we have inherited as our native land from our fathers and our grandfathers."''

The demands of the rebels included an end to Chinese rule, equality for all [[Nationalities of China|nationalities]], recognised use of local languages, friendly relations with the Soviet Union, and opposition to Chinese immigration into Xinjiang. The military forces available to the rebellion were the newly formed Ili National Army (around 25,000 troops, armed and trained by the Soviet Union), and a group of [[Kazakhs|Kazak]] ''Karai'' tribesmen under the command of [[Osman Batur]] ( up to 20,000 horsemen ). The Kazaks expanded to the north, while the INA expanded to the south. By September 1945, the Kuomintang Army and the INA occupied positions on either side of the [[Manas River]] near [[Ürümqi]]. By this time the ETR held [[Zungaria]] while the Kuomintang held the mainly [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]]-inhabited parts of southern Xinjiang.

==Negotiations==

In August 1945 China signed a Treaty of Friendship and Alliance granting the Soviet Union a range of concessions the US had promised at the [[Yalta conference]]. This ended overt Soviet support for the East Turkistan Republic. The Kuomintang reached a negotiated settlement with the leaders of the ETR in July 1946. In effect little changed. The ETR remained a ''de facto'' separate pro-Soviet state with their own currency and military forces. Political activity in the Republic was limited to the Union for the Defense of Peace and Democracy, a party on the Leninist one-party model. Kuomintang officials were prohibited from the Three Districts and in return the Kuomintang actively supported opposition politicians. By this time these included Elihan Töre who disappeared visiting the Soviet Union and the Kazak leader Osman Batur who broke with the other rebels when their pro-Soviet orientation became clear. The Kuomintang appointed several important Uyghurs as advisors to the Xinjiang administration and made [[Ehmetjan Qasim]], the leader of the ETR, Provincial Vice-Chairman.

==Abolition of the East Turkestan Republic==
Towards the end of 1949 the advancing [[People's Liberation Army]] crossed the [[Yangtze River]] and cut off the Kuomintang administration in southern Xinjiang. Some KMT officials fled to [[India]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]], but most surrendered to the [[Communist Party of China|CCP]]. This "peaceful liberation" of Xinjiang was complete by the end of October 1949 however [[Osman Batur]] and his Kazaks continued to resist until 1954. In July 1949 the Party sent [[Deng Lichun]] to negotiate with the ETR's leadership in Ghulja ([[Yining]] in Chinese). [[Mao Zedong]] invited the leaders of the ETR to take part in the [[National People's Consultative Conference]] later that year. The leaders of the ETR travelled to the Soviet Union, where they were told to co-operate with the Chinese Communist Party. In August [[Exmetjan Qasimi]], [[Abdulkerim Abbas]], Delilhan Sugurbayev,[[Ishaq Beg]] and [[Luo Zhi]] boarded a plane in [[Alma-ata]], the then capital of [[Kazakhstan]] headed for [[Beijing]]. On September 3, the Soviet Union informed the Chinese government that the plane had "crashed" killing all on-board. Stripped of their more experienced leaders, the remaining important figures in the ETR agreed to incorporate the Three Districts into the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and accept important positions within the administration.

==See also==
* [[First East Turkestan Republic]]
* [[East Turkestan independence movement]]

== Sources ==

* Benson, Linda, ''The Ili Rebellion: The Moslem challenge to Chinese authority in Xinjiang, 1944-1949'', Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, 1990. ISBN 0-87332-509-5

* James A. Millward and Nabijan Tursun, "Political History and Strategies of Control, 1884-1978" in ''Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland'' (ISBN 0-7656-1318-2).

[[Category:Xinjiang|East Turkestan Republic, Second]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history|East Turkestan Republic, Second]]
[[Category:Short-lived states|Turkestan Republic, Second East]]
[[category:East Turkestan independence movement]]
[[Category:Short-lived states of World War II|Turkestan]]

[[zh:第二東突厥斯坦共和國]]

Rat Park

2008-04-16T17:43:44Z

AllGloryToTheHypnotoad:

'''Rat Park''' was a study into [[drug addiction]] conducted in the 1970s by Canadian psychologist Bruce K. Alexander at [[Simon Fraser University]] in British Columbia, [[Canada]].

Alexander's hypothesis was that drugs do not cause addiction, and that the apparent addiction to [[morphine]] commonly observed in laboratory rats exposed to it is attributable to their living conditions, and not to any addictive property of the drug itself. <ref name=Senate>Alexander, Bruce K., (2001) [http://www.parl.gc.ca/37/1/parlbus/commbus/senate/com-e/ille-e/presentation-e/alexender-e.htm "The Myth of Drug-Induced Addiction"], a paper delivered to the Canadian Senate, January 2001, retrieved December 12, 2004.</ref> He told the [[Canadian Senate]] in 2001 that experiments in which laboratory rats are kept isolated in cramped metal cages, tethered to self-injection apparatus, show only that "severely distressed animals, like severely distressed people, will relieve their distress [[pharmacology|pharmacologically]] if they can." <ref>Weissman, D. E. & Haddox, J. D. (1989). "Opioid pseudoaddiction: an iatrogenic syndrome," ''Pain'', 36, 363-366, cited in Alexander 2001, ''op cit''.</ref>

To test his hypothesis, Alexander built Rat Park, a 200-square-foot (18.6 m²) housing colony, 200 times the square footage of a standard laboratory cage. There were 16–20 rats of both sexes in residence, an abundance of food, balls and wheels for play, and private places for [[mating]] and giving birth. <ref name=Slater166>Slater, Lauren. (2004) ''Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century'', W.W. Norton & Company, p. 166.</ref> The results of the experiment appeared to support his [[hypothesis]]. Rats who had been forced to consume morphine hydrochloride for 57 consecutive days were brought to Rat Park and given a choice between plain tap water and water laced with morphine. For the most part, they chose the plain water. "Nothing that we tried," Alexander wrote, "... produced anything that looked like addiction in rats that were housed in a reasonably normal environment." <ref name=Senate/>

The two major science journals, [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] and [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']], rejected Alexander's paper, which appeared instead in ''Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior'', a respectable but much smaller journal, and the paper's publication attracted no response. <ref name=Alexander1>Alexander, B.K., Beyerstein, B.L., Hadaway, P.F., and Coambs, R.B. "Effect of early and later colony housing on oral ingestion of morphine in rats," ''Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior'', Vol 15, 4:571-576. PMID 7291261</ref> Because of the lukewarm reception, Simon Fraser University withdrew Rat Park's funding.

==The disease model of drug addiction==
[[Image:Addictiondependence1.gif|left|thumb|240px|The disease model explains addiction with reference to the action of drugs on the [[Dopaminergic pathways|reward pathway]]s in the limbic system. Researchers say that opiates cause changes in the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway]] that produce feelings of pleasure. (Image courtesy of the National Institute on Drug Abuse.)]]
It is not disputed that some substances cause withdrawal symptoms after repeated use, leaving the user dependent on the substance to prevent the withdrawal. Where scientists differ is over the extent to which certain substances can be said to rob the user of [[self control]], causing not only a dependence — defined solely by what's called the "abstinence syndrome", or withdrawal <ref name=Jaffe>Jaffe, J.H. Drug addiction and drug abuse. In: Gilman, A.G.; Goodman, L.S.; Rall, T.W.; Murad, F. (eds), The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics (7th edition), p 532-581. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1985.</ref> — but a drug addiction, defined as "a behavioral pattern of drug use, characterized by overwhelming involvement with the use of a drug (compulsive use), the securing of its supply, and a high tendency to relapse after withdrawal." <ref name=Jaffe/>

In the 19th century, drug addiction was regarded as a sign of [[akrasia]], or weakness of the will. Late 20th century brain research appeared to invalidate this [[Social psychology|psychosocial]] model and replaced it with a disease model, according to which addiction to a drug is a by-product of the [[chemistry|chemical]] structure of the drug itself. According to social psychologist Stanton Peele, the disease model states that "[t]olerance, withdrawal, and craving are thought to be properties of particular drugs, and sufficient use of these substances is believed to give the organism no choice but to behave in these stereotypical ways." <ref name=Peele>Peele, Stanton. ''The Meaning of Addiction. Compulsive Experience and Its Interpretation''. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1985, pp. 1-26. [http://www.peele.net/lib/moa1.html excerpt]</ref> This view of drug addiction is reflected in the policies of the [[War on Drugs]] and in slogans such as "[[Heroin]] is so good. Don't even try it once," or "[[Crack cocaine]] is instantly addictive." <ref name=Senate/>

Scientists adhering to the disease model believe that behavior is "the business of the [[brain]]," according to Avram Goldstein, Professor Emeritus of [[Pharmacology]] at [[Stanford University]], and a leading researcher into drug addiction. <ref name=Goldstein1/> Goldstein writes that the site of action of heroin and all other addictive drugs is a bundle of [[neuron]]s deep in the brain called the [[Mesolimbic pathway|mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway]], a [[Dopaminergic pathways|reward pathway]] that mediates feelings of [[pleasure]]. Within this pathway, heroin causes [[dopamine]] [[neuron]]s to release dopamine, the pleasure [[hormone]]. Dopamine neurons are normally held in check by inhibitory neurons, but heroin shuts these down, allowing the dopamine neurons to become overstimulated. The brain responds with feelings of [[Euphoria (emotion)|euphoria]], but the stimulation is excessive, and in order to protect itself against this, the brain adapts by becoming less sensitive to the heroin. <ref name=Goldstein1>Goldstein, Avram. [http://www.aatod.org/1998-3.html "Neurobiology of Heroin Addiction and of Methadone Treatment"], American Association for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, retrieved July 16, 2006.</ref>

This has two consequences, according to the disease model. First, more heroin is required to produce the high, and at the same time, the reward pathway becomes less sensitive to the effects of [[endorphin]]s, which regulate the release of dopamine, so that without heroin, there is a persistent feeling of sickness. After repeated intake, the user becomes tolerant and dependent, and undergoes withdrawal symptoms if the heroin supply is terminated. As the feelings of withdrawal worsen, the user loses control, writes Goldstein, and becomes an addict. <ref name=Goldstein1/>

===Most animal studies support the disease model===
[[Image:Ratselfinject.gif|right|thumb|280px|Image from the U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse of a rat self-administering a drug. Professor Avram Goldstein writes: "A rat addicted to [[heroin]] is not rebelling against society, is not a victim of socioeconomic circumstances, is not a product of a dysfunctional family, and is not a criminal. The rat's behavior is simply controlled by the action of heroin (actually [[morphine]], to which heroin is converted in the body) on its [[brain]]." <ref name=Goldstein1/>]]

According to Alexander, the disease model makes two claims:

*'''Claim A''': All or most people who use heroin or cocaine beyond a certain minimum amount become addicted.
*'''Claim B''': No matter what proportion of the users of heroin and cocaine become addicted, their addiction is caused by exposure to the drug. <ref name=Senate/>

Several decades of [[Animal testing|animal studies]] have consistently supported these claims. Avram Goldstein wrote in 1979: "If a monkey is provided with a lever, which he can press to self-inject heroin, he establishes a regular pattern of heroin use — a true addiction — that takes priority over the normal activities of his life ... Since this behavior is seen in several other animal species (primarily rats), I have to infer that if heroin were easily available to everyone, and if there were no social pressure of any kind to discourage heroin use, a very large number of people would become heroin addicts. <ref name=Goldstein1979>Goldstein, Avram. "Heroin maintenance: A medical view. A conversation between a physician and a politician," ''Journal of Drug Issues'', 9, 341-347, 1979.</ref>

Twenty years later, Goldstein maintains the same position. In a paper delivered to a 1997 U.S. [[methadone]] conference, he wrote: "Every addictive drug used by people is also self-administered by rats and monkeys. If we arrange matters so that when an animal presses a lever, it gets a shot of heroin into a vein, that animal will press the lever repeatedly, to the exclusion of other activities (food, sex, etc.); it will become a heroin addict. A rat addicted to heroin is not rebelling against society, is not a victim of socioeconomic circumstances, is not a product of a dysfunctional family, and is not a criminal. The rat's behavior is simply controlled by the action of heroin (actually [[morphine]], to which heroin is converted in the body) on its brain." <ref name=Goldstein1/>

Against this, Alexander argues that the only evidence for the belief in drug-induced addiction comes from "the testimonials of some addicted people who believe that exposure to a drug caused them to 'lose control'," and from some "highly technical research on laboratory animals". He argues that this evidence has been embellished in the news media to the point where it has acquired the status of an unassailable fact, whereas the great bulk of empirical evidence, he says, runs against it. <ref name=Senate/> He writes that, although the use of opiates in the [[United States]] and [[England]] during the 19th century was greater than it is now, the incidence of dependence and addiction never reached one percent of the population and was declining at the end of the century. <ref name=Senate/> In Britain, he writes that heroin has been widely used in medication for [[cough]]s, [[diarrhea]], and [[chronic pain]] until the present day; in 1972, British doctors prescribed 29 kilograms of heroin to patients, which he writes amounts to millions of doses, yet a 1982 study of the statistics on [[Iatrogenesis|iatrogenic]] addiction in the UK showed a "virtual absence" of such addicts. <ref>Trebach, Arnold S. ''The Heroin solution'', New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982, p. 83, cited in Alexander 2001 ''op cit''.</ref>

==The Rat Park experiments==
[[Image:Wistar rat.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A white Wistar lab rat]]
In Rat Park, Alexander built a short tunnel large enough to accommodate one rat at a time. At the far end of the tunnel, the rats could drink a fluid from one of two drop dispensers, which automatically recorded how much each rat drank. One dispenser contained a morphine solution and the other plain [[tap water]].

Alexander designed a number of experiments to test the rats' willingness to consume the morphine. Rats have a sweet tooth, so in an experiment called "The Seduction," the researchers exploited the rats' apparent sweet tooth to test whether they could be enticed to consume morphine if the water was sweet enough. Morphine in solution has a bitter taste for humans, and appears to have the same effect on rats, Alexander writes, since they shake their heads and reject it as they do with bitter quinine solutions. The Seduction involved four groups of rats. Group CC was isolated in laboratory cages when they were weaned at 22 days of age, and lived there until the experiment ended at 80 days of age; Group PP was housed in Rat Park for the same period; Group CP was moved from laboratory cages to Rat Park at 65 days of age; and Group PC was moved out of Rat Park and into cages at 65 days of age.

The caged rats (Groups CC and PC) took to the morphine instantly, even with virtually no sweetener, with the caged males drinking 19 times more morphine than the Rat Park males. But no matter how sweet the morphine became, the rats in Rat Park resisted it. They would try it occasionally — with the females trying it more often than the males — but invariably they showed a preference for the plain water. It was, writes Alexander, "a [[Statistical significance|statistically significant]] finding." <ref name=Senate/> He writes that the most interesting group was Group CP, the rats who were brought up in cages but moved to Rat Park before the experiment began. These animals rejected the morphine solution when it was stronger, but as it became sweeter and more dilute, they began to drink almost as much as the rats that had lived in cages throughout the experiment. They wanted the sweet water, he concluded, so long as it did not disrupt their normal social behavior. <ref name=Senate/> Even more significant, he writes, was that when he added a drug called [[Naloxone]], which negates the effects of opioids, to the morphine-laced water, the Rat Park rats began to drink it.

In another experiment, he forced rats in ordinary lab cages to consume morphine for 57 days on end, giving them no liquid to drink other than the morphine-laced solution, then moved them into Rat Park, where he allowed them to choose between the morphine solution and plain water. They drank the plain water. He writes that they did show some signs of dependence, but no sign of addiction. There were "some minor withdrawal signs, twitching, what have you, but there were none of the [[Mythology|mythic]] [[seizure]]s and sweats you so often hear about ..." <ref name=Slater169>Slater 2004, p. 169.</ref>

Alexander believes his experiments show that animal self-administration studies provide no [[Empiricism|empirical]] support for the theory of drug-induced addiction, and that the theory has no other basis in empirical science, although it has not been disproven. "The intense appetite of isolated experimental animals for heroin and cocaine in self-injection experiments tells us nothing about the responsiveness of normal animals and people to these drugs. Normal people can ignore heroin ... even when it is plentiful in their environment, and they can use these drugs with little likelihood of addiction ... Rats from Rat Park seem to be no less discriminating." <ref name=Senate/>

==Reaction to the experiment==

The two major science journals [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] and [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] rejected Alexander's paper, which was published in ''Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior'', a much smaller publication. Because of the study's poor reception, Simon Fraser University withdrew its funding.

Some later studies did appear to confirm its findings — for example, Bozarth, Murray and Wise in 1989, also published in ''Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior'' — but nothing came of those either. Writer [[Lauren Slater]] interviewed [[Psychiatry|psychiatrist]] Herbert Kleber, director of the substance-abuse division of the College of Physicians and Surgeons of [[Columbia University]], and a former U.S. deputy [[drug czar]], on what was wrong with Rat Park. He replied that the experiment was "ingenious," but suggested that Alexander may have distorted the data in the hope of provoking a public debate, and that the study had [[Methodology|methodological]] flaws, though he did not state examples. Slater believes Rat Park's problem was that it was conducted in [[Vancouver]], the "scholarly equivalent of the tundra." <ref name=Slater171>Slater 2004, p. 171.</ref>

While the original experiment attracted criticism for methodological flaws and its results could not be exactly reproduced, <ref name=Petrie>Petrie, B.F., Psychol Rep. 1996, 78, 391-400. PMID 9148292</ref> the publications did draw attention to the idea that the environment that laboratory animals live in might influence the outcome in experiments related to addiction. As of 2006, papers from the series of experiments have been cited more than 100 times, and similar studies on the influence of living conditions on the consumption of other drugs have been published. <ref name=otherdrugs> M.M. Faraday, P.M. Scheufele, M.A. Rahman, N.E. Grunberg, Nicotine Tob Res. 1999, 1, 143-51, PMID 11072395</ref>

Alexander was disappointed by the reception, and still speaks of the experiments enthusiastically. "We talked about it all the time, over dinner, on weekends. My kids came up and met the rats, did some data collection. It was of course tremendously exciting to see all the commonly held notions about addiction so challenged by the rats. I've had only one good idea in my life and that was it. But one good idea, who can complain about that?" <ref name=Slater170>Slater 2004, p. 170.</ref>

==Related research==
Recent research has shown that an enriched environment may decrease morphine addiction in mice [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6WFG-4MXBFC5-1&_user=1510518&_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2007&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000053381&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=1510518&md5=4ef66824a4078f1d77000d9b0b262074]. Enriched environments also decrease deficits in animal models of Parkinson's disease,[http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/23/35/10999] Huntington's disease, [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/03/040309072325.htm] and Alzheimer's disease. [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070429154909.htm]

==Notes==
<references/>

==References==
*Alexander, Bruce K., (2001) [http://www.parl.gc.ca/37/1/parlbus/commbus/senate/com-e/ille-e/presentation-e/alexender-e.htm "The Myth of Drug-Induced Addiction"], a paper delivered to the Canadian Senate, January 2001, retrieved December 12, 2004.
*Alexander, Bruce K. [http://www.policyalternatives.ca/index.cfm?act=news&do=Article&call=224&pA=BB736455&type=2,3,4,5,6,7 "The Roots of Addiction in Free Market Society"], Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, April 2001
*Bozarth, M.A., Murray, A. & Wise, R.A. (1989) "Influence of housing conditions on the acquisition of intraveneous heroine and cocaine self-administration in rats, ''Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior'', 33, 903-907.
*Davies, J.B. (1992) [http://www.psychedelic-library.org/davies/myth_of_addiction.htm ''The Myth of Addiction: An application of the psychological theory of attribution to illicit drug use,''] Harwood Academic Publishers, Char, Switzerland
*Goldstein, Avram. (1979) "Heroin maintenance: A medical view. A conversation between a physician and a politician," ''Journal of Drug Issues'', 9, 341-347.
*Goldstein, Avram. (1997) [http://www.aatod.org/1998-3.html Neurobiology of Heroin Addiction and Methadone Treatment], a paper written for the 1997 American Association for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence methadone conference, retrieved December 12, 2004.
*Goldstein, Avram. [http://www.aatod.org/1998-3.html "Neurobiology of Heroin Addiction and of Methadone Treatment"], American Association for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence, retrieved July 16, 2006.
*Jaffe, J.H. "Drug addiction and drug abuse," in Gilman, A.G.; Goodman, L.S.; Rall, T.W.; Murad, F. (eds), ''The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics'' (7th edition), p 532-581. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1985.</ref>
*Jones, J. B. (1999) [http://www.netowne.com/historical/tennessee/drugs.htm "The Use and Abuse of Drugs in Nineteenth-Century Tennessee History], retrieved December 12, 2004
*Peele, Stanton. ''The Meaning of Addiction: Compulsive Experience and its Interpretation'', Lexington Books, Lexington, 1985, [http://www.peele.net/lib/moa1.html excerpt] retrieved December 12, 2004
*Slater, Lauren. (2004) ''Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century'', W.W. Norton & Company, ISBN 0-393-05095-5
*Trebach, Arnold S. The Heroin solution, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
*Weissman, D. E. & Haddox, J. D. (1989). "Opioid pseudoaddiction: an iatrogenic syndrome," Pain, 36, 363-366.
*[http://www.nida.nih.gov/ Website of the U.S. National Institute on Drug Abuse]
*[http://www.drugsense.org/wodclock.htm Website of Drug Sense]
*[http://www.aatod.org/ Website of the American Association for the Treatment of Opioid Dependence]

==Further reading ==
*Alexander, B.K., Beyerstein, B.L., Hadaway, P.F., and Coambs, R.B. (1981) "Effect of early and later colony housing on oral ingestion of morphine in rats," ''Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior'', Vol 15, 4:571-576. PMID 7291261
*Alexander, B.K. (1985) "Drug use, dependence, and addiction at a British Columbia university: Good news and bad news," ''Canadian Journal of Higher Education'', 15, 77-91.
*Alexander, B.K. (1987) "The disease and adaptive models of addiction: A framework evaluation," ''Journal of Drug Issues'' 17, pp. 47-66.
*Alexander, B.K. (1990)''Peaceful measures: Canada's way out of the War on Drugs'', Toronto University Press. ISBN 0-8020-6753-0}}
*Alexander, B.K. (2000) "The globalization of addiction," ''Addiction Research''
*Drucker, E. (1998) "Drug Prohibition and Public Health," U.S. Public Health Service, Vol. 114
*Goldstein, A. ''Molecular and Cellular Aspects of the Drug Addictions''. Springer-Verlag, 1990. ISBN 0-387-96827-X
*Goldstein, A.''From Biology to Drug Policy'', Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-19-514664-6
*[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/policy/03budget/index.html Website of the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy]
*Peele, Stanton. [http://web.archive.org/web/20040707104659/http://surreal.tripod.com/drugaddiction.htm A discussion about addiction], archived link from July 7, 2004.

[[Category:Addiction]]
[[Category:Psychology experiments]]
[[Category:Animal testing]]
[[Category:Animal rights]]
[[Category:Simon Fraser University]]
[[Category:1970s in science]]

Allen Vizzutti

2007-11-01T00:03:28Z

AllGloryToTheHypnotoad: Trying to edit out the completely unsourceable

{{Expand|date=January 2007}}
{{BLPC|date=June 2006}}
{{Peacock|date=June 2006}}



'''Allen Vizzutti''' is an [[United States|American]] [[trumpeter]], [[composer]] and music educator.

==Biography==

Born and raised in [[Montana]], Vizzutti first learned the trumpet from his father. At age 16, Vizzutti won the concerto competition and was awarded first chair in the World Youth Symphony Orchestra at [[Interlochen, Michigan]]. He earned a B.M., M.M. and a Performer's Certificate, and Artist Diploma from the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York.

Allen Vizzutti has performed with a rainbow of artists and ensembles including [[Chick Corea]], [[Doc Severinsen]], The NBC Tonight Show Band, the Airmen of Note, the Army Blues, [[Chuck Mangione]], [[Woody Herman]], Japan's NHK Symphony Orchestra and the Kosei Wind Orchestra. Performing as a classical and jazz artist, he has appeared as a guest soloist with symphony orchestras in [[Tokyo]], [[Germany]], [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], Syracuse, Honolulu, Milwaukee and Phoenix to name a few. Vizzutti has performed solo at the Hollywood Bowl, Carnegie Hall, [[Newport Jazz Festival]], Banff Center for the Performing Arts, Montreaux Jazz Festival, the Charles Ives Center and the Lincoln Center in New York.

He has performed on more than 100 motion picture soundtracks, such as: ''Back to the Future'', ''Star Trek'', ''The Black Stallion'', ''[[Rocky II]]'', ''Poltergeist II'', ''Fire Fox'', ''Sudden Impact'', ''10''. ''Under the Cherry Moon'', ''Broadcast News'', ''The Electric Horseman'' and ''1941''.

Vizzutti composed many orchestra works which led to world premiers by the Los Angeles Philharmonic, Phoenix Symphony, Greater Bridgeport Symphony Orchestra, Rochester Philharmonic and the Tonight Show Orchestra, as well as recorded works by the Royal Philharmonic of London, the Woody Herman Band, the Summit Brass and the London Symphony Orchestra.

He currently lives in Seattle, Washington, where he teaches trumpet at the University of Washington and continues to perform around the world.

Vizzutti is a composer and member of Ars Nova Press, Inc., a non-profit publishing house dedicated to promoting the musical compositions of skilled modern classical composers.

----

==External links==
* [http://www.trumpetgig.com/allenvizzuti.html Allen Vizzutti equipment, video and discography at TrumpetGig.com]

* [http://www.myspace.com/allenvizzutti More About Allen Vizzutti]

* [http://www.vizzutti.com Allen Vizzutti Official Website]

* [http://www.arsnovamusic.com Ars Nova Music, publishes and sells some of his compositions]

* http://abel.hive.no/trompet/vizzutti/

* [http://www.trumpet-stuff.com/images/Vizzutti/index.html Sound clips]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Vizzutti, Allen}}
[[Category:Trumpeters]]
[[Category:American composers]]
[[Category:Eastman School of Music alumni]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans]]
[[Category:Italian-American musicians]]

[[nl:Allen Vizzutti]]

Jamnaja-Kultur

2007-05-29T16:36:50Z

AllGloryToTheHypnotoad:

[[Image:Yamna burial.png|thumb|250px|Typical Yamna burial with the skeleton in supine position, with bent knees. The bodies were typically covered with [[ochre]].]]

The '''Yamna''' (from [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] яма "pit") or '''Pit Grave''' or '''Ochre Grave culture''' is a [[chalcolithic|late copper age]]/early [[Bronze Age]] culture of the [[Bug (river)|Bug]]/[[Dniester]]/[[Ural (river)|Ural]] region (the [[Pontic steppe]]), dating to the [[36th century BC|36th]]–[[23rd century BC|23rd]] centuries BC. The culture was predominantly [[nomad]]ic, with some [[agriculture]] practiced near rivers and a few [[hillfort]]s.

Characteristic for the culture are the [[inhumation]]s in kurgans ([[tumuli]]) in pit graves with the dead body placed in a [[supine position]] with bent knees. The bodies were covered in [[ochre]]. Multiple graves have been found in these kurgans, often as later insertions. Significantly, animal grave offerings were made (cattle, pigs, sheep, goats and horse), a feature associated with both [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] and [[Proto-Indo-Iranians]].

It is said to have originated in the middle Volga based [[Khvalynsk culture]] and the middle Dnieper based [[Sredny Stog culture]]. In its western range, it is succeeded by the [[Catacomb culture]]; in the east, by the [[Poltavka culture]] and the [[Srubna culture]].

The Yamna culture is identified with the late [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] (PIE) in the [[Kurgan hypothesis]] of [[Marija Gimbutas]]. It is one candidate for the [[Urheimat]] (homeland) of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]], along with the preceding [[Sredny Stog culture]]. The earliest remains in Eastern [[Europe]] of a [[wheel]]ed cart were found in the "Storozhova mohyla" [[kurgan]] ([[Dnipropetrovsk]], [[Ukraine]], excavated by Trenozhkin A.I.) associated with the Yamna culture.

==Maps==

<gallery>
Image:Corded Ware culture.png|Approximate culture extent c. 3200-2300 BC.
Image:Pontic Caspian climate.png|The area of the Yamna culture corresponds approximately to the extent of the [[Pontic-Caspian steppe]].
Image:IE5500BP.png|The Yamna culture in [[4th millennium BC]] Europe.
</gallery>

==Sources==
[[J. P. Mallory]], "Yamna Culture", ''[[Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture]]'', Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.

==See also==
* [[Kurgan]]
* [[Ukrainian stone stela]]
* [[Cucuteni culture]]
* [[Vinča culture]]
* [[Beaker culture]]

[[Category:Indo-European]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:EIEC]]
[[Category:Bronze Age Europe]]
[[Category:Copper Age Europe]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Ukraine]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Russia]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Moldova]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Kazakhstan]]

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