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Azazel (Roman)

2011-04-02T21:15:14Z

AkhtaBot: تدقيق إملائي بالاعتماد على التعابير النمطية، يرجى الإبلاغ عن الأخطاء والاقتراحات

{{معلومات كتاب
| الاسم = عزازيل
| العنوان الأصلي =
| محقق =
| مترجم =
| صورة = [[ملف:Azazel novel cover.jpg|150px|اسم الرسام أو الأديب]]
| عنوان_الصورة =
| مؤلف = [[يوسف زيدان]]
| مصور =
| فنان الغلاف =
| البلد = [[مصر]]
| لغة = [[العربية]]
| سلسلة =
| موضوع =
| نوع أدبي = تاريخي
| ناشر = [[دار الشروق]]
| تاريخ_الإصدار = 2008
| تاريخ_الإصدار المترجم =
| نوع الطباعة =
| عدد_الصفحات = 380
| قياس = 13.5 * 19.5
| وزن =
| ردمك =
| ردمك ترجمة =
| سبقه =
| تبعه =
}}
'''عزازيل''' هي رواية صادرة عن [[دار الشروق]] سنة 2008، من تأليف الدكتور [[يوسف زيدان]] الخبير في المخطوطات والفلسفة.

== كاتب الرواية ==
[[يوسف زيدان]] باحث ومفكر مصري متخصص في التراث العربي المخطوط وعلومه. له عديد من المؤلفات والأبحاث العلمية في الفكر الإسلامي والتصوف وتاريخ الطب العربي. له إسهام أدبي يتمثل في أعمال روائية منشورة، كما أن له مقالات دورية وغير دورية في عدد من الصحف المصرية والعربية. عمل مستشاراً لعدد من المنظمات الدولية الكبرى مثل: منظمة اليونسكو، منظمة الإسكوا، جامعة الدول العربية، وغيرها من المنظمات. يعمل منذ عام 2001 مديرا لمركز ومتحف المخطوطات في [[مكتبة الإسكندرية الجديدة|مكتبة الإسكندرية]]. ساهم وأشرف على مشاريع ميدانية كثيرة تهدف إلى رسم خارطة للتراث العربي المخطوط المشتت بين أرجاء العالم المختلفة .

== موضوع الرواية ==
تتحدث الرواية عن ترجمة لمجموعة لفائف مكتوبة باللغة السريانية، دفنت ضمن صندوق خشبي محكم الإغلاق في منطقة الخرائب الأثرية حول محيط قلعة القديس سمعان العمودي قرب حلب/سوريا.
كُتبت في القرن الخامس الميلادي وعُثر عليها بحالة جيدة ونادرة ،وتم نقلها من اللغة السريانية إلي العربية.

الرقوق الثلاثين عبارة عن سيرة ذاتية للراهب المسيحي المصري هيبا ،والذي عاش في الفترة المضطربة من التاريخ المسيحي الكنسي في أوائل القرن الخامس الميلادي والتي تلتها انقسامات هائلة بين الكنائس الكبري وذلك علي خلفية الخلاف حول طبيعة المسيح.

كتب الراهب هيبا رقوقة مدفوعا بطلب من عزازيل أي "الشيطان" حيث كان يقول له:" أكتب يا هيبا، أريدك أن تكتب، اكتب كأنك تعترف، وأكملْ ما كنتَ تحكيه، كله…." وأيضاً " يقول في رده على استفسار هيبا:" نعم يا هيبا، عزازيل الذي يأتيك منك وفيك".

وتتناول كتب الراهب هيبا ما حدث له منذ خرج من أخميم في صعيد مصر قاصدا مدينة الأسكندرية لكي يتبحر في الطب واللاهوت. وهناك تعرض لإغواء أمرأة سكندرية وثنية (أوكتافيا) أحبته ثم طردته لما عرفت أنه راهب مسيحي. ثم خروجة هاربا من الأسكندرية بعد ثلاث سنوات بعد أن شهد بشاعة مقتل العالمة [[هيباتيا]] الوثنية علي يد الغوغاء من مسيحي الأسكندرية بتحريض من بابا الأسكندرية. ثم خروجه إلي فلسطين للبحث عن أصول الديانة واستقراره في أورشاليم (القدس) ولقائه بالقس [[نسطور]] الذي أحبه كثيرا وأرسله إلي دير هادئ بالقرب من أنطاكية.
وفي ذلك الدير يزداد الصراع النفسي داخل نفس الراهب وشكوكه حول العقيدة، ويصاحب ذلك وقوعة في الحب مع امرأة تدعي (ميرتا)، وينهي الرواية بقرار أن يرحل من الدير وأن يتحرر من مخاوفه بدون أن يوضح إلي أين.

الرواية تمتاز بلغتها العربية الفصيحة وتناولها فترة زمنية غير مطروقة في الأدب العربي برغم أهميتها.

== الجدل حول الرواية ==
أثارت جدلا واسعا؛ نظرا لأنها تناولت الخلافات اللاهوتية المسيحية القديمة حول طبيعة المسيح ووضع السيدة العذراء، والاضطهاد الذي قام به المسيحيون ضد الوثنيين المصريين في الفترات التي أضحت فيها المسيحية ديانة الأغلبية المصرية. وقد أصدر الأنبا بيشوي سكرتير [[المجمع المقدس للكنيسة القبطية الأرثوذكسية]] بيانًا اتهم فيه مؤلف الرواية بالإساءة إلى المسيحية، مشيرا إلى أنه أخذ فيها منحى المؤلف [[دان براون]] في روايته [[شفرة دافنشي]] <ref>[http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2008/09/18/56833.html الكنيسة المصرية تتهم مؤلف "عزازيل" بتدمير المسيحية وتستعد لمناظرته] العربية، ولوج في 19-2-2010</ref> وقد كانت الرواية تكشف التناقضات التي كانت تجول في رأس الراهب هيبا بين المنطق والفلسفة وبين الدين واللذان من الصعب أن يلتقيا وهذا هو سبب الذي أدى إلى مقتل [[هيباتيا]] التي كانت تتعاطى الفلسفة من قبل أسقف الكنيسة ورجالها الذين أمعنوا في التمثيل في جثتها باسم الرب كما وضحت الرواية. وهذا ما دفع الراهب لترك الإسكندرية متجها نحو القدس للبحث عن أصول الدين وحقيقته. كما وضحت التناقضات الكثيرة حول ماهية السيد المسيح والتي عظمت هذه التناقضات بعدها بفترة وتحولت إلى طوائف وانقسامات كبيرة في الدين المسيحي. كما بينت طبيعة الغرائز البشرية بحبه للفتاة الوثنية أوكتافيا التي قتلت وهي تدافع عن هيباتيا وبينت كيفية استغلال الدين للوصول إلى السلطة.

== جوائز ==
فازت الرواية ب[[الجائزة العالمية للرواية العربية]] كأفضل رواية عربية لعام [[2009]]م.
كما نالت الرواية استحسانا كبيرا من قبل النقاد والقراء العرب وشهدت أسواق الكتب بمصر إقبالا شديدا علي نسخ الرواية.

== مصادر ==
{{ثبت_المراجع}}

== وصلات خارجية ==
* [http://www.diwanalarab.com/spip.php?article16022 رواية عزازيل للدكتور يوسف زيدان] - موقع ديوان العرب
* [http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?c=ArticleA_C&cid=1236509075828&pagename=Zone-Arabic-ArtCulture%2FACALayout "البوكر" دعوة لقراءة عزازيل بعيدًا عن التعصب] - إسلام أون لاين.نت
* [http://www.azazel-novel.com/ الموقع الرسمي لرواية عزازيل]
* [http://ziedan.com// موقع الدكتور يوسف زيدان]

[[تصنيف:أدب عربي]]
[[تصنيف:روايات مصرية]]
[[تصنيف:روايات 2008]]

Sakralbauten in der Antarktis

2009-07-21T20:28:56Z

AkhtaBot: robot Modifying: ar:ديانات أنتاركتيكا

[[Image:ChapelAntarctica.jpg|thumb|A chapel of Antarctica]]
Although [[Antarctica]] has only a slight population, its inhabitants are drawn from around the world, and include followers of numerous religious faiths.

According to ''The Association of Religion Data Archives'', 72.00% of personnel in Antarctica adhere to Christianity, 23.60% are non-religious, 2.71% are Muslim, 1.00% are Hindu, and 0.70% are Buddhist. With a small human population of roughly 5,000 in summer months and 1,000 in winter, religious affiliation surveys may not represent a static reflection of current trends among the personnel on the continent.<ref>The Association of Religion Data Archives. ''[http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/country_9_1.asp Antarctica religious profile.]''</ref>

Antarctica has several religious buildings used for worship services: the [[Chapel of the Snows, Antarctica]] (a non-denominational Christian chapel at McMurdo Station), [[Trinity Church, Antarctica]] (a Russian Orthodox church at Bellingshausen Station), Santa Maria Reina de la Paz Church at the [[Villa Las Estrellas]], and a permanent Catholic chapel made entirely of ice at [[Belgrano II]] Base.<ref>Worldwide Antarctic Program [http://www.waponline.it/ChurchinAntarctica/tabid/65/Default.aspx Church in Antarctica]</ref> The Worldwide Antarctic Program proposes building a Catholic chapel at [[Mario Zucchelli Station]], [[Terra Nova Bay]], Antarctica; while the first Catholic chapel (named after [[Saint Francis of Assisi]]) was built in 1976 at the Argentine [[Esperanza Base]].<ref>[http://www.nuevaalejandria.com/antartida/base_esperanza.htm] [http://www.laautenticadefensa.com.ar/noticias.php?sid=12309] www.marambio.aq/esperanza.htm</ref> The southernmost Catholic chapel lies at the Argentine [[Belgrano II]] Base.<ref>[http://www.rotarybaseesperanza.com.ar]</ref>

There are also churches on some of the Sub-Antarctic islands, including [[Grytviken]] on [[South Georgia]]; and [[Port-aux-Français]] on the main island of [[Kerguelen]], and [[St. Ivan Rilski Chapel|St. Ivan Rilski Chapel]] (a Bulgarian Orthodox chapel at [[St. Kliment Ohridski Base]]), San Francisco de Asis Chapel at [[Esperanza Base]], [[South Shetland Islands]].

==Notes and references==
{{commons|Category:Religion in Antarctica|Religion in Antarctica}}
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Church buildings in Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Religion by continent]]
{{antarctica-stub}}

[[ar:ديانات أنتاركتيكا]]
[[ka:რელიგია ანტარქტიკაში]]
[[pt:Religião na Antártica]]

Museum of the City of New York

2009-07-12T14:59:44Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:متحف مدينة نيو يورك

[[Image:Mcny5avjeh.JPG|thumb|Facing Fifth Avenue]]
:''"MCNY" redirects here. For the college, see [[Metropolitan College of New York]].''
The '''Museum of the City of New York''' is an [[art gallery]] and history [[museum]] founded in 1923 to present the [[History of New York City|history]] of [[New York City]] and its people. In 1982, the Museum received [[The Hundred Year Association of New York]]'s Gold Medal Award "in recognition of outstanding contributions to the City of New York."
It is located at the northern end of the [[Museum Mile, New York City|Museum Mile]] section of [[Fifth Avenue]] in [[Manhattan]], between 103rd and 104th Streets, facing [[Central Park]].

The Museum is a private [[non-profit organization]] which receives government support. Admission is $9 for adults.

The imposing brick and limestone building it occupies was designed by Joseph J. Freedlander in the neo-Georgian style. Construction began in 1928 and was completed in 1930.

==Collection==
[[Image:JunkKeyingView70.jpg|thumb|350px|”The Bay and Harbor of New York” by [[Samuel Waugh]] (1814-1885), depicting the arrival of the [[Junk Keying]] in [[New York]] harbour in July 1847 (watercolor on canvas, c.1853-1855, Museum of the City of New York).]]

The museum's collections include paintings, drawings, prints, and photographs featuring New York City and its residents, as well as costumes, decorative objects and furniture, toys, rare books and manuscripts, marine and military collections, police and fire collections, and a theater collection (documenting the golden age of [[Broadway theater]]).

Among the rare items in the museum's collection is a chair that once belonged to Sarah Rapalje, daughter of Joris Jansen Rapalje of Nieuw Amsterdam, and said to be the first child born in New York State of European parentage.<ref>[http://www.nnp.org/nni/Publications/Dutch-American/rapalje.htm Sarah Rapalje (1625-1685), The New Netherland Institute, New York State Library, Albany, New York]</ref> The chair was donated by her Brinckerhoff descendants.

The museum is known for its comprehensive collection of photographs, which includes works by [[Jacob Riis]] and [[Berenice Abbott]], as well as many [[Great Depression|Depression]]-era [[Federal Art Project]] photographs. The museum is also home to several recreated furnished rooms from the house of [[John D. Rockefeller]], donated by his son [[John D. Rockefeller, Jr.]].

==Tweed Courthouse move and museum expansion==
{{update}}
In 2000 a plan was floated for the museum to relocate to the historic [[Tweed Courthouse]] by City Hall in Lower Manhattan. [[El Museo del Barrio]] would then have moved across the street to occupy the former Museum of the City of New York building. In the end, Mayor [[Michael Bloomberg]] decided to site the new [[New York City Department of Education]] in the Tweed Courthouse instead, causing then-director Robert R. Mcdonald to tender his resignation.

The Museum's new director, Susan Henshaw Jones, recommitted MCNY to its [[East Harlem]] neighborhood by planning an extension to the Museum. The groundbreaking for this extension, which includes new gallery space, took place on August 2, 2006; completion is scheduled for February 2008.<ref>{{cite news |last=Pogrebin |first=Robin |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/28/arts/design/28pols.html |title=The City Changes. Its Museum Will, Too. |publisher=New York Times |date=2006-09-28 |accessdate=2008-03-29}}</ref> The new, contemporary gallery has been completed and a ribbon-cutting ceromony is scheduled for August 13, 2008. The pavilion gallery is {{convert|3000|sqft|m2|adj=on}} glass addition, which has two levels for which to display [[artifacts]]. The original 1932 Georgian Revival building was also restored during this project as well as additions including a vault for the museum's [[silver]] collection, a research room and a room for the handling of artifacts. The total costs for the first phase of refurbishments came to $28 million. A second phase of renovations is scheduled to begin in fall 2008. <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/12/arts/design/12muse.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1&ref=design | title="Museum of History Unveils Its Future" | author=Pogrebin, Robin | publisher=New York Times | date=2008-08-11 | accessdate=2008-08-11}}</ref>

In June 2007, the museum opened its temporary "The Glory Days, 1947-1957", an in-depth photographic look at the history of professional [[baseball]] in New York City. The exhibit included clips of [[Ed Sullivan]], a pioneer of [[CBS]] [[television]] entertainment, interviewing many of the players of the era, including [[Mickey Mantle]] and [[Phil Rizzuto]]. A section was devoted to [[Jackie Robinson]], who broke the color line in 1947 when he joined the former [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] and became a leading figure in the [[civil rights]] movement.

==See also==
*[[List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mcny.org/ Official website]
*[http://www.mcny.org/exhibitions/ Exhibitions]
*[http://www.mcny.org/public_programs/ Public programs and events]
*[http://www.mcny.org/public_programs/mailing_list.html Upcoming events]
*[http://www.mcny.org/shop/ Museum shop]

{{coord missing|New York}}

[[Category:City museums]]
[[Category:Museums established in 1923]]
[[Category:History museums in Manhattan|City of New York]]
[[Category:Art museums in New York County, New York]]

[[ar:متحف مدينة نيو يورك]]
[[fr:Museum of the City of New York]]
[[he:מוזיאון העיר ניו יורק]]

Orientalische Musik

2009-07-11T17:55:13Z

AkhtaBot: Bot: Ergänze: ar:موسيقى الشرق الأوسط

Mit dem Ausdruck '''orientalische Musik''' bezeichnet man die [[Musik]] des [[Naher Osten|Nahen Osten]]s und der damit in Beziehung stehender Regionen wie [[Nordafrika]], die [[Levante]] und die Staaten am [[Persischer Golf|Persischen Golf]]. Orientalische Musik beschränkt sich nicht allein auf die Musik der arabischsprachigen Länder, [[Israel]], [[Iran]] oder die [[Türkei]]. Die orientalische Musik weist auch vergleichbare Züge mit der [[griechische Musik|griechischen]] und [[indische Musik|indischen Musik]] auf; ihr Einfluss reicht über [[Mittelasien]], den [[Kaukasus]], den [[Balkanhalbinsel|Balkan]] bis in den [[Tschalga]] der Bulgarischen Volksmusik.

Die [[arabische Tonleiter]] unterscheidet sich erheblich von der abendländischen. So gibt es auf dem Klavier 7 „weiße“ und 5 „schwarze Tasten“. Diese [[Oktave]] (c zu C ) ist in 12 Intervalle (Halbtonschritte) unterteilt. Die klassische Musik Arabiens kann aber mit 17, 19 oder 24 Intervallen in der Oktave gespielt werden.

Streichinstrumente sowie die menschliche Stimme vermögen diese "zwischen" den Intervallen der Klavieroktave liegenden Töne gut wiederzugeben. Diese „Vierteltöne“ sind dem abendländischen Musikempfinden fremd.

Zur orientalischen Musik zählt man

* [[Afghanische Musik]]
* [[Arabeske (Musikrichtung)]]
* [[Arabische Musik]]
* [[Armenische Musik]]
* [[Aserbaidschanische Musik]]
* [[Assyrische Musik]] / [[Aramäische Musik]]
* [[Ägyptische Musik]]
* [[Berber-Musik]]
* [[Griechische Musik]]
* [[Irakische Musik]]
* [[Israelische Musik]]
* [[Jordanische Musik]]
* [[Kurdische Musik]]
* [[Libanesische Musik]]
* [[Persische Musik]]
* [[Palästinensische Musik]]
* [[Raï]] (Nordafrika)
* [[Skyladika]] [σκυλάδικα]
* [[Syrische Musik]]
* [[Turbo-Folk]] (Balkan)
* [[Türkische Musik]]
* [[Zentralasiatische Musik]]

[[Kategorie:Orient]]
[[Kategorie:Musikgenre]]

[[ar:موسيقى الشرق الأوسط]]
[[en:Middle Eastern music]]

Proton Waja

2009-06-11T05:05:43Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:بروتون واجا

{{Infobox Automobile
| boxcolor = red
| image = [[Image:Proton Waja (first generation) (front), Serdang.jpg|250px|A pre-facelifted Proton Waja.]]
| name = Proton Waja
| manufacturer = [[Proton (car)|Proton]]
| production = 2000–present
| class = [[Compact car|Compact]]
| platform =
| layout= [[FF layout]]
| body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|saloon]]
| engine = 1.6 L ''[[Mitsubishi]] [[Mitsubishi Orion engine|4G18]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]] 1.6 L ''[[Proton (company)|Proton]] [[Campro engine|Campro S4PH]]''[[Straight-4|I4]] 1.8 L ''[[Renault]] [[Renault F-Type engine|F4P]]'' [[Straight-4|I4]] 2.0 L ''[[Mitsubishi]] [[Mitsubishi 6A1x engine|6A12]]'' [[V6]]
| length = {{Auto mm|4465|1}}
| width = {{Auto mm|1740|1}}
| height = {{Auto mm|1420|1}}
| wheelbase = {{Auto mm|2600|1}}
| weight = {{Auto kg|1210-1249|0}}
| predecessor = [[Proton Wira]]
| aka = Proton Impian
| related = [[Proton Gen-2]] [[Mitsubishi Carisma]] [[Volvo S40]]
}}

The '''Proton Waja''' is a [[sedan (car)|saloon]] [[car]] designed in-house by [[Malaysia]]n automotive company, [[Proton (company)|Proton]], first released in August 2000. The Waja is the first Malaysian-designed car, with a chassis derived from a [[Mitsubishi Carisma]] and a [[Volvo S40]]. The name ''Waja'', which means "tough (as steel)", reflects the strength of the steel used for the Waja compared with the previous models. The name was chosen partly to counter the perception in the domestic market that Proton cars were less strong.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} In the [[United Kingdom]], the Waja is sold as '''Proton Impian''', "''Impian''" being another derivative of the Malay language, meaning "dream".

== History ==
The Proton Waja is the first model designed in-house by [[Proton (company)|Proton]]. The development of the Waja began at the end of the 1990s together with the [[Campro engine]], however the development of the [[Campro engine]] was still in progress at the time of its launch and therefore Proton had to source the 4G18 engine for the Waja from [[Mitsubishi Motors|Mitsubishi]],{{fact|date=April 2008}} before switching to Campro engines in 2006. It was launched in August 2000 together with the introduction of Proton's new corporate logo. Early batches of the Waja had some serious quality problems due to some component vendors and suppliers skipping quality checks to rush for the huge early demand.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} However, the quality of the components were strictly improved years later in 2005.{{Fact|date=August 2007}}

The Waja was facelifted twice since its debut in August 2000. The first minor facelift was in mid-2006 which only involved rear lights. The 2007 Proton Waja with a more substantial facelift was launched on January 19, 2007 together with the facelifted [[Proton Savvy]]. For the 2007 Waja, it was given a new grille which was nearly identical to the Savvy. The 2007 Waja also includes both [[anti-lock braking system|ABS]] and [[air bag]] as standard for the Malaysian market, which were previously optional equipment. At the end of 2005, Proton additionally introduced another variant of the Waja, known as '''Proton Waja Chancellor''', to be used by representatives of the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) during the meeting of ASEAN leaders in the [[Kuala Lumpur City Centre|KLCC]], shortly before its launch in 2006. The Waja Chancellor has a longer [[wheelbase]] and a 2.0 L [[V6]] engine similar to that used in [[Proton Perdana|Proton Perdana V6]], also sourced from Mitsubishi. By 2008, an updated Waja was launched with an improved Campro engine and a new center console with a new 2-DIN [[Clarion (car audio)|Clarion]] audio set.

Waja sales in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], where it is rebadged as the Impian, did not begin until April 2001, and it has continued virtually unchanged ever since. The Impian is only available with [[right hand drive]] while left hand drive models are available elsewhere in Europe as the Waja. Sales have not been strong,{{Fact|date=August 2007}} as it was behind the best of the competition at its launch and virtually all of its competitors have been replaced since. Its decent ride and handling, generous equipment levels, competitive asking price and comprehensive aftersales package are perhaps the only things that keep it going with British buyers.{{Fact|date=August 2007}}

== Performance ==
<div class="toccolours" style="width:340px; float:right; font-size:70%; margin-left: 1em;">
'''Engine specifications'''

----
'''1.6 (4G18)'''
* 5-speed [[Manual transmission|MT]] / 4-speed [[Automatic transmission|AT]]
* [[Overhead camshaft#Single overhead camshaft|SOHC]] 16-valve inline-4 cylinder [[Mitsubishi Orion engine#4G18|Mitsubishi 4G18]]
**[[Fuel injection#Multi-point fuel injection|Multi Point Injection]] (MPI) Fuel System
**Max output : {{Convert|102|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} @ 6000 rpm
**Max torque : {{Auto Nm|145|0}} @ 2750 rpm
**Max speed : {{Auto km/h|185|0}} (manual); {{Auto km/h|180|0}} (auto)

'''1.6 (S4PH without CPS)'''
* 5-speed MT / 4-speed AT
* [[Overhead camshaft#Double overhead camshaft|DOHC]] 16-valve inline-4 cylinder [[Campro engine]]
**MPI Fuel System
**Max output : {{Convert|110|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} @ 6000 rpm
**Max torque : {{Auto Nm|148|0}} @ 4000 rpm
**Max speed : {{Auto km/h|190|0}} (manual); {{Auto km/h|185|0}} (auto)

'''1.6 (S4PH with CPS)'''
* 5-speed MT / 4-speed AT
* DOHC 16-valve inline-4 cylinder [[Campro engine|Campro CPS engine]]
**MPI Fuel System
**Max output : {{Convert|125|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} @ 6500 rpm
**Max torque : {{Auto Nm|150|0}} @ 4500 rpm
**Max speed : {{Auto km/h|196|0}} (manual); {{Auto km/h|190|0}} (auto)

'''1.8X (F4P)'''
* 4-speed AT
* DOHC 16-valve inline-4 cylinder [[Renault F-Type engine#F3P|F4P]]
**MPI Fuel System
**Max output : {{Convert|116|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} @ 5750 rpm
**Max torque : {{Auto Nm|165|0}} @ 3750 rpm
**Max speed : {{Auto km/h|186|0}}

'''2.0 V6 (Waja Chancellor)'''
* 4-speed AT
* DOHC 24-valve [[V6 engine|V6]] [[Mitsubishi 6A1 engine#6A12|6A12]] engine
**MPI Fuel System
**Max output : {{Convert|148|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} @ 6750 rpm
**Max torque : {{Auto Nm|179|0}} @ 4000 rpm
**Max speed : {{Auto km/h|205|0}}
</div>

In its initial years in the market, the Waja was originally powered by a [[Mitsubishi Motors|Mitsubishi]] [[Mitsubishi Orion engine#4G18|4G18]] [[Overhead camshaft#Single overhead camshaft|SOHC]] 1.6 L engine. Also made standard since the introduction of the Waja are [[Fuel injection#Multi-point fuel injection|multi-point fuel injection]] and brake configuration (front ventilated disc brakes and rear disc brake). All Wajas (excluding the Waja Chancellor) are also available in both [[Manual transmission|manual]] (5 speed) or [[automatic transmission]]s (4 speed).

In 2002, the 1.8 L variant was introduced, powered by the same engine used in [[Renault Laguna|Renault Laguna II]]. The 1.8 L model incorporated [[Drive by wire|drive-by-wire]] technology and [[variable valve timing]] (VVT) technology. However, the 1.8 L model suffered from poor sales because Malaysian customers were more familiar with [[Japan]]ese engines and were less confident of [[Europe]]an engines especially on unfamiliar with the maintenance standard;{{fact|date=April 2008}} as a result, the 1.8 L variant was phased out in the following year. It was also believed that the Renault engine gain its trust back due understanding of owners on maintaining the engine.{{fact|date=April 2008}}

By January 2006, the [[Campro engine]] was finally used to power the Waja. Although the engine is similar to the engine used in the [[Proton Gen-2]], the [[Overhead camshaft#Double overhead camshaft|DOHC]] Campro engine used in the Waja has higher power and torque, probably due to the remapping of the [[Electronic control unit|ECU]] and also a different air intake system. The 2008 Proton Waja is now powered with a [[Campro engine#Campro CPS and VIM engine|Campro CPS engine]] with variable valve timing, which was not available in the previous Waja Campro models.<ref name="waja campro">[http://paultan.org/archives/2008/02/04/proton-waja-cps-16-now-in-showrooms/ Proton Waja CPS 1.6 now in showrooms!] - from [[Paul Tan|paultan.org]]. Retrieved on [[5 February]] [[2008]].</ref>

The Waja Chancellor, which launched 2006, featured a longer wheelbase and was powered by a Mitsubishi [[Mitsubishi 6A1x engine|6A12]] 2.0 L [[V6]] engine similar to that used in [[Proton Perdana|Proton Perdana V6]], also sourced from Mitsubishi. The car is also available only with a 4-speed automatic transmission.

== Racing ==

For three years the Waja was entered as a works team in the [[British Touring Car Championship]] between 2002 and 2004. The car was entered as a BTC spec under the team name Petronas Syntium Proton. The underfunded team only had moderate success with no race wins and finishing below the other works teams despite having experienced drivers [[David Leslie (racing driver)|David Leslie]] and [[Phil Bennett (racing driver)|Phil Bennett]] for the first two years. In 2004 they had two new drivers in [[Shaun Watson-Smith]] and Malaysian star [[Fariqe Hairuman]], but after no podium finishes, they withdrew from the championship at the end of the year.

== Safety ==

The Waja/Impian is currently the only Proton car to have undergone a [[Euro NCAP]] test, receiving only moderate-to-mediocre results in a 2002 crash test.<ref>[http://www.euroncap.com/tests/proton_impian_2002/116.aspx Proton Impian Euro NCAP result]</ref>

{{cquote|'''Euro NCAP 2002 crash test ratings'''
*Adult Occupant Rating - {{Rating|3|5}}
*Pedestrian Rating - {{Rating|1|5}}

Proton claims that the Impian is the first of a new generation of cars that are designed to Euro NCAP standards and is the first Proton car evaluated by Euro NCAP. It scored 3 stars for adult occupant safety but only 1 star for pedestrian safety. This was a disappointing performance but Proton says it intends to improve future designs. But it has not yet been done till now.

The car's body was damaged so badly by the impact that it became unstable. The driver and front passenger risked serious injury. The child restraints performed poorly and it became apparent that, in development, too little thought had been given to their use.}}

The tested configuration with side airbags were never sold by Proton in Malaysia.{{fact|date=December 2008}}

''[[Top Gear (current format)|Top Gear]]'' aired a segment which featured a damaged Proton Waja alongside a damaged [[Toyota Avensis]] to show the differences between a 3-star EURO NCAP car and a 5-star EURO NCAP car after a head-on collision on a deformable steel concrete wall.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ngv.net.my Official website of NGV specialist for Proton cars]
* [http://www.auto-asia.com/product/product.2000.05.10.01.shtml ''Auto Asia'' article]
* [http://www.proton.com/chancellor/ Proton Chancellor minisite]
* [http://www.myklang.com/forum/proton-waja-club-klang-f-90.html Proton Waja Club, Klang]

{{Proton vehicles}}

[[Category:Proton vehicles|Waja]]
[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 2000]]
[[Category:2000s automobiles]]

[[ar:بروتون واجا]]
[[ms:Proton Waja]]
[[ja:プロトン・ワジャ]]
[[pl:Proton Waja]]
[[pt:Proton Waja]]

Benutzer:TaxonBot/ImpTest

2009-06-10T17:01:04Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:قائمة بمصافي النفط

This is a '''list of [[oil refinery|oil refineries]]'''. The [http://ogj.pennnet.com/ Oil and Gas Journal] also publishes a worldwide list of refineries annually in a country-by-country tabulation that includes for each refinery: location, crude oil daily processing capacity, and the size of each process unit in the refinery. For the U.S., the refinery list is further categorized state-by-state. The list usually appears in one of their December issues. It is about 45 pages in length and is updated each year with additions, deletions, name changes, capacity changes, etc.

== World's Largest Refineries (Barrels/Day) ==
{| class=wikitable
! '''Name of Refinery'''
! '''Location'''
! '''Barrels per Day'''
|-
||[[Paraguana]] Refining Complex (CRP) - Amuay and Cardón || [[Venezuela]] ||940,000
|-
||SK Energy Ulsan Refinery ([[SK Energy]]|| [[South Korea]] || 840,000
|-
||Yeosu Refinery ([[GS Caltex]]) || [[South Korea]] || 700,000
|-
||[[Reliance Industries]] I1 (merged)|| Jamnagar, [[India]] || 661,000
|-
||Jurong Island Refinery ([[ExxonMobil]])|| [[Singapore]] || 605,000
|-
||Reliance Industries II1 (merged)|| Jamnagar, [[India]] || 580,000
|-
||[[Baytown Refinery]] (ExxonMobil) || Baytown, TX, USA || 557,000
|-
||Ras Tanura Refinery ([[Saudi Aramco]]) || Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia || 525,000
|-
||S-Oil Ulsan Refinery ([[S-Oil]])|| South Korea || 520,000
|-
||ExxonMobil|| Baton Rouge, LA, USA || 503,000
|-
||[[Hovensa|Hovensa LLC]]|| Virgin Islands || 495,000
|-
||[[Mina Al-Ahmadi Refinery, KNPC]] || [[Kuwait]] || 470,000
|-
||BP Texas City || Texas City, TX, USA || 460,000
|-
||Pulau Bukom Refinery (Shell)|| [[Singapore]] || 458,000
|-
||[[Abadan Refinery]] || Iran || 450,000
|-
||[[Mailiao Refinery]] || Taiwan || 450,000
|-
||Citgo [[Lake Charles]]|| Lake Charles, LA, USA || 425,000
|-
||Shell Pernis Refinery || [[Netherlands]] ||416,000
|-
||BP Whiting Refinery || Whiting IN, USA || 410,000
|-
||BP Rotterdam Refinery || Rotterdam, Netherlands || 400,000
|-
||Saudi [[Aramco]] [[Yanbu]] Refinery ||Yanbu, KSA ||400,000
|-
||Rabigh Refinery ([[Saudi Aramco]]) || Saudi Arabia ||400,000
|-
||Angarsk Petrochemical Refinery ([[Rosneft]]) || [[Angarsk]], Russia || 384,000
|-
||Omsk Refinery ([[Gazprom Neft]]) || [[Omsk]], Russia || 380,000
|-
||Novo-Ufa Refinery ([[Bashneft]]) || Russia || 380,000
|-
||REPLAN ([[Petrobras]]) || Paulínia, BR || 365,000
|-
||Total Refinery Antwerp ||Belgium ||360,000
|-
||ExxonMobil|| Beaumont TX, USA || 348,500
|-
||Cilacap Refinery ([[Petramina]]) || Indonesia || 348,000
|-
||[[Fawley, Hampshire#Fawley oil refinery and chemical works|Fawley Southampton Refinery]]|| Southampton, [[United Kingdom]] || 347,000
|-
||Negishi Yokahama Refinery ([[Nippon Oil Corporation]]) || Japan || 340,000
|-
||[[Kirishi Refinery]] ([[Surgutneftegas]]) || [[Kirishi]], Russia || 337,000
|-
||Sunoco|| Philadelphia, PA, USA || 335,000
|-
||Kawasaki Refinery ([[TonenGeneral Sekiyu]]/ExxonMobil) || Japan || 335,000
|-
||Chevron|| Pascagoula, MS, USA || 330,000
|-
||Valero|| Port Arthur TX, USA || 325,000
|-
||Motiva|| Port Arthur TX, USA || 325,000
|-
|| LINOS Refinery ([[TNK-BP]]) || Ukraine || 320,000
|-
|| Tula Refinery ([[Pemex]]) || Mexico || 320,000
|-
|| Salina Cruz Refinery ([[Pemex]]) || Mexico || 320,000
|-
||ConocoPhillips|| Wood River IL, USA || 306,000
|-
|| Sarroch ([[Saras]]) || Sardinia, Italy || 300,000
|-
|| Saint John Refinery ([[Irving Oil]]) || Canadda || 300,000
|}
|:--Source: Oil & Gas Journal

1. The Reliance I & Reliance II are adjacent to each other and is the world's largest refinery at a single site. Consisting of 1.2 m capacity.

2. Prior to the damage sustained in the Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) the refinery has a capacity of {{convert|628000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}.
{{Expand list|date=August 2008}}

== Oceania ==

'''
=== [[Australia]] ===
==== [[New South Wales]] ====
* [[Kurnell Refinery]], ([[Caltex]]), {{convert|124500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}<ref>http://www.caltex.com.au/community_ref_kur.asp</ref>, [[Botany Bay]]
* [[Clyde Refinery]], ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, [[Clyde, New South Wales|Clyde]]

==== [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] ====
* [[Geelong Refinery]], ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|130000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]]
* [[Altona Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), ~75,000 bpd, [[Altona North, Victoria|Altona North]] (refinery reduced from 2 trains to 1 train between 2000-2004)

==== [[Queensland]] ====
* [[Bulwer Island Refinery]], ([[BP]]), {{convert|73000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, [[Bulwer Island, Queensland|Bulwer Island]]
* [[Lytton Refinery]], ([[Caltex]]), {{convert|104000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, [[Lytton, Queensland|Lytton]]

==== [[South Australia]] ====
* [[Port Stanvac Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, [[Port Stanvac, South Australia|Port Stanvac]] (currently mothballed)
==== [[Western Australia]] ====
* [[Kwinana Refinery]], ([[BP]]), {{convert|138000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, [[Kwinana, Western Australia|Kwinana]]

=== [[New Zealand]] ===
* [[Marsden Point Oil Refinery]] ([[NZRC]]), 96,000 b

== Asia ==
=== [[Bangladesh]] ===
* [[Eastern Refinery Limited]] ([[Bangladesh Petroleum Corporation]]), {{convert|33000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[China]] ===
* [[Zhenhai Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|34500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shanghai Gaoqiao Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|22000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Beijing Yanshan Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|16500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Qilu Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|19500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jinling Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|26500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Maoming Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|26500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tianjin Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[CPCC Changling Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[CPCC Guangzhou Branch Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|15000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Anqing Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|11000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jingmen Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Luoyang Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jiujiang Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|9800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jinan Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|2100|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wuhan Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|8000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Cangzhou Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|7000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Beihai Company Refinery]] ([[Sinopec]]), {{convert|1200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Fushun Petrochemical Company|Fushun Petrochemical Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|18600|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Dalian Petrochemical Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|14400|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Daqing Petrochemical Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|12200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jilin Chemical Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|11500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jinxi Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|11200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lanzhou Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|11200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Dushanzi Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]) 120,00 bpd
* [[Jinzhou Petrochemical Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|112000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Urumqi Petrochemical Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|101000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[West Pacific Petrochemical, Dalian]] ([[WEPEC]]), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[India]] ===
* [[Digboi Refinery]], [[Assam]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|13000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Guwahati Refinery]] [[Assam]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bongaigaon Refinery]] [[Assam]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|48000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Numaligarh Refinery Limited]] [[Assam]] ([[Numaligarh Refinery Limited|NRL]]), {{convert|58000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Haldia Refinery]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|116000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Panipat Refinery]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|240000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Gujarat Refinery]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|170000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Barauni Refinery]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|116000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mathura Refinery]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|156000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Manali Refinery]] ([[Indian Oil Corporation|IOC]]), {{convert|185000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jamnagar Refinery]] ([[Reliance Industries]]), {{convert|660000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mumbai Refinery]] ([[HPCL]]), {{convert|107000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Visakhapatnam Refinery]] ([[HPCL]]), {{convert|150000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mumbai Refinery Mahaul]] ([[BPCL]]), {{convert|135000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Nagapattnam Refinery]] ([[CPCL]]), {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kochi Refinery]] ([[Kochi Refineries Ltd]]), {{convert|172000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mangalore Refinery]] ([[MRPL]]), {{convert|190000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tatipaka Refinery]] ([[ONGC]]), {{convert|1600|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Essar Refinery]] ([[Essar]]), 10.5 MTPA
* [[Reliance Petroleum Ltd.]] (Second Refinery - Completed), Jamnagar, {{convert|580000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Indonesia]] ===
* [[Musi Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|135200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Balongan Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|125000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Dumai Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Cilacap Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|348000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Balikpapan Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|260000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sungai Pakning Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|50000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Pangkalan Brandan Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|5000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Cepu Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|3800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kasim Refinery]] ([[Pertamina]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Japan]] ===
* [[Chiba Refinery (Cosmo Oil)]] ([[Cosmo Oil Company|Cosmo Oil]]), {{convert|240000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Yokkaichi Refinery]] (Cosmo Oil), {{convert|175000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sakai Refinery (Cosmo Oil)]] (Cosmo Oil), {{convert|80000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sakaide Refinery]] (Cosmo Oil), {{convert|140000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Muroran Refinery]] ([[Nippon Oil|Nippon Oil Corporation (NOC)]]), {{convert|180000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sendai Refinery]] (Nippon Oil Corporation (NOC)), {{convert|145000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Negishi Yokahama Refinery]] (Nippon Oil Corporation (NOC)), {{convert|340000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Osaka Refinery]] (Nippon Oil Corporation (NOC)) 115,000 bpd
* [[Mizushima Refinery]] (Nippon Oil Corporation (NOC)), {{convert|250000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Marifu Refinery]] (Nippon Oil Corporation (NOC)) 127,000 bpd
* [[Toyama Refinery]] (Nihonkai Oil/Nippon Oil Corporation (NOC)), {{convert|60000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kubiki Refinery]] ([[Teikoku Oil]]), {{convert|4410|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Chiba Refinery (Kyokuto)]] ([[Kyokuto Petroleum]]/[[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|175000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kawasaki Refinery]] ([[TonenGeneral Sekiyu]]/ExxonMobil), {{convert|335000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wakayama Refinery]] (TonenGeneral Sekiyu/ExxonMobil), {{convert|170000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sakai Refinery (TonenGeneral)]] (TonenGeneral Sekiyu/ExxonMobil), {{convert|156000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Nishihara Refinery]] ([[Nansei sekiyu]]/ExxonMobil), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Keihin Refinery]] ([[Toa Oil]]/[[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]]), {{convert|185000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Showa Yokkaichi Refinery]] ([[Showa Yokkaichi]]/Shell), {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Yamaguchi Refinery]] ([[Seibu Oil]]/Shell), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sodegaura Refinery]] ([[Fuji Oil Campany]]), {{convert|192000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kashima Refinery]] ([[Kashima Oil Campany]]/[[Japan Energy]]), {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mizushima Refinery (Japan Energy)]] (Japan Energy), {{convert|205200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shikoku Refinery]] ([[Taiyo Oil]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ohita Refinery]] ([[Kyusyu Oil]]), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Hokkaido Refinery]] ([[Idemitsu Kosan]]), {{convert|140000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Chiba Refinery (Idemitsu)]] (Idemitsu Kosan), {{convert|220000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Aichi Refinery]] (Idemitsu Kosan), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tokuyama Refinery]] (Idemitsu Kosan), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Kazakhstan]] ===
* [[Shymkent Refinery]] ([[PetroKazakhstan]]), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Pavlodar Refinery]] ([[KazMunayGas]]), {{convert|162600|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Atyrau Refinery]] ([[KazMunaiGas]]), {{convert|104400|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Malaysia]] ===
* [[Melaka I Refinery]] ([[Petronas]]), {{convert|126000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Melaka II Refinery]] ([[Petronas]]/[[ConocoPhillips]]), {{convert|270000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kertih Refinery]] ([[Petronas]]), {{convert|40000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Dickson Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|155000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lutong Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|45000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}. Has been closed.
* [[Esso Port Dickson Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|86000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Myanmar]] ===
* [[Thanlyin Refinery]] (Myanma Petro-chemical Enterprise), {{convert|25000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Thanbayakan Refinery]] (Myanma Petro-chemical Enterprise), {{convert|25000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Chauk Refinery]] (Myanma Petro-chemical Enterprise), {{convert|6000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Pakistan]] ===
* [[Khalifa Refinery]] (PARCO-II Under Construction), {{convert|300000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mid Country Refinery]] ([[PARCO]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bosicor Oil Pakistan Limited]] ([[BOPL]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bosicor Pakistan Limited]] ([[BPL]]), {{convert|30000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Pakistan Refinery Limited]] (PRL), {{convert|50000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[National Refinery Limited]] (NRL),64,000 bpd
* [[Attock Refinery]] Limited (ARL), {{convert|46000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Indus Oil Refinery Limited]] (IRL),90,000 bpd
* [[Enar Petroleum Refining Facility]] (EPRF), {{convert|3000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Trans Asia Refinery]] {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Papua New Guinea]] ===
* [[InterOil Refinery, Port Moresby]] (InterOil), {{convert|32500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Philippines]] ===
* [[Limay Refinery]] ([[Philippine National Oil Company|Petron]]), {{convert|180000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tabangao Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Batangas Refinery]] ([[Caltex]]([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]])), {{convert|86000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}. Has been closed

=== [[Singapore]] ===
* [[ExxonMobil Jurong Island Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|605000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[SRC Jurong Island Refinery]] ([[Singapore Petroleum Company|Singapore Refining Corporation]]), {{convert|285000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shell Pulau Bukom Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|458000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[South Korea]] ===
* [[SK Energy Co., Ltd. Ulsan Refinery]] ([[SK Energy]]), {{convert|850000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[S-Oil Ulsan Refinery]] ([[S-Oil]]), {{convert|500000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[GS-Caltex Yeosu Refinery]] ([[GS-Caltex]]), {{convert|650000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[SK Energy Co., Ltd. Inchon Refinery]] ([[SK Energy]]), {{convert|275000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Hyundai Daesan Refinery]] ([[Hyundai]]), {{convert|275000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Taiwan]] ===
* [[Talin Refinery]] ([[CPC]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kaohsiung Refinery]] ([[CPC]]), {{convert|270000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Taoyuan Refinery]] ([[CPC]]), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mailiao Refinery]] (''Formosa''), {{convert|450000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Thailand]] ===
* [[Thai Oil Refinery]] (Thai Oil Company of [[PTT]]), {{convert|220000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[IRPC Refinery]] (IRPC PLC of PTT), {{convert|215000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rayong]] Refinery (Rayong Refinery PLC of PTT), {{convert|145000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[SPRC Refinery]] (Star Petroleum Refining Company of PTT), {{convert|150000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bangchak]] Refinery (Bangchak Petroleum of PTT), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sri Racha]] Refinery ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|170000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rayong]] Purifier Refinery ([[Rayong Purifier Company]]), {{convert|17000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Vietnam]] ===
* [[Dung Quat Refinery]] (Petrovietnam), {{convert|130000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

== Africa ==
=== [[Algeria]] ===
* [[Arzew Refinery]] ([[Sonatrach]]), {{convert|54000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El Harrach Refinery]] ([[Sonatrach]]), {{convert|59000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Skikda Refinery]] ([[Sonatrach]]), {{convert|323000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Hassi Messaoud Refinery]] ([[Sonatrach]]), {{convert|27000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Angola]] ===
* [[Luanda Refinery]] ([[Petrofina]]), {{convert|39000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Cameroon]] ===
* [[Limbe Refinery]] ([[SONARA]]), {{convert|42000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] ===
* [[Pointe Noire Refinery]] ([[CORAF]]), {{convert|21000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Côte d'Ivoire]] ===
* [[Abidjan Refinery]] ([[SIR]])([http://www.sir.ci website]), {{convert|65000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Egypt]] ===
* [[Alexandria MIDOR Refinery]] ([[MIDOR]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wadi Feiran Refinery]], {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Suez Refinery]], {{convert|86000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El-Nasr]], {{convert|146000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Amerya Refinery]], {{convert|78000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Assiut Refinery]], {{convert|47000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Cairo Refinery]], {{convert|145000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tanta Refinery]], {{convert|35000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Alexandria Refinery]], {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Gabon]] ===
* [[Sogara Refinery]] ([[Total S.A.|Total]]/[[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]]/[[Agip]]), {{convert|21000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Ghana]] ===
* [[Tema Refinery]] ([[TORC]]), {{convert|45000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Kenya]] ===
* [[Mombasa Refinery]] ([[Kenya Petroleum]]), {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Libya]] ===
* [[Zawia Refinery]] ([[Libya National Oil Company|NOC]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ras Lanuf Refinery]] ([[Libya National Oil Company|NOC]]), {{convert|220000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El-Brega Refinery]] ([[Libya National Oil Company|NOC]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tobruk Refinery]] ([[Libya National Oil Company|NOC]]), {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sarir Refinery]] ([[Libya National Oil Company|NOC]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Morocco]] ===
* [[Samir Mohammedia Refinery]] ([[Corral Holdings]]), {{convert|105000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Samir Sidi Kacem Refinery]] ([[Corral Holdings]]), {{convert|50000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Nigeria]] ===
* [[Port Harcourt Refinery]] [[PHRC]] {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Warri Refinery]] [[WRPGC]] {{convert|125000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kaduna Refinery]] [[KRPC]] {{convert|110000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[South Africa]] ===
* [[Sapref Durban Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]]/[[BP]]), {{convert|172000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petronas Durban Refinery]] ([[Petronas]]), {{convert|125000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Caltex Capetown Refinery]] ([[Caltex]]([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]])), {{convert|110000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Natref Sasolburg Refinery]] ([[Sasol]]/[[Total]]), {{convert|87500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Sudan]] ===
* [[Khartoum Refinery]] ([[CNPC,Sudapet]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El Gily Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|50000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Sudan Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|21700|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El Obeid Refinery]] ([[CNPC]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Tunisia]] ===
* [[Bizerte Refinery]] ([[STIR]]), {{convert|34000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Zambia ]]===
* Indeni Refinery (50% Total / 50% Government of Zambia), {{convert|23750|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Djibouti]] ===
* [[Doraleh oil refinery]] ([[efad, kuwait]]), {{convert|250000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

== Middle East ==
=== [[Saudi Arabia]] ===
* Riyadh Refinery ([[Saudi Aramco]]), 120,000 bbl/d (19,000 m³/d)
* Rabigh Refinery ([[Saudi Aramco]]), 400,000 bbl/d (64,000 m³/d)
* Yanbu' Refinery ([[Saudi Aramco]]), 230,000 bbl/d (37,000 m³/d)
* Jeddah Refinery ([[Saudi Aramco]]), 100,000 bbl/d (16,000 m³/d)
* Ras Tanura Refinery ([[Saudi Aramco]]), 525,000 bbl/d (83,500 m³/d)
* Aramco/Exxon Yanbu' Refinery (Saudi Aramco/ExxonMobil), 400,000 bbl/d (64,000 m³/d)
* Aramco/Shell Jubail Refinery

=== [[Iran]] ===
* [[Abadan Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|450000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Arak Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|150000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tehran Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|225000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Isfahan Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|265000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tabriz Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|112000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shiraz Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|40000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lavan Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bandar Abbas Refinery]] ([[NIOC]]), {{convert|232000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kermanshah refinery]] ([[NIOC]]),21,000 bpd

=== [[Iraq]] ===
* [[Basrah Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|126000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Daurah Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kirkuk Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|27000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Baiji Salahedden Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|140000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Baiji North Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|150000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Khanaqin/Alwand Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|10500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Samawah Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|27000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Haditha Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|14000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Muftiah Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|4500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Gaiyarah Refinery]] ([[INOC]]), {{convert|4000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Israel]] ===
* [[Haifa Refinery]] ([[Paz]]), {{convert|170000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ashdod Refinery]] ([[Paz]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Kuwait]] ===
* [[Mina Al-Ahmadi Refinery]] ([[KNPC]]), {{convert|470000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shuaiba Refinery]] ([[KNPC]]), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mina Abdullah Refinery]] ([[KNPC]]), {{convert|270000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Oman]] ===
* [[Mina Al Fahal]] [[Oman Refinery Company]] (ORC) {{convert|85000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sohar Refinery Company]] (SRC) {{convert|116000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Dukum Refinery Company]] (DRC) 200,000 bpd (Proposed)

=== [[United Arab Emirates]] ===
* [[Al-Ruwais Refinery]] ([[Abu Dhabi Oil Refining Company]]), {{convert|280000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Umm Al-Narr Refinery]] ([[Abu Dhabi Oil Refining Company]]), {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jebel Ali Refinery]] ([[ENOC]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Hamriyah Sharjah Refinery]] ([[Sharjah Oil]]), {{convert|71300|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Qatar]] ===
* [[Um Said Refinery]] ([[QP Refinery]] 100%), {{convert|147000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lafan Refinery]] ([[Qatar Petroleum]] 51%, [[ExxonMobil]] 10%, [[Total]] 10%, [[Idemitsu]] 10%, [[Cosmo]] 10%, [[Mitsui]] 4.5%, [[Marubeni]] 4.5%), {{convert|146000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[AL-Shahene Refinery]] (2012), {{convert|250000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Bahrain]] ===
* [[Bapco Sitrah Refinery]] ([[Bapco]]), {{convert|267000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Yemen]] ===
* [[Aden Refinery]], ([[Aden Refinery Company]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Marib Refinery]], ([[Yemen Hunt Oil Company]]), {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
=== [[Jordan]] ===
* [[Jordan Refinery]] ,Zarqa, Az Zarqa, ([[Jordan Petrolum Refinery Company]]), {{convert|65000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

== Latin America ==
=== [[Argentina]] ===
* [[La Plata Refinery]] ([[Repsol YPF]]) 189,000 bpd
* [[Buenos Aires Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]) 110,000 bpd
* [[Lujan de Cuyo Refinery]] ([[Repsol YPF]]) 105,500 bpd
* [[Esso Campana Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]) 84,500 bpd
* [[San Lorenzo Refinery]] ([[Refisan S.A.]]) 38,000 bpd (start-up 1938)
* [[Plaza Huincul Refinery]] ([[Repsol YPF]]) 37,190 bpd (start-up 1919)
* [[Campo Duran Refinery]] ([[Refinor]]) 32,000 bpd
* [[Bahia Blanca Refinery]] ([[Petrobras]]) 28,975 bpd

=== [[Bolivia]] ===
* [[Gualberto Villarael Cochabamba Refinery]] ([[YPFB]]) 40,000 bpd
* [[Guillermo Elder Bell Santa Cruz Refinery]] ([[YPFB]]) 20,000 bpd
* [[Carlos Montenegro Sucre Refinery]] ([[Refisur SA]]) 3,000 bpd

* Reficruz {{convert|2000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* Refinería Oro Negro SA {{convert|2000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Brazil]] ===
* [[REFAP]] ([[Petrobras]] and [[Repsol YPF]]), [[Canoas]] {{convert|189000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[RECAP]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Mauá]] {{convert|53000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[REPLAN]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Paulínia]] {{convert|365000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[REVAP]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[São José dos Campos]] {{convert|251000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[RPBC]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Cubatão]] {{convert|170000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[REDUC]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Duque de Caxias]] {{convert|242000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[REMAN]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Manaus]] {{convert|46000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lubnor]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Fortaleza]] {{convert|6000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[REGAP]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Betim]] {{convert|151000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[REPAR]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Araucária]] {{convert|189000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[RLAM]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[São Francisco do Conde]] {{convert|323000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Refinaria Ipiranga]] ([[Petroleo Ipiranga]]), [[Pelotas]] {{convert|12500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Refinaria Manguinhos]] ([[Grupo Peixoto de Castro]] and [[Repsol YPF]]), [[Rio de Janeiro]] {{convert|14000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Chile]] ===
* [[BioBio Refinery]] ([[Empresa Nacional de Petroleo]]), 113,000 bpd (start-up 1966)
* [[Aconcagua Concon Refinery]] ([[Empresa Nacional de Petroleo]]), {{convert|97650|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Gregorio Refinery]] ([[Empresa Nacional de Petroleo]]), {{convert|14750|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Colombia]] ===
* [[Barrancabermeja-Santander Refinery]] ([[Ecopetrol]]), 252,000 bpd (start-up 1922)
* [[Cartagena Refinery]] ([[Ecopetrol]]), 79,000 bpd (start-up 1957)
* [[Apiay Refinery]] ([[Ecopetrol]]), {{convert|2250|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Orito Refinery]] ([[Ecopetrol]]), {{convert|1800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tibu Refinery]] ([[Ecopetrol]]), {{convert|1800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Costa Rica]] ===
* [[Puerto Limón Refinery]] ([[Recope]]), 8,000 bpd (start-up 1967) 2006, {{convert|25000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Ecuador]] ===
* [[Esmeraldas Refinery]] ([[Petroecuador]]), 110,000 bpd (start-up 1978)
* [[La Libertad Refinery]] ([[Petroecuador]]), {{convert|45000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shushufindi Refinery]] ([[Petroecuador]]), {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[El Salvador]] ===
* [[Refineria Petrolera de Acajutla SA de CV]] ([[RASA]]) ([[ExxonMobil]]) 22,000 bpd (start-up 1962)

=== [[Nicaragua]] ===
* [[Cuesta del Plomo-Managua]] ([[ExxonMobil]]) 20,900 bpd (start-up 1962)

=== [[Paraguay]] ===
* [[Villa Elisa Refinery]] ([[Petropar]]) 7,500 bpd

=== [[Perú]] ===
* [[Refinería La Pampilla Lima]] ([[Repsol YPF]]) 102,000 bpd
* [[Refinería de Talara]] ([[Petroperú]]) 65,000 bpd (start-up 1917) with FCC unit
* [[Refinería Iquitos Loreto]] ([[Petroperú]]) 10,500 bpd (start-up 1982)
* [[Refinería Conchan]] ([[Petroperú]]) 9,500 bpd (start-up 1961)
* [[Refinería Purcallpa]] ([[Maple Gas]]) 3,250 bpd
* [[Refinería El Milagro]] ([[Petroperú]]) 1,500 bpd (start-up 1994)

=== [[Surinam]] ===
* [[Paramaribo]] ([[Staatsolie]]) 7,000 bpd

=== [[Uruguay]] ===
* [[La Teja Montevideo Refinery]] ([[ANCAP]]) 40,000 bpd (start-up 1937)

=== [[Venezuela]] ===
* [[Centro de Refinación de Paraguaná]] (CRP) ([[PDVSA]]) 956,000 bdp (Amuay-Cardón-Bajo Grande) (start-up 1997)
** [[Amuay Refinery (CRP)]] ([[PDVSA]]) 635,000 bpd (start-up 1950)
** [[Cardón Refinery (CRP)]] ([[PDVSA]]) 305,000 bpd (start-up 1949)
** [[Bajo Grande Refinery (CRP)]] ([[PDVSA]]) 16,000 bpd (start-up 1956)
* [[Puerto La Cruz Refinery]] ([[PDVSA]]) 200,000 bpd (start-up 1950)
* [[El Palito Refinery]] ([[PDVSA]]) 140,000 bpd (start-up 1954)
* [[San Roque Refinery]] ([[PDVSA]]) 5,200 bpd

* [[Upgraders]] (Extra Heavy Oil Joint Ventures with [[PDVSA]] at Jose)
** [[Petrozuata]] ([[PDVSA]]) 140,000 bpd (start-up 2000)
** [[Operadora Cerro Negro]] ([[ExxonMobil]], [[Aral AG]], and [[PDVSA]]) 120,000 bpd (start-up 2001)
** [[Sincor]] ([[Total S.A.]], [[Statoil]], and [[PDVSA]]) 180,000 bpd (start-up 2001)
** [[Ameriven]] ([[ConocoPhillips]], [[ChevronTexaco]], and [[PDVSA]]) 190,000 bpd (start-up 2004)

== [[Caribbean]] ==
=== [[Aruba]] ===
* [[Aruba Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]) 275,000 bpd

=== [[Cuba]] ===
* [[Nico Lopez Refinery]] ([[Cupet]]) 122,000 bpd
* [[Hermanos Diaz Refinery]] ([[Cupet]]) 102,500 bpd
* [[Cienfuegos Refinery]] ([[Cupet]]) 76,000 bpd

=== [[Netherlands Antilles]] ===
* [[Isla Refinery]] ([[PDVSA]]) 320,000 bpd

=== [[Dominican Republic]] ===
* [[Haina Refinery]] ([[REFIDOMSA]]) 33,000 bpd (start-up 1973)

=== [[Trinidad and Tobago]] ===
* [[Pointe-à-Pierre Refinery]] ([[Petrotrin]]) 165,000 bpd

=== [[US Virgin Islands]] ===
* [[St Croix Refinery]] ([[HOVENSA]]) 494,000 bpd

=== [[Jamaica]] ===
* [[Kingston Refinery]] ([[PCJ & PDVSA]]) 35,000 bpd

== North America ==
=== [[Canada]] ===
==== [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] ====
* [[North Atlantic Refinery]], located in [[Come By Chance, Newfoundland and Labrador|Come by Chance]], ([[North Atlantic Refining]]), {{convert|115000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Nova Scotia]] ====
* [[Imperial Oil Refinery]] - [[Dartmouth, Nova Scotia|Dartmouth]], ([[Imperial Oil]]), {{convert|89000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
==== [[New Brunswick]] ====
* [[Saint John Refinery, New Brunswick|Saint John]], ([[Irving Oil]]), {{convert|300000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Quebec]] ====
* [[Montreal]], ([[Shell Canada]]), {{convert|130000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Montreal]], ([[Petro-Canada]]), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lévis, Quebec|Lévis]], ([[Ultramar]]([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]])), {{convert|215000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Ontario]] ====
* [[Nanticoke, Ontario|Nanticoke]], ([[Imperial Oil]]), {{convert|112000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sarnia, Ontario|Sarnia]], ([[Imperial Oil]]), {{convert|115000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sarnia, Ontario|Sarnia]], ([[Suncor Energy]]), {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Corunna]], ([[Shell Canada]]), {{convert|72000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

Lubricant Refinery
* [[Mississauga, Ontario|Mississauga]], ([[Petro-Canada]]), {{convert|15600|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}} - aka Clarkson Refinery - base oil production is 13,600 bpd of API Group II capacity and 2,000 bpd of API Group III capacity.

==== [[Saskatchewan]] ====
* [[Lloydminster]], ([[Husky Energy]]), 27,000 bpd (Asphalt/Heavy Oil Refinery)
* [[Regina, Saskatchewan|Regina]], ([[Consumers' Co-operative Refineries Limited]] (CCRL)), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}{{convert|100|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Alberta]] ====
* [[Imperial Oil Refinery (Edmonton)|Imperial Oil Refinery]], [[Edmonton]], ([[Imperial Oil]]), {{convert|187000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Scotford Refinery]], [[Scotford, Alberta|Scotford]], ([[Shell Canada]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petro-Canada Refinery (Edmonton)|Petro-Canada Refinery]], [[Edmonton]], ([[Petro-Canada]]), {{convert|135000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
[[Upgraders]] (turn [[bitumen]] into synthetic crude, which then must be further refined)
* [[Scotford Upgrader]], [[Scotford, Alberta|Scotford]], ([[Shell Canada]] 60%, [[Chevron Corporation]]20%, [[Marathon Oil]] 20%), 130,000 bpd (located next to Shell Refinery)

==== [[British Columbia]] ====
* [[Burnaby]], ([[Chevron Corporation]]), {{convert|52000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]], ([[Husky Energy]]), {{convert|12000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[United States]] ===
==== [[Alabama]] ====
* [[Tuscaloosa Refinery]] ([[Hunt Refining Company]]), [[Tuscaloosa, Alabama|Tuscaloosa]] {{convert|52000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Saraland Refinery]] ([[Shell Oil Company]]), [[Saraland, Alabama|Saraland]] {{convert|80000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mobile Refinery]] ([[Gulf Atlantic Refining & Marketing]]), [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] {{convert|16700|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}<ref>http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/refinery_capacity_data/historical/2006/table14.pdf</ref>

==== [[Alaska]] ====
* [[Kenai Refinery]] ([[Tesoro]]), [[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]] {{convert|72000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Valdez Refinery]] ([[Petro Star]]), [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]] {{convert|50000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[North Pole Refinery]] ([[Petro Star]]), [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]] {{convert|17000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kuparuk Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Kuparuk, Alaska|Kuparuk]] {{convert|14400|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[North Pole Refinery]] ([[Flint Hills Resources]]), [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]] {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Prudhoe Bay Refinery]] ([[BP]]), [[Prudhoe Bay oil field|Prudhoe Bay]] {{convert|12500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Arkansas]] ====
* [[El Dorado Refinery (Arkansas)|El Dorado Refinery]] ([[Lion Oil]]), [[El Dorado, Arkansas|El Dorado]] {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Smackover Refinery]] ([[Cross Oil]]), [[Smackover, Arkansas|Smackover]] {{convert|6800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[California]] ====
* [[Bakersfield Refinery (Big West)|Bakersfield Refinery]] (Big West), [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], {{convert|66000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bakersfield Refinery (Kern Oil)|Bakersfield Refinery]] ([[Kern Oil]]), [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], {{convert|25000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bakersfield Refinery (San Joaquin)|Bakersfield Refinery]] ([[San Joaquin Refining Company]]), [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], {{convert|24300|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Benicia Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Benicia, California|Benicia]], {{convert|144000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Carson Refinery]] ([[BP]]), [[Carson, California|Carson]], {{convert|260000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El Segundo Refinery]] ([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]), [[El Segundo, California|El Segundo]], {{convert|260000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Golden Eagle Refinery]] ([[Tesoro]]), near [[Martinez, California|Martinez]], {{convert|166000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Long Beach Refinery]] ([[Edgington Oil Company]]), [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], {{convert|26000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Martinez Refinery]] ([[Shell Oil Company]]), [[Martinez, California|Martinez]], {{convert|154900|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Oxnard Refinery]] ([[Tenby Inc]]), [[Oxnard, California|Oxnard]], {{convert|2800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Paramount Refinery]] ([[Paramount Petroleum]]), [[Paramount, California|Paramount]], {{convert|50000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Richmond Refinery]] ([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]), [[Richmond, California|Richmond]], {{convert|242901|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rodeo San Francisco Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Rodeo, California|Rodeo]], {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Santa Maria Refinery (ConocoPhillips)|Santa Maria Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Santa Maria, California|Santa Maria]], {{convert|41800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Santa Maria Refinery (Greka Energy)|Santa Maria Refinery]] ([[Greka Energy]]), [[Santa Maria, California|Santa Maria]], {{convert|9500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[South Gate Refinery]] ([[Lunday Thagard]]), [[South Gate, California|South Gate]], {{convert|8500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Torrance Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), [[Torrance, California|Torrance]], {{convert|149000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wilmington Asphalt Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Wilmington, Los Angeles, California|Wilmington]], {{convert|5900|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wilmington Refinery (Tesoro)|Wilmington Refinery]] ([[Tesoro]]), [[Wilmington, Los Angeles, California|Wilmington]], {{convert|133100|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wilmington Refinery (Shell)|Wilmington Refinery]] ([[Shell Oil Company]]), [[Wilmington, Los Angeles, California|Wilmington]], {{convert|98500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wilmington Refinery (Valero)|Wilmington Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Wilmington, Los Angeles, California|Wilmington]], {{convert|149000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Colorado]] ====
* [[Commerce City Refinery]] ([[Suncor]]), [[Commerce City, Colorado|Commerce City]] {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Delaware]] ====
* [[Delaware City Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Delaware City, Delaware|Delaware City]] {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ====
* [[Savannah Refinery]] ([[NuStar]]), [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]] (Asphalt Refinery) 28,000 bpd
* [[Douglasville Refinery]] ([[Young Refining]]), [[Douglasville, Georgia|Douglasville]] -- [http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/petroleum_supply_annual/psa_volume1/current/pdf/table_48.pdf shutdown 07/04]

==== [[Hawaii]] ====
* [[Kapolei Refinery]] ([[Tesoro]]), [[Kapolei, Hawaii|Kapolei]] {{convert|93500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Hawaii Refinery]] ([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]), [[Kapolei, Hawaii|Kapolei]] {{convert|54000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Illinois]] ====
* [[Lemont Refinery]] ([[Citgo]]), [[Romeoville, Illinois|Romeoville]] {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Joliet Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), [[Joliet, Illinois|Joliet]] {{convert|238000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Robinson Refinery]] ([[Marathon Petroleum Company]]), [[Robinson, Illinois|Robinson]] {{convert|192000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wood River Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Wood River, Illinois|Wood River]] {{convert|306000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tosco Refinery]] ([[Tosco]]), [[Wood River, Illinois|Wood River]]

==== [[Indiana]] ====
* [[Whiting Refinery]] ([[BP]]), [[Whiting, Indiana|Whiting]] {{convert|410000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mount Vernon Refinery]] ([[Countrymark Co-op]]), [[Mount Vernon, Indiana|Mount Vernon]] {{convert|23000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Kansas]] ====
* [[Coffeyville Refinery]] ([[Coffeyville Resources LLC]]), [[Coffeyville, Kansas|Coffeyville]] {{convert|112000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El Dorado Refinery (Kansas)|El Dorado Refinery]] ([[Frontier Oil]]), [[El Dorado, Kansas|El Dorado]] {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[McPherson Refinery]] ([[National Cooperative Refinery Association|NCRA]]), [[McPherson, Kansas|McPherson]] {{convert|81200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Kentucky]] ====
* [[Catlettsburg Refinery]] ([[Marathon Petroleum Company]]), [[Catlettsburg, Kentucky|Catlettsburg]] {{convert|222000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[HDG International Group|HDG International Group Refinery]], [[Perry, Kentucky|Perry]] {{convert|195500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Somerset Refinery]], [[Somerset, Kentucky|Somerset]] {{convert|5500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Louisiana]] ====
* [[Baton Rouge Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana|Baton Rouge]] {{convert|503000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Belle Chasse Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Belle Chasse, Louisiana|Belle Chasse]] 250,000
* [[Chalmette Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), [[Chalmette, Louisiana|Chalmette]] {{convert|193000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Convent Refinery]] ([[Motiva Enterprises]]), [[Convent, Louisiana|Convent]] {{convert|255000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Cotton Valley Refinery]] ([[Calumet Lubricants]]), [[Cotton Valley, Louisiana|Cotton Valley]] {{convert|13000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Garyville Refinery]] ([[Marathon Petroleum Company]]), near [[Garyville, Louisiana|Garyville]] {{convert|245000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Krotz Springs Refinery]] ([[Alon USA Energy |Alon]]), [[Krotz Springs, Louisiana|Krotz Springs]] {{convert|85000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lake Charles Refinery (Citgo)|Lake Charles Refinery]] ([[Citgo]]), [[Lake Charles, Louisiana|Lake Charles]] 425,000
* [[Lake Charles Refinery (Calcasieu Refining)|Lake Charles Refinery]] ([[Calcasieu Refining]]), [[Lake Charles, Louisiana|Lake Charles]] {{convert|30000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Meraux Refinery]] ([[Murphy Oil]]), [[Meraux, Louisiana|Meraux]] {{convert|125000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Norco Refinery]] ([[Motiva Enterprises]]), [[Norco, Louisiana|Norco]] {{convert|242000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Allen Refinery]] ([[Placid Refining]]), [[Port Allen, Louisiana|Port Allen]] {{convert|48500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Princeton Refinery]] ([[Calumet Lubricants]]), [[Princeton, Louisiana|Princeton]] {{convert|8300|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shreveport Refinery]] ([[Calumet Lubricants]]), [[Shreveport, Louisiana|Shreveport]] {{convert|35000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[St. Charles Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Norco, Louisiana|Norco]] {{convert|260000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Westlake Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Westlake, Louisiana|Westlake]] 247,000

==== [[Michigan]] ====
* [[Detroit Refinery]] ([[Marathon Petroleum Company]]), [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Minnesota]] ====
* [[Pine Bend Refinery]] ([[Flint Hills Resources]]), [[Rosemount, Minnesota|Rosemount]] {{convert|265000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[St. Paul Park Refinery]] ([[Marathon Petroleum Company]]), [[St. Paul Park, Minnesota|St. Paul Park]] {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Mississippi]] ====
* [[Lumberton Refinery]] ([[Hunt Southland Refining]]), [[Lumberton, Mississippi|Lumberton]] {{convert|5800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Pascagoula Refinery]] ([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]), [[Pascagoula, Mississippi|Pascagoula]] {{convert|325000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Vicksburg Refinery]] ([[Ergon (US)|Ergon]]), [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]] {{convert|23000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rogerslacy Refinery]] ([[Hunt Southland Refining]]), [[Sandersville, Mississippi|Sandersville]] {{convert|11000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Montana]] ====
* [[Billings Refinery (ConocoPhillips)|Billings Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Billings, Montana|Billings]] {{convert|58000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Billings Refinery (ExxonMobil)|Billings Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), [[Billings, Montana|Billings]] {{convert|60000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Great Falls Refinery]] ([[Holly Corporation]] via Montana Refining), [[Great Falls, Montana|Great Falls]] {{convert|8200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Laurel Refinery]] ([[Cenex]]), [[Laurel, Montana|Laurel]] {{convert|55000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Nevada]] ====
* [[Eagle Springs Refinery]] ([[Foreland Refining]]), [[Currant, Nevada|Currant]] {{convert|1700|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[New Jersey]] ====
* [[Bayway Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Linden, New Jersey|Linden]] {{convert|230000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Eagle Point Refinery]] ([[Sunoco]]), [[Westville, New Jersey|Westville]] {{convert|145000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Paulsboro Asphalt Refinery]] ([[NuStar]]), [[Paulsboro, New Jersey|Paulsboro]] {{convert|51000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Paulsboro Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Paulsboro, New Jersey|Paulsboro]] {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Perth Amboy Refinery]] ([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]), [[Perth Amboy, New Jersey|Perth Amboy]] {{convert|80000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Reading Refinery]] ([[Hess Corporation|Hess]]), [[Port Reading, New Jersey|Port Reading]] {{convert|62000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[New Mexico]] ====
* [[Artesia Refinery]] ([[Holly Corporation]] via Navajo Refining), [[Artesia, New Mexico|Artesia]] {{convert|75000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Bloomfield Refinery]] ([[Western Refining]]), [[Bloomfield, New Mexico|Bloomfield]] {{convert|16800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Gallup Refinery]] ([[Western Refining]]), [[Gallup, New Mexico|Gallup]] {{convert|26000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lovington Refinery]] ([[Holly Corporation]]), [[Lovington, New Mexico|Lovington]]

==== [[North Dakota]] ====
* [[Mandan Refinery]] ([[Tesoro]]), [[Mandan, North Dakota|Mandan]] {{convert|60000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Ohio]] ====
* [[Canton Refinery]] ([[Marathon Petroleum Company]]), [[Canton, Ohio|Canton]] {{convert|73000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lima Refinery]] ([[Husky Energy]]), [[Lima, Ohio|Lima]] {{convert|158400|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Toledo Refinery (BP)|Toledo Refinery]] ([[BP]]), [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]] {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Toledo Refinery (Sunoco)|Toledo Refinery]] ([[Sunoco]]), [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]] {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Oklahoma]] ====
* [[Ardmore Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Ardmore, Oklahoma|Ardmore]] {{convert|74700|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ponca City Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Ponca City, Oklahoma|Ponca City]] {{convert|194000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tulsa Refinery (Sinclair)|Tulsa Refinery]] ([[Sinclair Oil]]), [[Tulsa, Oklahoma|Tulsa]] {{convert|70300|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tulsa Refinery (Sunoco)|Tulsa Refinery]] ([[Sunoco]]), [[Tulsa, Oklahoma|Tulsa]] {{convert|83200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wynnewood Refinery]], [[Wynnewood, Oklahoma|Wynnewood]] {{convert|71700|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ventura Refining and Transmission]], [[Thomas, Oklahoma|Thomas]] {{convert|14000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Pennsylvania]] ====
* [[Bradford Refinery]] ([[American Refining Group]]), [[Bradford, Pennsylvania|Bradford]] {{convert|10000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Marcus Hook Refinery]] ([[Sunoco]]), [[Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania|Marcus Hook]] {{convert|175000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Philadelphia Refinery]] ([[Sunoco]]), [[Philadelphia]] {{convert|335000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Penreco]] ([[Calumet]]), [[Karns City, Pennsylvania|Karns City]]
* [[Trainer Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Trainer, Pennsylvania|Trainer]] {{convert|185000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Warren Refinery]], [[United Refining Company]], [[Warren, Pennsylvania|Warren]] {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wamsutta Oil Refinery]] (historical), [[McClintocksville, Pennsylvania|McClintocksville]]
* [[Hess oil Refinery]]

==== [[Tennessee]] ====
* [[Memphis Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]] {{convert|180000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Texas]] ====
* [[Baytown Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), [[Baytown, Texas|Baytown]] {{convert|557000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Big Spring Refinery]] ([[Alon USA]]), [[Big Spring, Texas|Big Spring]] {{convert|61000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Beaumont Refinery]] ([[ExxonMobil]]), [[Beaumont, Texas|Beaumont]] {{convert|348500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Borger Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]/[[EnCana]]), [[Borger, Texas|Borger]] {{convert|146000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Corpus Christi Complex]] ([[Flint Hills Resources]]), [[Corpus Christi, Texas|Corpus Christi]] {{convert|288000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Corpus Christi Refinery (Citgo)|Corpus Christi Refinery]] ([[Citgo]]), [[Corpus Christi, Texas|Corpus Christi]] {{convert|156000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Corpus Christi West Refinery (Valero)|Corpus Christi West Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Corpus Christi, Texas|Corpus Christi]] {{convert|142000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Corpus Christi East Refinery (Valero)|Corpus Christi East Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Corpus Christi, Texas|Corpus Christi]] {{convert|115000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Deer Park Refinery]] ([[Shell Oil Company]]), [[Deer Park, Texas|Deer Park]] {{convert|333700|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[El Paso Refinery]] ([[Western Refining]]), [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Houston Refinery (Lyondell)|Houston Refinery]] ([[Lyondell Chemical Company|Lyondell]]), [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] {{convert|270200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* (( Houston Refinery ( US Energy Markets )) ( Energy Partners 1984 ) Houston, Texas Newport Beach California ))
* [[Houston Refinery (Valero)|Houston Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] {{convert|83000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Independent Refinery]] ([[Strategic Northern|Stratnor]]), [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[McKee Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Sunray, Texas|Sunray]] {{convert|158300|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Pasadena Refinery]] ([[Petrobras]]), [[Pasadena, Texas|Pasadena]] {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Arthur Refinery (Total)|Port Arthur Refinery]] ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), [[Port Arthur, Texas|Port Arthur]] {{convert|233500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Arthur Refinery (Motiva)|Port Arthur Refinery]] ([[Motiva Enterprises]]), [[Port Arthur, Texas|Port Arthur]] {{convert|285000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Arthur Refinery (Valero)|Port Arthur Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Port Arthur, Texas|Port Arthur]] {{convert|325000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Penreco (Calumet)|Penreco]] ([[Calumet]]), [[Houston, Texas|Houston]]
* [[San Antonio Refinery]] ([[Age Refining]]), [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]] {{convert|10300|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sweeny Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Sweeny, Texas|Sweeny]] {{convert|229000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Texas City Refinery (BP)|Texas City Refinery]] ([[BP]]), [[Texas City, Texas|Texas City]] {{convert|460000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Texas City Refinery (Marathon)|Texas City Refinery]] ([[Marathon Petroleum Company]]), [[Texas City, Texas|Texas City]] {{convert|72000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Texas City Refinery (Valero)|Texas City Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Texas City, Texas|Texas City]] {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Three Rivers Refinery]] ([[Valero Energy Corporation|Valero]]), [[Three Rivers, Texas|Three Rivers]] {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tyler Refinery]] ([[Delek Refining Ltd.]]), [[Tyler, Texas|Tyler]] {{convert|55000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Utah]] ====
* [[North Salt Lake Refinery]] ([[Flying J|Big West Oil]]), [[North Salt Lake, Utah|North Salt Lake]] {{convert|35000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Salt Lake City Refinery]] ([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]), [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]] {{convert|45000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Salt Lake City Refinery (Tesoro)|Salt Lake City Refinery]] ([[Tesoro]]), [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]] {{convert|58000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Woods Cross Refinery (Holly)|Woods Cross Refinery]] ([[Holly Corporation]]), [[Woods Cross, Utah|Woods Cross]] {{convert|26000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Woods Cross Refinery (Silver Eagle)|Woods Cross Refinery]] ([[Silver Eagle Refining]]), [[Woods Cross, Utah|Woods Cross]] {{convert|10200|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Virginia]] ====
* [[Yorktown Refinery]] ([[Western Refining]]), [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]] {{convert|58600|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Washington]] ====
* [[Tesoro Anacortes Refinery]] ([[Tesoro]]), [[Anacortes, Washington|Anacortes]] {{convert|108000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shell Anacortes Refinery]] ([[Shell Oil Company]]), [[Anacortes, Washington|Anacortes]] {{convert|145000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Cherry Point Refinery]] ([[BP]]), [[Blaine, Washington|Blaine]] {{convert|225000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[ConocoPhillips Ferndale Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), [[Ferndale, Washington|Ferndale]] {{convert|105000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[U.S. Oil and Refining|Tacoma Refinery]] ([[U.S. Oil and Refining]]), [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] {{convert|35000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[West Virginia]] ====
* [[Newell Refinery]] ([[Ergon (US)|Ergon]]), [[Newell, West Virginia|Newell]] {{convert|19400|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Wisconsin]] ====
* [[Superior Refinery]] ([[Murphy Oil]]), [[Superior, Wisconsin|Superior]] {{convert|33000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

==== [[Wyoming]] ====
* [[Cheyenne Refinery]] ([[Frontier Oil]]), [[Cheyenne, Wyoming|Cheyenne]] {{convert|52000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Evanston Refinery]] ([[Silver Eagle Refining]]), [[Evanston, Wyoming|Evanston]] {{convert|3000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Evansville Refinery]] ([[Sinclair Oil|Little America Refining]]), [[Evansville, Wyoming|Evansville]] {{convert|24500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Newcastle Refinery]] ([[Wyoming Refining]]), [[Newcastle, Wyoming|Newcastle]] {{convert|12500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sinclair Refinery]] ([[Sinclair Oil]]), [[Sinclair, Wyoming|Sinclair]] {{convert|66000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Mexico]] ===
* [[Minatitlan Refinery]] ([[Pemex]]) 170,000 bpd
* [[Cadereyta Refinery]] ([[Pemex]]) 292,000 bpd
* [[Tula Refinery]] ([[Pemex]]) 320,000 bpd
* [[Salamanca Refinery]] ([[Pemex]]) 236,000 bpd
* [[Ciudad Madero Refinery]] ([[Pemex]]) 190,000 bpd
* [[Salina Cruz Refinery]] ([[Pemex]]) 320,000 bpd

== Europe ==
=== [[Austria]] ===
* [[Schwechat Refinery]], ([[OMV]]), {{convert|175000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Azerbaijan]] ===
* [[Haydar Aliev Refinery]] ([[SOCAR]]), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Azerineftyag Refinery]] ([[SOCAR]]), {{convert|239000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ===
* [[Bosanski Brod Refinery]]

=== [[Belarus]] ===
* [[Mozyr Refinery]], ([[Slavneft]]),[http://www.mnpz.by/en/] {{convert|95000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Novopolotsk Refinery]], ([[Naftan]]), [http://www.naftan.by/oldsite/desktopdefault.aspx?lang=en] {{convert|88000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Belgium]] ===
* [[Total Antwerp Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|360000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[ExxonMobil Antwerp Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|333000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Antwerp N.V. Refinery]], ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|35000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[BRC Antwerp]] ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|115000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Bulgaria]] ===
* [[LUKOIL Neftochim Burgas]], ([[LUKOIL]]), {{convert|208000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Croatia]] ===
* [[Sisak Refinery]], ([[INA Group]]), {{convert|61000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rijeka Refinery]], ([[INA Group]]), {{convert|102000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Czech Republic]] ===
* [[Kralupy Refinery]], ([[Ceská Rafinérská]]), {{convert|55000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Litvinov Refinery]], ([[Ceská Rafinérská]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Pardubice Refinery]], ([[PARAMO - www.paramo.cz]]), {{convert|15000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Denmark]] ===
* [[Kalundborg Refinery]], ([[Statoil]]), {{convert|110000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Fredericia Refinery]], ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|68000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Finland]] ===
* [[Porvoo Refinery]], ([[Neste Oil|Neste Oil Oyj]]), {{convert|206000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Naantali Refinery]], ([[Neste Oil|Neste Oil Oyj]]), {{convert|58000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[France]] ===
* [[Gonfreville l'Orcher Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|343000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Provence Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|155000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Flandres Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Donges Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|231000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Feyzin Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|119000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Grandpuits Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|99000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Port Jérôme-Gravenchon Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|270000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Fos-sur-Mer Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|140000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Reichstett Refinery]], ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|77000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petit Couronne Refinery]], ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|142000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Berre L'Etang Refinery]], ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|80000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Lavera Marseilles Refinery]], ([[Ineos]]), {{convert|220000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Fort de France Refinery]], ([[Total]]), {{convert|0|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

Partial List

=== [[Germany]] ===
* [[Schwedt Refinery]] ([[PCK Raffinerie]]([[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]]/[[PDVSA]]/[[BP]]/[[AET (company)|AET]]), {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ingolstadt Refinery]] ([[Bayernoil]]([[OMV]]/[[Agip]]/[[PDVSA]]/[[BP]])), {{convert|262000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ingolstadt Refinery]] ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|110000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ruhr Öl Refinery]] ([[PDVSA]]/[[BP]]), {{convert|246000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Buna SOW Leuna Refinery]] ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|222000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Wilhelmshaven Refinery]] ([[ConocoPhillips]]), {{convert|220000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rheinland Werk Godorf Cologne Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|190000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rheinland Werk Wesseling Cologne Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mineralölraffinerie Karlsruhe Refinery]] ([[MiRo]]([[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]]/[[ExxonMobil]]/[[PDVSA]]/[[BP]]/[[Conoco]])) 285,000 bpd
* [[Burghausen Refinery]] ([[OMV]]) 70,000 bpd
* [[Mitteldeutschland Spergau Refinery]] ([[Total S.A.|Total]]) 227,000 bpd
* [[Emsland Lingen Refinery]] ([[BP]]) 80,000 bpd
* [[Elbe Mineralölwerke Hamburg-Harburg Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]])
* [[Erdölwerk Holstein Heide Refinery]] ([[Royal Dutch Shell]])

http://www.mwv.de/Raffinerien.html External list

=== [[Greece]] ===
* [[Aspropyrgos Refinery]], ([[Hellenic Petroleum]]), {{convert|135000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Elefsina Refinery]], ([[Hellenic Petroleum]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Thessaloniki Refinery]], ([[Hellenic Petroleum]]), {{convert|66500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Patras Refinery]], ([[Hellenic Petroleum]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Hungary]] ===
* [[Szazhalombatta Refinery]], ([[MOL Magyar Olaj- és Gázipari Nyrt.|MOL]]), {{convert|161000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Ireland]] ===
* [[Whitegate Refinery]], ([[ConocoPhillips]]), {{convert|71000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Italy]] ===
* [[Esso Trecate, Novara Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]] 74.1%/[[ERG]] 25.9%), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Esso Augusta Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|190000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sarroch Refinery]], ([[Saras SPA]]), {{convert|300000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Rome Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]] 77.5%/[[ERG]] 22.5%), {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Falconara Marittima Ancona Refinery]], ([[APIOIL]]), {{convert|85000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mantova Refinery]], ([[IESItaliana]]), {{convert|55000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Impianti Sud Refinery]], ([[ISAB ERG]]), {{convert|214000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Impianti Nord Refinery]], ([[ISAB ERG]]), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Milazzo Refinery]], ([[ENI]]/[[KNPC]]) 80,000 bpd
* [[Sannazzaro de' Burgondi Refinery]], ([[ENI]]) 160,000 bpd
* [[Gela Refinery]], ([[ENI]]) 100,000 bpd
* [[Taranto Refinery]], ([[ENI]]) 90,000 bpd
* [[Livorno Refinery]], ([[ENI]]) 84,000 bpd
* [[Porto Marghera Venice Refinery]], ([[ENI]]) 70,000 bpd
* [[Cremona Refiney]], ([[Tamoil]]) 80,000 bpd
* Iplom [http://www.iplom.it] Busalla, Genoa

=== [[Lithuania]] ===
* [[Mazeikiu Refinery]], ([[Mazeikiu Nafta]] - [[PKN Orlen]]), {{convert|263000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] ===
* [[OKTA Skopje Refinery]], ([[Hellenic Petroleum]]), {{convert|50000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Norway]] ===
* [[Slagen Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|110000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Mongstad Refinery]], ([[StatoilHydro]]), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Poland]] ===
* [[Plock Refinery]], ([[PKN Orlen]]), {{convert|276000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Gdansk Refinery]], ([[Grupa LOTOS]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Czechowice Refinery]], ([[Grupa LOTOS]]), {{convert|12000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, crude oil processing terminated 1Q2006.
* [[Trzebinia]] Refinery, ([[PKN Orlen]]), {{convert|4000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Jaslo Oil Refinery]] , ([[Grupa LOTOS]]), {{convert|3000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, crude oil processing terminated 4Q2008.
* [[Jedlicze Refinery]], ([[PKN Orlen]]), {{convert|2800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Glimar Refinery]], ([[bankrupt]]), {{convert|3400|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}, all operations (incl. crude oil processing) terminated 2005.

=== [[Portugal]] ===
* [[Porto Refinery]], ([[Galp Energia]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Sines Refinery]], ([[Galp Energia]]), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Romania]] ===
* [[Arpechim Refinery]] Piteşti, ([[Petrom]]/[[OMV]]), {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Astra Refinery]], ([[Interagro]]), closed for preservation , {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petrobrazi Refinery]] Ploieşti, ([[Petrom]]/[[OMV]]), {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petromidia Constanţa Refinery]], ([[Rompetrol]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petrotel LUKoil Ploieşti Refinery]], ([[LUKOIL]]), {{convert|68000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petrolsub Suplacu de Barcău Refinery]], ([[Petrom]]/[[OMV]]), {{convert|15000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[RAFO Oneşti Refinery]], ([[Calder A]]), {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Steaua Romană Câmpina Refinery]], ([[Omnimpex Chemicals]]), {{convert|15000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Vega Ploieşti Refinery]], ([[Rompetrol]]), {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Russia]] ===
Refineries with capacity more than {{convert|20000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

'''Europe'''

* [[Syzran Refinery]], ([[Rosneft]]), {{convert|213400|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Novokuibyshevsk Refinery]], ([[Rosneft]]), {{convert|191500|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kuibyshev Oil Refinery]], ([[Rosneft]]), {{convert|139800|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Salavatnefteorgsintez Refinery]], ([[Gazprom]]), {{convert|250000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Volgograd Refinery]], ([[LUKOIL]]), {{convert|193000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ukhta Refinery]], ([[LUKOIL]]), {{convert|72000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Perm Refinery]], ([[LUKOIL]]), {{convert|235000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[NORSI-oil]], ([[LUKOIL]]), {{convert|292000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ryazan Refinery]], ([[TNK-BP]]), {{convert|253000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Orsk Refinery]], ([[Russneft]]), {{convert|159000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Saratov Refinery]], ([[TNK-BP]]), {{convert|108000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Moscow Refinery]], ([[Gazprom Neft]]/[[Central Fuel Company]]/[[Tatneft]]), {{convert|213000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kirishi Refinery]], ([[Surgutneftegas]]), {{convert|337000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[YaNOS Yaroslavl Refinery]], ([[Slavneft]]), {{convert|132000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Krasnodar Refinery]], ([[Russneft]]), {{convert|58000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tuapse Refinery]], ([[Rosneft]]), {{convert|85000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Nizhnekamsk Refinery]], ([[TAIF]]), {{convert|14000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ufa Refinery]], ([[Bashneft]]), {{convert|190000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Novo-Ufa Refinery]], ([[Bashneft]]), {{convert|380000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ufaneftekhim Refinery]], ([[Bashneft]]), {{convert|250000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

'''Asia'''
* [[Achinsk Refinery]], ([[Rosneft]]), {{convert|131000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Angarsk Petrochemical Refinery]], ([[Rosneft]]), {{convert|384000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Khabarovsk Refinery]], ([[Alliance]]), {{convert|85000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Komsomolsk Refinery]], ([[Rosneft]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Nizhnevartovsk Refinery]], ([[TNK-BP]]), {{convert|25100|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Omsk Refinery]], ([[Gazprom Neft]]), {{convert|380000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Serbia]] ===
* [[Pančevo Refinery]] ([[Naftna Industrija Srbije]]),
* [[Novi Sad Refinery]] ([[Naftna Industrija Srbije]]),

=== [[Slovakia]] ===
* [[Slovnaft Bratislava Refinery]], ([[MOL Magyar Olaj- és Gázipari Nyrt.|MOL]]), {{convert|110000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Petrochema Dubová Refinery]], ([[russian investors]]), http://www.petrochema.sk/english/index_en.htm

=== [[Spain]] ===
* [[Bilbao Refinery]], ([[Repsol YPF]]), {{convert|220000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Puertollano Refinery]], ([[Repsol YPF]]), {{convert|140000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tarragona Refinery]], ([[Repsol YPF]]), {{convert|160000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[a Coruna Refinery]], ([[Repsol YPF]]), {{convert|120000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Cartagena Refinery]], ([[Repsol YPF]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Tenerife Refinery]], ([[CEPSA]]), {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Palos de la Frontera Refinery]], ([[CEPSA]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Gibraltar-San Roque Refinery]], ([[CEPSA]]), {{convert|240000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Castellon Refinery]], ([[BP]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Sweden]] ===
* [[Nynaeshamn Refinery]] ([[Nynäs Petroleum]]), {{convert|90000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Preemraff Göteborg]] ([[Preem]]), {{convert|125000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Preemraff Lysekil]] ([[Preem]]), {{convert|210000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Shell Göteborg Refinery]], ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[Switzerland]] ===
* [[Cressier Refinery]], ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|68000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Collombey-Muraz Refinery]], ([[Tamoil]]), {{convert|45000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

=== [[The Netherlands]] ===
* [[Shell Pernis Refinery]], ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|416000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Botlek]] ([[ExxonMobil]]) [[Rotterdam]] 195,000 bpd)
* [[Vlissingen Refinery]] ([[Total]]/[[Dow Chemical Company|Dow]]) 160,000 bpd
* [[Europoort]] ([[BP]]) 400,000 bpd
* [[Rozenburg refinery]] (Q8, [[Kuwait Petroleum Company]]) 80,000 bpd

=== [[Turkey]] ===
* [[Central Anatolian Refinery]], ([[Tupras]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Izmit Refinery]], ([[Tupras]]), {{convert|226000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Aliaga Refinery]], ([[Tupras]]), {{convert|200000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Batman Refinery]], ([[Tupras]]), {{convert|22000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Ataş Refinery]] , ([[Ataş]])

=== [[Ukraine]] ===
* [[Odessa Refinery]], ([[LUKOIL]]), {{convert|70000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[LINOS Refinery]], ([[TNK-BP]]), {{convert|320000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kherson Refinery]], ([[Alliance]]), {{convert|36000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Kremenchug Refinery]], ([[Ukrtatnafta]]) 368,500 bpd
* [[Drogobych Refinery]], ([[Pryvat]]) 40,000 bpd
* [[Neftekhimik Prikarpatya Nadvirna Refinery]], ([[Pryvat]]) 39,000 bpd

=== [[United Kingdom]] ===
* [[Lindsey Oil Refinery]], ([[Total S.A.|Total]]), {{convert|223000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Milford Haven Refinery]], ([[Murphy Oil|Murco]]), {{convert|100000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Pembroke Refinery]], ([[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]), {{convert|220000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Stanlow Refinery]], ([[Royal Dutch Shell]]), {{convert|246000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Teesside Refinery]], ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|117000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Fawley, Hampshire#Fawley oil refinery and chemical works|Fawley Southampton Refinery]], ([[ExxonMobil]]), {{convert|347000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Humber Refinery]], ([[ConocoPhillips]]), {{convert|221000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Coryton Refinery]], ([[Petroplus]]), {{convert|208000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}
* [[Grangemouth Refinery]], ([[Innovene]] - part of [[Ineos]] and formerly [[BP]]), {{convert|205000|oilbbl/d|m3/d|abbr=on}}

== References ==
<references/>

== External links ==
* [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pnp_top.asp Energy Information Administration: Petroleum Refining and Processing Data]
* [http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/oil_gas/petroleum/data_publications/refinery_capacity_data/pdf/table_38.pdf EIA: U.S. Directory of Operable Petroleum Refineries]
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/1197575/page/ Google Earth Community Placemark]
Test
[[Category:Oil refineries| ]]

[[ar:قائمة بمصافي النفط]]

Balti (Sprache)

2009-05-28T23:00:45Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:لغة بلتي

{{Infobox Language
|name=Balti
|nativename=بلتی
|states={{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Baltistan|Baltistan, Pakistan]] {{flagicon|India}} [[Ladakh|Ladakh, India]]
|region=[[Kashmir]], [[Gilgit]], [[Kargil]], India and small pockets in [[Karachi]] & [[Lahore]]
|speakers=337,000
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|fam2=([[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman]])
|fam3=[[Tibeto-Kanauri languages|Tibeto-Kanauri]]
|fam4=[[Bodish languages|Bodish]]
|fam5=[[Tibetan languages|Tibetan]]
|fam6=[[Western Archaic Tibetan]]
|script=[[Urdu script]] and modified [[Tibetan script]]
|iso2=sit|iso3=bft}}

'''Balti''' ('''بلتی''') is a [[language]] spoken in [[Baltistan]], in the [[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]] of [[Pakistan]] and adjoining parts of [[Ladakh]], [[India]]. Baltistan - before 1948 - was part of [[Ladakh]] province. The language is a sub-dialect of [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]] and has many similarities with archaic [[dialect]]s of the [[Tibetan language]]. It is mutually intelligible with Ladakhi and [[Burig]]. Many of the consonants that are silent in most modern Tibetan dialects are pronounced in Balti.

== Balti ==

All people of same races, living in [[Baltistan]] are called Balti. The [[Greek people|Greeks]] derived ''Byaltae'' from [[sBal-ti]], which in Tibetan means "water gorge." The historian [[Ptolemy]] who was also a general in the army of [[Alexander the Great]] had named the region (Byaltae) in his book.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} In fact [[Baltistan]] is the [[Persian language|Persian]] translation of [[Baltiyul]], '''“The Homeland of Balti”.''' The people belonging to [[Balti]] [[nationality]] are settled on both banks of the river [[Indus]] from [[Kargil]] (in the east) to [[Haramosh]] (in the west) and from [[Karakoram]] [[range]] (in the north) to [[Deosai plains]] (in the south). In this nationality the majority comes from [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] [[origin (start)|origin]]. However people migrated to this area in different periods of ancient times, on account of different reasons and after merging in the prevailing Tibetan [[society]], gave birth to a new [[civilisation]]. All these [[multi-racial]] groups speak [[Balti]] language, which is a branch of the ancient Tibetan language. However in some rural areas, the Sheen people still speak [[Shina]] language.

The Balti are a very forbearing, cheerful, and hospitable people. During the Rmakpon reign (from 12th century to 1840 A.D.) they invaded [[Ladakh]] and [[Tibet]] in the east and [[Gilgit]] and [[Chitral (princely state)|Chitral]] many times and thus made these people acknowledge of their martial abilities.

There are several Balti communities located in Pakistan's urban areas further south, notably in [[Lahore]], [[Islamabad]] and in [[Karachi]]

== Script ==
Balti is also the name of the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan]] '''Balti script''', which was replaced by the [[Persian script]] in the 17th century.

The population of Baltistan is a heterogeneous mixture of ethnic groups. Tibetans form the principal ethnic group in the area accounting for 60 per cent of the population.

The language spoken by the entire population of Baltistan is called -BALTI- which is an archaic dialect of Tibetan language. At present Balti has been heavily influenced by Turkish and Urdu and affected by Muslim literature in Persian. With the result that it has deviated from the original Tibetan language.

The language spoken in Baltistan, generally known as BALTI is originally a Tibetan dialect. According to Professor Jampal Gyathso, a Chinese Scholar and expert in Epic of king Gesar and a Khampa (Tibetan) by origin, the present Balti has all the linguistic characteristics and roots from Tibetan language. According to his initial survey Balti resembles more the Kham dialect than other Tibetan dialects of U and Thsang and Amdo etc. He further suggests that either the first Tibetan settlers of Baltistan could be the Khambas or at least majority of the settlers were Khambas. The people of Baltistan, dubbed as -mini Tibet-, are related to the Tibetans and their language is a branch of the Tibetan language and retains many features of archaic Tibetan pronunciation. The missionary, orientalist and linguist [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_August_Jäschke]Heinrich August Jäschke (1817-1883) classified Balti as one of the western most-Tibetan dialects. In his Tibetan-English Dictionary [http://books.google.com/books?id=_RQTAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=subject:%22Tibetan+language%22&lr=]he defines it as "Bal (Balti), the most westerly of the districts in which the Tibetan language is spoken". Many other scholars also are of the view that Balti is a Tibetan dialect and not a separate language from the Tibetan

Recently a number of Balti scholars and social activists are trying to repromote the use of the Tibetan / Balti script (Yige) with the aim of helping to preserve indigenous Balti and Ladakhi form of culture and ethinic identity. Following a request from this community, the September 2006 Tokyo meeting of ISO/IEC 10646 WG2 agreed to encode two characters (U+0F6B TIBETAN LETTER KKA and TIBETAN U+0F6C LETTER RRA) in the [[Universal Character Set|ISO 10646]] / [[Unicode]] standards in order to support writing Urdu loanwords present in modern Balti in this script (yige).

Like other Tibetan dialects, Balti had no script of its own till the Tibetans managed to create a script for their language and simultaneously introduced the same by the Tibetan Lamas and other learned people. In 727 AD when King Khri Lde-gTsug-Brtan conquered Baltistan and annexed it to his State, the Tibetan script was formally introduced as official script through their offices, religious books and rock inscriptions. The famous (Mandala) carving and the Tibetan inscription on a rock in village Manthal near Skardo town, which dates back to early 8th century AD is one of the best examples of these efforts. Till that time there was no difference between the Tibetan dialects of Lhasa or central Tibet and Baltistan; therefore, the Baltis faced no problem in reciprocal communication and usage. It is worth mentioning here that before the invasion of Tibetans, in 727 AD, the official language of Palolashahis and the clergy too was "Brahmi", which was brought into the area after the 4th legendary Buddhist Conference in jalandhar. We still find many rock-inscriptions (5th & 6th centuries) in the Brahmi script. However, the Tibetans spread their script with all their zest and zeal. This (Tibetan) script remained in use for the Balti till the 16th century AD when a strong opposition routed it away from the area and instead, the Mullahs persuaded the Balti masses to use the Persian script for Balti, but they never endeavoured to form fully corresponding Persian letters for Balti. Moreover, when the Maqpon Dynasty rose to its climax in the 16th century AD and they developed a strong political and cultural
relationship with the Moghuls of India, they used Persian instead of Balti language for their offices and subsequently the Balti language including its script lost the strongest patron. The Dogras of Jammu conquered Baltistan in 1840 AD and annexed it to their State. Since Pakistan took it over in 1948 AD, Urdu has flooded over all the local dialects /languages including Balti. In the modem times Balti has no names /vocabulary for dozens of newly invented and introduced things, therefore, Urdu and English names/ words are being used in Balti.

== Areas ==

The present Balti language or Balti form of Tibetan language is spoken in the whole of Baltistan and it is said that Purki-dialect of Purig and Suru-Kartse valleys come in to the Balti group linguistically. However, at the moment nearly 0.4 million people living in Baltistan and about 0.1 million Baltis who live in different cities of Pakistan and working abroad speak Balti.

== Evolution ==

The Balti language has always been at a disadvantage. As mentioned earlier it had to change the script from the original to an artificial one (Persian) which never corresponded with the letters and requirements of the Balti with the result that it lost its standard and Tibetan originality. Its folk-literature is not yet available in written-shape; but continues to be orally transmitted. On the contrary the Balti has been quite promising in the sense of literature in category, aptitude and profundity. It is worth mention here that, despite all handicaps the Balti language has retained may honorific words like all the Tibetan dialects and many other languages. Below are a few examples:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Ordinary Balti !! Honorific !! Ladakhi !!Meaning
|-
|Ata || Baba || Aba || Father
|-
|Ano/Amo || Zizi || Ama || Mother
|-
|Kaka || Kacho || Acho || Brother (elder)
|-
|Bustring || Zung || Nama || Wife
|-
|Momo || Jangmocho || Ajang || Maternal uncle
|-
|Nene || Nenecho || Ane || Aunt
|-
|Bu || Bucho || Tugu || Son
|-
|Fru || Nono || Busa || Boy
|-
|Apo || Apocho || Meme || Grandfather
|-
|Api || Apicho || Abi || Grandmother
|-
|Ashe || Ashcho || Singmo || Sister (elder)
|-
|Zo || bjes || Zo || Eat
|-
|Thung || bjes || Thung || Drink
|-
|Ong || Shokhs || Yong || Come
|-
|Zer || Kasal-byung || Zer || Speak/Say
|-
|Ngid tong || gZim tong || Ngid tong || Sleep (go to)
|-
|Lagpa || Phyaq-laq/g || Lagpa || Hand/Arm
|-
|Khyang || Yang/Yari-phyaqpo || Khyorang || You
|-
|Kama || gzok-po || || Leg
|}

== Literature ==

Though Balti has remained under adverse conditions, even then it has proved to be a very fertile language capable of creating several categories/ kinds of folk and classical literature. We do not find any prose except Proverbs (in hundreds) and some Epics and Sagas (of King Kesar/Gesar, Rgyalucho-Lo-bZang and Rgyalu-Srasbu and some others), all in oral tradition. All other literature is in verse. The Balti literature has adopted numerous Persian styles of verse and vocables also wluch have amplified the beauty and melody of its poetry.

All the languages and dialects of the mountain region in the north of Pakistan including Burushaski and Shina belong to the Indian or Persian group of languages, but the Balti is the only language which belongs to the "Tibeto-Burman" branch of "Sino-Tibetan" group of languages. Basically it has nothing in common with them except some words absorbed later on, owing to interaction of masses. Apparently, Balti is, at the moment, cut off from its sister-languages of Ladakh but has 80-90 per cent of nouns, pronouns, verbs and other literary and grammatical character in common except those few which made their place in Balti afterwards. We can, however, term Balti and Bodhi of Ladakh as separate dialects, but not separate languages.
Problems

The major problem of the Balti language is that it had to disconnect the relationship with its radical centre, Tibet, owing to political divisions and strong religious differences since last 500 years and even from its immediate neighbour Ladakh for the last 50 years. It has been left at the mercy of other languages and literatures which are stronger in quantity and vocabulary. The other major problem is the abandoning of its original script-Tibetan and during the last 500 years it has not been able to adopt a suitable script so far. This critical and adverse situation knocked away Balti from its original stream or natural track and left as an astray animal. At the moment neither the Baltis have the awareness to revive their original script nor there is any institution which could restore it and persuade the people to use it again. And the third problem is those Persian and Urdu letters which do not exist in Tibetan which have become now un-avoidable in some cases. There is an urgent need to establish a Forum to, at least, carry out initial efforts to revive its original status.

The Balti Literature may be categorised as under:

:'''Rgya-glu''': This can be categorised as a classical one in the folk-verses for its meaning or deepness. It contains romantic songs, elegies, advice, complaints and historical events etc.
:'''Rtse-glu''':This is a light type of poetry sung while dancing. In this kind of song, different topics and events of life, families and their social or cultural conditions, jokes, etc. are the subject matter.
:'''Yurmi-glu''': This is a song sung by the women while working or weeding in the fields. In such songs, women recollect their childhood, love and longing for her parents, pleasant or unpleasant experience or feelings about her husband or other relatives.
:'''Ridagsi-glu''': These are the songs composed in praise of mountain-goats of all sort. Some songs admire the beauty of wild-life, some depict motherhood in these animals for their kids and in some the poets lament the extinction of goats and sheep.
:'''Bar-glu''': Also called ''Deewan'', this can be described as the medieval stage between the Rgya-glu and the modern poetry (glu). This type of poetry also involves romantic and other general experiences.
:'''Glu''': This can be described as the mGul-glu as it has only romantic feelings and flavour.
:'''Hamd''': This is the form of verses in praise of God.
:'''Qaseeda''': These are verses in praise of [[Muhammad]] and the twelve Imams, their family members according to [[Shia Islam]].
:'''Marsia''': Versed elegy commemorating the martyrdom of [[Imam Hussain]] (the grandson of Muhammad , the 3rd Imam) in [[Karbala]], other Imams, etc.
:'''Noha''': These are versed elegies sung with rhythm while the (Shiaite) mourners beat their chests. This category is also attributed to the martyrs of Karbala and other family members of Muhammad.
:'''Bahr-e-Taweel''': These verses are in long metre and consist of several stanzas of 9 to 14 lines. In this poetry, generally, the mortality of life and other similar topics are explored in a mystic way.
:'''Goshwara''': This is similar to the Persian or Urdu "Masnavi" Narrative couplets. Usually the dignity and illustrious personalities and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are narrated.
:'''[[Ghazal]]''': These are the odes of love and romance exactly on the principles of Persian and Urdu Ghazal and Nazm.
<blockquote><center>
:youq fangsay thalang paqzi na mandoq na mabour na
:na drolbi laming yani si soq fangse chi thobtook</center>
::::::nasir karmi
</blockquote>
:'''Sa-get-pi-glu''': These are the songs praising or encouraging the farmers and agriculturists in modern time.
:'''Milli-naghma''': These are like Urdu Milli-naghmas.

== Vocabulary ==
The Balti language shares 90% of the vocabulary with the neighboring [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], as well as with [[Amdo]] and [[Kham]] dialect of North Eastern [[Tibet]]. However, they have adopted words from [[Shina language|Shina]], [[Burushaski language|Burushaski]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] with the process of Islamization.

== See also ==
* [[Balti people]]
* [[Languages of Pakistan]]
* [[Badshah Munir Bukhari]]

== References ==

* Everson, Michael. [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2985.pdf ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N2985: Proposal to add four Tibetan characters for Balti to the BMP of the UCS]. 2005-09-05
* Hussainabadi, Mohamad Yusuf. ''Balti Zaban''. 1990.
* Read, A.F.C. ''Balti grammar''.London:The Royal Asiatic society, 1934.
* Sprigg, Richard Keith. ''Balti-English English-Balti dictionary''. Richmond: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002.

== External links ==
* [http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr3-2 Unicode]
* [http://koshur.org/Linguistic/7.html Koshur: The Balti Language]
* [http://www.tibet.com/newsroom/tibetan%20script.htm Tibetan script makes a comeback in Pakistan]
* [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2985.pdf Proposal to add four Tibetan characters for Balti to the BMP of the UCS]
* [http://babelstone.blogspot.com/2006/08/tibetan-extensions-2-balti.html Tibetan Extensions 2 : Balti]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1491179.stm Pakistan's Northern Areas dilemma]
* [http://www.northernareas.org.pk Northern Areas Development Gateway]
* [http://paknews.com/articles.php?id=1&date1=2003-04-17 Pakistan's Northern Areas]
* [http://wikimapia.org/#lat=35.3029642&lon=75.6247973&z=18&l=0&m=a&v=2]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Research_on_Tibetan_Languages:_A_Bibliography A Bibliography of Tibetan Linguistics]

[[Category:Languages of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bodic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Jammu and Kashmir]]

[[ar:لغة بلتي]]
[[br:Balteg (tibetek)]]
[[cs:Baltí]]
[[es:Idioma balti]]
[[eo:Balta lingvo]]
[[fr:Balti (langue)]]
[[id:Bahasa Baltistani]]
[[it:Lingua balti]]
[[simple:Balti]]
[[th:ภาษาบัลติ]]
[[zh:巴尔蒂语]]

Turkmenischer Teppich

2009-05-28T09:30:36Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:بساط شرقي

[[Image:CarpetmakingAlgiers1899.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Carpet manufacture in [[Algiers]], [[Algeria]], c. 1899.]]
{{Template:Islamic Culture}}
An authentic '''oriental rug''' is a handmade [[carpet]] that is either knotted with [[pile (textile)|pile]] or woven without pile. [[Oriental]]-design rugs made by machine, made through hand-tufting or any method other than hand-knotting or hand-weaving are not considered authentic oriental rugs.

These rugs normally come from a broad geographical region extending from [[China]] and [[Vietnam]] in the east to [[Turkey]], [[Maghreb]] countries and [[Iran]] in the west and the Caucasus in the north to [[India]] in the south. People from different cultures, countries, racial groups and religious faiths are involved in the production of oriental rugs.

Oriental rugs are organized by origin: [[Persian rug]]s, Anatolian rugs, Kurdish rugs, Caucasian rugs, Central Asian rugs, Turkestanian rugs, Chinese rugs, and [[Tibetan rug]]s.

== See also ==
* [[Azerbaijani rug]]
* [[Persian rug]]
* [[War rugs]]
* [[Kashmir rug]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cherryhillrugs.com/ Antiques Cherry Hill RUGS], [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&source=s_q&hl=en&geocode=&q=Cherry+Hill+RUGS+nj&jsv=149f&sll=39.904718,-74.992724&sspn=0.071241,0.154495&ie=UTF8&latlng=39931983,-75063553,4288576003169273035&ei=qNG5SYrmGouUMoXmwMEG&sig2=CK7-Wq2lz68nnJC1Rb0clg&cd=1 5407 Marlton Pike, NJ ]
*[http://www.weavingartmuseum.org Weaving Art Museum a nonprofit art organization]
*[http://www.oriental-rugs-history.com Oriental Rugs History]. Excerpts from the book, ''Oriental Rugs'', by John Kimberly Mumford, published 1900, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York.
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/textiles/videos/oriental_carpets/index.html
|title= Oriental Carpets
|work=Textiles
|accessdate= 2008-07-28}}

[[File:Central Asia rug.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A Central Asian rug, 19th century. The symmetrical motif of flowers in a vase on a stand is familiar from Chinese decorative arts. Chinese designs often influenced designs in carpets from eastern Central Asia. Here, the flowers and background show color alternation within a rectangular grid.]]

[[Category:Rugs and carpets]]
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[[ar:بساط شرقي]]
[[de:Orientteppich]]
[[no:Orientalske tepper]]

Chand Raat

2009-05-27T12:00:21Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:جاند رات

{{Islamic Culture}}
[[Image:Chand raat.jpg|thumb|left|A ''Chaand Raat'' celebration in [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]], [[India]]]]
'''''Chaand Raat''''' ([[Hindi]]: '''चाँद रात'''; [[Urdu]]: '''چاند رات'''; literally, ''Night of the Moon'') is the name for the celebration for the eve of the [[Muslim]] festival of [[Eid]] in [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]. As it simply means "''moon night''", it can also mean a night with a full moon.

''Chaand Raat'' is a time of celebration when families and friends gather in open areas at the end of the last day of [[Ramadan]] to spot the [[new moon]], which signals the arrival of the [[Islam]]ic [[month]] of [[Shawwal]] and the day of Eid. Once the moon is sighted, people wish each other ''Chaand Raat Mubarak'' ("Have a blessed night of the new moon") or ''[[Eid Mubarak]]'' ("Blessings of the Eid day"). Women and girls decorate their hands with [[mehndi]] ([[henna]]), and people prepare desserts for the next day of Eid and do the last round of shopping.

City streets have a festive look, and brightly decorated malls and markets remain open late into the night. ''Chaand Raat'' is celebrated festively and passionately by Muslims (and occasionally non-Muslims as well) all over South Asia, and in socio-cultural significance, this night is comparable to [[Christmas Eve]] in [[Christian]] nations.

==Background==
Although ''Chaand Raat'' celebrations are linked with both kinds of [[Eid]], they have their ‎origin in [[Eid ul-Fitr]], which is celebrated on the 1st of [[Shawwal]]. As the beginning ‎of an Islamic month depends on the first sighting of the lunar crescent, the ‎month of Ramadan can be of either 29 or 30 days. The term ''Chaand Raat'' refers ‎to the evening on which first lunar crescent of the month of Shawwal is observed. As the ‎exact day of an Eid ul-Fitr is a matter of debate, because of the uncertainty of the [[Islamic ‎Calendar]], therefore, its Chaand Raat is considered more festive than that of [[Eid ul-‎Adha]].‎

''Chaand Raat'' of Eid ul-Adha is not celebrated by all Muslims of [[South Asia]], partly ‎because these celebrations are mostly related to Eid ul-Fitr. Eid ul-Adha is celebrated on the ‎‎10th of [[Dhu al-Hijjah]], which means, unlike Eid ul-Fitr, its day is decided 9 days in ‎advance, because of which, in opinion of some Muslims, its ''Chaand Raat'' loses its ‎festiveness.‎

==External links==
*[http://moonsighting.com/ Moon sighting curves]

[[Category:Sawm]]
[[Category:Bangladeshi festivals]]
[[Category:Festivals in India]]
[[Category:Festivals in Pakistan]]

{{Islam-stub}}
{{SAsia-stub}}

[[ar:جاند رات]]
[[hi:चाँद रात]]
[[id:Chand Raat]]

Wahidi Balhaf

2009-05-14T16:29:48Z

AkhtaBot: robot Modifying: ar:سلطنة الواحدي في بالحاف

[[Image:FederationOfSouthArabiaMap.jpg|right|thumbnail|380px|Map of the Federation of South Arabia]]

'''Wahidi Balhaf''' ({{lang-ar|واحدي بالحاف}} [{{Unicode|Wāḥidī Bālḥāf}}]), or the '''Wahidi Sultanate of Balhaf''' (Arabic: سلطنة الواحدي بالحاف [{{Unicode|Salṭanat al-Wāḥidī Bālḥāf}}]), was one of several [[Wahidi]] states in the [[British Empire|British]] [[Aden Protectorate]]. It was also part of the [[Federation of Arab Emirates of the South]], and its successor, the [[Federation of South Arabia]] when it was known simply as Wahidi. Its capital was [[Balhaf]] on the [[Gulf of Aden]] coast and it included the inland town of [[Azzan]] (formerly the seat of a separate [[Wahidi Azzan|Wahidi Sultanate of Azzan]]). It was abolished in [[1967]] upon the founding of the [[People's Republic of South Yemen]] and is now part of the Republic of [[Yemen]].

{{coord missing|Yemen}}

[[Category:History of Yemen]]
[[Category:Former countries in the Middle East]]

{{MEast-hist-stub}}
{{Yemen-geo-stub}}

[[ar:سلطنة الواحدي في بالحاف]]

Kōji Tsujitani

2009-05-09T08:29:56Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:كوجي تسُجيتاني

{{nihongo|'''Kōji Tsujitani'''|辻谷耕史|Tsujitani Kōji}} is a [[seiyū]] born [[April 26]],[[1962]] in [[Kodaira, Tokyo]], credited for voicing many [[anime]] and [[video game]] characters. Tsujitani is formerly affiliated with [[Sigma Seven]].

==Notable voice work==
*''[[Blood+]]'' (Solomon)
*''[[Bondage Queen Kate]]'' (Jones)
*''[[Escaflowne]]'' (Jajuka)
*''[[Eureka Seven]]'' ([[List of Eureka Seven characters|Dewey Novak]])
*''[[Grander Musashi]]'' (Sugeru)
*''[[Guardian of the Sacred Spirit]]'' (Tanda)
*''[[Hajime no Ippo]]'' (Ryuichi Hayami)
*''[[InuYasha]]'' ([[Miroku (InuYasha)|Miroku]])
*''[[Irresponsible Captain Tylor]]'' (Tylor)
*''[[Maburaho]]'' (Akai Haruaki)
*''[[Mobile Suit Gundam 0080: War in the Pocket]]'' ([[Bernard Wiseman]])
*''[[Mobile Suit Gundam F91]]'' (Seabook Arno)
*''[[Otaku no Video]]'' (Ken Kubo)
*''[[Ranma ½]]'' ([[Ranma ½ characters|Hiroshi]], [[Tatewaki Kuno]] (2nd temporary voice), Yasukichi, Crepe King, and Sotatsu)
*''[[RG Veda]]'' (Ten-oh)
*''[[Salamander]]'' (Dan)
*''[[Sengoku Basara]]'' ([[Azai Nagamasa]])
*''[[Slam Dunk (manga)|Slam Dunk]]'' (Kenji Fujima)
*''[[Video Girl Ai]]'' (Takashi Niimai)
*''[[Violinist of Hameln]]'' (Raiel)
*''[[YuYu Hakusho]]'' (Itsuki)
*''[[The Chronicles Of Pete The Flying Cat: Oblivion]]'' (Mr X)

==Anime CDs==
*Kouji Tsujitani feat. Houko Kuwashima and Kumiko Watanabe in ''[[Inuyasha media and release information|風のなかへ - Into the Wind]]'' (Kaze no Naka e)

==External links==
*[http://www.usagi.org/~doi/seiyuu/tsujitani-kouji.html Koji Tsujitani] at [[Hitoshi Doi]]
*[http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=867 ANN]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tsujitani Koji}}
[[Category:1962 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Japanese voice actors]]
[[Category:people from Western Tokyo]]

{{Japan-voice-actor-stub}}

[[ar:كوجي تسُجيتاني]]
[[es:Kōji Tsujitani]]
[[ja:辻谷耕史]]
[[zh:辻谷耕史]]

Ibuka Masaru

2009-05-07T19:30:16Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:ماسارو إيبوكا

{{Infobox Person
|name = Masaru Ibuka [[File:Tobei.gif]]
|image =
|image_size = 150px
|caption = Masaru Ibuka, co-founder of Sony
|birth_name =
|birth_date = {{birth-date|April 11, 1908|[[April 11]], [[1908]]}}
|birth_place = [[Nikkō, Tochigi|Nikkō City, Japan]]
|death_date = {{death-date|December 19, 1997|[[December 19]], [[1997]] }} (aged 89)
|death_place = [[Tokyo]]
|death_cause =
|resting_place =
|resting_place_coordinates =
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|nationality = [[Japan]]
|other_names =
|known_for = [[Sony]]
|education = [[Waseda University]]
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}}
'''Masaru Ibuka''' (井深大 ''Ibuka Masaru'', [[April 11]], [[1908]] in [[Nikkō, Tochigi|Nikkō City, Japan]] – [[December 19]], [[1997]] in [[Tokyo]]) was a [[Japan]]ese electronics industrialist. He co-founded what is now [[Sony]].

He graduated in 1933 from [[Waseda University]] where he was nicknamed "genius inventor." After graduating, he went to work at Photo-Chemical Laboratory, a company which processed movie film. In 1945, he left the company and founded a radio repair shop in Tokyo.

In 1946 Ibuka and [[Akio Morita]] co-founded [[Sony|Sony Corporation]], originally named Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation (prior to 1958). Ibuka was instrumental in securing the licensing of [[transistor]] technology to Sony from [[Bell Labs]] in the 1950s, thus making Sony one of the first companies to apply transistor technology to non-military uses. Ibuka served as president of Sony from 1950 to 1971, and then served as chairman of Sony between 1971 and 1976. Ibuka left Sony in 1976, but maintained close ties as an advisor until his death in 1997 of a heart failure.

Ibuka also authored the book ''Kindergarten is Too Late'' (1971), in which he claims that the most significant human learning occurs from ages 9 months to 3 years and suggests ways and means to take advantage of this. The book's foreword was written by Glenn Doman, founder of [[The Institutes for the Achievement of Human Potential]], an organization that teaches parents about child brain development. Ibuka and Doman agreed that the first years of life were vital for education.<ref>[http://www.bookbase.com/search?dealer_login=rivermead&bookId=14869&method=POST Antiquarian books: search for rare and out of print books, fine bindings, first editions. Bibliophile Bookbase for book collectors and book collecting]</ref>

==Awards and honors==
* 1960 Awarded [[Medals of Honor (Japan)|Medal of Honor with Blue Ribbon]] from H.M. The [[Emperor of Japan]]
* 1964 Received Distinguished Services Award from the Institute of Electrical Communication Engineers of Japan
* 1972 Received Founders Medal from IEEE ([[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]])
* 1976 Honorary Doctor of Engineering, [[Sophia University]], Tokyo
* 1978 Decorated by H.M. the Emperor of Japan, with the First Class [[Order of the Sacred Treasures]]
* 1979 Honorary Doctor of Science, [[Waseda University]], Tokyo
* 1981 Received Humanism and Technology Award from the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies
* 1986 Decorated by H.M. the Emperor of Japan, with the First Class [[Order of the Rising Sun]] with the GrandCordon
* 1986 Decorated by H.M. the King of Sweden, with Commander First Class of the [[Royal Order of the Polar Star]]
* 1986 Awarded [[Eduard Rhein]] "Ring of Honor"
* 1989 Designated Person of Cultural Merits by [[Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (Japan)|Ministry of Education]]
* 1990 [[IEEE]] Masaru Ibuka Consumer Electronics Award named in his honor[http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/about/awards/pr/ibukapr.html]
* 1991 Awarded [[Bronze Wolf]] of the [[World Organization of the Scout Movement]]
* 1992 Decorated by H.M. the Emperor of Japan, with [[Order of Culture]]
* 1992 Masaru Ibuka memorial hall was built in Waseda University.
* 1993 Named Honorary Citizen of Tokyo
* 1994 Honorary Doctor of Science, [[Brown University]], Rhode Island, USA.

== References ==

<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.sony-ef.or.jp/english/activity/eda/books.html Ibuka's books]
* [http://www.ieee.org/web/aboutus/history_center/biography/ibuka.html Biography of Ibuka from IEEE]

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before=
| title= [[President]] of [[Sony Corporation]]
| years= 1950-1971
| after= }}
{{succession box
| before=
| title= [[Chair (official)|Chairman of the Board]] of [[Sony Corporation]]
| years= 1971-1976
| after= }}
{{end box}}

{{commons|Sony}}
{{Sony Corp}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ibuka, Masaru}}
[[Category:1908 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:Japanese businesspeople]]
[[Category:Japanese writers]]
[[Category:People from Tochigi Prefecture]]
[[Category:Sony people]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]
[[Category:Scouting in Japan]]
[[Category:Bronze Wolf awardees]]

[[ar:ماسارو إيبوكا]]
[[bg:Масару Ибука]]
[[ca:Masaru Ibuka]]
[[es:Masaru Ibuka]]
[[fr:Masaru Ibuka]]
[[ko:이부카 마사루]]
[[it:Masaru Ibuka]]
[[nl:Masaru Ibuka]]
[[ja:井深大]]
[[ru:Ибука, Масару]]
[[sv:Masaru Ibuka]]
[[zh:井深大]]

Akio Ōtsuka

2009-03-10T12:14:45Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:أكيو أوتسكا Modifying: it:Akio Ōtsuka

{{prose|date=September 2008}}
{{unreferenced|date=September 2008}}
{{Infobox actor voice | name = Akio Ohtsuka
| image = Replace this image male.svg
| birthname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1959|11|24|mf=y}}
| age =
| birth_place = [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = [[Seiyū]]
| alias =
| gender = Male
| status =
| title =
| family =
| spouse = [[Yōko Sōmi]]
| children =
| relatives = [[Chikao Ōtsuka]] (father)
| ethnic = Japanese
| religion =
| salary =
| networth =
| credits =''[[Black Jack (manga)|Black Jack]]'' as '''[[Black Jack (character)|Black Jack]]''' ''[[Bleach (manga)|Bleach]]'' as '''[[Shunsui Kyouraku]]''' ''[[Kyo Kara Maoh!]]'' as '''Gwendal von Voltaire''' ''[[Sgt. Frog]]'' as '''Lieutenant Garuru''' ''[[One Piece]]'' as '''[[Blackbeard (One Piece)|Blackbeard]]''' ''[[Metal Gear series]]'' as '''[[Solid Snake]] and [[Big Boss (Metal Gear)|Big Boss]]''' [[Ghost in the Shell]] series and movies''' as
| URL =
| agent =
}}
{{nihongo|'''Akio Ohtsuka'''|大塚明夫|Ōtsuka Akio}} (born [[November 24]], [[1959]]) is a [[Japan]]ese male [[seiyū|voice actor]] from the [[Tokyo]] Metropolitan area affiliated with [[Mausu Promotion]]. His height is 182 centimeters (6 feet), his weight is 73 kilograms (about 161lbs), and his blood type is B. He married fellow seiyū [[Yōko Sōmi]] on [[February 11]], [[2005]]. His father, also a seiyū, is [[Chikao Ōtsuka]].

The astringent and calm quality of his voice has landed him many roles in films, dubbing, animation, and video games. He is most known for the roles of [[Black Jack (character)|Black Jack]] (''[[Black Jack (manga)|Black Jack]]''), [[Solid Snake]] (''[[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear Solid]]''), [[Shunsui Kyouraku]] ([[Bleach (manga)|Bleach]]), Lieutenant Garuru ([[Sgt. Frog]]) Gwendal von Voltaire ([[Kyo Kara Maoh!]]), [[Batou]] ([[Ghost in the Shell]]) series and movies, [[Blackbeard (One Piece)|Blackbeard]] ([[One Piece]]), and [[Anavel Gato]] ([[Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory]]).

==Voice roles==
===Television animation & Ovas===
*[[3x3 Eyes]] (Benares)
*[[Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple]] (Cedric)
*[[Alcatraz Connection]] (Andy)
*[[Anpanman]] (Nigauriman, Naganegiman)
*[[Ashita no Nadja]] (Jose Rodriguez)
*[[Astro Boy (2003 TV series)|Astro Boy]] (Pluto)
*[[Banner of the Stars]] (Samson)
*[[Black Jack (manga)|Black Jack]] (Black Jack)
*[[Bleach (manga)|Bleach]] ([[Shunsui Kyōraku]])
*[[Blue Seed]] (Daitetsu Kunikida)
*[[Case Closed]] (Inspector Yokomizo)
*[[Chūka Ichiban]] (Chōyu)
*[[Cowboy Bebop]] (Whitney Hagas Matsumoto)
*[[Coyote Ragtime Show]] (Mister)
*[[Cromartie High School]] (Narrator (25th episode))
*[[Cyborg 009]] (005 G. Junior)
*[[Devil May Cry (anime)]] (Morisson)
*[[Ergo Proxy]] (J.J. (11th episode))
*[[Flame of Recca]] (Kai)
*[[Full Metal Panic!]] series (Andrei Sergeivich Kalinin)
*[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]] ([[Batou]])
*[[The Galaxy Railways]] (Schwanhert Bulge)
*[[Ghost Stories (anime)|Ghost Stories]] (Ouma)
*[[Hakugei: Legend of the Moby Dick]] (Ahab Ishmael)
*[[Hyper Police]] (Batanen Fujioka)
*[[Juuni Senshi Bakuretsu Eto Ranger]] (Eibabu)
*[[Kindaichi Case Files]] (Reo Horinōchi)
*[[Kinnikuman Nisei]] (The Cyborg)
*[[Kurogane Communication]] (Hōnī)
*[[Kyo Kara Maoh!]] (Gwendal von Voltaire)
*[[Magic Knight Rayearth]] (Windom)
*[[Magic User's Club]] (Minowa Minoru)
*[[Mahōjin Guru Guru]] (Fairy Saiko)
*[[Martian Successor Nadesico]] (Kōichirō Misumaru)
*[[The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya (anime)|The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya]] (Arakawa (6th and 8th episode))
*[[Moomin (1990 TV series)|Moomin]] (Moomin's Papa)
*[[Mobile Suit Gundam 0083: Stardust Memory]] ([[Anavel Gato]])
*[[Mobile Suit Gundam Wing]] (Narrator, Vice Foreign Minister Darlian)
*[[Monkey Typhoon]] (GK)
*[[Monster (manga)|Monster]] (Milan Korāshu)
*[[Montana Jones]] (Montana Jones)
*[[Nadia: The Secret of Blue Water]] ([[Captain Nemo]])
*[[Naruto Shippuuden]] (Chiriku)
*[[Neo Ranga]] (Seigo Hasegawa)
*[[NG Knight Lamune & 40]] (King Sukasshā)
*[[Ninku]] (Shiu)
*[[One Piece]] ([[Blackbeard (One Piece)|Blackbeard (Marshall D. Teach)]])
*[[Patlabor]] (Tsutomo Gomioka, others)
*[[Phoenix (manga)|Phoenix]] (Patriarch)
*[[PoPoLoCrois]] (King Bieto, Gamigami)
*[[Samurai Champloo]] (Okuru)
*[[Ray the Animation]] (Black Jack)
*[[Rurouni Kenshin]] (Kurogasa)
*[[Saint Seiya]] ([[Hades (Saint Seiya)|Hades]])
*[[Sgt. Frog]] (Lieutenant Garuru)
*[[Steal Napoleon's Dictionary!]] (Makkuram)
*[[Steam Detectives]] (Night Phantom)
*[[Stratos 4]] (Inquisitor Tsukino)
*[[Street Fighter II V]] (Narrator, Chief Barrac, head investigator)
*[[Superior Defender Gundam Force]] (Professor Gerbera)
*[[Tenchi Muyo! Ryo-Ohki]] ([[Azusa Jurai]])
*[[Trigun]] (Rai-Dei the Blade)
*[[The Snow Queen (anime)|The Snow Queen]] (The Avatar of the Wind)
*[[The Vision of Escaflowne]] (King Goau)

===Tokusatsu===
* [[Kyuukyuu Sentai GoGo-V]] (Thanatos)
* [[Mahou Sentai Magiranger]] (Dagon)

===Movies===
*[[Detective Conan: The Private Eyes' Requiem]] (Inspector Yokomizo)
*[[Fist of the North Star#Shin Kyūseishu Densetsu movie series|Fist of the North Star: The Legend of Raoh - Martyred Love Arc]] ([[Souther]])
*[[Ghost in the Shell]] ([[Batou]])
*[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence]] ([[Batou]])
*[[Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. Solid State Society]] ([[Batou]])
*[[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz]] (Narrator)
*[[Howl's Moving Castle]] (Kokuô)
*[[Inuyasha the Movie 3: Swords of an Honorable Ruler]] ([[Inu no Taisho]])
*[[Kiki's Delivery Service]] (Dirigible Captain)
*[[Kinnikuman Nisei]] (The Cyborg)
*[[Naruto the Movie 3: The Animal Riot of Crescent Moon Island]] (Michiru Tsuki)
*[[Baron Omatsuri and the Secret Island|One Piece: Baron Omatsuri and the Secret Island]] (Baron Omatsuri)
*[[Paprika]] (Detective Konakawa Toshimi)
*[[Porco Rosso]] (Donald Curtis)
*[[Tekken: The Motion Picture]] (Jack 2/Narrator)
*[[Tokyo Godfathers]] (Doctor)
*[[Vexille]] (Saito)

===Dubbing roles===
*[[Animaniacs]] (Bobby of the [[Goodfeathers]])
*[[The Animatrix]] (Thadeus)
*[[Avalon (2001 film)|Avalon]] (Bishop)
*[[Bad Boys (1995 film)|Bad Boys]] (Mike Lowrey)
*[[Balto (film)|Balto]] (Steele)
*[[Blade (film)|Blade]] series (Blade)
*[[Con Air]] (Cameron Poe)
*[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]] (Li Mu Bai)
*[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]] ([[J. R. Ewing|John Ross "J.R." Ewing, Jr.]])
*[[Darkwing Duck]] ([[Launchpad McQuack]])
*[[Desperado (film)|Desperado]] ([[El Mariachi]])
*[[Die Hard]] (Karl)
*[[Die Hard 2]] (Major Grant)
*[[Dragonheart]] (Bowen)
*[[D-Tox]] (Jake Malloy)
*[[DuckTales]] ([[Launchpad McQuack]])
*[[ER (TV series)|ER]] ([[Peter Benton]])
*[[Executive Decision]] (Lieutenant Colonel Austin Travis)
*[[Erin Brockovich (film)|Erin Brockovich]] (George)
*[[Four Rooms]] (Man)
*[[The Gift (2000 film)|The Gift]] (Donnie Barksdale)
*[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]] ([[Rhett Butler]])
*[[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 film)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]] (Randall Raines)
*[[Iron Man]] ([[Iron Man]]/Tony Stark)
*[[K-19: The Widowmaker]] (Polenin)
*[[Hard Target]] (Chance Boudreaux)
*[[Léon (film)|Léon]] (Léon)
*[[Lord of War]] (Yuri Orlov)
*[[The Mask of Zorro]] (Zorro)
*[[Money Train]] (John)
*[[Pearl Harbor (film)|Pearl Harbor]] (Commander Minoru Genda)
*[[Point Break]] ([[Bodhi]])
*[[Léon (film)|The Professional]] (Leon)
*[[The Replacement Killers]] (John Lee)
*[[Spawn (TV series)|Spawn]] ([[Spawn (comics)|Spawn/Al Simmons]])
*[[Spy Kids]] (Gregorio Cortez)
*[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] ([[William T. Riker]])
*[[S.W.A.T. (film)|S.W.A.T.]] (Hondo)
*[[Taxi (1998 film)|Taxi series]] (Daniel)
*[[Ultraman: The Ultimate Hero]] (Ultraman Powered)
*[[Under Siege]] (Casey Ryback)
*Japanese dub voice of [[Mel Gibson]]
*[[Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends]] (Donald)
*[[Star Wars]] (Han Solo)

===Video Game Roles===
*[[Ayakashi Ninden Kunoichiban]] (Juzen Hagakure)
*[[Dissidia: Final Fantasy]] (Judge Gabranth)
*[[Final Fantasy XII]] (Judge Gabranth)
*[[Genji: Dawn of the Samurai]] (Benkei Musahibo)
*[[Kingdom Hearts]] ([[Ansem]])
*[[Kingdom Hearts II]] ([[Xehanort]])
*[[Lunar: Silver Star Story Complete]] (Laike Bogard and Dyne)
*[[Metal Gear Solid]] ([[Solid Snake]])
*[[Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty]] ([[Solid Snake]] and [[Solidus Snake]])
*[[Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater]] ([[Naked Snake]])
*[[Metal Gear Solid: Portable Ops]] ([[Naked Snake]])
*[[Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots]] ([[Solid Snake|Old Snake]], Motion Capture actor for [[Big Boss (Metal Gear)|Big Boss]])
*[[The Last Blade]] ([[Hyo Amano]])
*[[Onimusha]] (Oda Nobunaga/ Fortinbras)
*[[Rival Schools]] series - ([[Daigo Kazama]])
*[[Namco x Capcom]] (Unknown Soldier 1P)
*[[Samurai Warriors: Xtreme Legends]] (Tadakatsu Honda)
*[[Soulcalibur II]] ([[Spawning (computer gaming)|Spawn]])
*''[[Street Fighter IV]]'' (Seth)
*[[Super Smash Bros. Brawl]] ([[Solid Snake]])
*[[Tales of Symphonia]] (Regal Bryant)
*[[Tales of Symphonia: Dawn of the New World]] (Regal Bryant)
*[[Time Crisis 4]] (William Rush)
*[[Valkyria Chronicles]] (Radi Yaeger)

==External links==
*[http://www.mausu.net/talent/tpdb_view.cgi?UID=72 Akio Ohtsuka at Mausu Promotion]
*[http://www.eigapedia.com/wiki/Akio_Otsuka Akio Otsuka] at Eigapedia
*{{ann name|id=832|name=Akio Ohtsuka}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ohtsuka, Akio}}
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Japanese voice actors]]

[[ar:أكيو أوتسكا]]
[[es:Akio Ōtsuka]]
[[fr:Akio Ōtsuka]]
[[it:Akio Ōtsuka]]
[[ms:Akio Ohtsuka]]
[[ja:大塚明夫]]
[[pt:Akio Ohtsuka]]
[[fi:Akio Ōtsuka]]
[[zh:大塚明夫]]

Marmaduke Pickthall

2009-02-27T00:30:28Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:محمد مارمادوك بكتال

{{Unreferenced|date=February 2007}}
{{Infobox Celebrity
| name = Marmaduke Pickthall
| image = Pickthall1.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = May 19, 1875
| birth_place = [[Harrow, London]]
| death_date = 1936
| death_place = [[Brookwood, Surrey]]
| occupation = [[Muslim scholar]]
}}

('''Mohammed''') '''Marmaduke Pickthall''' (1875–[[May 19]], [[1936]]) was a Western [[Islamic scholar]], noted as a poetic translator of the [[Qur'an]] into [[English language|English]]. A convert from [[Christianity]] to [[Islam]], Pickthall was a novelist, esteemed by [[D. H. Lawrence]], [[H. G. Wells]], and [[E. M. Forster]], as well as a journalist, headmaster, and political and religious [[leadership|leader]]. He declared his Islam in dramatic fashion after delivering a talk on ‘Islam and Progress' on [[November 29]], [[1917]], to the [[Muslim Literary Society]] in [[Notting Hill]], West London.

Marmaduke was born in 1875 to Mary O'Brien and the Reverend Charles Grayson Pickthall, a comfortable middle class English family, whose roots trace back to a knight of [[William the Conqueror]]. On the death of his father, when Marmaduke was five, the family moved to London. He was a shy and sickly child, suffering from bronchitis. Educated at [[Harrow School|Harrow]], he left after just six terms<ref>http://www.thetruecall.com/home/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=183</ref>.

Pickthall travelled across many Eastern countries, gaining reputation as a Middle-Eastern scholar. A strong advocate of the [[Ottoman Empire]] even prior to declaring his faith as a [[Muslim]], Pickthall studied the [[Orient]], and published articles and novels on the subject, e.g. ''[[The Meaning of the Glorious Koran (book)|The Meaning of the Glorious Koran]]''. While under the service of the [[Osman Ali Khan, Asif Jah VII|Nizam of Hyderabad]], Pickthall published his translation of the [[Qur'an]], authorized by the [[Al-Azhar University]] and referred to by the ''[[Times Literary Supplement]]'' as "''a great literary achievement.''"

When a propaganda campaign was launched in the UK in 1915 over the [[Armenian Genocide|massacres of Armenians]], Pickthall rose to challenge it and argued that all the blame could not be placed on the Turkish government. At a time when many Indian Muslims in London had been co-opted by the [[Foreign Office]] to provide propaganda services in support of Britain's war against Turkey, Pickthall's stand was considered one of great integrity and courageous given the war climate. When British Muslims were asked to decide whether they were loyal to the [[Allied Powers|Allies]] (Britain and France) or the [[Central Powers]] (Germany and Turkey), Pickthall said he was ready to be a combatant for his country so long as he did not have to fight the Turks. He was conscripted in the last months of the war and became corporal in charge of an influenza isolation hospital. The Foreign Office would have dearly liked to have used his talents as a linguist, but instead decided to regard him as a security risk.<ref>[http://www.islamispeace.org.uk/itm.php?id_top=39 www.islamispeace.org.uk]</ref>

In 1920 he went to India with his wife to serve as editor of the Bombay Chronicle, returning to England only in 1935, a year before his death at St Ives. It was in India that he completed his famous translation, "The Meaning of the Glorious Koran".

Pickthall was buried in the Muslim cemetery at [[Brookwood Cemetery|Brookwood]] in Surrey, England, where [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] was later buried. His legacy is of particular interest to Muslim converts.

==See also==
{{Wikisource|Author:Marmaduke Pickthall|Marmaduke Pickthall}}
*[[Online Quran Project]]
*[[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]]
*[[Ali Ünal]]
*[[Ahmed Raza Khan]]
*[[Rowland Allanson-Winn, 5th Baron Headley]]
*[[Henry Stanley, 3rd Baron Stanley of Alderley]]
*[[Sir Charles Edward Archibald Watkin Hamilton, 5th Baronet]]
*[[William Abdullah Quilliam]]
*[[Timothy Winter]]
*[[Faris Glubb]]
*[[Ahmad Thomson]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/bmh/BMM-AHM-pickthall_bio.htm A biography of Marmaduke William Pickthall]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20071114044153/http://www.al-sunnah.com/call_to_islam/quran/pickthall/ The English translation of the Qur'an by Marmaduke William Pickthall]
*[http://al-quran.info Online Quran Project] includes the translation of M. Pickthall.
*[http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/History/Personalities/Content/Umar.htm Muslim woman for marriage divorce at islamic-paths.org] at www.islamic-paths.org
* {{gutenberg author| id=Pickthall+Marmaduke+William | name=Marmaduke Pickthall}}
*[http://www.wokingmuslim.org/pers/pickthall/ Pickthall, the Woking Muslim Mission, and his views about Lahore Ahmadiyya leaders]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pickthall, Marmaduke}}
[[Category:1875 births]]
[[Category:1936 deaths]]
[[Category:Converts to Islam]]
[[Category:British Muslims]]
[[Category:Old Harrovians]]
[[Category:People from Harrow]]
[[Category:Qur'an translators]]
[[Category:Burials at Brookwood Cemetery]]
[[Category:English Muslims]]
[[Category:Muslim scholars of Islam]]
[[Category:Islamic studies scholars]]

[[ar:محمد مارمادوك بكتال]]
[[fa:محمد مارمادوک پیکتال]]
[[id:Marmaduke Pickthall]]
[[ja:マルマデュケ・ピクタール]]
[[tr:Marmaduke Pickthall]]
[[ur:محمد مارمادوک پکتھال]]

Naivasha

2009-02-23T18:04:35Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:نيفاشا

[[Image:Kenya-relief-map-towns.jpg|thumb|360px|right| The town of Naivasha is northwest of [[Nairobi]] (lower center), toward the [[Uganda]] border (click map to enlarge).]]

'''Naivasha''' is a [[market town]] in [[Rift Valley Province, Kenya|Rift Valley Province]], [[Kenya]], lying north west of [[Nairobi]]. It is located on the shore of [[Lake Naivasha]] and along the [[Nairobi]] - [[Nakuru]] highway and [[Uganda Railway]].

Naivasha is part of the [[Nakuru District]]. The town has an urban population of 14,563 (1999 census).
<ref>
"Population of Local Authorities" (with towns), Government of Kenya, 1999, webpage:
[http://treasury.go.ke/cbs.go.ke/pdf/authority.pdf GovtKenya-Population-PDF].
</ref>

The main industry is agriculture, especially [[floriculture]].

Naivasha is also a popular tourist destination. [[Hell's Gate National Park]], [[Longonot National Park]] and [[Mount Longonot]] are nearby attractions. Tours also have included [[Lake Naivasha]], to observe birdlife and [[hippopotamus]] behavior,
<ref>
"Lake Naivasha Country Club" (wildlife, map, photos), Go2Africa,
2003, go2africa.com webpage:
[http://www.safari.go2africa.com/accomm-tempg2a/ServiceID~2178/frompage~riftvalley Nav].
</ref>
as well as other wild animals.

A resort in Naivasha was the location for much of the negotiations of the [[Comprehensive Peace Agreement]] ending the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]], commonly known as the "Naivasha Agreement".

== Maps ==

* [http://www.fallingrain.com/world/KE/8/Naivasha.html Map]

== Statistics ==

* Elevation = 2085m

== See also ==
* [[Lake Naivasha Country Club]] - historic site in the area.

== Notes ==
<references/>

{{coord|0|43|12.85|S|36|25|42.71|E|region:KE_type:city|display=title}}
{{First and second-level administrative divisions of Kenya}}
[[Category:Nakuru District]]
[[Category:Cities, towns and villages in Rift Valley Province]]

[[ar:نيفاشا]]
[[ca:Naivasha]]
[[nl:Naivasha]]
[[ro:Naivasha]]
[[sv:Naivasha]]

Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe

2009-02-03T01:00:40Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:آدم محمد نور مادوبي

{{Infobox President
| honorific-prefix = [[Sheikh]] 
| name = Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe ادم محمد نور مادوبي
| image =
| order = [[President of Somalia]]
| primeminister = [[Nur Hassan Hussein]]
| term_start = 29 December 2008
| term_end = 31 January 2009
| predecessor = [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]]
| successor = [[Sharif Ahmed]]
| birth_date = 1957? 
| birth_place = [[Mandera]], [[Kenya]]
| party = [[Transitional Federal Government|TFG]]
}}
[[Sheikh]] '''Adan Mohamed Nuur "Madobe"''' ({{lang-so|''Sheekh Aaden Maxamed Nuur [Sheekh Aaden Madoobe'']}}, {{lang-ar|عدن محمد نور مادوبي}}) is a [[Somali]] politician and the present [[Speaker of Parliament]] of the [[Transitional Federal Government]] (TFG) of [[Somalia]]. Following the resignation of [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]] as [[President of Somalia]] in December 2008, he became interim president. Like many Somali politicians, he is a former [[warlord]]. He was also a [[Quranic]] instructor.<ref name=EX-SOMALI-WARLORD-ELECTED-NEW-PARLIAMENT-SPEAKER>{{cite news
|title=Ex-Somali warlord elected new parliament speaker
|url=http://ca.news.yahoo.com/s/afp/070131/world/somalia_politics_parliament_2
|date=31 January 2007
|publisher=[[Agence France-Presse]]
|accessdate=3 February 2007}}</ref>

Madobe was born in [[Mandera]] in the [[North Eastern Province (Kenya)|Northern Frontier District]] (NFD). He is of the [[Digil-Mirifle]] clan, specifically the [[Hadame]] subclan.<ref name=PRIME-MINISTER-GEEDI-ANNOUNCED-HIS-SECOND-CABINET-LINEUP>{{cite web
|title=Prime Minister Geedi announced his second cabinet line up
|url=http://www.somali-civilsociety.org/downloads/press/List%20Cabinet%20Ministers%208_%20Jan_05.pdf
|accessdate=3 February 2007}}</ref>

==Rahanweyn Resistance Army (RRA)==

He served as the First Deputy Chairman of the [[Rahanweyn Resistance Army]] (RRA), one of the factions of the [[Somali Civil War]]. According to Adan Madobe, beginning in 1996, the RRA accepted the assistance of [[Ethiopia]] in the training of its troops. In 2003, he temporarily split with his fellow RRA leader [[Hassan Mohamed Nur "Shatigadud"]] though they later reconciled and both served as ministers in the [[Transitional Federal Government]].<ref name=REPORT-UNSC-RES1425-2002>{{cite web
|title=Report of the Panel of Experts on Somalia pursuant to Security Council resolution 1425 (2002)
|url=http://www.somali-civilsociety.org/downloads/UN%20Panel%20of%20Experts%20Report%20-%2025%20March%202003.pdf
|date=24 February 2003
|publisher=[[United Nations Security Council]]
|accessdate=3 February 2007}}</ref>

==Transitional Federal Government==

Adan Mohamed Nuur "Madobe" is a representative on the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] (TFP), which in November 2004, authorized the [[Transitional Federal Government]] and approved the [[Transitional Federal Charter]] in a conference held in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]].

He was appointed [[Justice Minister]] of the nascent TFG appointed by the approval of [[Prime Minister]] [[Ali Mohamed Ghedi]]'s second cabinet lineup of January 2005,<ref name=PRIME-MINISTER-GEEDI-ANNOUNCED-HIS-SECOND-CABINET-LINEUP>{{cite web
|title=Prime Minister Geedi announced his second cabinet line up
|url=http://www.somali-civilsociety.org/downloads/press/List%20Cabinet%20Ministers%208_%20Jan_05.pdf
|accessdate=3 February 2007}}</ref> but a new [[Judiciary of Somalia|court system]] was only established in Somalia after the defeat of the [[Islamic Courts Union]] (ICU) in January 2007.

In May 2005, rival parliamentarian and warlord [[Mohamed Ibrahim Habsade]] accused Madobe and Agriculture Minister [[Hassan Mohamed Nuur "Shatigudud"]] of attacking [[Baidoa]] to take the city on behalf of President [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]], who later used the city to establish a new interim capital within the country. Nineteen were killed, many of them civilians, and 28 wounded in the fight over the city.<ref name=SOMALI-FACTIONS-FIGHT-FOR-KEY-TOWN>{{cite news
|title=Somali factions fight for key town, 19 killed
|url=http://www.sabcnews.com/Article/PrintWholeStory/0,2160,105535,00.html
|date=30 May 2005
|publisher=[[SABC News]]
|accessdate=3 February 2007}}</ref>

He was elected to the controversial role of speaker in the wake of the dismissal of [[Sharif Hassan Sheikh Adan]], who was voted out by the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] on January 17, 2007 because of his sympathetic support of the rival [[Islamic Courts Union]] (ICU) which [[War in Somalia (2006–present)|prosecuted a war]] against the TFG and its [[Ethiopia]]n allies December 2006–January 2007. Adan Mohamed Nuur "Madobe" was elected to the Speaker's position by the [[Transitional Federal Parliament]] (TFP) on January 31, 2007<ref name=SOMALIA-PARLIAMENT-ELECTS-NEW-SPEAKER>{{cite news
|title= Somalia's parliament elects new speaker
|url=http://www.wardheernews.com/News_07/Jan/31_new_elect_speaker.html
|publisher=[[Reuters]]
|date=31 January 2007
|accessdate=3 February 2007}}</ref> and sworn in on [[February 3]].<ref name=SOMALIA-PARLIAMENT-GETS-NEW-SPEAKER>{{cite news
|title=Somali parliament gets new speaker
|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/2B5FF934-88F7-422A-8788-3D3C50D2EFD8.htm
|date=23 February 2007
|publisher=[[Aljazeera]]
|accessdate=3 February 2007}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{start box}}
{{s-off}}
{{Succession box
| before = [[Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden]]
| title = [[Transitional Federal Parliament|Speaker of the Transitional Federal Parliament of Somalia]]
| years = 2007 – present
| after = Incumbent
}}
{{Succession box
| before = [[Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed]]
| after = [[Sharif Ahmed]]
| title = [[List of Presidents of Somalia|President of Somalia]] Acting
| years = 2008 – 2009
}}
{{end box}}

{{SomaliaPres}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Madobe, Adan Mohamed Nuur}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Somali politicians]]

[[ar:آدم محمد نور مادوبي]]
[[el:Σεΐχ Άντεν Μαντόμπε]]
[[es:Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe]]
[[fr:Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe]]
[[pl:Adan Mohamed Nuur Madobe]]

Schihab-Dynastie

2009-01-11T22:31:18Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:شهابيون

The '''Shihabs''' (also Chehab, [[Arabic]]: شهاب) are a prominent Lebanese noble family. The Shihabs were the traditional princes of the Wadi al-Taym, who traced their lineage to the ancient [[Quraysh]] tribe from [[Mecca]]. The Shihabs were descended from the Maans through the female line. However, unlike the Maans who were [[Druze]], the Shihabs were originally Sunni Muslims. As a result, they had less support from the Druze. This fact caused them to turn for support to the [[Maronite|Maronite Christians]]. The ruling class of the Shihab family eventually converted to [[Christianity]] at the end of the 18th century and became Maronites. Their conversion was soon followed by that of most of their family.<ref name="Mannheim">Ivan Mannheim, ''Syria & Lebanon handbook'', Footprint Travel Guides, 2001, ISBN 1900949903, [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=GOJ80DlXwwMC&pg=PA567&dq=Shihab+family+sunni&sig=17XTYyyXpDOLgwa0vsYzIixL0iY#PPA567,M1 Google Print, p. 567].</ref>

The Shihabs worked methodically to encourage Christian immigration to [[Lebanon]] with the sole purpose of strengthening the family's economic status. They also strove to introduce Western European culture, particularly French culture into this region.

The Shihabs succeeded the [[Maans]] in 1697.<ref>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+lb0025)</ref> They originally lived in the [[Hawran]] region of southwestern Syria and settled in [[Wadi at Taim]] in southern Lebanon. The most prominent among them was [[Bashir Shihab II]], who was much like his predecessor, Fakhr ad Din II. His ability as a statesman was first tested in 1799, when [[Napoleon]] besieged [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], a well-fortified coastal city in Palestine, about forty kilometers south of [[Tyre]]. Both Napoleon and [[Al Jazzar]], the governor of Acre, requested assistance from the Shihab leader; Bashir, however, remained neutral, declining to assist either combatant. Unable to conquer Acre, Napoleon returned to [[Egypt]], and the death of Al Jazzar in 1804 removed Bashir's principal opponent in the area.<ref name = "Shihab"/>

When Bashir II decided to break away from the Ottoman Empire, he allied himself with [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pacha]], the founder of modern Egypt, and assisted Muhammad Ali's son, Ibrahim Pasha, in another siege of [[Acre]]. This siege lasted seven months, the city falling on [[May 27]], [[1832]]. The Egyptian army, with assistance from Bashir's troops, also attacked and conquered Damascus on June 14, 1832.<ref name = "Shihab"/>

Ibrahim Pasha and Bashir II at first ruled harshly and exacted high taxes. These practices led to several revolts and eventually ended their power. In May 1840, despite the efforts of Bashir, the Maronites and Druzes united their forces
against the Egyptians. In addition, the principal European powers (Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia), opposing the pro-Egyptian policy of the French, signed the London Treaty with the Sublime Porte (the Ottoman ruler) on [[July 15]], [[1840]]. <ref name = "Shihab"/>

According to the terms of this treaty, Muhammad Ali was asked to leave Syria; when he rejected this request, Ottoman and British troops landed on the Lebanese coast on [[September 10]], [[1840]]. Faced with this combined force, Muhammad Ali retreated, and on [[October 14]], [[1840]], Bashir II surrendered to the British and went into exile.<ref name = "Shihab">[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+lb0025)] The Shihab family</ref>

Today, the Shihabs are still one of the prominent families in Lebanon,and the third president of Lebanon after independence, [[Fuad Chehab]], was a member of this family. The Shihabs bear the title of Amirs. Today, a few of them are still Sunni Muslims, but most are Maronite Catholics.

{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Durations of reigns
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center" |
|-
| Bashir I || 1697-1707
|-
| Haydar || 1707-1732
|-
| Mulhim || 1732-1754
|-
| Mansur|| 1754-1770
|-
| Yusuf || 1770-1788
|-
| Bashir II || 1788-1840
|-
|-Bashir III || 1840-1842

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

[[Category:Lebanese Maronites]]
[[Category:Lebanese Eastern Catholics]]
[[Category:Former Muslims]]
[[Category:Muslim converts to Catholicism]]
[[Category:Converts from Islam to Christianity]]
[[Category:Lebanese political families]]

{{Lebanon-stub}}

[[ar:شهابيون]]
[[pt:Shehab (Dinastia)]]

Verallgemeinerte Taxicab-Zahl

2008-12-18T12:59:38Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:عدد تاكسيكاب المعمم

{{unsolved|mathematics| Does there exist any number that can be expressed as a sum of 2 positive ''5''th powers in at least 2 different ways, i.e., ''a''5 + ''b''5 <nowiki>=</nowiki> ''c''5 + ''d''5?}}

In [[mathematics]], the '''generalized taxicab number''' ''Taxicab''(''k'', ''j'', ''n'') is the smallest number which can be expressed as the sum of ''j'' ''k''th positive powers in ''n'' different ways. For ''k'' = 3 and ''j'' = 2, they coincide with [[Taxicab number]]s.

It has been shown by [[Euler]] that

:<math>\mathrm{Taxicab}(4, 2, 2) = 635318657 = 59^4 + 158^4 = 133^4 + 134^4</math>

However, ''Taxicab''(5, 2, ''n'') is not known for any ''n'' ≥ 2; No positive [[integer]] is known at all which can be written as the sum of two fifth powers in more than one way.

== External links ==

* [http://web.archive.org/web/20050425023736/http://www.wschnei.de/number-theory/taxicab-numbers.html Walter Schneider: Taxicab numbers]
[[Category:Number theory]]

[[ar:عدد تاكسيكاب المعمم]]
[[fr:Nombre taxicab généralisé]]

Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobie

2008-12-17T17:30:25Z

AkhtaBot: robot Ajoute: ar:هيكساكوسيويهيكسيكونتاهيكسافوبيا

{{ébauche|psychologie}}
{{Sources}}
[[Image:666.svg|thumb|Dessin représentant le nombre « 666 »]]
L''''hexakosioihexekontahexaphobie''' (littéralement, « peur du nombre six cent soixante-six ») est une [[phobie]] qui tire son origine du verset 13:18 de l'[[Apocalypse]], l'un des livres de la [[Bible]]. Ce verset indique que le nombre [[666 (nombre)|666]] est le [[Nombre de la bête]], bête associée à [[Satan]] ou à l'[[Antéchrist]]<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5049516.stm Prayer vigil targets Devil's Day] BBC News. Lundi 5 juin 2006. Article lu le 21 septembre 2007.</ref>. En dehors de la foi [[Christianisme|chrétienne]], cette phobie a été popularisée, le nombre 666 étant utilisé comme un symbole dans de nombreux [[Film d'épouvante|films d'épouvante]].

== Phobie ==
Les hexakosioihexekontahexaphobes évitent au maximum toute chose reliée au nombre 666. Certains évitent même les références indirectes à ce nombre. Par exemple, la fraction 2/3 a un développement décimal infini qui répète le chiffre 6, et qu'on peut lire comme 0,666 666 666 666.

Certains hexakosioihexekontahexaphobes éviteront d'avoir à utiliser des fractions incluant cette répétition de décimales. D'autres considèrent qu'obtenir un [[brelan]] de 6 au [[poker]] est un signe de malchance, même si on peut considérer que c'est une assez bonne [[Mains au poker (Texas hold'em)|main]].

== Superstitions ==
Des femmes ont exprimé leur inquiétude quant au fait de donner naissance à un enfant le [[6 juin]] [[2006]]<ref>{{cite news |auteur=Tony Allen-Mills | title=Mothers expect Damien on 6/6/06 |date=April 30, 2006 | publisher= The Sunday Times - Britain | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-2158015,00.html }}</ref>.

Un exemple célèbre est celui de [[Nancy Reagan|Nancy]] et [[Ronald Reagan]] qui, en [[1989]], alors qu'ils déménageaient vers leur résidence de [[Bel-Air]] ([[Los Angeles]]) firent changer leur adresse, 666, St. Cloud Road, en 668, St. Cloud Road<ref>“The Reagans: First Family Easing Into Private Life”, ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', 19 novembre 1988</ref>.

En [[2006]], la [[BBC]] a listé l'hexakosioihexekontahexaphobie et sa définition comme la 64{{e}} chose parmi 100 que l'« on ignorait l'année dernière à la même date<ref>{{Lien web | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/magazinemonitor/2006/12/100_things_we_didnt_know_last_2.shtml | titre = 100 things we didn't know last year | série = [[BBC]] Magazine Monitor blog | date = December 28, 2006 | consulté le = 2007-01-20 }}</ref> ».

En [[2007]], la [[BBC]] évoqua des habitants de la ville de [[Reeves (Louisiane)|Reeves]] en [[Louisiane]] (USA) qui pouvaient maintenant choisir de changer le préfixe téléphonique local de 666 vers 749<ref>{{Lien web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7163767.stm | titre = US town escapes 666 phone prefix | work = [[BBC]] News, World, Americas | date = December 29, 2007 | Consulté le = 2007-12-29 }}</ref> après plusieurs années de demandes.

{{Référence nécessaire|Le constructeur automobile [[Peugeot]] a remplacé son modèle de voiture 605 par le modèle 607 afin d'éviter le modèle 606 qui faisait penser à 666, donc non commercial.
}}

== Notes et références ==
{{Références}}

== Voir aussi ==
{{Wiktionary|hexakosioihexekontahexaphobie|Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobie}}
=== Articles connexes ===
* [[Mots les plus longs en français]]

{{portail|christianisme|psychologie}}
[[Catégorie:Phobie]]
[[Catégorie:Superstition]]
[[Catégorie:Numérologie]]

[[ar:هيكساكوسيويهيكسيكونتاهيكسافوبيا]]
[[cs:Hexakosioihexekontahexafobie]]
[[da:Hexakosioihexekontahexafobi]]
[[en:Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia]]
[[es:Hexakosioihexekontahexafobia]]
[[id:Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia]]
[[pl:Heksakosjoiheksekontaheksafobia]]
[[pt:Hexacosioihexecontahexafobia]]
[[tr:Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia]]

Taxicab-Zahl

2008-12-16T09:00:02Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:عدد تاكسيكاب

In [[mathematics]], the ''n''th '''taxicab number''', typically denoted Ta(''n'') or Taxicab(''n''), is defined as the smallest number that can be expressed as a sum of two positive cubes in ''n'' distinct ways, [[up to]] order of [[summand]]s. [[G. H. Hardy]] and [[E. M. Wright]] proved in [[1954]] that such numbers exist for all positive [[integer]]s ''n'', and their proof is easily converted into a program to generate such numbers. However, the proof makes no claims at all about whether the thus-generated numbers are ''the smallest possible'' and is thus useless in finding Ta(''n''). So far, only the following six taxicab numbers are known {{OEIS|id=A011541}}:

:<math>\operatorname{Ta}(1) = 2 = 1^3 + 1^3</math>

:<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{Ta}(2)&=&1729&=&1^3 + 12^3 \\&&&=&9^3 + 10^3\end{matrix}</math>

:<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{Ta}(3)&=&87539319&=&167^3 + 436^3 \\&&&=&228^3 + 423^3 \\&&&=&255^3 + 414^3\end{matrix}</math>

:<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{Ta}(4)&=&6963472309248&=&2421^3 + 19083^3 \\&&&=&5436^3 + 18948^3 \\&&&=&10200^3 + 18072^3 \\&&&=&13322^3 + 16630^3\end{matrix}</math>

:<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{Ta}(5)&=&48988659276962496&=&38787^3 + 365757^3 \\&&&=&107839^3 + 362753^3 \\&&&=&205292^3 + 342952^3 \\&&&=&221424^3 + 336588^3 \\&&&=&231518^3 + 331954^3\end{matrix}</math>

:<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{Ta}(6)&=&24153319581254312065344&=&582162^3 + 28906206^3 \\&&&=&3064173^3 + 28894803^3 \\&&&=&8519281^3 + 28657487^3 \\&&&=&16218068^3 + 27093208^3 \\&&&=&17492496^3 + 26590452^3 \\&&&=&18289922^3 + 26224366^3\end{matrix}</math>

Ta(2), also known as the '''[[Hardy-Ramanujan number]]''', was first published by [[Bernard Frénicle de Bessy]] in [[1657]] and later immortalized by an incident involving [[mathematician]]s [[G. H. Hardy]] and [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]]. As told by Hardy [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Hardy.html]:

{{cquote|I remember once going to see him when he was lying ill at Putney. I had ridden in taxi-cab No. [[1729 (number)|1729]], and remarked that the number seemed to be rather a dull one, and that I hoped it was not an unfavourable omen. "No", he replied, "it is a very interesting number; it is the smallest number expressible as the sum of two [positive] cubes in two different ways."}}

The subsequent taxicab numbers were found with the help of [[computer]]s; [[John Leech (mathematician)|John Leech]] obtained Ta(3) in [[1957]], [[E. Rosenstiel]], [[J. A. Dardis]] and [[C. R. Rosenstiel]] found Ta(4) in [[1991]], and [[David W. Wilson]] found Ta(5) in November [[1997]]. Ta(6) was announced by [[Uwe Hollerbach]] on the NMBRTHRY mailing list on [[March 9]] [[2008]].<ref>[http://listserv.nodak.edu/cgi-bin/wa.exe?A2=ind0803&L=nmbrthry&T=0&P=1059 NMBRTHRY Archives - March 2008 (#10)]</ref>

A more restrictive taxicab problem requires that the taxicab number be cubefree, which means that it is not divisible by any cube other than 13. When a cubefree taxicab number ''T'' is written as ''T'' = ''x''3+''y''3, the numbers ''x'' and ''y'' must be relatively prime for all pairs (''x'', ''y''). Among the taxicab numbers Ta(n) listed above, only Ta(1) and Ta(2) are cubefree taxicab numbers. The smallest cubefree taxicab number with three representations was discovered by [[Paul Vojta]] (unpublished) in 1981 while he was a graduate student. It is

:15170835645
::= 5173 + 24683
::= 7093 + 24563
::= 17333 + 21523.

The smallest cubefree taxicab number with four representations was discovered by Stuart Gascoigne and independently by Duncan Moore in 2003. It is

:1801049058342701083
::= 922273 + 12165003
::= 1366353 + 12161023
::= 3419953 + 12076023
::= 6002593 + 11658843.

{{OEIS|id=A080642}}

== See also ==
* [[Cabtaxi number]]
* [[Generalized taxicab number]]

== External links ==
* [http://listserv.nodak.edu/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind0207&L=nmbrthry&F=&S=&P=1278 A 2002 post to the Number Theory mailing list by Randall L. Rathbun]
* [http://euler.free.fr/ Taxicab and other maths at Euler]

== References ==
* G. H. Hardy and E. M. Wright, ''An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers'', 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, London & NY, 1954, Thm. 412.
* J. Leech, ''Some Solutions of Diophantine Equations'', Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 53, 778-780, 1957.
* E. Rosenstiel, J. A. Dardis and C. R. Rosenstiel, ''The four least solutions in distinct positive integers of the Diophantine equation s = x3 + y3 = z3 + w3 = u3 + v3 = m3 + n3'', Bull. Inst. Math. Appl., 27(1991) 155-157; MR 92i:11134, [http://www.cix.co.uk/%7Erosenstiel/cubes/welcome.htm online]. See also ''Numbers Count'' [[Personal Computer World]] November 1989.
* David W. Wilson, ''The Fifth Taxicab Number is 48988659276962496'', Journal of Integer Sequences, Vol. 2 (1999), [http://www.math.uwaterloo.ca/JIS/wilson10.html#RDR91 online].
* D. J. Bernstein, ''Enumerating solutions to p(a) + q(b) = r(c) + s(d)'', Mathematics of Computation 70, 233 (2000), 389--394.
* C. S. Calude, E. Calude and M. J. Dinneen: ''What is the value of Taxicab(6)?'', Journal of Universal Computer Science, Vol. 9 (2003), p. 1196-1203

<references />

[[Category:Number theory]]

[[ar:عدد تاكسيكاب]]
[[es:Número Taxicab]]
[[eu:Taxicab zenbakia]]
[[fr:Nombre taxicab]]
[[it:Numero taxicab]]
[[pl:Liczba taksówkowa]]
[[fi:Taksiluku]]
[[sv:Taxital]]
[[zh:的士數]]

Toyoda AA

2008-12-13T04:00:29Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:تويوتا الفئة أ

The '''A1''' was the first prototype passenger car built by the company that became [[Toyota]]. It was redesigned and put into production as Toyota's first production cars, the '''AA''' [[sedan (car)|sedan]] and the '''AB''' [[Cabriolet (automobile)|cabriolet]]. These were succeeded by the similar '''AE''', '''AC''' and '''BA''' sedans.

The series as a whole was replaced by the quite different and much more advanced [[Toyota SA|SA]].

=A1=
{{Infobox Automobile
| image =
| name = A1
| manufacturer = Toyota
| parent_company =
| aka =
| production = 1935 (3 prototypes)
| assembly = [[Koromo]], Japan
| predecessor =
| successor = AA
| class = medium size family car
| body_style = sedan
| layout = front-engine, rear-wheel drive
| platform = ladder chassis
| engine = Type A
| transmission =
| wheelbase =
| length =
| width =
| height =
| weight =
| fuel_capacity =
| electric_range =
| related = [[Toyota G1|G1]] truck
| designer =
}}
3 A1 prototypes were completed in May 1935. None of the them survive. They were blessed in a Buddhist ceremony and [[Kiichiro Toyoda]] then drove one of them to his father's grave (his father having given him the seed money to start a car factory).

After completion of the prototypes, Toyota then switched its attention to the [[Toyota G1|G1]] truck because it was more likely to be profitable in the short term. After the G1 was in production the company was able to spend resources on developing the AA and AB passenger cars.

==Dates==
The A1 prototypes were completed in May 1935.

==Mechanicals==
The A1 used the 3389 cc [[Toyota Type A engine|Type A]] 6 cylinder engine with a 3 speed column shift manual gearbox.

The chassis and electrics were copied from [[Ford]].

Solid axles were used at both ends. Pressed metal discs were used for all 4 wheel rims (very modern for the time). Braking was by drums.

The mechanicals were the same as used in the production AA, AB and [[Toyota G1|G1]] vehicles.

==Body==
The A1 was a fully enclosed, 4 door sedan, with normal front doors and forward opening, [[suicide doors|suicide style]] rear doors. It was heavily based on the [[Chrysler Airflow]], Toyoda having bought an Airflow and disassembled it the year before. The front window was a single piece of flat glass with a top mounted wiper on the driver's side. There was 3 windows per side, one for the front door (without a [[quarterlight]] window), one for the rear door and one behind the rear door. A spare tyre was mounted on the near vertical [[car boot|boot]] lid.

The A1 was only made in right hand drive.

=AA, AB=
{{Infobox Automobile
| image = [[Image:Toyota Model AA.jpg|250px|Toyota AA(replica)]]
| name = AA, AB
| manufacturer = Toyota
| parent_company =
| aka =
| production = 1936 to 1943
| assembly = [[Koromo]], Japan
| predecessor = A1
| successor = AC
| class = medium size family car
| body_style = sedan (AA), cabriolet (AB)
| layout = front-engine, rear-wheel drive
| platform = ladder chassis
| engine = Type A
| transmission = 3 speed floor shift manual
| wheelbase = {{auto mm|2851|1}}<ref name="Cusumano">"The Japanese Automobile Industry: Technology and Management at Nissan & Toyota", Michael Cusumano, Cambridge (Mass.) & London: The Harvard Univ. Press, 1985, ISBN 067447256X</ref>
| length = {{auto mm|4737|1}}
| width = {{auto mm|1734|1}}
| height = {{auto mm|1737|1}}
| weight = {{auto kg|1500|1}}
| fuel_capacity =
| electric_range =
| related =
| designer =
}}
The AA was similar to the A1 prototypes with only minor changes.

==Dates and Production Figures==
A total of 1,404 AA sedans was produced from 1936 until 1943, when the model was replaced by the more austere AC.

A total of 353 AB phaetons, including the military ABR version, was produced until 1942. There was no direct replacement.

==Body types==
The AA was a fully enclosed 4 door sedan that largely copied the [[Chrysler Airflow]] [[sedan (car)|sedan]]. It had a metal body (a modern method for its time) on a metal [[Body-on-frame|ladder chassis]]. The rear doors opened backwards (now known as suicide doors). The front glass spanned the entire width of the body in a single pane.

The AB was identical to the AA except that it was a [[Cabriolet (automobile)|cabriolet]] with a folding cloth roof, the rear doors opened in the normal manner and the front glass could fold down onto the engine compartment.

==Mechanicals==
The mechanicals were the same as used in the A1 prototype.

==50th year replica==
Toyota wanted to use an AA for its 50th birthday in 1987 but couldn't find any surviving examples.<ref name="twe">"The Toyota AA Passenger Car", in "the wheel extended", vol 17, no.3, 1987, Toyota Motor Corporation, ISSN 0049-755X</ref> Toyota decided to build a replica but even for that there were no complete and consistent plans. Plans that could be found were from various points during the car's development process and in any case were often incomplete and lacking by today's standards. However, a single replica was built that is believed to be representative of the AA. This replica is now in the Toyota Motor Museum.

=AC=
{{Infobox Automobile
| image =
| name = AC
| manufacturer = Toyota
| parent_company =
| aka =
| production = 1943 to 1948
| assembly =
| predecessor = AA, AB
| successor = SA
| class = medium size family car
| body_style = sedan
| layout = front-engine, rear-wheel drive
| platform = ladder chassis
| engine = Type B
| transmission = 3 speed floor shift manual
| wheelbase = {{auto mm|2850|1}}<ref name="Cusumano">table 33</ref>
| length = {{auto mm|4884|1}}
| width = {{auto mm|1734|1}}
| height = {{auto mm|1746|1}}
| weight = {{auto kg|1550|1}}
| fuel_capacity =
| electric_range =
| related =
| designer =
}}
The AC was similar to the AA, with only minor alternations to the body. The front glass was now a split into left and right halves with thick metal body work between them.

==Dates and Production Figures==
Design work began in 1938. A total of 115 AC sedans was produced from 1943 until the model was replaced by the SA during 1947-1948. Forty-three were produced in 1943, 19 in 1944 (until February), and 50 units were made from spares in 1947 for a military order, with a final three being built in 1948. No Toyota passenger car production occurred in the years 1945 and 1946, although what would become the first post-war car, the SA, was in development during these years.

==Mechanicals==
The mechanicals were similar to the AA and AB.

=EA=
{{Infobox Automobile
| image =
| name = EA
| manufacturer = Toyota
| parent_company =
| aka =
| production = 1938 (prototypes)
| assembly = [[Koromo]], Japan
| predecessor =
| successor =
| class = small family car
| body_style = sedan
| layout = front-engine, front-wheel drive
| platform =
| engine = Type E
| transmission =
| wheelbase = 2610 mm<ref name="Cusumano">table 33</ref>
| length = 3220 mm
| width = 1300 mm
| height = 1250 mm
| weight = 650 kg
| fuel_capacity =
| electric_range =
| related = DKW F-7
| designer =
}}
Kiichiro Toyoda designed the EA as a copy of the [[DKW]] F-7 sedan in 1938 but production was prevented by war time restrictions.<ref name="Cusumano">x</ref>

==Dates and Production Figures==
The EA was designed in 1938 but did not go into production.

==Mechanicals==
A small front mounted, 2 cylinder, 2 stroke [[Toyota Type E engine|Type E]] engine connected as [[front wheel drive]].

=EB=
The EB was a [[rear wheel drive|RWD]] [[minicar]] but production was prevented by war time restrictions.<ref name="first">"Toyota: A history of the First 50 Years", Toyota Motor Corporation, 1988, ISBN 0-517-61777-3, p133/135/137</ref>

==Dates and Production Figures==
The EB was designed in 1938 but did not go into production.

==Mechanicals==
A small front mounted, 2 cylinder, 2 stroke [[Toyota Type E engine|Type E]] engine connected as [[rear wheel drive]].

=AE=
{{Infobox Automobile
| image =
| name = AE
| manufacturer = Toyota
| parent_company =
| aka =
| production = 1941 to 1943
| assembly =
| predecessor = AA, AB
| successor = AC
| class = medium size family car
| body_style = sedan
| layout = front-engine, rear-wheel drive
| platform = ladder chassis
| engine = Type C
| transmission = 3 speed floor shift manual
| wheelbase = {{auto mm|2500|1}}<ref name="Cusumano">table 33</ref>
| length = {{auto mm|4500|1}}
| width = {{auto mm|1730|1}}
| height = {{auto mm|1635|1}}
| weight = {{auto kg|1220|1}}
| fuel_capacity =
| electric_range =
| related =
| designer =
}}
The AE sedan was a smaller car than its predecessors.

==Dates and Production Figures==
The AE was developed during 1939, and a prototype was completed in September of that year. The model was introduced at the beginning of 1940. However, production occurred from 1941 to 1943. Only 76 of this model were built <ref name="OHYOTA">"One Hundred Years of the Automobile, 1886-1986", Marco Ruiz (editor), New York: Gallery Books, 1985, ISBN 0-8317-6550-X</ref> <ref name="chevyparts">"Japan's Toyota with Stovebolts", Bob Hall, in "Special-Interest Autos", Mar-Apr 1977</ref>.

==Mechanicals==
The mechanicals were similar to the AA except that it had the [[Toyota Type C engine|Type C]] engine, which was a Type A with 2 cylinders removed.

=BA=
The BA was an austerity sedan, and used wood in its framing to conserve metal. This model is said to have been based on the Volvo PV60 <ref name="OHYOTA">"One Hundred Years of the Automobile, 1886-1986", Marco Ruiz (editor), New York: Gallery Books, 1985, ISBN 0-8317-6550-X</ref> <ref name="JC">"The Complete History of the Japanese Car", Marco Ruiz, New York: Portland House, 1986, ISBN 0-517-61777-3</ref>, but this is open to question, since the PV60 was not introduced until 1944, and did not enter production until 1946. Most of the prototypes of this Volvo were built in the 1942-1944 period. There is anecdotal information regarding a 1939 PV60 prototype, but the data is sketchy and no photos exist <ref name="VOLVO">"Volvo: The Cars -- From the 20s to the 80's", Björn-Eric Lindh, Malmö: Förlagshuset Norden AB, 1986, ISBN 91-86442-14-7</ref> .

==Dates and Production Figures==
The BA was introduced and first produced in 1940. No more than 17 were built <ref name="chevyparts">"Japan's Toyota with Stovebolts", Bob Hall, in "Special-Interest Autos", Mar-Apr 1977</ref>. Some sources, however, claim the model did not enter production, such as it was, until 1943, with one giving the date of June 1943 <ref name="OHYOTA">"One Hundred Years of the Automobile, 1886-1986", Marco Ruiz (editor), New York: Gallery Books, 1985, ISBN 0-8317-6550-X</ref> <ref name="JC">"The Complete History of the Japanese Car", Marco Ruiz, New York: Portland House, 1986, ISBN 0-517-61777-3</ref>. But judging from 1943's production figures, the majority of which would have to represent the AC, it would not seem to be the case that all 17 BA production cars were built that year. The production of the 17 cars may have occurred in 1940 and 1943, or perhaps it was stretched over the 1940-1943 period, with the last few being completed in 1943, when the model was said to have started "official" production. Support for the notion that at least a few of these cars were produced in 1943 would come from a photograph (obtained from Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.) of a BA captioned as "1943 Totoya Model BA 4-cylinder saloon" in at least one source <ref name="TCEOM">"The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars: 1885 to the Present", G. N. Georgano, New York: E. P. Dutton, 2nd edition, 1973, ISBN 0-525-08351-0</ref>.

=Other prototypes never built in series=
One example of the Model BB phaeton was built, in 1941 <ref name="chevyparts">"Japan's Toyota with Stovebolts", Bob Hall, in "Special-Interest Autos", Mar-Apr 1977</ref>. It resembled a contemporary Chevrolet.

Two <ref name="chevyparts">"Japan's Toyota with Stovebolts", Bob Hall, in "Special-Interest Autos", Mar-Apr 1977</ref> or three <ref name="JKT">"Toyota seit 1936", Joachim Kuch, Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag, Artikelnummer 17060</ref> examples of a luxury sedan, known as the Model B (or Model BC, according to one source <ref name="EOTA">"The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile", Nick Georgano, Norwich: The Stationery Office Limited, 2000, ISBN 1-57958-293-1</ref>), were built. Although one source associates this model with the year 1942 <ref name="JKT">"Toyota seit 1936", Joachim Kuch, Stuttgart: Motorbuch Verlag, Artikelnummer 17060</ref>, most claim the prototypes were built in 1944 <ref name="OHYOTA">"One Hundred Years of the Automobile, 1886-1986", Marco Ruiz (editor), New York: Gallery Books, 1985, ISBN 0-8317-6550-X</ref> <ref name="JC">"The Complete History of the Japanese Car", Marco Ruiz, New York: Portland House, 1986, ISBN 0-517-61777-3</ref> <ref name="EOTA">"The Beaulieu Encyclopedia of the Automobile", Nick Georgano, Norwich: The Stationery Office Limited, 2000, ISBN 1-57958-293-1</ref>. This was the last passenger car development until after the war ended.

=Toyota Passenger Car Production from 1935 to 1949=

The following table is a portion of that put out by Toyota, and represents passenger car production only, apparently not including prototypes:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! 1935
! 1936
! 1937
! 1938
! 1939
! 1940
! 1941
! 1942
! 1943
! 1944
! 1945
! 1946
! 1947
! 1948
! 1949

|-
| <center>0</center>
| <center>100</center>
| <center>577</center>
| <center>539</center>
| <center>107</center>
| <center>268</center>
| <center>208</center>
| <center>41</center>
| <center>53</center>
| <center>19</center>
| <center>0</center>
| <center>0</center>
| <center>54</center>
| <center>21</center>
| <center>235</center>
|}

{{Toyota road cars timeline, 1935-1954}}

=References=
{{refbegin}}
* "Toyota-fifty years in motion", Eiji Toyoda, Tokyo: Kodansha International, 1987.
* "Against all odds", Yukiyasu Togo & William Wartman, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993, ISBN 0-312-09733-6, p56-73
* "Autos Made in Japan", Jan P. Norbye, Gerlingen: Bleicher Verlag, 1991, ISBN 3-88350-161-1
* Toyota history web page, 1867-1939, http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/history/1867.html
* Toyota history web page, 1940-1949, http://www.toyota.co.jp/en/history/1940.html
{{refend}}
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1936]]
[[Category:Toyota vehicles|AA]]
[[Category:First automobile made by manufacturer]]
[[Category:Sedans]]
[[Category:Convertibles]]
[[Category:Rear wheel drive vehicles]]

[[ar:تويوتا الفئة أ]]
[[fr:Toyota AA]]
[[ja:トヨダ・AA型乗用車]]

William Henry Quilliam

2008-12-13T03:00:52Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:عبد الله كوليام

'''William Henry Quilliam''' ([[April 10]] [[1856]]<ref>[http://www.abdullahquilliamsociety.org.uk/aqsSAQuilliam.html Quilliam Society website]</ref><ref>[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article2826203.ece Forgotten champion of Islam: One man and his mosque - This Britain, UK - Independent.co.uk]</ref><ref>[http://www.isle-of-man.com/manxnotebook/people/law/whqllm.htm Brief Biography of William Henry Quilliam]</ref> – 1932), who changed his name to '''Abdullah Quilliam''', was a 19th century convert from [[Christianity]] to [[Islam]], noted for founding [[England]]'s first [[mosque]] and Islamic centre.

==Background==
William Quilliam was born in [[Liverpool]] to a wealthy [[Manx people|Manx]] family in 1856. His father, Robert Quilliam, was a watch manufacturer. William was educated at the [[Liverpool Institute High School for Boys|Liverpool Institute]] and [[King William's College]] on the [[Isle of Man]]. He began work as a solicitor in 1878.

===Conversion to Islam===

Quilliam was brought up a Christian but learned about Islam and converted, either while visiting southern [[France]] in 1882 and crossing over to [[Algeria]] and [[Tunisia]], or after visiting [[Morocco]] in 1887.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/heritage/england/liverpool/article_1.shtml BBC - Legacies - Architectural Heritage - England - Liverpool - The 'little mosque' - Article Page 1] at www.bbc.co.uk</ref> Returning to Liverpool, he began to promote Islam among the masses as [[‘Abdullah (name)|Abdullah]] Quilliam.

Quilliam established the Liverpool Mosque and Islamic Institute at 8 Brougham Terrace, West Derby Street, Liverpool in 1889, opening on Christmas day. This was England's first mosque, accommodating around a hundred Muslims, This was followed by a Muslim [[college]], headed by [[Haschem Wilde]] and [[Nasrullah Warren]], which offered courses for both Muslims and non-Muslims. A weekly [[Debating]] and [[Literary]] Society within the college attracted non-Muslims.

Quilliam influenced the paths of other converts, including his formerly [[Methodist]] mother, his sons, and scientists and intellectuals and his example lead to the conversion of over 150 Englishmen to Islam. Quilliam was influential in advancing knowledge of Islam within the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], and gained other converts through his [[literary]] works and the [[Charitable organization|charitable]] institutions he founded.

An active writer and essayist, he produced a weekly paper, ''The Crescent'', from 1893 until 1908.
He published three editions of his masterpiece, ''The Faith of Islam'', which was translated into thirteen languages, gaining him fame across the Islamic world.

He received many honours from the leaders of the Islamic world. He was appointed [[Sheikh al-Islam]] by the [[Ottoman Sultan]], [[Abdul Hamid II]] in 1894 and [[Persia]]n [[Consul (representative)|Consul]] to Liverpool by the [[Shah]]. He also received money from the [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Emir of Afghanistan]] to fund the Islamic Institute in Liverpool.

Quilliam's work in Liverpool stopped when he left England in 1908 and the Muslim community there dispersed.

He died in 1932, in London, and was buried in [[Brookwood Cemetery]], near [[Woking]]. He was buried near [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], [[Muhammad Marmaduke Pickthall]] (who each translated the Qur'an), and [[Rowland Allanson-Winn, 5th Baron Headley|Lord Headley]].

[[Western Muslims]], particularly converts to Islam, see him as a pioneer of the path they have taken. His legacy is maintained by the Abdullah Quilliam Society which was formed in 1996. The Society is raising funds for the purchase of 8-10 Brougham Terrace in order to restore the historic mosque and establish an educational centre.<ref>[http://www.salaam.co.uk/charities/26-07-05.php Appeal for Heritage Centre in Liverpool]</ref> It has now signed a two-year lease on the premises.<ref>BBC R4 ''Sunday'' 12 August 2007</ref>

The [[Quilliam Foundation]], a moderate Muslim thinktank aimed at challenging extremist islamist ideologies, was launched in 2008.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/mar/01/islam.religion The Guardian; Ex-Islamists start moderate thinkthank]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7360652.stm|BBC: "Ex-extremists call for 'Western Islam'"]</ref> Some Muslims criticised the organization's choice of name because Quilliam was opposed to [[British Empire|British imperialism]] and supported the [[Ottoman Caliphate]], even as Marmaduke Pickthall was supporting the reformist [[Young Turks]].<ref>[http://www.yahyabirt.com/?p=136/ Abdullah Quilliam: Britain’s First Islamist?]</ref>

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.abdullahquilliamsociety.org.uk/ Abdullah Quilliam Society]
*[http://abdullahquilliam.wordpress.com/ Abdullah Quilliam: The History of British Muslims]
*[http://www.quilliamfoundation.org/ Quilliam Foundation]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article2826203.ece ''Forgotten champion of Islam: One man and his mosque'' The Independent newspaper, 2 August 2007]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/heritage/england/liverpool/article_1.shtml Special BBC feature on Abdullah Quilliam and his Mosque, including audio testimonials from his grand-daughter and admirers]
*[http://www.mcb.org.uk/features/features.php?ann_id=139 The Muslim Council of Britain's special biography and profile on Quilliam's life]
*[http://www.masud.co.uk/ISLAM/bmh/BMH-AQ-poem4.htm ''The Riddle of Life'', poem by Abdullah Quilliam]
*[http://www.wokingmuslim.org/pers/quilliam/ Quilliam mentioned in early Ahmadiyya sources and his connection with the Woking Muslim Mission under the name Professor H.M. Leon]
*[http://www.isb.org.uk/iaw/yesteryear.htm A brief look at Muslims in Britain from yesteryear]
*[http://www.islamic-considerations.blogspot.com Review of Abdullah Quilliam and the misappropriation of his name]

== Sources ==
*{{cite book|last=Lewis|first=Philip|title=Islamic Britain: Religion, Politics, and Identity among British Muslims: Bradford in the 1990s|year=1994|publisher=I.B. Tauris|location=London|id=ISBN 1-85043-861-7}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Quilliam, William Abdullah}}
[[Category:1856 births]]
[[Category:1932 deaths]]
[[Category:Converts to Islam]]
[[Category:English Muslims]]
[[Category:English religious writers]]
[[Category:People from Liverpool]]
[[Category:Muslim writers]]
[[Category:Burials at Brookwood Cemetery]]

[[ar:عبد الله كوليام]]

Tervagant

2008-12-07T03:28:59Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:ترماغانت

In [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] Europe, '''Termagant''' was the name given to a god supposedly worshiped by [[Islam|Muslims]].

==Origin of the concept==
European literature from the [[Middle Ages]] often referred to Muslims as [[paganism|pagans]], or by [[sobriquet]]s such as ''the paynim foe''. These depictions represent Muslims worshiping [[Muhammad]] as a god, and depict them worshiping various deities in the form of [[Idolatry|idols]] ([[cult image]]s), ranging from [[Apollo]] to [[Lucifer]], but their chief deity was typically named Termagant, rather than [[Allah]].

The origin of the name Termagant is unknown, and does not seem to derive from any actual aspect of Muslim belief or practice, however wildly distorted. [[W. W. Skeat]] in the 19th century, speculated that the name was originally "Trivagante", meaning 'thrice wandering', a reference to the moon, because of the Islamic use of crescent moon imagery.

==Termagant in literature==
Whatever its origins, "Termagant" became established in the West as the name of the principal Muslim god, being regularly mentioned in [[metrical romance]]s and ''[[chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]''. In the 15th-century Middle English romance ''[[Guy of Warwick|Syr Guy of Warwick]]'', a [[Sultan]] swears an oath:

:''So help me, [[Mahoun]]e, of might,''
:''And Termagant, my god so bright.''

In the ''[[Chanson de Roland]]'', the Muslims, having lost the battle of [[Roncesvalles]], desecrate their "pagan [[idolatry|idols]]" (lines 2589 - 2590):
:''E Tervagan tolent sun escarbuncle, / E Mahumet enz en un fosset butent,''
:''They strip the fire-red gem off Termagant / And throw Mohammed down into a ditch. . . .''

In the ''[[Sowdone of Babylone]]'', the [[sultan]] makes a vow to Termagaunte rather than [[Mahound]] (Muhammad)<ref>The Sultan of Babylon. Ed: Alan Lupack. TEAMS Texts. http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/sultfrm.htm</ref> (Lines 135-140):
:''Of Babiloyne the riche Sowdon,''
:''Moost myghty man he was of moolde;''
:''He made a vowe to Termagaunte:''
:''Whan Rome were distroied and hade myschaunce,''
:''He woolde turne ayen erraunte''
:''And distroye Charles, the Kinge of Fraunce.''

In [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'', the ''[[Chaucer's Tale of Sir Topas|Tale of Sir Thopas]]'' (supposed to be told by Chaucer himself on the pilgrimage) is a parody of these [[Romance (genre)|chivalric romances]]. In the tale, a [[giant (mythology)|giant]] [[knight]] named "Sir Oliphaunt" is made to swear an oath by Termagant.

Termagant also became a [[stock character]] in a number of [[medieval literature|medieval]] [[mystery play]]s. On the [[theatre|stage]], Termagant was usually depicted as a [[turban]]ned creature who wore a long, Eastern style [[gown]]. As a stage-[[villain]], he would rant at and threaten the lesser villains who were his servants and worshippers.

=="Termagant" as a shrewish woman==
{{wiktionary}}
Because of the theatrical tradition, by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] day the term had come to refer to a bullying person. [[Henry IV, part 1|''Henry IV'']] contains a reference to "that hot termagant Scot". In [[Hamlet]] the hero says of ham actors that "I would have such a fellow whipped for o'er-doing Termagant, it out-Herod's Herod". [[Herod]], like Termagant, was also a character from medieval drama who was famous for ranting.

Mainly because of Termagant's depiction in long gowns, given that female roles were routinely played by male actors in Shakespearean times, English audiences got the mistaken notion that the character was female, or at least that he resembled a mannish woman. As a result, the name ''termagant'' came increasingly applied to a woman with a quarrelsome, scolding quality, and thus the name applies today to a quarrelsome, scolding woman. ''[[Virago]]'' and ''[[shrew]]'' are also [[pejorative]] names for other types of unpleasant, aggressive woman. Nevertheless, the term is still sometimes used of men. The Australian politician [[Kim Beazley]] labelled a male opponent a termagant.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/obama-offers-hope-for-the-art-of-speechmaking/2008/01/20/1200764074900.html Stephanie Peatling ''Obama offers hope for the art of speechmaking'', January 21, 2008]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Allah]]
* [[Ilah]]
* [[Names of God]]
* [[99 Names of God in the Qur'an]]
* [[Tawhid]]
* [[Islam]]
* [[Pillars of Islam]]
* [[Qaaba]]
* [[Muhammad | Holy Prophet Muhammad]]
* [[Prophets of Islam]]

==Other Termagants==
* {{HMS|Termagant}} is a longstanding [[ship's name]] in the British [[Royal Navy]].
* In the fictional ''[[Warhammer 40,000]]'' universe, Termagants are a type of [[tyranid]], creatures that resemble dinosaurs or insects.
* In the [[microgame]] ''Chitin:1 The Harvest Wars'', published by [[Metagaming Concepts|Metagaming]], Termagant was a type of ground unit
* In [[Jack Vance]]'s book ''[[The Dragon Masters]]'', a sub-species of "dragon" is the man-sized termagant
*In Washington Irving's "[[Rip Van Winkle]]", Dame Van Winkle is described by the narrator as being a "termagant wife".

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* ''[[Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable]]'', "[http://www.bartleby.com/81/16352.html Termagant]"
*Mohja Kahf, 1999. ''Western Representations of the Muslim Woman: From Termagant to Odalisque'' (Austin:University of Texas Press)
==External links==
* [http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=20000329 ''Termagant'']: The Mavens' Word of the Day
* [http://www.smh.com.au/news/opinion/obama-offers-hope-for-the-art-of-speechmaking/2008/01/20/1200764074900.html ''Beazley's use'']: Paras 4-6

[[Category:Fakelore]]
[[Category:Medieval legends]]
[[Category:Stock characters]]

[[ar:ترماغانت]]
[[ja:ターマガント]]
[[ru:Термагант]]

Kampfhubschrauber

2008-12-06T22:59:29Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:مروحية هجومية

{{Refimprove|article|date=October 2006}}

An '''attack helicopter''' is a [[military helicopter]] specifically designed and built to carry weapons for attacking targets on the ground, such as enemy infantry, armored vehicles and structures. Weapons used on attack helicopters can include [[autocannon]]s, [[machine-gun]]s, [[rocket]]s, and guided [[missile]]s such as the [[AGM-114 Hellfire|Hellfire]]. Many attack helicopters are also capable of carrying [[air to air missile]]s, though mostly for purposes of self-defense. Today's attack helicopter has two main roles: first, to provide direct and accurate [[close air support]] for ground troops, and the second, in the [[Anti tank#Helicopters|anti tank]] role to destroy enemy armor concentrations. Attack helicopters are also used to supplement lighter helicopters in the armed scout role.

==History==
[[Image:Bell 209.jpg|thumb|right|Prototype of the AH-1, the first dedicated attack helicopter, and canonical example to this day.]]
[[Image:Ah56a-lc1 b.jpg|thumb|right|Cheyenne prototype]]
[[Image:Bell AH-1 Cobra.jpg|thumb|right|Current Huey-Cobra]]
[[Image:Mi-24 Desert Rescue.jpg|right|thumb|A Russian Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter.]]

In the mid-1960s the U.S. Army concluded that a purpose-built attack helicopter with more speed and firepower than current [[armed helicopter]]s was required in the face of increasingly intense ground fire (often using heavy machine guns and anti-tank rockets) from Viet Cong and NVA troops. Based on this realization, and with the growing involvement in Vietnam, the U.S. Army developed the requirements for a dedicated attack helicopter, the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System (AAFSS). The aircraft design selected for this program in 1965, was [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed's]] [[AH-56 Cheyenne]].<ref name="Attack-1">{{cite paper|author=Office of the Assistant Vice Chief of Staff of the Army|title=An Abridged History of the Army Attack Helicopter Program|publisher=Department of the Army|year=1973|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5JNGWqTeh}}</ref>

As the Army began its acquisition of a dedicated attack helicopter, it sought options to improve performance over the continued use of improvised interim aircraft (such as the UH-1B/C). In late 1965, a panel of high-level officers was selected to evaluate several prototype versions of armed and attack helicotpers to determine which provided the most significant increase in capability to the UH-1B. The three aircraft ranked highest during the evaluation; the Sikorsky S-61, [[H-2 Tomahawk|Kaman H-2 Tomahawk]], and Bell Huey Cobra, were selected to compete in flight trials conducted by the Army's Aviation Test Activity. Upon completion of the flight evaluations, the Test Activity recommended Bell's Huey Cobra to be an interim armed helicopter until the Cheyenne was fielded. On 13 April 1966, the U.S. Army awarded Bell Helicopter Company a production contract for 110 [[AH-1 Cobra|AH-1G Cobras]].<ref name="Attack-1" /> The Cobra had a slender fuselage to make the aircraft a smaller target, increased armor protection, and greater speed.

In 1967, the first AH-1Gs were deployed to Vietnam, around the same time that the Cheyenne successfully completed its first flight and initial flight evaluations. And while the Cheyenne program suffered setbacks over the next few years due to technical problems, the Cobra was establishing itself as an effective aerial weapons platform, despite its performance shortcomings compared to the AH-56,<ref name="Attack-1" /> and design issues of its own. By 1972, when the Cheyenne program was eventually cancelled to make way for the Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH)<ref name="Attack-1" />, the ''interim'' "Snake" had built a solid reputation as an attack helicopter.

After Vietnam, and especially into the 1990s, the missile-armed attack helicopter evolved into a primary anti-tank weapon. Able to quickly move about the battlefield and launch fleeting "pop-up attacks", helicopters presented a major threat even with the presence of organic air defenses. The gunship became a major tool for both the US Army and their Warsaw Pact counterparts in tank warfare, and most attack helicopters became more and more optimized for the antitank mission..<ref name="Mazarella 1994">Mazarella, Mark N. [http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cgi-bin/showfile.exe?CISOROOT=/p4013coll2&CISOPTR=1135&filename=1136.pdf#search=%222007%22 "Adequacy of U.S. Army Attack Helicopter Doctrine to Support the Scope of Attack Helicopter Operations in a Multi-Polar World"]. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College, 1994. Accessed on 12 December 2007.</ref> The US Marine Corps continued to see the helicopter, as well as its fixed-wing aviation assets, in the close support role, although the Marines did dedicate a close-support helicopter in the form of the [[AH-1 Cobra]] and [[AH-1 Super Cobra]]. Soviet helicopters retained troop transport capability rather than being attack-only.

While helicopters were effective tank-killers in the Middle East, attack helicopters are being seen more in a multipurpose role. Tactics, such as [[tank plinking]], showed that fixed-wing aircraft could be effective against tanks, but helicopters retained a unique low-altitude, low-speed capability for close air support. Other purpose-built helicopters were developed for [[special operations]] missions, including the [[MH-6]] for extremely close support.

The "deep attack" role of independently operating attack helicopters came into question after a failed mission, during the [[2003 Iraq war timeline#March 24, 2003|2003 Gulf War attack on the Karbala Gap]].<ref name=WT2003-04>{{Citation
| last = Scarborough
| first = Ryan
| author-link =
| title = Apache operation a lesson in defeat; Army choppers hit without air cover.
| newspaper = Washington Times
| pages = 1
| date = April 2003
| url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb5244/is_200304/ai_n20780844}}</ref> A second mission in the same area, four days later, but coordinated with artillery and fixed-wing aircraft,<ref name=CRS2003-06-04>{{citation
|page = CRS-36
|url = https://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/crs/rl31946.pdf
|format=PDF|title = Iraq War: Defense Program Implications for Congress
|author = Ryan O'Rourke
|date = June 4, 2003
|publisher = Congressional Research Service
|accessdate = 2007-12-12
}}</ref> was far more successful with minimal losses.

==Modern attack helicopter==
[[Image:AH-64 Apache 060224.jpg|thumb|right|An [[AH-64 Apache]] helicopter of the U.S Army]]
[[Image:FZ-207 rocket launcher P1220931.jpg|thumb|A 19-rocket launcher.]]
[[Image:Eurocopter Tiger 2.jpg|thumb|Modern [[Eurocopter Tiger|Tiger UHT]] of the [[German Army]]]]

During the late 1970s the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] saw the need of more sophistication within the attack helicopter corps, allowing them to operate in all weather conditions. With that the Advanced Attack Helicopter program was started. From this program the Hughes YAH-64 came out as the winner. The Soviet armed forces also saw the need of a more advanced helicopter. Military officials asked [[Kamov]] and [[Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant|Mil]] to submit designs. The [[Kamov Ka-50|Ka-50]] officially won the competition, but Mil decided to continue development of the [[Mil Mi-28|Mi-28]] that they had originally submitted.

The 1990s could be seen as the coming-of-age for the U.S. attack helicopter. The [[AH-64]] Apache was used extensively during [[Operation Desert Storm]] with great success. Apaches fired the first shots of the war, destroying enemy [[early warning radar]] and [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]] sites with their [[Hellfire missile]]s. They were later used successfully in both of their operational roles, to direct attack against enemy armor and as aerial artillery in support of ground troops. Hellfire missile and cannon attacks by Apache helicopters destroyed many enemy tanks and armored cars.

Today, the attack helicopter has been further refined, and the AH-64D Apache Longbow demonstrates many of the advanced technologies being considered for deployment on future gunships. The Russians are currently deploying the Ka-50, and Mi-28, which are roughly equivalent though these attack aircraft are not linked into a command and control system at a level which is quite comparable to current U.S. equipment. Many students of ground attack helicopter warfare feel that linking into a network is a requirement of today's modern armies, since attack helicopters are being increasingly incorporated as part of a linked support element system by most of the armies of the world.

===Lessons learned about limitations of independent attack helicopters===
On March 24, 2003, US [[V Corps]] launched a raid, by 32 Apache helicopters, against Medina Division armor in Karbala, with an attack plan that would fly through the [[Karbala]] area. "Army officials now believe that the aviation assembly areas the Army established in the Iraqi desert had been under surveillance by enemy observers, who noticed battle preparations on the night of the 24th." The corps commander told reporters that post-strike analysis revealed that the Iraqi observers had alerted the defense using cellular telephones.<ref name=Newman2003>{{citation
|url = http://www.afa.org/magazine/oct2003/1003najaf.html
|journal = Air Force Magazine
|date = October 2003
|volume = 86
|issue = 10
|title = Ambush at Najaf: Was it just poor tactics or some deeper problem that caused the failed Apache mission?
|first = Richard J. | last = Newman
}}</ref><ref name=WT2003-04/>

As they approached, the power grid in Karbala was shut off, and the night went dark. The Apaches were taken under heavy antiaircraft fire. One was shot down (with the crew captured by Iraqi forces. They were later recovered by US forces), and enough of the others were damaged such that the raid was aborted.

Two days later, the Army again used Apaches to carry out another nighttime deep attack. Tactics used, however, were quite different than those on March 24.<ref name=CRS2003-06-04/> The damage done, "The results of the attack were respectable, if not spectacular: seven Iraqi air defense guns destroyed, along with three artillery systems, five radars, and 25 vehicles or other weapons systems. Not one Apache was shot down. Shortly afterward, the 3rd Infantry Division slashed through the Medina on its way toward Baghdad."<ref name=Newman2003/>

On March 26, other systems supported the attack, beginning with a four-minute artillery bombardment to distract the gunners. As the helicopters moved through the Najaf area, the lights again went off, and the intensity of antiaircraft fire increased as they approached the target.

Two different things were done. "The Apaches fired back on the move—rather than using the Army’s typical tactic of hovering over the battlefield. That made them harder to hit from the ground but reduced their accuracy." Also, fixed-wing fighters protected the Apaches' flanks and suppressed more air defense. As the helicopters moved in, they radioed the locations of air defense targets to the fighters.<ref name=Newman2003/>

The March 24 raid is still being analyzed, with Air Force officers suggesting that the AH-64 alone is simply not effective for deep attack without support from conventional aircraft. Other analysts think this mission was poorly planned and the Iraqis had good intelligence on their route of attack. Nevertheless, the Apache mission generally changed from deep attack to direct support of troops.

One of the most important lessons learned about the abortive raid on Iraqi tanks in [[Karbala]], Iraq, was that the AH-64 is resilient enough to function effectively even when damaged. It was also made clear, however, that attack helicopters, without coordinated [[SEAD]] (Suppression of Enemy Air Defense), cannot penetrate an alerted defense.

==Models==
Modern examples include:

* [[AH-1 Cobra]]
** [[AH-1 SuperCobra]]
** [[AH-1Z Viper]]
* [[Mil Mi-24]]
* [[AH-64 Apache]]
** [[Westland WAH-64 Apache]]
* [[Agusta A129 Mangusta]]
* [[Eurocopter Tiger]]
* [[Mil Mi-28|Mil Mi-28 Havoc]]
* [[Kamov Ka-50]]
** [[Kamov Ka-50#Ka-52|Kamov Ka-52 Alligator]]
* [[Denel AH-2 Rooivalk]]
* [[HAL Light Combat Helicopter]]
* [[CAIC WZ-10]]
* [[Kawasaki OH-1]]
* [[MH-6 Little Bird|AH-6 Little Bird]]
* [[RAH-66]] (canceled)

==See also==
* [[Armed helicopter]]
* [[Army aviation]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Further reading===
*Duke, R.A., ''Helicopter Operations in Algeria'' [Trans. French], Dept. of the Army (1959)
*France, Operations Research Group, ''Report of the Operations Research Mission on H-21 Helicopter'' (1957)
*Leuliette, Pierre, ''St. Michael and the Dragon: Memoirs of a Paratrooper'', New York:Houghton Mifflin (1964)
*Riley, David, ''French Helicopter Operations in Algeria'' Marine Corps Gazette, February 1958, pp. 21-26.
*Shrader, Charles R. ''The First Helicopter War: Logistics and Mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962'' Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers (1999)
*Spenser, Jay P., ''Whirlybirds: A History of the U.S. Helicopter Pioneers'', Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press (1998)

{{Aviation lists}}

[[Category:Attack aircraft|Helicopter, attack]]
[[Category:Military helicopters]]

[[ar:مروحية هجومية]]
[[es:Helicóptero de ataque]]
[[fa:بالگرد جنگنده]]
[[fr:Hélicoptère d'attaque]]
[[hr:Jurišni helikopter]]
[[it:Elicottero d'attacco]]
[[he:מסוק קרב]]
[[ms:Helikopter penyerang]]
[[nl:Gevechtshelikopter]]
[[ja:攻撃ヘリコプター]]
[[no:Kamphelikopter]]
[[fi:Taisteluhelikopteri]]
[[sv:Attackhelikopter]]
[[vi:Trực thăng chiến đấu]]
[[zh:攻击直升机]]

Griechenverfolgungen im Osmanischen Reich 1914–1923

2008-12-06T14:58:59Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:مذابح اليونانيين البونتيك

[[Image:Pontus.png|thumb|right|250px|The historical Pontus region]]


[[Image:Ethnicturkey1911.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Ethnic groups in the Balkans and Asia Minor as of the early 20th Century (William R. Shepherd, ''Historical Atlas'', 1911).]]

[[Image:Proportions des populations en Asie Mineure statistique officielle d1914.png|thumb|200px|The archive document of 1914 Census of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Total population (sum of all [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]]) was 20,975,345 and the Greek population before the [[Balkan wars]] were 2,833,370 (1909 census) was dropped to 1,792,206 (due to lost of lands to Greece) in 1914 census; published also by [[Stanford J. Shaw]].<ref name=Stanford-239-241>Stanford pp.239-241</ref>]]

During [[World War I]] and its aftermath (1914-1923), the [[Young Turks|Young Turk]] government of the [[Ottoman Empire]] instigated a violent campaign against the [[Greeks|Greek]] population of [[Pontus]] and other regions of the Empire inhabited by Greeks. The campaign included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, and summary expulsions. According to various sources, the death toll in Pontus ranged from 300,000 to 360,000; the death toll for Ottoman Greeks as a whole was higher. Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighbouring [[Russian Empire]]. Most of the [[Pontic Greeks]] who remained in Pontus after the end of the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|1919-22 Greco-Turkish War]] were later deported to Greece under the terms of the [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]] in 1923.

[[Turkey#Government and politics|The government]] of [[Turkey]], the [[succession of states|successor state]] to the Ottoman Empire,<ref>Hulse (NYT 2007)</ref> maintains that the large-scale campaign was triggered by the perception that the Greek population was sympathetic to the enemies of the Ottoman state and a potential [[fifth column]]. The [[Allies of World War I]] took a different view, condemning the Ottoman government-sponsored massacres as [[crime against humanity|crimes against humanity]]. More recently, the [[International Association of Genocide Scholars]] passed a resolution in 2007 affirming that the Ottoman campaign against [[Christian]] minorities of the Empire, including the Greeks, was [[genocide]]. Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the campaign as a genocide, as have the parliaments of [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]].

==Prelude==

'''Pontus''' is a region on the southern coast of the [[Black Sea]]. ''Pontos'' as a toponym developed after the exploration and the colonization of the Anatolian and other Black Sea cities by the [[Ionia]]n [[Greeks]] beginning about the end of the [[Greek Dark Ages]]. The name eventually became more specific to the area of northeast [[Anatolia]] in late classical times.

Pontus was an autonomous state under the Imperial rule of Constantinople through most of the history of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Its fall gave rise to the [[Empire of Trebizond]], which existed in the area from 1204 to 15 August 1461. After that, the name Pontus was preserved as a state within the [[Ottoman Empire]].

Among causes for the Turkish campaign against the Pontic Greek population was a fear that the population would aid the Ottoman Empire's enemies, and a belief among some Turks that to become a modern nation state it was necessary to purge from the territories of the state those national groups who could threaten the integrity of a modern Turkish nation state.<ref>Bloxham. [http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=TSRkGNoEPFwC&pg=PA150&sig=ACfU3U09_Sjo0a0T4KpiS6QfG-94noUmdg p. 150]</ref><ref name=Levene>Levene (1998)</ref>

According to a [[German Empire|German]] [[military]] attaché, the Ottoman Turkish minister of war [[Ismail Enver]] had declared in October 1915 that he wanted to "solve the Greek problem during the war... in the same way he believe[d] he solved the [[Armenian Genocide|Armenian problem]]."<ref name="Ferguson">Ferguson (2006), p. 180 </ref>

==Events==
In the summer of 1914 the [[Special Organization (Ottoman Empire)|Special Organization]] (Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa), assisted by government and army officials, conscripted Greek men of military age from [[Thrace]] and western [[Anatolia]] into labor battalions in which hundreds of thousands died.<ref>Hull (2005), p. 273.</ref> Sent hundreds of miles into the Interior of Anatolia, these conscripts were employed in road-making, building, tunnel excavating and other field work but their numbers were heavily reduced through either privations and ill-treatment or by outright massacre by their Turkish guards.<ref>King, William C. (1922), p. 437</ref> This program of forced conscription later expanded to other regions of the [[Ottoman Empire|Empire]] including [[Pontus]].

Conscription of Greek men was supplemented by massacres and by deportations involving death marches of the general population. Greek villages and towns would be surrounded by Turks and their inhabitants massacred. Such was the story in [[Phocaea]] (Greek: Φώκαια), a town in western [[Anatolia]] twenty-five miles northwest of [[Smyrna]], on 12 June 1914 where the slain bodies of men, women and children were thrown down a well.<ref>Staff, The Atlanta Constitution, 17 June 1914, p. 1.</ref>

While deportations of the general Greek population of western Anatolia commenced in 1914, deportations in Pontus began as late as January 1916.<ref name=Horton-1>Horton {{pn}}</ref> According to George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, " ... over 500,000 Greeks were deported of whom comparatively few survived."<ref name=Rendel>Rendel G. W. (20 March 1922)</ref>

Methods of destruction which caused death indirectly - such as [[deportation]]s involving death marches, starvation in [[labour camp]]s, [[concentration camp]]s etc. - were referred to as "white massacres".<ref name=Rendel/>

The systematic massacre and deportation of Greeks in Asia Minor, a program which had come into effect in 1914, was a precursor to the atrocities perpetrated by both the Hellenic and Turkish armies during the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)|Greco-Turkish War]], a conflict which followed the Hellenic [[occupation of Smyrna]]<ref name=Toynbee-270>Toynbee, p. 270.</ref><ref name=Rummel>Rummel (Chapter 5)</ref> in May 1919 and continued until the [[Great Fire of Smyrna]] in September 1922.<ref name=autogenerated1>Taner Akcam, ''A Shameful Act'', p. 322</ref> Limited<ref name =Rummel /> [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)#Greek massacres of Turks|Massacres of Turks]] were also carried out by the Hellenic troops.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

For the massacres that occurred during the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)|Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922]], British historian [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] wrote that it was the Greek landings that created the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal:<ref name=Toynbee-312-313>Toynbee (1922), pp. 312-313.</ref> "...The Greeks of 'Pontus' and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories, were in some degree victims of Mr. [[Eleftherios Venizelos|Venizelos]]'s and Mr. [[Lloyd George]]'s original miscalculations at Paris."

===Contemporary accounts===
{{see also|Contemporary press headlines on atrocities affecting the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)}}

German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, as well as ''The Memorandum by Mr. G.W. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice'', have provided evidence for series of systematic massacres of the Greeks in Asia Minor.<ref name=AIHG-Aftermath>[http://www.aihgs.com/Aftermath.htm Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies: the genocide and its aftermath]</ref><ref name=Halo>Halo pp. 26, 27, & 28</ref><ref name=Rendel/> The quotes have been attributed to various diplomats, notably the German Ambassadors [[Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim]] and Mr. Kuhlman, German consul in Amissos Herr Kuchhoff, Austro-Hungarians Ambassador Pallavicini and consul in Amissos Herr Kwiatkowski, Sir P. Cox, and the Italian unofficial agent in Angora Signor Tuozzi. Other quotes are from clergymen and activists, notably the German Father J. Lepsius, and Mr. Hopkins of the [[American Committee for Relief in the Near East]]. It must be noted that Germany and Austria-Hungary were allies of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.

The accounts describe systematic massacres, rapes and burnings of Greek villages, and attribute intent to Turkish officials, namely the Turkish Prime Minister [[Mahmud Sevket Pasha]], [[Refet Bele]] ([[:tr:Refet Bele]]), [[Talat Pasha]] and [[Enver Pasha]].<ref name=AIHG-Aftermath /><ref name= Halo /><ref name="Rendel"/>

Additionally, ''[[The New York Times]]'' and its correspondents have made extensive references to the events, recording massacres, deportations, individual killings, rapes, burning of entire [[Greeks|Greek]] [[villages]], destruction of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] [[Church (building)|churches]] and [[monastery|monasteries]], drafts for "Labor Brigades", looting, terrorism and other "atrocities" for Greek, Armenian and also for British and American citizens and government officials.<ref name=NYTarchives>[http://query.nytimes.com/search/query?frow=0&n=10&srcht=s&daterange=period&query=&srchst=p&hdlquery=&bylquery=&mon1=09&day1=18&year1=1851&mon2=12&day2=31&year2=1980&submit.x=0&submit.y=0 The New York Times] Advanced search engine for article and headline archives (subscription necessary for viewing article content).</ref><ref name=AIHG-NYT>Alexander Westwood and Darren O'Brien, [http://www.aihgs.com/New%20York%20Times.htm Selected bylines and letters from ''The New York Times''], [http://www.aihgs.com/ The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies], 2006 </ref> The newspaper was awarded its first [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1918 "for the most disinterested and meritorious public service rendered by an American newspaper -- complete and accurate coverage of the war".<ref name=NYTawards>[http://www.nytco.com/company/awards/pulitzer_prizes.html Our Company, Awards], ''[[New York Times]]''. See also [[Pulitzer Prizes awarded to the New York Times' staff]].</ref> More media of the time reported the events with similar titles.<ref name=OtherNews>Kateb, Vahe Georges (2003). ''[http://www.library.uow.edu.au/adt-NWU/uploads/approved/adt-NWU20050117.121611/public/02Whole.pdf Australian Press Coverage of the Armenian Genocide 1915-1923]'', University of Wollongong, Graduate School of Journalism</ref>

[[Henry Morgenthau, Sr.|Henry Morgenthau]], the [[United States Ambassador to Turkey|United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire]] from 1913 to 1916 accused the "Turkish government" of a campaign of "outrageous terrorizing, cruel torturing, driving of women into harems, debauchery of innocent girls, the sale of many of them at 80 cents each, the murdering of hundreds of thousands and the deportation to and starvation in the desert of other hundreds of thousands, [and] the destruction of hundreds of villages and many cities", all part of "the willful execution" of a "scheme to annihilate the Armenian, Greek and Syrian Christians of Turkey."<ref name= Morgenthau1>Morgenthau Calls for Check on Turks, ''New York Times'', 5 September 1922, pg. 3</ref>

United States Consul-General [[George Horton]] reports that "[o]ne of the cleverest statements circulated by the Turkish propagandists is to the effect that the massacred Christians were as bad as their executioners, that it was '50-50.' " On this issue he clarifies that "[h]ad the Greeks, after the massacres in the Pontus and at Smyrna, massacred all the Turks in Greece, the record would have been 50-50—almost." As an eye-witness, he also praises Greeks for their "conduct [...] toward the thousands of Turks residing in Greece, while the ferocious massacres were going on...", which, according to his opinion, was "one of the most inspiring and beautiful chapters in all that country’s history."<ref name=Horton-2>Horton {{pn}}</ref>

===Casualties===
According to various sources the Greek death toll in the Pontus region of Anatolia ranges from 300,000 to 360,000. Estimates for the death toll of Anatolian Greeks as a whole are significantly higher.

According to the [[International League for the Rights and Liberation of Peoples]], between 1916 and 1923, up to 350,000 [[Greek people|Greek]] [[Pontus|Pontians]] were reportedly killed in massacres, persecution and death marches.<ref name= UNdoc>[http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&DS=E/CN.4/1998/NGO/24&Lang=E United Nations document E/CN.4/1998/NGO/24] (page 3) acknowledging receipt of a letter by the "International League for the Rights and Liberation of Peoples" titled "A people in continued exodus" (i.e., Pontian Greeks) and putting the letter into internal circulation (Dated 1998-02-24) If above link doesn't work, [http://ap.ohchr.org/search/maine.htm search United Nations documents] for "A people in continued exodus"</ref> [[Merrill D. Peterson]] cites the death toll of 360,000 for the Greeks of Pontus.<ref name= Peterson>Peterson {{pn|date=October 2008}}</ref> According to G.K. Valavanis "The loss of human life among the Pontian Greeks, since the Great War (World War I) until March 1924, can be estimated at 353,000, as a result of murders, hangings, and from punishment, disease, and other hardships."<ref name= Valavanis>Valavanis, p.24.</ref>

Edward Hale Bierstadt states that "According to official testimony, the Turks since 1914 have slaughtered in cold blood 1,500,000 Armenians, and 500,000 Greeks, men women and children, without the slightest provocation."<ref name=Bierstadt>Bierstadt {{pn}}</ref> In his book ''The Killing Trap'', Manus I. Mildrasky estimates that approximately 480,000 Anatolian Greeks died during the aforementioned period.<ref name=Mildrasky-342-377>Mildrasky, pp. 342,377</ref>

==Aftermath==
[[Image:Greekrefugeemap.png|thumb|left|250px| Density map showing the dispersion of Greek refugees within Greece (Richard Clogg)]]
[[Image:Mapofgreecerefugeesettlements-1926.JPG|thumb|right|250px| 1926 League of Nations map showing settlements of the Greek refugees]]

Article 142 of the [[Treaty of Sèvres]], prepared after the first World War, called the Turkish regime "terrorist" and contained provisions "to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war."<ref>[http://net.lib.byu.edu/~rdh7/wwi/versa/sevres1.html Treaty of Sevres]</ref> The Treaty of Sèvres was never ratified by the Turkish government and ultimately was replaced by the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]. That treaty was accompanied by a "Declaration of Amnesty", without containing any provision in respect to punishment of war crimes.<ref name="Bassioun">Bassioun, [http://books.google.com/books?id=MbiedpEFzbYC&pg=PA63&dq=genocide+%2Bgreek&sig=UX6B8xsC4oasf1GjlxTJrTRhWkQ#PPA63,M1 pp. 62-63]</ref>

In 1923, a [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]] resulted in a near-complete elimination of the Greek ethnic presence in [[Anatolia]] and a similar elimination of the Turkish ethnic presence in much of Greece. According to the Greek census of 1928, 182,169 Greeks from the Pontus region had migrated to Greece during the [[population exchange between Greece and Turkey]].<ref>Geniki Statistiki Ypiresia tis Ellados (Statistical Annual of Greece), ''Statistika apotelesmata tis apografis sou plithysmou tis Ellados tis 15-16 Maiou 1928'', pg.41. Athens: National Printing Office, 1930. Quoted in {{cite book
| last = Kontogiorgi
| first = Elisabeth
| title = Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia: The Forced Settlement of Refugees 1922-1930
| year = 2006
| pages = 96, footnote 56
| date = 2006-08-17
| isbn = 978-0199278961
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
}}</ref> It is impossible to know exactly how many Greek inhabitants of Pontus, Smyrna and the rest of Asia Minor died from 1914 to 1923, and how many ethnic Greeks of Anatolia were deported to Greece or fled to the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name=Ascherson>Ascherson p. 185</ref>

Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighboring [[Russian Empire]] (later, [[Soviet Union]]). The few Pontic Greeks who had remained in Pontus until the end of the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]] were exchanged in the frame of the [[Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations]] in 1922–1923.

==Genocide debate==
===Academic Views===
In December 2007 the [[International Association of Genocide Scholars]] (IAGS), an organization of the world’s foremost experts on genocide, passed a resolution affirming that the 1914-1923 campaign against [[Ottoman Greeks]] constituted genocide.<ref>[http://genocidescholars.org/images/PRelease16Dec07IAGS_Officially_Recognizes_Assyrian_Greek_Genocides.pdf''Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides'']</ref> Although the organization did not endorse the Pontic Greek Genocide thesis in isolation, it affirmed that Pontic Greeks were subject to genocide. The resolution was adopted on 1 December 2007 and the press release issued by the organization on 16 December.<ref name=IAGS-Dec-16>[http://www.greek-genocide.org/iags_resolution.html Greek Genocide 1914-23] Resolution from an IAGS press release as issued on 16 December 2007 </ref> The text of the resolution reads:

{{quote|
:WHEREAS the denial of genocide is widely recognized as the final stage of genocide, enshrining impunity for the perpetrators of genocide, and demonstrably paving the way for future genocides;
:WHEREAS the Ottoman genocide against minority populations during and following the First World War is usually depicted as a genocide against Armenians alone, with little recognition of the qualitatively similar genocides against other Christian minorities of the Ottoman Empire;
:BE IT RESOLVED that it is the conviction of the International Association of Genocide Scholars that the Ottoman campaign against Christian minorities of the Empire between 1914 and 1923 constituted a genocide against Armenians, Assyrians, and Pontian and Anatolian Greeks.
:BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED that the Association calls upon the government of Turkey to acknowledge the genocides against these populations, to issue a formal apology, and to take prompt and meaningful steps toward restitution.
|IAGS<ref name=IAGS-Dec-16/>}}

Historians and academics worldwide use a variety of terms for describing the events. Before the [[Genocide#Coining of the term genocide|coining of the term "genocide"]] in 1943, primary sources used improvised terms, such as "annihilation", "systematic extermination", or "persistent campaign of massacre" and "wholesale massacre".<ref name=Horton-3>Horton {{pn}}</ref><ref name=Morgenthau>Morgenthau, p.153</ref> Today, the events are described on a par with the [[Armenian Genocide]],<ref>Ferguson (2007) p.182</ref> as a similar phenomenon to the [[Holocaust]],<ref name=TottenJacobs>Totten, pp 207, 213 </ref> as "ethnic cleansing",<ref name= Naimark>Naimark, {{pn}}</ref><ref name= Lieberman>Lieberman, {{pn}}</ref> and as "genocide".<ref name=TatzJatz /><ref name="Rummel" /><ref name=TottenJacobs /><ref name=Levene/><ref name=Fotiadis-1>Fotiadis, {{pn}}</ref> Other historians choose milder terminology, such as "organized killing and deportation",<ref name=King>Charles King, ''The Black Sea: A History''. {{pn}}</ref> and "carefully planned atrocities [aimed at their] complete destruction".<ref name=Koromila>Marianna Koromila, ''The Greeks and the Black Sea''. {{pn}}</ref> Mark Levene, suggests that historians tend to avoid the term genocide to describe the events, possibly in an attempt to prevent their magnification by comparison with those of 1915-16 ([[Armenian Genocide]]).<ref name=Levene/>

Seminars and courses in western universities still examine the events.<ref>[http://www.unm.edu/~honors/students/courses/PDFDescription-booklet-SPRING07-UPPER.pdf The Holocaust, Genocide, and Intolerance] University Honors Program, ''The University of New Mexico'', p.28, Retrieved on [[2007-01-29]] {{Dead link|date=August 2008}}</ref><ref>[http://www.cofc.edu/~muellerr/page6.html Managing Diversity Syllabus, Migration Patterns], New Carolina, ''College of Charleston''. Retrieved on [[2007-02-04]].</ref>

===Political Recognition===

Political recognition of the events as genocide is limited, the only countries officially acknowledging them as such being [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]].

====Greece and Cyprus====

The [[Greek Parliament]] has issued two resolutions on the fate of the Ottoman Greeks; the first in 1994 and the second in 1998. The resolutions were published in the Greek [[Efimerida tis Kyberniseos|Government Gazette]] on 8 March 1994 and 13 October 1998 respectively. The 1994 resolution affirmed the genocide in the Pontus region of Asia Minor and designated 19 May a day of commemoration, while the 1998 resolution affirmed the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor as a whole and designated 14 September a day of commemoration.<ref>Issue 2645/98 & 2193/94, Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic</ref> The first resolution's passing has been attributed to an initiative centered largely around former [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement|PASOK]] deputy [[Michalis Charalambidis]].<ref name= Portal>[http://www.trapezounta.com/article83.htm Web portal of Pontians]</ref>

[[Cyprus]] also officially recognizes the events as genocide.<ref name=Cyprus>Cyprus Press Office, New York City</ref>

====Turkey====
Turkey maintains that the fate of the Ottoman Greek population cannot be considered [[genocide|genocidal]] in nature.

In response to a resolution issued by the [[Greek Parliament]] in 1998 affirming the genocide of Asia Minor Greeks and designating 14 September as a day of commemoration, [[Ankara]] issued a statement claiming that describing the events as genocide was "without any historical basis". "We condemn and protest this resolution" a Turkish Foreign Ministry statement said. "With this resolution the Greek Parliament, which in fact has to apologize to the Turkish people for the large-scale destruction and massacres Greece perpetrated in [[Anatolia]], not only sustains the traditional Greek policy of distorting history, but it also displays that the expansionist Greek mentality is still alive" the statement added.<ref name=TurkishPosition>Office of the Prime Minister, Directorate General of Press and Information: ''[http://www.byegm.gov.tr/YAYINLARIMIZ/CHR/ING98/09/98X09X30.HTM#%2016 Turkey Denounces Greek 'Genocide' Resolution]'' ([[1998-09-30]]). Retrieved on [[2007-02-05]]</ref>

Moreover, [[Greece]]'s choice of 19 May as a day of commemoration for the Pontic Greeks, a national holiday in Turkey (the anniversary of 19 May 1919 when [[Mustafa Kemal Pasha]] set foot in [[Samsun]] to begin the [[Turkish War of Independence]]), is viewed in Turkey as futile provocation by some [[Greek people|Greek]] politicians.<ref name=GreekNews>{{cite web| url=http://www.greeknewsonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=4935&mode=thread&order=0&thold=0 |work=GreekNews |title= Erdoğan Pressures Karamanlis on Pontic Genocide Memorial |accessdate=2006-10-04}}</ref><ref name=TurkishWeekly>{{cite web | url= http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=38110 | work= [[Journal of Turkish Weekly]] | title= EP's Turkey Report Radically Accuses Turks | accessdate=2006-10-04}}</ref> Although Greeks view 19 May 1919 as a re-initiation of persecutions in the [[Pontus]] region, the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs dismisses this allegation.<ref>[http://www.mfa.gov.tr/setting-the-record-straight-on-pontus-propaganda-against-turkey.en.mfa Setting The Record Straight On Pontus Propaganda Against Turkey / Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs]: "On 19 May 1919, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] landed at [[Samsun]] mandated by the Ottoman Government to inspect the situation. Contrary to claims being made in Greece, Mustafa Kemal did no more than prepare reports about the situation and dispatch them to the Ottoman Government."</ref>

Upon the unveiling of two commemorative monuments in [[Thessaloniki]] in May 2006, the [[social-democrat]] mayor of [[İzmir]], [[Aziz Kocaoğlu]], announced on 12 May 2006 that they were suspending the signing (expected in June 2006) of a [[sister city]] agreement between [[İzmir]] and [[Thessaloniki]].{{Fact|date=August 2008}}

In their book ''With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide'', Colin Tatz and Cohn Jatz argue that Turkey denies the genocide so not to jeopardize "its ninety-five-year-old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East".<ref name=TatzJatz>Jatz {{pn}}</ref>
====International Community====
The incidents are also recognized as genocide in some states of the USA. The states of [[South Carolina]],<ref name= SouthCarolina> [http://www.angelfire.com/folk/pontian_net/News/proclomations.htm South Carolina Recognition]</ref> [[New Jersey]],<ref name=NewJersey> [http://www.angelfire.com/folk/pontian_net/News/NEW_JERSEY.htm New Jersey Recognition]</ref> [[Florida]],<ref name= Florida> [http://www.myfloridahouse.gov/Sections/Documents/loaddoc.aspx?FileName=_h9161__.doc&DocumentType=Bill&BillNumber=9161&Session=2005 Florida Recognition]: [http://www.myfloridahouse.gov/Sections/Bills/billsdetail.aspx?BillId=17788& HR 9161 - Pontian Greek Genocide of 1914-1922]</ref> [[Massachusetts]],<ref name= Massachusetts>[http://www.mass.gov/legis/journal/hj051806.pdf Massachusetts Recognition]</ref> [[Pennsylvania]],<ref name= Pennsylvania>[http://www.legis.state.pa.us/CFDOCS/Legis/PN/Public/btCheck.cfm?txtType=HTM&sessYr=2003&sessInd=0&billBody=S&billTyp=R&billnbr=0188&pn=1327 Pennsylvania Recognition]</ref> and [[Illinois]]<ref name= Illinois > [http://www.library.sos.state.il.us/departments/index/register/register_volume30_issue17.pdf Illinois recognition]</ref> have passed [[resolution (law)|resolution]]s recognizing it. In addition, [[George E. Pataki]], governor of the [[New York State]] issued a proclamation designating 19 May 2002 as ''Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day'',<ref name= NYproclamation>[http://www.ahiworld.com/061302.html Proclamation by George E. Pataki, governor of the New York State]</ref> although since states within the United States do not have foreign-policy authority those statements are not legally binding on a federal US level.

[[Armenia]] mentions the "Greek Genocide", its commemoration, and a death toll of 600,000 Greeks in Anatolia, in its first report to the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] of the [[Council of Europe]].<ref name=ArmeniaRec>[http://www.coe.int/t/e/legal_affairs/local_and_regional_democracy/regional_or_minority_languages/2_monitoring/2.2_States_Reports/Armenia_report1.pdf Council of Europe], European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, ''The First Report of the Republic of Armenia According to Paragraph 1 of Article 15 of European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages'', Strasbourg, [[2003-09-03]], p.39. Retrieved on [[2007-02-03]].</ref> In addition, on 19 May 2004 an event commemorating the Pontian Greek victims of the Greek Genocide was held in Yerevan, Armenia and was attended by "Greek ambassador to Armenia, Antonios Vlavianos, other dignitaries, government officials and ordinary Armenians".<ref>Victims of Pontian Greeks Genocide Commemorated in Armenia, ArmenPress, 19 May 2004 (Reproduction of article can be read [http://www.armeniandiaspora.com/forum/showthread.php?t=4103 here]</ref>

In [[Australia]], the issue has been raised in the [[Parliament of Victoria]] on 4 May 2006, by the Minister for Justice [[Jenny Mikakos]].<ref name= VictoriaSpeech>[http://www.betnahrain.org/bbs/index.pl/read/4177 Speech of Victorian Member of Parliament regarding Armenian, Assyrian and Pontian Genocide]</ref><ref name= VictoriaParliament>[http://www.helleniccomserve.com/australiapontiangenocide06.html Victoria Parliament of Australia Raises the Genocide of the Greeks]</ref>

On 7 June 2006 [[Stephen Pound]], member of the [[British House of Commons]] linked the case of the Ottoman Greeks with the [[Armenians]] and [[Assyrians]] claiming that "3.5 million of the historic Christian population of Assyrians, Armenians and Greeks then living in the Ottoman empire had been murdered—starved to death or slaughtered—or exiled by 1923."<ref name=UKparliament>[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200506/cmhansrd/vo060607/halltext/60607h0009.htm#06060755000487 House of Commons Hansard Debates for 7 June 2006]</ref>

In Serbia, an event commemorating the Pontian Greek victims of the Greek Genocide was held in the Chapel of the Belgrade Theology School in 1998.<ref>[http://www.serbia-hellas.f2g.net/articles/genocide.html Event Commemorating the Genocide of the Greeks in Pontos Was Held in Belgrade], Macedonian Press Agency, 26 May 1998. {{Dead link|date=August 2008}} failed retrieval 19 August 2008. ([http://www.serbia-hellas.com/articles/genocide.html alternative URL])</ref>

===Nongovernmental organizations===
In [[Germany]], organizations such as ''Verein der Völkermordgegner e.V''<ref name=Verein>[http://www.aga-online.org/downloads/de/document/aga_01.pdf Verein der Völkermordgegner e.V]</ref> (i.e. "Union against Genocide") or the initiative ''Mit einer Stimme sprechen''<ref name= MitEiner> [http://www.tuday.de/deutsch/veranstaltungen/mit_einer_stimme_sprechen.htm Mit einer Stimme sprechen]</ref>{{Dead link|date=August 2008}} (i.e. "Speaking with One Voice") aim at the official recognition of the genocide of Christian minorities, such as [[Armenians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] in the late [[Ottoman Empire]].

On 19 May 2007, the Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) issued a press release stating that the organization "joins with Pontian Greeks - and all Hellenes around the world - in commemorating 19 May, the international day of remembrance for the genocide initiated by the Ottoman Empire and continued by Kemalist Turkey against the historic Greek population of Pontus" and reaffirms its "determination to work together with all the victims of Turkey's atrocities to secure full recognition and justice for these crimes".<ref>[http://www.anca.org/press_releases/press_releases.php?prid=1186 ANCA Marks Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day, 19 May 2007]</ref>

===Reasons for limited recognition===
The [[United Nations]], the [[European Parliament]], and the [[Council of Europe]] have not made any related statements. According to Constantine Fotiadis, professor of Modern Greek History at the University of Western Macedonia, some of the reasons for the lack of wider recognition and delay in seeking acknowledgment of these events are as follows:<ref name=Fotiadis-2>Fotiadis, {{pn}}</ref>

*The Pontian Greek Genocide was overshadowed by the much larger Armenian Genocide which preceded it, a view also shared by the historian Mark Levene.<ref name=Levene/>
*In contrast to the [[Treaty of Sèvres]], the superseding [[Treaty of Lausanne]] in 1923 dealt with these events by making no reference or mention, and thus sealed the end of the Asia Minor Catastrophe.
*A subsequent peace treaty (Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship in June 1930) between Greece and Turkey. Greece made several concessions to settle all open issues between the two countries in return for peace in the region.
*The [[Second World War]], the [[Greek Civil War| Civil War]], and the political turmoil in Greece that followed forced Greece to focus on its survival and other problems rather than seek recognition of these events.

One other reason for the lack of recognition of these events can be found in the following statement: "It is necessary to refer to these pre-Armistice persecutions, since there is now a strong tendency to minimize or overlook them, and to regard those that followed the armistice as isolated incidents provoked by the Greek Landing at Smyrna and the general Turkish Policy of the Allies."<ref name="Rendel"/>

It is also believed that the [[Greek Government]] has not been very aggressive in genocide recognition for fear of harming efforts at Greek-Turkish rapprochement.{{Fact|date=August 2008}}

==Monuments==
[[Image:Pontic Greek Genocide Monument Salonica.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Monument for the Pontic Greek Genocide in [[Thessaloniki]]]]
Monuments commemorating the plight of Ottoman Greeks have been erected throughout Greece, as well as in a number of other countries including Germany, Canada, and the United States.<ref>[http://www.greek-genocide.org/memorials.html The Greek Genocide 1914-23: Memorials] Accessed on 2008-09-18</ref>

There is a monument for the Pontic Greek Genocide in Thessaloniki, Greece (See illustration on right).<ref>A photograph of the monument can be seen [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pontic_Greek_Genocide_Monument_Salonica.jpg here]</ref> There also exists a monument commemorating the Pontic Greeks in Canada. The plaque reads "For All The Pontians We Remember Their Time of Sorrow And Sacrifice" in English and Greek. Below that it reads "19 of May" (which is the official day of commemoration for the Pontic Greek portion of the Greek Genocide) and "1914-1923" (which were the years in which the extermination efforts against the Greeks of Asia Minor were taking place).<ref>A photograph of the monument can be seen [http://img218.imageshack.us/img218/1150/genocidememwz6.jpg here] and a close-up of the plaque can be seen [http://img216.imageshack.us/img216/3491/genocidemem2qa0.jpg here]</ref>

==See also==
*[[Armenian Genocide]]
*[[Assyrian Genocide]]
*[[Genocide denial]]
*[[Greek refugees]]
*[[Istanbul Pogrom]]
*[[Human rights in Turkey]]
*[[Megali Idea]]
*[[Pan-Turkism]]
*[[Republic of Pontus]]
*[[Topal Osman]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*[[Neal Ascherson|Ascherson, Neal]] (1995). ''Black Sea'', Hill and Wang, ISBN 0-8090-3043-8.
*Bassioun, M. Cherif (1999). ''Crimes Against Humanity in International Criminal Law'', The Hague: Kluwer Law International, ISBN 90-411-1222-7
*Bierstadt, Edward Hale (1924). ''The Great Betrayal; A Survey of the Near East Problem''. New York: R. M. McBride & Co.,
*Bloxham, Donald . ''The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians'', publisher(?), year of publication(?)
*[[Niall Ferguson|Ferguson, Niall]] (2006). ''The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West''. New York: Penguin Press, ISBN 1-5942-0100-5
*Ferguson, Niall ( 2007). ''The War of the Worlds'', Penguin,
*Fotiadis Constantinos Emm. (2004 editor), ''The Genocide of the Pontus Greeks by the Turks''. Volume 13. Herodotus.
* {{cite book | first=George | last= Horton | authorlink=George Horton| title=The Blight of Asia | url= http://www.hri.org/docs/Horton/HortonBook.htm | year=1926 | publisher=Bobbs-Merrill Company | location= Indianapolis}} ([http://www.antibaro.gr/references/Horton_The_Blight_of_Asia.pdf PDF version])
*Hull, Isabel V. (2005). ''Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany'', Cornell University Press, Ithaca
*Hulse Carl. ''[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/26/washington/26cong.html?_r=1&adxnnl=1&ref=todayspaper&adxnnlx=1218637709-3ZKHw2PW5e7+L2WSj2ViLg&oref=slogin U.S. and Turkey Thwart Armenian Genocide Bill], New York Times 26 October 2007
*{{cite book| url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?vid=ISBN1859845509&id=khCffgX1NPIC&pg=PR13&lpg=PR13&vq=&sig=VgQBQ4-HVjDy2Kju1RpfDdy3N8E | title= With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide | first=Colin | last=Jatz | publisher=Verso |year=2003 | isbn=1859845509 | location=Essex}}
*King, Charles. ''The Black Sea: A History'', publisher(?), year of publication(?)
*King, William C. (1922). ''[http://www.greek-genocide.org/article_1500000_greek_christians.html King's Complete History of the World War: Visualizing the Great Conflict in all Theaters of Action 1914-1918]'', The History Associates, Massachusetts.
*Koromila, Marianna. ''The Greeks and the Black Sea'', publisher(?), year of publication(?)
*Levene, Mark (1998). ''Creating a Modern "Zone of Genocide": The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923'', Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 3 Winter 1998, pp. 393-433. ([http://hgs.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/12/3/393 abstract]).
*Lieberman, Benjamin. ''Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe'', publisher(?), year of publication(?)
*Mildrasky, Manus I. ''The Killing Trap'', publisher(?), year of publication (?)
*Morgenthau, Henry (1918) ''[http://www.antibaro.gr/references/Ambassador_Morgenthau_Story_1918.pdf|Ambassador Morgenthau's Story]'', Garden City New York Doubleday, Page & Company
*Naimark, Norman M. ''Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe'', Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2001.
*Peterson, Merrill D. ''Starving Armenians: America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915-1930 and After'' publisher(?) year of publication(?){{
*Rendel G. W. (20 March 1922), ''Foreign Office Memorandum on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice''
*{{cite web| url= http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.CHAP5.HTM |title= Statistics of Democide | work=Chapter 5, Statistics Of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources |author=[[R. J. Rummel]] | accessmonthday= 4 October | accessyear=2006}}
*Staff "[http://www.greek-genocide.org/press/17061914.html Massacre of Greeks Charged to the Turks]",''The Atlanta Constitution'', 17 June 1914.
*[[Stanford J. Shaw]], Ezel Kural Shaw "History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey" Cambridge University
*Taner, Akcam, ''A Shameful Act''
*[[Thea Halo|Halo, Thea]]. ''Not Even My Name'', New York: Picador USA 2000
*{{cite book| url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?vid=ISBN0765801515&id=g26NmNNWK1QC&pg=PA210&lpg=PA210&dq=pontian+isbn:0765801515&num=100&sig=D8lv0QCu9iCqIji5nfiYvhBRC_Q&hl=en| title= Pioneers of Genocide Studies (Clt)| author=Totten, Samuel |coauthors=Jacobs, Steven L | year=2002| ISBN= 0765801515 | publisher= Transaction Publishers | location=New Brunswick, New Jersey }}
*Toynbee, Arnold J. ''The Western question in Greece and Turkey: a study in the contact of civilisations'', Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1922,
*Valavanis, G.K. ''Contemporary General History of Pontus'' (Σύγχρονος Γενική Ιστορία του Πόντου), Athens, 1925

==Further reading==
;Books
* Akcam, Taner. ''From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide'', Zed Books, 4 September 2004, pages 144-149.
* Andreadis, George, Tamama, ''The Missing Girl of Pontos''. Athens: Gordios, 1993.
* Barton, James L. (James Levi). ''The Near East Relief, 1915-1930''. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1943.
* Compton, Carl C. ''The Morning Cometh''. 1986, Karatzas Publisher, New York
* Dobkin, Marjorie Housepian. ''Smyrna 1922: the destruction of a city''. New York, NY: Newmark Press, 1998, c1988.
* Karayinnides, Ioannis. ''Ο γολγοθάς του Πόντου [The Golgotha of Pontus]''. Salonica, Greece, 1978.
* [[Henry Morgenthau, Sr.]]. ''The murder of a nation''. New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America, 1974, 1918.
* ---. [http://www.antibaro.gr/national/morgenthau_athens.pdf ''I was sent to Athens'']. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Co, 1929.
* ---. An international drama. London: Jarrolds Ltd., 1930
* Murat, Jean De. ''The great extirpation of Hellenism and Christianity in Asia Minor: the historic and systematic deception of world opinion concerning the hideous Christianity’s uprooting of 1922''. Miami, Fla.: [s.n.], (Athens [Greece]: A. Triantafillis) 1999.
* Oeconomos, Lysimachos. ''The martyrdom of Smyrna and eastern Christendom; a file of overwhelming evidence, denouncing the misdeeds of the Turks in Asia Minor and showing their responsibility for the horrors of Smyrna''. London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1922.
* Papadopoulos, Alexander. ''Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European War: on the basis of official documents''. New York: Pub. by Oxford University Press, American branch, 1919.
* Pavlides, Ioannis. ''Pages of History of Pontus and Asia Minor''. Salonica, Greece, 1980.
* Tsirkinidis, Harry. ''At last we uprooted them…The Genocide of Greeks of Pontos, Thrace, and Asia Minor, through the French archives''. Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros, 1999.
* Ward, Mark H. ''The Deportations in Asia Minor 1921-1922''. London: Anglo-Hellenic League, 1922.

;Articles
*Bjornlund, Matthias, "The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification", ''Journal of Genocide Research'', Volume 10, Issue 1, March 2008, pp. 41-58.
*Hofmann, Tessa, ed. ''Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912-1922''. Münster: LIT, 2004. ISBN 3-8258-7823-6. (pp. 177-221 on Greeks)
*Vryonis, Speros, "Greek Labor Battalions in Asia Minor", ''The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies'' (ed. Hovannisian, Richard), Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, N.J, 2007, pp. 275-290.

;Internet Resources
*[http://www.greek-genocide.org/pontus.html Greek Genocide 1914-23: Pontus]
*[http://www.aihgs.com/pontus.htm Information about the genocide on The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies]

[[Category:Genocide]]
[[Category:History of modern Greece]]
[[Category:Pontic Greek Genocide| ]]
[[Category:Religion and politics]]
[[Category:World War I]]

[[af:Ponties Griekse Volksmoord]]
[[ar:مذابح اليونانيين البونتيك]]
[[bg:Понтийски гръцки геноцид]]
[[el:Γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων του Πόντου]]
[[es:Genocidio griego]]
[[fr:Génocide grec pontique]]
[[hy:Պոնտոսի հույների ցեղասպանություն]]
[[mk:Понтиски Грчки Геноцид]]
[[nl:Pontisch Griekse Genocide]]
[[ru:Геноцид понтийских греков]]
[[sq:Gjenocidi i grekëve të Pontit]]
[[sv:Pontisk-grekiska folkmordet]]
[[tr:Pontus soykırımı iddiaları]]

Sherdils

2008-11-29T16:28:00Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:شير دعل

{{Infobox Military Unit
|unit_name = Sherdil
|image = [[Image:Cftlogo.gif|150px]]
|caption = Sherdil Squadron badge
|dates = 1972-1974 (without a formal name), 1974 onwards (Sherdils)
|country = {{PAK}}
|allegiance =
|branch = {{air force|Pakistan}}
|type =
|role = Aerobatic display
|size =
|command_structure =
|garrison = [[PAF Academy|Risalpur]]
|garrison_label =
|nickname =
|patron =
|motto =
|colors = Red, teal and white
|colors_label =
|march =
|mascot =
|equipment = [[T-37 Tweet|T-37]]
|equipment_label = Aircraft
|anniversaries =
|decorations =
}}

'''Sherdils''' ([[Urdu]]: '''ﺸﻴر دﻋﻝ''') is the [[aerobatics]] display team of the [[Pakistan Air Force Academy]], based at [[Pakistan Air Force|PAF]] [[Risalpur]], [[Pakistan]]. The team flies the [[Cessna T-37|T-37 "Tweety Bird"]] , and is composed of instructors of the [[College of Flying Training|Basic Flying Training]] (BFT) Wing.

== History ==

The team was officially formed on 17th August 1972 as a result of efforts by an Academy instructor, Sqn Ldr Bahar-ul-haq. The team was formed on the lines of [[Red Pelicans]], the aerobatics team of [[RAF College, Cranwell]] where Bahar had been on an exchange tour. It was decided to put up a brief show on graduation parades as a demonstration of the professional skills of Academy instructors.

After several trials of candidate instructors, a team was formed under the command of 1965 War hero, Wg Cdr Imtiaz A Bhatti. He was the Officer Commanding of the BFT wing at that time. Other formation members included Flt Lt Aamer Ali Sharieff, Flt Lt A Rahim Yusufzai and Flt Lt Niaz Nabi, the latter becoming a most durable master of the ‘slot’ position.

The initial performances of the team were highly successful. The "Tweety birds" performed at air shows for foreign dignitaries, including heads of state and military officers.

Initially, the team had no name. The personal call sign of the leaders also denoted the team; it flew as ‘Sherdils’ for the first time on 19th September 1974.

== Formation style ==

The type of formation and sequence has virtually remained the same since the team’s inception – line astern to diamond formation during a loop, then clover-leaf, steep turn, barrel roll and finally, the breath-taking bomb-burst. Attempts were made to increase the number of aircraft in the team, but engine thrust demands were excessive for the outer formation members to cope with. A four aircraft diamond has thus remained the basic formation of the ‘Sherdils’. However, the Sherdils have flown in formations involving more than four aircraft during fly-pasts.

== Paint scheme ==

Appreciating the important quality affecting display aircraft ie, appearance, the T-37s were painted all red. However, maintenance of the red-painted aircraft without the costly polyurethane coating became a problem. The team reverted to the all-metal finish, with only the nose, wing tips and tail painted day-glow orange. In 1980, with the induction of six ex-[[USAF]] T-37s, which were polyurethane-coated all white, ‘Sherdils’ became a logical choice for a new titillating appearance. The dramatic ‘sunburst’ paint scheme was adopted, red rays on an all white background. Later, the aircraft were again painted red, but with the rays in white, a scheme that is in vogue today. Coloured smoke has been used to enhance the aesthetic qualities of the formation; smoke trails give the impression of multi-coloured ribbons twirling in the sky.

==Accidents and incidents==

On [[8 October]], [[1978]] during a practice session, the team leader Flt Lt Alamdar Hussain went down in a mid-air collision involving his slot man. He was posthumously awarded the Sitara-i-Basalat.

==See also==
*[[Pakistan Air Force Academy]]
*[[Aerobatics]]

==References==
*Tufail, M Kaiser [http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/airforce/aerobatics/sherdils.html ‘Sherdils’ – PAF Academy Aerobatics Team]. ''PakDef.info''. Retrieved on [[February 14]], [[2008]]

{{Template group
|list =
{{Modern aerobatic teams}}
{{Military of Pakistan}}
}}

[[Category:Pakistan Air Force|Sherdils]]

[[ar:شير دعل]]

Blue Impulse

2008-11-27T21:58:11Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:الدافع الأزرق

[[Image:Blueimpulse(flying)01.jpg|thumb|250px|Blue Impulse (T-4)]]
[[Image:BlueImpulseLogo.jpg|thumb|right|Team Logo]]
{{Nihongo|'''Blue Impulse'''|ブルーインパルス|Burū Inparusu}}, or '''11 Squadron''', is the [[aerobatic]] demonstration team of the [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force]]. Originally formed in 1960 as a team of six [[F-86 Sabre]]s, the team switched to the [[Mitsubishi T-2]] in 1980 and then the [[Kawasaki T-4]] in 1995. They are based at [[Matsushima Air Base]].

== History ==

* 1960: Team founded.
* 1964: [[1964 Summer Olympics]] ([[Tokyo]]) opening.
* 1982: [[14 November]]: Accident in [[Hamamatsu Air Base]]. One T-2 (#4) crashed.
* 1991: [[4 July]]: Accident in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Two T-2s (#2 and #4) crashed.
* 1998: [[1998 Winter Olympics]] ([[Nagano, Nagano|Nagano]]) opening.
* 2000: [[4 July]]: Accident in the [[Oshika Peninsula]]. Two T-4s performing a dual solo (#5 and #6) crashed.
* 2002: [[4 June]]: [[2002 FIFA World Cup]] Japan versus [[Belgium]] ([[Saitama Stadium]]) opening.

== References in pop culture ==
The mercenary air team "Red Impulse" and its leader from the [[anime]] series ''[[Science Ninja Team Gatchaman]]'' take their name from the Blue Impulse.

As characters in another anime, ''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'', are hit with enough force to send them flying into the distance, they sometimes shout "Blue Impulse!"

The team have since been immortalised in its own videogame, titled [[AeroWings|Aero Dancing featuring Blue Impulse]].

==External links==
{{Commonscat}}

{{Modern aerobatic teams}}

{{Aviation-stub}}

[[Category:Japan Air Self-Defense Force]]

[[ar:الدافع الأزرق]]
[[el:Blue Impulse]]
[[ja:ブルーインパルス]]
[[pl:Blue Impulse]]

Black Butler

2008-11-27T13:27:48Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:كوروشيتسوجي

{{Infobox animanga/Header
| name = Kuroshitsuji
| image = [[Image:Kuroshitsuji Volume 1 cover.jpg|230px]]
| caption = The cover of the first volume of the original Japanese manga release
| ja_name = 黒執事
| ja_name_trans =
| genre = [[Comedy]], [[Supernatural]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Manga
| author = [[Yana Toboso]]
| publisher = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Square Enix]]
| publisher_en =
| publisher_other =
| magazine = [[Monthly GFantasy]]
| demographic = [[Shōnen]]
| first = September 16, 2006
| last =
| volumes = 5
| chapter_list =
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime
| director = [[Shinohara Toshiya]]
| writer =
| studio = [[A-1 Pictures]]
| licensor =
| network = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Tokyo Broadcasting System|TBS]], [[Mainichi Broadcasting System|MBS]]
| network_other =
| first = October 2008
| last =
| episodes =
| episode_list =
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
{{Nihongo|'''''Kuroshitsuji'''''|黒執事||Black Butler}} is a [[manga]] written and illustrated by [[Yana Toboso]]. Since its debut on September 16, 2006, it has been serialized in [[Square Enix]]'s [[shōnen]] manga magazine ''[[Monthly GFantasy]]''.<ref>{{cite web| title = :::: GFantasy Website :::: 黒執事 -月刊Gファンタジーオフィシャルサイト|url=http://www.square-enix.co.jp/magazine/gfantasy/story/kuroshitsuji/|publisher=[[Square Enix]] |language=Japanese| accessdate = 2008-08-25 }} </ref><ref name="manga ann">{{cite web| title =Kuroshitsuji (manga)| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/manga.php?id=10154|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-28 }}</ref> The series follows Sebastian Michaelis, a demonic butler who is obligated to serve Ciel Phantomhive, the twelve-year-old head of the Phantomhive noble family, due to a contract he made with Ciel. It was announced in July 2008 that an anime adaption, directed by Shinohara Toshiya and produced by [[A-1 Pictures]], was expected. It premiered in October 2008.<ref name= "animeconfirmed">{{cite web| title =Kuroshitsuji Anime Confirmed to Premiere this Fall| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2008-07-11/kuroshitsuji-anime-confirmed-to-premiere-this-fall|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title =TVアニメーション　黒執事| url=http://www.kuroshitsuji.tv/|publisher=[[Aniplex]] |language=Japanese | accessdate = 2008-08-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = 黒執事 :: 作品紹介 :: A-1 Pictures|url=http://www.a1p.jp/works/works_kuroshitsuji.html|publisher=[[A-1 Pictures]] |language=Japanese | accessdate = 2008-08-28 }} </ref><ref name="anime ann"/>

==Plot==

In a [[manor house]] on the outskirts of [[Victorian era]] London, butler Sebastian Michaelis serves Ciel Phantomhive, the twelve-year-old head of an English noble family. He carries out any task required by his master and solves the problems plaguing England with ease and perfection because of his contract with his master.

==Characters==
====Phantomhive Estate====

{{nihongo|'''Sebastian Michaelis'''|セバスチャン・ミカエリス|Sebasuchan Mikaerisu}} is the butler of the Phantomhive household and Ciel's bodyguard, two jobs he is completely devoted to. He often describes himself as "a butler and a demon". He is highly skilled in any area and handles every task, not matter how impossible it is, as well as any problem that arises from the errors of the other staff with ease, stating it is only natural as the butler to the Phantomhive family. This is due to the fact he is a demon bound by a "contract" to abide by Ciel's will. A sign similar to the one marking Ciel's right eye can be found on his left hand, which has been used on one occasion to twist the arm of a kidnapper without touching him. The name Sebastian is in fact a temporary name given to him by Ciel. He also stated that he loves cats, and despises dogs. {{Anime voices2|He|[[Toshiyuki Morikawa]] on the first drama CD and [[Daisuke Ono]] in the anime adaption and on the second drama CD}} <ref name="amazonCD"> {{cite web| title =Amazon.co.jp: ドラマCD 黒執事: イメージ・アルバム, セバスチャン・ミカエリス(森川智之), シエル・ファントムハイヴ(沢城みゆき), タナカ(麦人), バルド(小山力也), メイリン(折笠富美子), フィニ(高城元気), エリザベス(斎藤千和), アズーロ(平田広明), クラウス(染田清之), マダム・レッド(勝生真沙子), 森川智之, 沢城みゆき, 勝生真沙子, 遊佐浩二, 麦人: 音楽| url=http://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/B000RG1362/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=music&qid=1220306941&sr=8-8|publisher=[[Amazon.com]] |language=Japanese | accessdate = 2008-09-01 }}</ref><ref> {{cite web| title =Ono Daisuke| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=14929|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-25 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD2"> {{cite web| title =Amazon.co.jp：黒執事華麗なるドラマCD: ドラマ, 小野大輔, 福山潤, 坂本真綾: 音楽| url=http://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/B001H37B92/ref=pd_bxgy_m_img_b|publisher=[[Amazon.com]] |language=Japanese | accessdate = 2008-11-17 }}</ref> His name is similar to that of Father [[Sebastien Michaelis]], who compiled a hierarchy of demons in Hell.

{{nihongo|'''Ciel Phantomhive'''|シエル・ファントムハイヴ|Shieru Fantomuhaivu}} is the business-savvy, twelve-year-old head of the English Phantomhive noble family, taking over after the deaths of his parents. He also runs a company that manufactures toys and sweets. His right eye, which is usually covered with a black eyepatch, bears a [[pentacle]] sign of contract which binds the demon Sebastian Michaelis to his will. He is portrayed as emotionless, but he does react when Sebastian becomes injured, but ultimately looks at Sebastian as a pawn. He is close to his cousin and [[fiancée]] Elizabeth, seeing her as an important friend and someone he needs to protect. Ciel does not want to lose anything important again. {{Anime voices2|He|[[Miyuki Sawashiro]] on the first drama CD and [[Maaya Sakamoto]] in the anime adaption and on the second drama CD}}<ref name="amazonCD"/><ref>{{cite web| title =Sakamoto Maaya| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=527|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-25 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD2"/>

{{nihongo|'''Bard'''|バルドロイ|Barudoroi}} is the household cook. However, he rarely produces anything edible as he uses weaponry such as flamethrowers to cook and believes cooking is an art requiring explosions. Sebastian believes anything he creates is made up of charcoal and [[carcinogens]]. {{Anime voices2|He|[[Hiroki Touchi]] in the anime adaption and [[Rikiya Koyama]] on the drama CD}}<ref>{{cite web| title =Touchi Hiroki| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=20365|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-28 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD"/>

{{nihongo|'''Finian'''|フィニアン|}} is the American Phantomhive gardener, but it seems every time he tends to the garden it is killed through an accident caused by his clumsiness. He is portrayed as a more innocent, child-like charater, but is dubbed an idiot by Sebastian. He has memories of being experimented upon before the events of the story. {{Anime voices2|He|Kaji Yūki in the anime adaption and [[Motoki Takagi]] on the drama CD}}<ref>{{cite web| title =Kaji Yuuki| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=58051|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-28 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD"/>

{{nihongo|'''Maylene'''|メイリン|Meirin}} is a clumsy, bespectacled maid. The fact that her glasses are always cracked certainly does nothing to improve this. She seems to have a crush on Sebastian as she is even clumsier when Sebastian is watching. However, Sebastian believes her main problem is her intelligence and not her poor eyesight {{Anime voices2|She|[[Katou Emiri]] in the anime adaption and [[Orikasa Fumiko]] on the drama CD}}<ref>{{cite web| title =Emiri Katou| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=28606|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-28 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD"/>

{{nihongo|'''Tanaka'''|タナカ}} is the house steward, but he rarely does any work. However, he is just as competent as Sebastian is. He served under the former Master Phantomhive and was present when Ciel's parents were killed. He is usually seen drinking from a Japanese tea cup.{{Anime voices2|He|Fuijimura Shunji in the anime adaption and [[Mugihito]] on the drama CD}}<ref name="anime ann">{{cite web| title =Kuroshitsuji (TV)| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=10160|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-28 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD"/>

====Others====
{{nihongo|'''Elizabeth Middleford'''|エリザベス・ミッドフォード|Erizabesu Middofōdo}} is the daughter of Marquis Francis Middleford, and is both Ciel's cousin and [[fiancée]]. Ciel sees her as an important friend and someone he needs to protect. {{Anime voices2|She|[[Yukari Tamura]] in the anime adaption and [[Chiwa Saitō]] on the drama CD}} <ref>{{cite web| title =Tamura Yukari| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=524|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-08-28 }}</ref>

{{nihongo|'''Madam Red'''|マダム・レッド|Madamu Reddo}}, born {{nihongo|'''Angelina Durless'''|アンジェリーナ･ダレス|Anjerīna Daresu}}, is Ciel's aunt. As her title suggests, she is known for her red appearance and clothing. She hated her red hair, which she inherited from her father, until Lord Phantomhive stated he liked it. She fell in love with and became distraught when she found her sister was marrying him. Madam Red later married a nobleman. After a tragic accident, her husband was killed and her womb and child had to be removed. This caused her great strife as a doctor because she would regularly preform [[abortions]] on [[prostitutes]] because they believed having a child was troublesome. She would later kill her patients with Grell and the two became known as [[Jack the Ripper]]. However, she could not kill Ciel as she sees him as a son. She is killed by Grell. {{anime voices2|She|[[Romi Paku]] in the anime adaption and [[Masako Katsuki ]] on the drama CD}}<ref>{{cite web| title =Romi Paku| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=7021|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-11-17 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD"/>

{{nihongo|'''Grell Sutcliff'''|グレル・サトクリフ|Gureru Satokurifu}} is a flamboyant, [[cross-dressing]] [[shinigami]] who works as Angelina Durless's butler. He is initially portrayed as worthless and is often seen trying to commit [[suicide]] after mishandling tasks. Eventually, Angelina put him under Sebastian's care, so he could learn to be a better butler. After this, he becomes infatuated with Sebastian. As a shinigami, he is characterized with red hair and shark-like teeth. Grell often refers to himself as a woman and verbalizes his infatuation with Sebastian, much to the latter's disgust. He met Angelina while was murdering a woman. Although he was to remain neutral and not kill for fun, Grell and Angelina made a partnership and continued the murders. They were known as "Jack the Ripper" thereafter. Grell's shinigami scythe is illegally modified to look like a [[chainsaw]]. When cutting someone with his Scythe, their past memories are played out like a video reel. This is called "Phantasmagoria Theater". In the end, Sebastian almost kills Grell with the Grim Reapers's own scythe, but Sebastian is stopped by the representative of the reapers William Spears. William beats Grell and takes him back to headquarters. Grell has not appeared afterward. {{anime voices2|He|[[Jun Fukuyama]] in the anime adaption and the second drama CD}}<ref>{{cite web| title =Jun Fukuyama| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=337|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-11-17 }}</ref><ref name="amazonCD2"/>

{{nihongo|'''Undertaker'''|アンダーテイカー|Andaateikaa}} is, as his name suggests, a [[funeral director]]. He also acts as Ciel's informant. He is a rather eccentric man as he wishes to hear a funny joke for his services instead of receiving money. {{Anime voices2|He|[[Junichi Suwabe]] in the anime adaption}} <ref>{{cite web| title =Junichi Suwabe| url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/people.php?id=48696|publisher=[[Anime News Network]]| accessdate = 2008-09-19}}</ref>

==Production==

==Media==
===Manga===
Written and drawn by Yana Toboso, the chapters of ''Kuroshitsuji'' have been serialized in the [[shōnen]] manga magazine ''[[Monthly GFantasy]]'' since its debut on September 16, 2006.<ref name="manga ann"/> The chapters are also published in [[tankōbon|collected volumes]] by [[Square Enix]]. The first volume was released on February 27, 2007 and as of September 18, 2008, five volumes have been released.<ref>{{cite web| title =Amazon.co.jp：黒執事 1 (1) (Gファンタジーコミックス): 枢やな: 本| url=http://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/475751963X/ref=pd_sim_b_7|publisher=[[Amazon.com]] |language=Japanese| accessdate = 2008-10-13 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title =Amazon.co.jp：黒執事 5巻 (Gファンタジーコミックス): 枢やな: 本| url=http://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/4757523785/ref=pd_sim_b_4|publisher=[[Amazon.com]] |language=Japanese | accessdate = 2008-10-13 }}</ref>

===Anime===
{{main|List of Kuroshitsuji episodes}}
In July 2008, it was announced that an [[anime]] adaption, directed by Shinohara Toshiya, was expected. It premiered in October 2008 and broadcasts on the [[Tokyo Broadcasting System]] as well as the [[Mainichi Broadcasting System]].<ref name= "animeconfirmed"/><ref name="anime ann"/>

On January 1, 2009, a limited edition [[DVD]] will be released by [[Aniplex]]. It contains the first episode of the ''Kuroshitsuji'' series.<ref>{{cite web| title =黒執事 I 【完全生産限定版】: 篠原俊哉, 小野大輔, 坂本真綾: Amazon.co.jp: DVD| url=http://www.amazon.co.jp/dp/B001J2UJTK/ref=pd_bxgy_m_img_b|publisher=[[Amazon.com]]|language=Japanese | accessdate = 2008-11-17 }}</ref>

===Drama CD===
On August 10, 2007 a [[drama CD]] was released by [[Frontier Works]]. It featured many of the characters appearing in volumes one and two.<ref name="amazonCD"/> A second drama CD is set to be released on November 26, 2008 under the [[Aniplex]] label.<ref name="amazonCD2"/>

==Reception==

{{expand-section|date=November 2008}}

During the week of December 18, 2007, the third volume placed third on a ranking of the manga sales in Japan that week.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2007-12-27/japanese-comic-ranking-december-18-24|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, December 18-25|date=2007-12-27|accessdate=2008-08-28}}</ref> Later, during the week of June 3, 2008, the fourth volume ranked ninth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/news/2008-06-12/japanese-comic-ranking-may-29-june-4|title=Japanese Comic Ranking, June 3-9|date=2008-06-12|accessdate=2008-08-28}}</ref>

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.square-enix.co.jp/magazine/gfantasy/story/kuroshitsuji/ Manga official website] {{ja icon}}
*[http://www.kuroshitsuji.tv/ Anime official website] {{ja icon}}
*{{ann manga|id=10154}}
*{{ann anime|id=10160}}

[[Category:Anime of 2008]]
[[Category:Comedy anime and manga]]
[[Category:Manga of 2006]]
[[Category:Shōnen]]
[[Category:Supernatural anime and manga]]

[[ar:كوروشيتسوجي]]
[[fa:کوروشیتسوجی]]
[[ja:黒執事]]
[[zh:黑執事]]

Arabische Eroberung Ägyptens

2008-11-27T06:58:55Z

AkhtaBot: robot Modifying: ar:الاحتلال العربي لمصر

{{Unreferenced|date=August 2008}}
{{FixHTML|beg}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=
|caption=
|conflict=Muslim conquest of Egypt
|partof=the [[Muslim conquests]] and [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
|date=[[641]]-[[654]]
|place=Egypt, North Africa
|result=Muslim victory
|territory=Egypt and parts of North Africa annexed by Muslims
|combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s ([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)
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{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}
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At the commencement of the '''Muslim conquest of Egypt''', [[Egypt]] was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] with its capital in [[Constantinople]]. However, it had been occupied just a decade before by the [[Persian_Empire#Sassanid_Persia_.28AD_226-650.29|Persian Empire]] under [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]] ([[616]] to [[629]] [[Anno Domini|AD]]).

It was also religiously alienated. The [[Dyophysitism]] of the Byzantines held to the doctrine of Christ having two natures, one divine and one human. In Egypt however the [[christological]] position of [[Miaphysitism]] ([[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Christianity]]) that prevailed, which supported the doctrine of Christ having one united nature where the Divinity and Humanity were inseparably united. Although the Christian [[Council of Chalcedon]], held in [[451]], had ruled in favor of the Dyophysite position, Egypt had remained a stronghold of Miaphysitism. So, with the restoration of Byzantine political control in [[629]], Emperor [[Heraclius]] began persecuting the [[Copt]]s whom he erroneously considered Monophysites, expelling their patriarch (Oriental Orthodox are in fact miaphysites and not monophysites).

It was in the context of this state of affairs that an army of some 4,000 [[Arabs]], led by [[Amr ibn al-As]], was sent by the [[Caliph]] [[Umar]] to spread [[Islam]] in the land of the ancient pharaohs. The Arabs crossed into Egypt from [[Palestine]] in December [[639]] and advanced rapidly into the [[Nile Delta]]. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns like [[Babylon Fortress]], where they successfully held out for a year or more. But the Arabs sent for reinforcements and the invading army, joined by another 5,000 men in [[640]], defeated a Byzantine army at the [[Battle of Heliopolis]]. Amr next proceeded in the direction of [[Alexandria]], which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on [[November 8]], [[641]]. The [[Thebaid]] seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.
[[Image:Age-of-caliphs.png|300px|thumb|right|The Age of the Caliphs {{legend|#a1584e|Under Prophet Mohammad, 622-632}} {{legend|#ef9070|Under the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661}} {{legend|#fad07d|Under the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750}}]]
The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the [[Byzantine Empire]] appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of Egypt, [[Cyrus of Alexandria|Cyrus]] [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04597c.htm], [[Melchite]] (i.e., Byzantine–Chalcedonian Orthodox, ''not'' Coptic) [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], and the incompetence of the generals of the Byzantine forces. Cyrus had persecuted the local [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Christians]]. He is one of the authors of [[monothelism]], a seventh century heresy, and some supposed him to have been secretly a convert to [[Islam]].

An attempt was made in the year [[645]] to regain Alexandria for the Byzantine Empire, but it was retaken by Amr in [[646]]. In [[654]] an invasion fleet sent by [[Constans II]] was repulsed. From that time no serious effort was made by the Byzantines to regain possession of the country.

There was a general misconception that the Muslims were assisted by some Copts, although a few of the Copts did find the Muslims more tolerant than the Byzantines. In return for a tribute of money and food for the troops of occupation, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Others sided with the Byzantines, hoping that they would provide a defense against the Arab invaders.[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm]

After the negotiated surrender, taxes were raised to a level which the [[Egyptians]] found unbearable, notably during the [[Umayyad]] era. Nevertheless, during Amr's lifetime the churches and people were not subjected to further assaults and were left in peace:<blockquote>On the twentieth of Maskaram Theodore and all his troops and officers [the Byzantines] set out and proceeded to the island of Cyprus, and abandoned the city of Alexandria. And thereupon 'Amr the chief of the Moslem made his entry without effort into the city of Alexandria. And the inhabitants received him with respect; for they were in great tribulation and affliction... And 'Amr became stronger every day in every field of his activity. And he exacted the taxes which had been determined upon, but he took none of the property of the churches, and he committed no act of spoliation or plunder, and he preserved them throughout all his days. ... And he increased the taxes to the extent of twenty-two batr of gold till all the people hid themselves owing to the greatness of the tribulation, and could not find the wherewithal to pay.... And none could recount the mourning and lamentation which took place in that city: they even gave their children in exchange for the great sums which they had to pay monthly. Basically, they were delivered into the hands of their enemies. [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu''] Chapters CXX-CXXI</blockquote>

The Arab rulers remained in control of the country from [[History of Arab Egypt|this point]] until [[1250]], when it fell under the control of the [[Mameluks]].

==References==
* Charles, R. H. ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from [[Hermann Zotenberg|Zotenberg]]'s Ethiopic Text'', 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9. [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE4]

== See also ==

*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]
*[[Aslim Taslam]]
*[[Muslim conquests]]
*[[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]
*[[Spread of Islam]]

== External links ==

* Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 51
* Bishop John NIkiou [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu''] Chapters CXVI-CXXI

[[Category:7th century conflicts]]
[[Category:History of Egypt]]
[[Category:Islam in Egypt]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Wars involving Arab Egypt]]

[[ar:الاحتلال العربي لمصر]]
[[it:Conquista musulmana dell'Egitto]]
[[ru:Арабское завоевание Египта]]

Islamische Eroberung der Levante

2008-11-17T16:28:17Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:فتح المسلمين بلاد الشام

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=
|caption=
|conflict=Muslim conquest of Syria
|partof=the [[Muslim conquests]] and [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
|date=634-638
|place=[[Palestine]],[[Syria]] and south eastern [[Anatolia]]
|result=[[Rashidun]] victory
|territory=[[Levant]] annexed by Muslims
|combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]] [[Ghassanids|Ghassanid Kingdom]]
|combatant2=[[Rashidun Caliphate]]
|commander1=[[Heraclius]] Vardan Thomas [[Jabalah Ibn Al-Aiham]] Theodorus Trithurius Vahan Buccinator Gregory 
|commander2=[[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] [[Amr ibn al-A'as]] [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]] [[Shurahbil ibn Hassana]]
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{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}

'''The Muslim conquest of Syria''' occurred in the first half of the 7th century,<ref name="Britannica Syria"> "Syria." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-29909]</ref> and refers to the region known as the [[Bilad al-Sham]], the [[Levant]], or [[Greater Syria]]. [[Arab]] forces had appeared on the southern borders even before the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]] in 632, such as the [[Battle of Mu'tah]] in 629, but the real invasion began in 634 under his successors, the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliph]]s [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar ibn Khattab]], with [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] as its most important military leader.<ref name="Britannica Syria"/>

==Byzantine Syria==
Syria had been under Roman rule for seven centuries prior to the Arab conquest and had been invaded by the [[Sassanid]] Persians on a number of occasions during the third, sixth and seventh centuries; it had also been subject to raids by the Sassanid's Arab allies the [[Lakhmids]].<ref name="Britannica Syria2"> "Syria." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-29907]</ref> The region was known as the [[Iudaea Province]] of the [[Byzantine|Byzantine (Roman) Empire]] and the their Arab client state of the [[Ghassanid]]s, ''(symmachos)''.<ref name="Brittanica Ghassan"> "Ghassan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036664]</ref> During the last of the [[Roman-Persian Wars]], beginning in 603, the Persians under [[Khosrau II]] had succeeded in occupying Syria, [[Palestine]] and [[Egypt]] for over a decade before being forced by the victories of [[Heraclius]] to conclude the peace of 628.<ref name="Brittanica Iran"> "Iran." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32160]</ref>. Thus, on the eve of the Muslim conquests the Romans were still in the process of rebuilding their authority in these territories, which in some areas had been lost to them for almost twenty years.<ref name="Britannica Iran"> "Iran." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32160]</ref> Politically, the Syrian region consisted of two provinces. Syria proper stretched from [[Antioch]] and [[Aleppo]] in the north to the top of the [[Dead Sea]]. West and south of the Dead Sea lay the province of [[Palestine]], which included the holy places of the three [[Abrahamic religions]]. Syria, was partly an [[Arab]] land, especially in its eastern and southern parts. The Arabs had been there since pre-Roman times; and had embraced [[Christianity]] since [[Constantine I]] legalized it in fourth century. Arabs of Syria were people of no consequence until the migration of the powerful [[Ghassan]] tribe from the [[Yemen]] to Syria, who thereafter ruled a semi-autonomous state with their own king under the Romans. The Ghassan Dynasty became one of the honoured princely dynasties of the Empire, with the Ghassan king ruling over the Arabs in Jordan and Southern Syria from his capital at [[Bosra]]. The last of the Ghassan kings, who ruled at the time of Muslim's invasion, was Jabla bin Al Aiham.
Emperor Heraclius, after re-capturing Syria from the Sassanids set up new defense lines from [[Ghazzah]] to the south end of dead sea, these lines were only designed to protect communications from bandits and bulk of Byzantine defences were concentrated in northern Syria facing the traditional foes, the Sassanid Persians. This defence line had a draw back that enabled the [[Muslim]]s, that emerged from the [[desert]] in the south, to reach as north as Ghazzah before meeting regular Byzantine troops.
7th century A.D, was a time of quickening military changes in Byzantine empire. The empire was certainly not in state of collapse when it faced the new challenge from [[Arabia]] after being exhausted by recent [[Roman-Persian Wars]], but failed completely to tackle the challenge effectively.<ref>Nicolle, David (1994). Yarmuk AD 636: The Muslim Conquest of Syria. Osprey Publishing.</ref>

==Rise of Caliphate==
The [[Islam]]ic [[Prophet Mohammad]] died in June 632, and [[Abu Bakr]] was appointed [[Caliph]] and political successor at [[Medina]]. Soon after [[Abu Bakr]]'s succession, several Arab tribes revolted against in the the ''[[Ridda wars]]'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of Apostasy). The Campaign of the Apostasy was fought and completed during the eleventh year of the Hijri. The year 12 Hijri dawned, on [[March 18]], [[633]], with Arabia united under the central authority of the Caliph at Medina.

Whether Abu Bakr intended a full-out imperial conquest or not is hard to say; he did, however, set in motion a historical trajectory that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]], beginning with confrontation with the [[Lakhmids]], an Arab client of the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Empire]] under the general [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]].

==Expedition to Syria==
After successful campaigns against Sassanids and the ensuing conquest of [[Iraq]] Khalid established his stronghold on Iraq. While engaged with Sassanid forces, confrontation also ensued with the Byzantine Arab clients, the Ghassanids. Tribal contingents were soon recruited to the call from Madinah from all over the [[Arabian peninsula]]. Only those who had rebelled during the Ridda wars were excluded from the summons and remained excluded from Rashidun armies until in 636 when Caliph [[Umar]] fell short of manpower for the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] and [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]]. The tradition of raising armies from tribal contingents remained in use until 636, when Caliph Umar organised the army as a state department.
[[Image:Mohammad adil-invasion of syria.PNG|thumb|right|350px| (1) Amr ibn al-Al's (2) Shurhabil ibn Hasana (3) Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan (4) Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]]

Abu Bakr organised the army in to four corps, each with its own commander and objective.
* [[Amr ibn al-A'as]]: Objective [[Palestine]]. Move on [[Elat]] route, then across [[Arabah|Valley of Arabah]].
* [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]]: Objective [[Damascus]]. Move on [[Tabuk]] route.
* [[Shurahbil bin hassana]]: Objective [[Jordan]]. Move on Tabuk route after Yazid.
* [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]]: Objective [[Emesa]]. Move on Tabuk route after Shurahbil.

Being unaware of details of dispositions of [[Byzantine army]], Caliph Abu Bakr ordered that all corps should remain in touch with each other so that they could help each other as Byzantines can concentrate there army in any sector of operation. In case the corps had to concentrate for one major battle, Abu ubaidah was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire army.<ref>The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns: page no:576 by Lieutenant-General Agha Ibrahim Akram, Nat. Publishing. House, Rawalpindi (1970) ISBN 978-0-7101-0104-4.</ref>
In the first week of April 634, the Muslim forces began to move from their camps outside [[Madina]]. The first to leave was Yazid's corps, followed by Shurahbil, Abu Ubaidah and Amr. Each a day's march from the other.
Caliph Abu Bakr walked for a short distance by the side of each corps commander. His parting words he repeated to the each corps commanders, were as follows:
{{cquote|In your march be not hard on yourself or your army. Be not harsh with your men or your officers, whom you should consult in all matters. Be just and abjure evil and tyranny, for no nation which is unjust prospers or achieves victory over its enemies.When you meet the enemy turn not your back on him; for whoever turns his back, except to manoeuvre for battle or to regroup, earns the wrath of Allah. His abode shall be hell, and what a terrible place it is!. And when you have won a victory over your. enemies, kill not women or children or the aged and. slaughter not beasts except for eating. And break not the pacts which you make.<ref>Waqidi: p. 4.</ref> You will come upon a people who live like hermits in monasteries, believing that they have given up all for God. Let them be and destroy not their monasteries. And you will meet other people who are partisans of Satan and worshippers of the Cross, who shave the centre of their heads so that you can see the scalp. Assail them with your swords until they submit to Islam or pay the Jizya. I entrust you to the care of Allah.}}

==Muslim conquest of Syria==
Yazid's corps moving to their assigned target, beyond Tabouk, made contact with a small [[Christian Arab]] force that retreated after a brush with the Muslim's advance guard. After which Yazid made for the Valley of Araba where it meets the southern end of the [[Dead Sea]].
As the main Byzantine defence line started from coastal regions near Ghazahh, Yazid arrived at the Valley of Araba at about the same time as Amr bin Al Aas reached [[Elat]] and faced little resistance from the two forward detachments sent by the Byzantine army to prevent the entry of Yazid's and Amr's corps into Palestine respectively, the detachments were defeated easily although they prevented the arrival of the Rashidun forces from reaching there assigned objective. Abu Ubaidah and Shurhabil however continued their march and by early May 634 reached the region between [[Bosra]] and [[Jabiya]].<ref>The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns: page no:576 by Lieutenant-General Agha Ibrahim Akram, Nat. Publishing. House, Rawalpindi (1970) ISBN 978-0-7101-0104-4.</ref> The Emperor Heraculis, upon receipt of intelligence on the movement of Muslim armies, from his Arab clients began to plan countermeasures. Upon Heraculis's orders, Byzantine forces from different garrisons in North started moving gathering at Ayjnadyn, from where they could engage Amr's corps and maneuver against the flank or rear of rest of the Muslim corps that were in Jordan and Southern Syria. The strength of the Byzantine forces, according to rough estimates , was about 100,000.<ref>Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 601</ref> Abu Ubaidah informed the Caliph about the preparations made by the Byzantines in third week of May 634 and in light of As Abu Ubaida's lack of experience in command of military forces in such major operations, especially with the powerful Roman Army, Abu Bakr decided to send Khalid ibn Walid to Syrian front to command the Muslim army. According to early Muslim chronicles Abu Bakr said:
{{cquote|''"By Allah, I shall destroy the Romans and the friends of Satan with Khalid bin Al Waleed"''}}

==Conquest of Syria under Caliph Abu Bakr==
Khalid was immediately dispatched to the Syrian front. Khalid set out for Syria from [[Hira]], in [[Iraq]] in early June 634, taking with him half his army, about 8000 strong.<ref>The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns: page no:576 by Lieutenant-General Agha Ibrahim Akram, Nat. Publishing. House, Rawalpindi (1970) ISBN 978-0-7101-0104-4.</ref> Instead of taking the traditional rout to Syria via Domat ul Jandal (in norther Arabia), Khalid decided to reach Syria from the most least expected and shortest rout to Syria, across the [[Syrian desert]] thus appearing on Syrian front at [[Tadmur]] in central Syria in early June after a march through Syrian desert.<ref>Tabari: Vol. 2, p. 609</ref>

===Conquest of southern Syria===
He first captured the town of Sawa, and then moved onto to the city of [[Arak]] city in the same day. The next day Khalid moved to [[Tadmur]] and then onto the cities of As Sukhnah and Qadma. The next day the cities of Qaryatayn and Hawwareen were captured after small engagements; the [[battle of Qarteen|Battle of Qaryatayn]] and [[Battle of Hawareen]]. He next set-off towards [[Damascus]] and after three days arrived at a mountain pass {{convert|20|mi|km}} from Damascus, now known as '''Sanita-al-Uqab'''(Eagle pass), so-called for the standard of Khalid's army.<ref>Yaqut: Vol. 1, p. 936 </ref> From here however he veered away from Damascus and moved towards the rest of the Islamic armies which were still near the Syrian-Arabia border.<ref>Kennedy, Hugh N. (2006). The Byzantine and Early Islamic Near East. Ashgate Publishing, p. 145. ISBN 0754659097.</ref> At Maraj-al-Rahab, Khalid defeated a [[Ghassanid]] army at the [[Battle of Marj-al-Rahit]] and arrived Bosra 3 days later, to join Shurhabil's force of 4000 men, who while attempting to besiege the city had nearly nearly been encircled and outnumbered by the Byzantine army. Upon the arrival of Khalid's cavalry the Roman army retreated and fortified themselves in the castle from where they launched an unsuccessful charge a few days later.<ref>Elton, Hugh. Review of Kaegi, W. E., Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests, 1992. The Medieval Review 9410.</ref>
[[Battle of Basra|Bosra surrendered]] in mid of July 634 A.D. and all the corps of Muslim army joined Khalid at Ajnadayn on 24 July 634 where they defeated the Byzantines on 30th July 634 A.D at the [[Battle of Ajnadayn]]. A week later Khalid moved to Damascus, engaging a small Roman army in the [[Battle of Yakosa]] in mid-August 634 A.D along the way. This force was presumably an advance guard sent to delay the Muslim advance so that necessary measures could be undertaken for the defence of Damascus even as the remnants of the force deafeated at Ajnadayn retreated to Damascus as well. Tomur, the son-in-law of Emperor [[Heraclius]] and commander of the garrison at Damascus, sent an army to stop Khalid but they too were defeated in the [[Battle of Maraj-al-Safar]] on 19 August 634 A.D and retreated back to Damascus. Damascus was besieged for 30 days and was conquered on 18th September 634 A.D. During its siege Heraculis sent more reinforcements from [[Antioch]] to attempt to break the siege, but they were defeated at the [[Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab]] {{convert|20|mi|km}} from Damascus. As part of the surrender agreement, the Roman army was given a 3 day march to go as far as they could, with their families and treasure before they would be pursued. The Muslim cavalry caught up with these forces by using an unknown shortcut and engaged them in the [[Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj]].

On 22 August 634, Caliph [[Abu Bakr]] died making [[Umar]] his successor. As Umar became caliph, he relieved Khalid the command of Islamic armies and appointed [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] the new commander of the army. The news of Abu Bakr's death and appointment letter reached Abu Ubaida during the siege of Damascus but he didn't reveal it until after the [[Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj]].

==Conquest Under Caliph Umar==
With this new change in command, the campaign of Syria slowed down as Abu Ubaida, unlike Khalid would move more cautiously. Abu Ubaida retained Khalid as the commander of the Muslim's cavalry and relied heavily on his advice. In the south at Fahal, the bulk of survivors of the Battle of Ajnadyn, remained a constant threat to the Muslim rear and were thus engaged next and routed them at the [[Battle of Fahl|Battle of Fahal]] on the 23rd of January 635. They then retreated into Northern Syria and [[Antioch]].<ref>[[Edward Gibbon]] Vol no:5 page no: 325</ref>

===Conquest of Palestine===
Muslim armies next consolidated their conquest of the Levant as Shurhabil and Amr went deeper in to Palestine. Baisan surrendered after a little resistance followed by the surrender of Tabariya in February 635. Caliph Umar, after getting the intelligence of disposition and strength of the Byzantine army in Palestine, wrote detailed instructions to corps commanders in Palestine and ordered Yazid to capture the [[Mediterranean]] coast. The corps of Amr and Shurhabil accordingly marched against the strongest Byzantine garrison in Ajnadyn and defeated them in the [[2nd Battle of Ajnadyn]] after which the two corps separated, with Amr moving to capture [[Nablus]], [[Amawas]], [[Gaza]] and [[Yubna]] in order to complete the conquest of all Palestine, while Shurahbil thrust against the coastal towns of [[Acre]] and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]. Yazid advanced from Damascus to capture the ports of [[Sidon]], [[Arqa]], [[Jabail]] and [[Beirut]].<ref>Gil, Moshe; Ethel Broido (1997). A History of Palestine. Cambridge University Press, pp. 634-1099. ISBN 0521599849.</ref> By 635 A.D, Palestine, Jordan and Southern Syria, with the exception of [[Jerusalem]] and [[Caesarea]], were in Muslims hands. On the orders of Caliph Umar, Yazid next besieged to Caesarea, which was lifted but resumed after the [[Battle of Yarmouk]] until the port fell in 640.

===Conquest of northern Syria===
While the Muslim armies under Abu Ubaida and Khalid moved towards [[Emesa]] in northern Syria, [[Heraclius]] counterattacked by sending General Theodras to recapture a now weakly defended Damascus. Theodras engaged the Muslim army at Maraj al Rum, but quickly dispatched half of his army towards Damascus at night while Abu Ubaida and Khalid were engaged with the rest. When the Muslims realized the Byzantine maneuver, Abu Ubaida sent Khalid with his cavalry onwards to Damascus where Khalid engaged and defeated the Byzantine army outside Damascus even as Abu Ubaidah defeated the remaining Roman forces at Maraj al rum. A week later, Abu Ubaida moved towards Balaq, an important garrison in central Syria, which surrendered peacefully, while an other detachment under Khalid was sent straight to [[Emesa]]. Emesa and [[Qinnasrin]] signed a one year peace treaty, which was in fact a temporary measure while waiting for help from the Emperor. In November 635, Khalid and Abu Ubaida moved towards [[Hamma]] and next Khalid took Shairzer, Afamia and Matar-al-Hamz. Meanwhile Qinasareen and Emesa broke the peace treaty and in response, Abu Ubaida dispatched Khalid to Emesa, where he defeated the advance guard of the garrison outside Emesa and laid siege to the city where he was joined by Abu Ubaida with the main army. After two months of siege [[Battle of Emesa|Emesa was conquered]] in March 636.

===Battle of Yarmouk===
While Muslims were engaged in subduing northern Syria, the Byzantine emperor [[Heraclius]] prepared a major counterattack and assembled a grand army in Syria to roll back the Arab conquest. Preparations started in late 635, and by May 636 a force was put under arms at [[Antioch]] and northern Syria. This force was organized into five armies, Mahan was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the entire Imperial army which was launched in the middle of June 636.

It was at Shaizar, through Roman prisoners, that the Muslims first came to know of the preparations being made by [[Heraclius]]. Alerted to the possibility of being caught with their forces separated, as Heraclius planned, Abu Ubaidah, following advice from Kahlid, decided to pull back from North and Central [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] inorder to concentrate the whole army to face the [[Byzantine]] threat, and in case of defeat, leave upon a route of retreat to the [[Arabian Desert]].<ref>al-Baladhuri, pg. 143.</ref> Accordingly Muslim forces withdrew to the plain of Yarmouk where command of army was partially transferred to Khalid ibn Walid by Abu Ubaidah. The [[Battle of Yarmouk]] took place in the third week of August 636, resulting in a crushing defeat of the Byzantine army. After the battle the Byzantine army no longer effectively operated in Syria except for the garrisons pockets such as at [[Aleppo]] and the conquest of Syria was effectively complete.

===Conquest of Jerusalem===

After the Battle of Yarmouk, the next step was the capture of [[Jerusalem]]. The siege of Jerusalem lasted four months after which the city agreed to surrender, but only to the caliph Umar Ibn Al Khattab in person. The Caliph Umar came and the city surrendered in April 637 CE after which Abu Ubaida sent the commanders Amr bin al-As, Yazid bin Abu Sufyan, and Shurhabil out to reconquer the portions of Palestine which they had abandoned prior to Battle of Yarmouk. Most of these areas submitted without further fighting.

===Conquest of remaining strongholds===
Abu Ubaida himself along with Khalid returned to northern [[Syria]] with a force 17,000 strong. Khalid along with his cavalry was sent to [[Hazir]] while Abu Ubaidah moved upon [[Qinnasrin]]. Khalid defeated a strong Byzantine army in the [[Battle of Hazir]] at Hazir near the fort of Qinnasrin and the city surrendered to Khalid. After a long siege, in October 637 [[Battle of Aleppo|Aleppo surrendered]], as there was little hope of reinforcements arriving from [[Constantinople]].

After the capture of the fort of [[Azaz]] in mid October 637, Antioch was the next city to be captured following the [[Battle of Iron bridge]] on 30th October 637. The remaining Greek dominated cities along the Mediterranean coast; [[Latakia]], [[Jablah]] and [[Tartus]] which were guarded from the natural barriers of Anti-Lebonan hills; were next. Khalid was then dispatched to conquer north- eastern Syria; all the areas up to [[Manbij]] and the [[Euphrates]].<ref>The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns: page no:576 by Lieutenant-General Agha Ibrahim Akram, Nat. Publishing. House, Rawalpindi (1970) ISBN 978-0-7101-0104-4.</ref>

==Heraclius last attempt==
By 637, three years after the invasion, the whole Levant had been conquered except for the coastal city of [[Caesarea]] which was finally surrendered in 640.

The various Muslim commanders settled down as governors of provinces: Amr bin Al Aas in Palestine, Sharhabeel in Jordan, Yazid in Damascus, Abu Ubaidah in Emesa and Khalid as administrator of the Northern Garrison of Qinnasrin from where he would keep watch over the northern territories.

Heraclius was no longer able to attempt a military comeback in Syria. In fact after the destruction of his army at Yarmuk and Antioch, the empire was extremely vulnerable to Muslim invasion. He had few military resources left with which to defend his domains against the now invincible army of Caliph Umar. In order to buy time for the preparation of his defences it was essential to keep the Muslims occupied in Syria, and he did this by inciting the Christian Arabs of the [[Jazira]] to take the offensive against the Muslims. Bound to him by ties of religion, they began preparations to cross the [[Euphrates]] and invade Northern Syria from the east. Christian Arabs laid siege to Emesa in early 638. The situation was brilliantly tackled by Caliph Umar, while the Muslim army under Abu Ubaida and Khalid was on the defensive at Emesa, he ordered the Muslim commander in chief in Iraq to send the columns to Jazirah from three different sides and a column to Emesa to reinforce the Muslim army there. Soon the Christian Arabs realized that they were trapped as their homeland was being captured by the Muslims and that reinforcements were on their way to Emesa, so they retreated back to Jazirah.

This act of Christian Arabs of Jazirah was followed by a fierce measures from the Caliphate, and Jazirah, the last base of the Eastern Roman empire in the [[Middle East]] was captured the same year.<ref>Akram, chapters 31-36.</ref> On the orders of Caliph Umar, [[Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas]], commander of Muslim army in Iraq sent an army under [[Ayadh bin Ghanam]] to conquer the region between the [[Tigris]] and the Euphrates up to [[Urfa]]. In order to secure Syria from any future aggression it was necessary to clear neighbouring lands from all hostile elements, thus in summer 638 further conquest were made in [[Anatolia]] up to [[Tarsus]] and as far North as [[Marash]] and [[Malatya]]. Malatya was later burned to the ground on the orders of Heraculis to punish its inhabitats for submitting to Muslims.<ref>Byzantium and the Early Islamic Conquests By Walter Emil Kaegi</ref> After [[Siege of Marash|conquest of Marsh]] in 638, with the completion of the conquest of the region, Khalid was dismissed from the army by Caliph Umar, presumeably because of his growing power and influence. By 638 most of southwestern [[Anatolia]] was under the control of the Caliphate. About 40% of the Byzantine empire was conquered and the Byzantine army was now shattered. No longer possessing the resources to recover their lost territory they evacuated their fortifications from South Western Anatolia upon the orders of Heraculis in order to create a nomansland or an empty zone between their strongholds in western Anatolia and those of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. Any further operations in Anatolia were abstained from due to a [[drought]] in 638 and a [[plague]] in Syria in 639. Umar was also engaged in the creation of a buffer zone around all of [[Arabian Peninsula]], the birthplace of Islam, and so while Syria was being captured to the west, Muslim forces were simultaneously engaging the Sassanid Empire there.<ref name="Clargary"/> After the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] the Muslims were able to resume the offensive against the Byzantines by pushing into the Egypt, or [[Aegyptus (Roman province)]].<ref name="Clargary"/>

==Under Caliph Uthman's reign==
During the reign of Caliph [[Uthman]], [[Constantine III (emperor)|Constantine III]], decided to re-capture the [[Levant]], which had been lost to the Muslims during Umar’s reign.<ref name="Clargary"> "Umar (634-644)", ''The Islamic World to 1600'' Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html Last accessed 20 Oct 2006]</ref><ref name="Britannica Syria"/> A full-scale invasion was planned and a large force was sent to re-conquer Syria. [[Muawiyah I]], the then governor of Syria, called for reinforcements and Uthman ordered the governor of [[Kufa]] to send a contingent, which together with the garrison of Syria defeated the Byzantine army in northern Syria.[[Image:Mohammad adil-Rashidun-empire-at-its-peak-close.PNG|thumb|right|300px|Rashidun Empire at its peak under third Rashidun Caliph, Uthman- 654
{{legend|#009900|Strongholds of Rashidun Caliphate}}
{{legend|#00ff00|Vassal sates of Rashidun Caliphate}}]]
Uthman gave permission to Muawiyah, the governor of Syria to build a [[navy]]. From their base in Syria, Muslims used this fleet to capture [[Cyprus]] in 649 and [[Crete]] and then [[Rhodes]] and the launching of annual raids into western Anatolia thwarted the Byzantines from making any further attempts to recapture Syria.<ref name="Clargary"/> In 654-655, Uthman ordered preparation of an expedition to capture the capital of Eastern Roman empire, [[Constantinople]], but due to unrest in the empire that grew in 655 and resulted in his assassination, the expedition was delayed for decades only to be attempted unsuccessfully under the next dynasty of [[Ummayad]] rulers.

==Administration under Rashidun Caliphate==
The new rulers divided Syria into four districts (''junds''): [[Damascus]], [[Hims]], [[Jordan]], and [[Palestine]] (to which a fifth, [[Qinnasrin]], was later added)<ref name="Britannica Syria"/> and the Arab [[garrison]]s were kept apart in camps, and life went on much as before for the local population.<ref name="Britannica Syria"/> The Muslim's adopted a policy of tolerance towards other religions, resulting in a positive effect on the new subject people, especially the [[Nestorian]] and [[Jacobite Christian]]s and Jews ([[People of the Book]]), who had been previously persecuted under Byzantine rule.<ref name="Clargary"/><ref name="Britannica Syria"/> The loyalty of his new subjects was paramount to the success of Muslim rule in the region, therefore excessive taxation or oppression was avoided.<ref name="Clargary"/> The taxes instituted were the ''[[kharaj]]'' - a tax that landowners and peasants paid according to the productivity of their fields - as well as the ''[[jizya]]'' - paid by non-Muslims in return for protection under the Muslim state and exemption from military service. The Byzantine civil service was retained until a new system could be instituted; therefore, [[Greek language|Greek]] remained the administrative language in the new Muslim territories for over 50 years after the conquests.

==The Rise of the Umayyads==
When the first [[First Fitna|civil war]] broke out in the Muslim empire, as a result of the murder of 'Uthman and the nomination of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|'Ali]] as caliph.
Rashidun Caliphate was succeeded by the new dynasty of [[Umayyad]] with Syria as its core and Damascus its capital, for the next century.<ref name="Britannica Syria"/>

==See also==
*[[Iudaea Province]]
*[[Muslim conquests]]
*[[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]
*[[History of Syria]]
*[[History of Jordan]]
*[[Ghassanids]]
*[[History of Palestine]]
*[[History of the Levant]]
*[[Spread of Islam]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|3}}

==References==
* Charles, R. H. ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu: Translated from [[Hermann Zotenberg|Zotenberg]]'s Ethiopic Text'', 1916. Reprinted 2007. Evolution Publishing, ISBN 978-1-889758-87-9. [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html#CRE4]

==External links==
*Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, ''The Islamic World to 1600'' , University of Calgary. [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html]
*Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 51
*Bishop John NIkiou [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu''] Chapters CXVI-CXXI

[[Category:7th century conflicts]]
[[Category:Military history of Syria]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:History of the Levant]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Umayyad Caliphate]]

[[ar:فتح المسلمين بلاد الشام]]
[[id:Penaklukan Islam di Suriah]]
[[it:Conquista musulmana della Siria]]

Belagerung von Jerusalem (637)

2008-11-17T15:58:31Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:فتح القدس

{{dablink|For other sieges laid upon the city of Jerusalem in history, see [[Siege of Jerusalem]].}}
{{FixHTML|beg}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Siege of Jerusalem (637)
|partof=[[Muslim conquest of Syria]][[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
|image=[[Image:Al aqsa moschee 2.jpg|290px]]
|caption=After conquest of Jerusalem, [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] ordered the construction of [[Al-Aqsa Mosque]] at the holy site of [[Temple of solomon]].
|date=November 636 - April 637 A.D
|place=[[Jerusalem]]
|result=Jerusalem captured by [[Rashidun Caliphate]].
|combatant1=[[Rashidun Caliphate]]
|combatant2=[[Byzantine empire]].
|commander1=[[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]][[Khalid ibn al-Walid]][[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]][[Amr ibn al-A'as]][[Shurahbil bin Hassana]]
|commander2=[[Sophronius]]
|strength1=~20,000
|strength2=unknown
|casualties1=nil
|casualties2=nil
}}
{{FixHTML|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab Wars}}
{{FixHTML|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Campaigns of Khalid ibn Walid}}
{{FixHTML|end}}

'''[[Jerusalem]]''' was conquered by [[Rashidun Caliphate army]] in 637 [[Common Era|CE]] during the [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Islamic invasion of Byzantine empire]] shortly after decisively defeating the [[Byzantine army]] at [[Battle of Yarmouk]]. The city of Jerusalem is considered to be holy site by three main religions: [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]].

===Background===

After decisively defeating the Byzantine forces at Battle of Yarmouk in August 636 A.D, in early October 636 A.D (late [[Shaban]], 15 [[Hijrah]]), [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] the commander in chief of [[Rashidun army]] in [[Syria]] held a council of war to discuss future plans. Opinions of objectives varied between [[Caesarea]] and Jerusalem. Abu Ubaidah could see the importance of both these cities, which had so far resisted all Muslim attempts at capture, and unable to decide the matter, wrote to [[Umar|Caliph Umar]] for instructions. In his reply the Caliph ordered the Muslims to capture Jerusalem.<ref name="Akram">Akram, A. I. ''The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns'', Nat. Publishing House. Rawalpindi, 1970. ISBN 0-71010-104-X</ref> Abu Ubaidah therefore marched towards Jerusalem with the army from Jabiya, [[Khalid ibn Walid]] and his Mobile Guard leading the advance. The Muslims arrived at Jerusalem around early November, and the Byzantine garrison withdrew into the fortified city.

==The siege==

For four months the siege continued without a break. Then the [[Patriarch of Jerusalem]] [[Sophronius]], offered to surrender the city and pay the [[jizya]], but only on condition that the [[caliph]] himself would come and sign the pact with him and receive the surrender. When the Sophronius's terms became known to the Muslims, Sharhabil ibn Hassana, one of the Muslim commander suggested that instead of waiting for caliph [[Umar]] to come all the way from [[Madinah]], [[Khalid ibn Walid]] should be sent forward as the caliph. Umar and Khalid were very similar in appearance;<ref>Waqidi: Fatuh al sham vol: 1 page. 162,</ref><ref>Isfahani: Vol. 15, pp. 12, 56.</ref>

On the following morning the Patriarch was informed of the caliph's presence, and Khalid, dressed in simple clothes of the poorest material, as was Umar's custom, rode up to the fort for talks with the Sophronius.<ref>[http://www.islamicperspectives.com/Jerusalem.htm Jerusalem]</ref> But it did not work. Khalid was too famous in Syria, and there may have been Christian Arabs in Jerusalem who had visited Madinah and seen both Umar and Khalid, noting the differences. The Patriarch of Jerusalem refused to talk. When Khalid reported the failure of this mission, [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] wrote to caliph Umar about the situation, and invited him to come to Jerusalem and accept the surrender of the city.<ref>[http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/Jerusalem_OneCity.htm Norman Golb reviews Karen Amstrong's Jerusalem-One City, Three Faiths]</ref>

===Surrender of Jerusalem===

Caliph Umar first came to Jabiya, where he was met by [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]], [[Khalid ibn Walid]] and [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]], who had travelled with an escort to receive him. Amr ibn al-A'as was left as commander of the [[Rashidun army|Muslim army]] besieging Jerusalem.
On the following day the pact was drawn up.
[[Image:Holy sepulchre exterior.jpg|thumb|right|240px|The Church of [[Holy Sepulchre]], where [[Sophronius]] invited caliph Umar to offer prayers.]]

It was signed on behalf of the Muslims by caliph Umar and witnessed by Khalid ibn Walid, [[Amr ibn al-A'as]], [[Abdur Rahman bin Awf]] and [[Muawiyah]]. Jerusalem surrendered to the caliph. This happened in April 637 ([[Rabi' al-awwal]], 16 Hijrah). A pact was also signed as a result of Sophronius's negotiation with caliph Umar regarding the civil and religious liberty for [[Christian]]s in exchange for [[Jizya]] (''tribute'') - known as [[The Umariyya Covenant]].
Sophronius invited Umar to pray in the Church of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], but Umar declined fearing to endanger the Church's status as a Christian temple.<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume2/cntnt51.htm The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire Chapter 51]</ref> By his command the ground of the [[Temple of Solomon]] was prepared for the foundation of a [[Masjid al-Aqsa]].
After staying 10 days at Jerusalem, the caliph returned to Medina.

==Aftermaths==

Following the Caliph's instructions, [[Yazid ibn Abu Sufyan]] proceeded to [[Caesarea]] and once again laid siege to the port city. [[Amr ibn al-A'as]] and Sharhabil ibn Hassana marched to re-occupy [[Palestine]] and [[Jordan]], which task was completed by the end of this year. [[Caesarea]], however, could not be taken till 640 (19 Hijrah), when at last the garrison laid down its arms before [[Muawiyah]]. [[Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]] and [[Khalid ibn Walid]], with an army of 17,000 men, set off from Jerusalem to conquer all of northern Syria, which ended with the [[Battle of Iron bridge|conquest of Antioch]] in 638 A.D and [[Taurus Mountains]] region in [[Anatolia]]. [[Rashidun Caliphate]] forces invaded and conquered [[Egypt]] shortly after it.<ref name="Akram"/>

==See also==
*[[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Battles of Khalid ibn Walid]]
[[Category:Battles of Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Rashidun Caliphate]]
[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Islam in Jerusalem]]

[[ar:فتح القدس]]
[[ru:Осада Иерусалима (637)]]

Castellar de n’Hug

2008-11-15T18:34:23Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:كاستيلار دي نوتش

{{infobox catalan city |
title=Castellar de n'Hug |
location_map=Location of Castellar de nhug.png|
province=Barcelona |
comarca=Berguedà |
population=221 |
population_year=2007 |
area=47.12 |
population_density=4.69 |
elevation=1395 |
demonym=Castellanès, castellanesa |
mayor=Josep Orriols i Coch}}

'''Castellar de n'Hug''' ({{lang-es|Castellar de Nuch}}) is a [[municipality]] in the [[Comarques of Catalonia|''comarca'']] of the [[Berguedà]] in
[[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. It is situated on the southern slopes of the [[Pyrenees|pyrenean]] range of the Creueta. The
[[Llobregat]] river has its source on the territory of the municipality. The village is served by the B-403 road, which links
it with [[La Pobla de Lillet]] and which continues over the Creueta to the ''comarques'' of the [[Ripollès]] and the [[Cerdanya]].

The Asland del Clot del Moro [[cement]] factory, now closed along with the railway line which linked it to
[[Guardiola de Berguedà]], is a notable example of [[Modernisme|''modernista'']] industrial architecture. The
[[Roman (architecture)|roman church]] of Sant Vincenç de Rus conserves some original mural paintings.

== Demography ==
{{infobox catalan city demography |
pop_1900=573 |
pop_1930=616 |
pop_1950=415 |
pop_1970=197 |
pop_1986=176 |
pop_latest=221 |
latest_year=2007}}

==References==
* Panareda Clopés, Josep Maria; Rios Calvet, Jaume; Rabella Vives, Josep Maria (1989). ''Guia de Catalunya'', Barcelona:Caixa de Catalunya. ISBN 84-87135-01-3 (Spanish). ISBN 84-87135-02-1 (Catalan).

==External links==
*[http://www.castellar.diba.es/ Official website] {{ca}}
*[http://www.municat.net:8000/omunicat/owa/mun_p01.dad_ens?via=1&cod=0805220002 Information - Generalitat de Catalunya] {{ca}}
*[http://www.idescat.cat/territ/BasicTerr?TC=3&V0=1&V1=08052 Statistical information - Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya] {{ca}}

{{Bergueda}}

{{coord|42|17|06|N|2|01|08|E|display=title|source:eswiki}}

[[Category:Municipalities in Barcelona]]
[[Category:Berguedà]]

{{catalonia-geo-stub}}

[[ar:كاستيلار دي نوتش]]
[[ca:Castellar de n'Hug]]
[[es:Castellar de Nuch]]
[[eu:Castellar de n'Hug]]
[[fr:Castellar de n'Hug]]
[[it:Castellar de n'Hug]]
[[pt:Castellar de n'Hug]]
[[ro:Castellar de n'Hug]]
[[uk:Касталя-да-н'Уг]]

Schwarze

2008-11-06T20:59:17Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:أسود (شخص)

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{redirect|Black man|the novel|Black Man}}
{{race}}
The term '''black people''' usually refers to a [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial group]] of [[human]]s with dark [[skin color]], but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse populations into one common group. Some definitions of the term include only people of relatively recent [[Sub Saharan Africa]]n descent (see [[African diaspora]]), while others extend the term to any of the populations characterized by dark skin color, a definition that also includes certain populations in [[Oceania]], [[Southeast Asia]]<ref>Various isolated populations in Southeast Asia sometimes classified as black include the [[Austronesian]]s and [[Papuan]]s, the [[Andamanese]] islanders, the [[Semang]] people of the [[Malay peninsula]], the [[Aeta]] people of [[Luzon]], and some other small populations of indigenous peoples. </ref><ref>black. (n.d.). ''Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1)''. Retrieved April 13, 2007, from [http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/black Dictionary.com website]</ref> and [[South Asia]].<ref name=andaman/>

==Dark skin==
{{further|[[Human skin color]] }}
[[Image:Albino boy tanzania.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A black woman and her [[albinistic]] son from [[Tanzania]] ]]

The evolution of dark skin is intrinsically linked to the loss of body hair in humans.
By 1.2 million years ago, all people having descendants today had same the receptor protein of today's Africans; their skin was dark, and the intense sun killed off the progeny with any lighter skin that resulted from mutational variation in the receptor protein.<ref name="Rogers">{{cite journal|last=Rogers|first=Alan R.|coauthors=Iltis, David; Wooding, Stephen|title=Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=45|issue=1|pages=105–8|url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/381006|accessdate=2008-07-22|doi=10.1086/381006|month=February | year=2004|oclc=193553649|publisher=The Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research|issn=0011-3204}}</ref> This is significantly earlier than the [[speciation]] of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' from ''[[Homo erectus]]'' some 250,000 years ago.

Dark skin helps protect against [[skin cancer]] that develops as a result of [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet light]] radiation, causing mutations in the skin.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Furthermore, dark skin prevents an essential B vitamin, [[folate]], from being destroyed. Therefore, in the absence of modern medicine and diet, a person with dark skin in the tropics would live longer, be more healthy and more likely to reproduce than a person with light skin. White Australians have some of the highest rates of skin cancer as evidence of this expectation.<ref>{{cite web| title = Australia Struggles with Skin Cancer| url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/NWS/content/NWS_1_1x_Australia_Struggles_with_Skin_Cancer.asp}}</ref> Conversely, as dark skin prevents sunlight from penetrating the skin it hinders the production of [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]]. Hence when humans migrated to less sun-intensive regions in the north, low [[vitamin D|vitamin D3]] levels became a problem and lighter skin colors started appearing. The people of Europe, who have low levels of [[melanin]], naturally have an almost colorless skin pigmentation, especially when [[Sun_tanning|untanned]]. This low level of pigmentation allows the blood vessels to become visible and gives the characteristic pale pink color of white people. The primary difference in skin color between blacks and whites is however a minor genetic difference accounting for just one letter in 3.1 billion letters of DNA.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728_pf.html "Scientists find DNA change accounting for white skin"]. ''[[Washington Post]]''.</ref>

==In sub-Saharan Africa==
{{see|Demographics of Africa}}
[[Image:Sub-Saharan-Africa.png|right|thumb|Sub-Saharan Africa is colored green, while North Africa is gray.]]
[[Sub-Saharan Africa]] is a common if imprecise term that encompasses African countries located south of the [[Sahara]]. It is commonly used to differentiate the region culturally, ecologically, politically and, more controversially, [[race|racially]], from other parts of the continent. Because the indigenous people of this region are primarily dark-skinned, it is sometimes used as a [[euphemism]] for "Black Africa".<ref>{{cite journal| first = Lansana | last = Keita| title = Race, Identity and Africanity: A Reply to Eboussi Boulaga| journal = CODESRIA Bulletin, Nos | volume = 1 & 2| pages = 16| year= 2004| publisher = Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa}}</ref> Some criticize the use of the term, because, having become in many quarters synonymous with '''Black Africa''', it can leave the mistaken impression that there are not indigenous Black populations in North Africa. Furthermore, the Sahara cuts across countries such as [[Mauritania]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], and [[Sudan]], leaving some parts of them in North Africa and some in sub-Saharan Africa.

[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]] argues that the term sub-Saharan Africa has racist overtones:

{{quote|Sub-Saharan Africa is a racist byword for "primitive", a place which has escaped advancement. Hence, we see statements like “no written languages exist in Sub-Saharan Africa.” “Ancient Egypt was not a Sub-Saharan African civilization.” Sub-Sahara serves as an exclusion, which moves, jumps and slides around to suit negative generalization of Africa.<ref name=Shahadah/>}}

However, some black Africans prefer to be culturally distinguished from those who live in the north of the continent.<ref>{{cite book| last = Keith B. | first = Richburg| title = Out of America: A Black Man Confronts Africa| publisher = Harvest/HBJ Book| date = Reprint edition (July 1, 1998)| isbn = 0156005832 }}</ref>

===South Africa===
[[Image:Coloured-family.jpg|thumb|left|Extended [[Coloured]] family with roots in [[Cape Town]], [[Kimberley]] and [[Pretoria]].]]

In [[South Africa]] during the [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid era]], the population was classified into four groups: ''Black'', ''White'', ''[[Asia]]n'' (mostly [[India]]n), and ''[[Coloured]]''.  The Coloured group included people of mixed [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], [[Khoisan]], and [[European ethnic groups|European]] descent (with some [[Cape Malays|Malay]] ancestry, especially in the [[Western Cape]]). The Coloured definition occupied an intermediary position between the Black and White definitions in South Africa.

The [[apartheid]] bureaucracy devised complex (and often arbitrary) criteria in the [[Population Registration Act]] to determine who belonged in which group. Minor officials administered tests to enforce the classifications. When it was unclear from a person's physical appearance whether a person was to be considered Colored or Black, the "pencil test" was employed. This involved inserting a pencil in a person's hair to determine if the hair was kinky enough for the pencil to get stuck.<ref>{{cite news | last = Nullis| first = Clare | title = Township tourism booming in South Africa| publisher = The Associated Press| year= 2007| url = http://www.canada.com/topics/travel/features/story.html?id=59ec6285-c9fb-41ab-93f9-419f62733f07&k=67896}}</ref>

During the apartheid era, the Coloureds were oppressed and discriminated against. However, they did have limited rights and overall had slightly better socioeconomic conditions than Blacks. In the post-apartheid era the government's policies of [[affirmative action]] have favored Blacks over Coloureds. Some South Africans categorized as Black openly state that Coloureds did not suffer as much as they did during apartheid. The popular saying by Coloured South Africans to illustrate this dilemma is:

{{quote|Not white enough under apartheid and not black enough under the ANC ([[African National Congress]])}}

Other than by appearance, Coloureds can be distinguished from Blacks by language. Most speak [[Afrikaans]] or English as a [[first language]], as opposed to [[Bantu languages]] such as [[Zulu language|Zulu]] or [[Xhosa]]. They also tend to have more European-sounding names than Bantu names.<ref>{{cite news | last = du Preez| first = Max| title = Coloureds - the most authentic SA citizens| publisher = The Star|date=2006-04-13| url = http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=3201857}}</ref>

In 2008, the High Court in South Africa has ruled that [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] South Africans are to be reclassified as black people.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article4168245.ece We agree that you are black, South African court tells Chinese], The Times</ref>

==In the Middle East==
{{See also|Afro-Arab}}
Black African and [[Near East]]ern peoples have interacted since prehistoric times.<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?ReportId=70522 Mauritania: Fair elections haunted by racial imbalance]</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6510675.stm Remembering East African slave raids]</ref> Some historians estimate that as many as 14 million black slaves crossed the [[Red Sea]], [[Indian Ocean]], and [[Sahara Desert]] from 650 to 1900 CE.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-85410331.html The Unknown Slavery: In the Muslim world, that is – and it's not over]</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History]</ref>

The [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], which include [[Semitic languages]] such as [[Arabic]] and [[Hebrew]], are believed by some scholars to have originated in [[Ethiopia]].<ref>[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204%28199802%2939%3A1%3C139%3ATALPAI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage The Afroasiatic Language Phylum: African in Origin, or Asian?] Daniel F. Mc Call. (JSTOR)</ref> This is because the region has very diverse language groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin.

In more recent times, about 1000 CE, interactions between blacks and Arabs resulted in the incorporation of extensive Arabic vocabulary into [[Swahili]], which became a useful ''[[lingua franca]]'' for merchants. Some of this because of the slave trade; the history of [[Islam and slavery]] shows that the [[Madh'hab|major juristic schools]] traditionally accepted the institution of [[slavery]].<ref name="Lewis">Lewis 1994, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html Ch.1]</ref> As a result, Arab influence spread along the east coast of Africa and to some extent into the interior (see [[East Africa]]). [[Timbuktu]] was a trading outpost that linked [[west Africa]] with [[Berber people|Berber]], Arab, and Jewish traders throughout the [[Arab World]]. As a result of these interactions many Arab people in the [[Middle East]] have black ancestry and many blacks on the east coast of Africa and along the Sahara have Arab ancestry.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1180338 Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations]</ref>

According to Dr. Carlos Moore, resident scholar at Brazil's [[Universidade do Estado da Bahia]], Afro-multiracials in the Arab world self-identify in ways that resemble [[Latin America]]. He claims that black-looking Arabs, much like black-looking [[Latin Americans]], consider themselves white because they have some distant white ancestry.<ref>{{cite web| last = Musselman| first = Anson | title = The Subtle Racism of Latin America| publisher = UCLA International Institute| url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=4125}}</ref>

Moore also claims that a film about [[Egyptian President]] [[Anwar Sadat]] had to be canceled when Sadat discovered that an [[African-American]] had been cast to play him. In fact, the 1983 television movie ''Sadat'', starring [[Louis Gossett, Jr.]], was not canceled. The [[government of Egypt|Egyptian government]] refused to let the drama air in Egypt, partially on the grounds of the casting of Gossett.<ref>[http://www.hollywood.com/celebrity/Louis_Gossett_Jr/192411 Louis Gosset Jr.] Hollywood.com</ref> The objections, however, did not come from Sadat, who had been assassinated two years earlier.

Sadat's mother was a black [[Sudan]]ese woman and his father was a lighter-skinned [[Egyptians|Egyptian]]. In response to an advertisement for an acting position he remarked, "I am not white but I am not exactly black either. My blackness is tending to reddish".<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=PoW4pO4q9VwC&printsec=frontcover#PPP1,M1 Anwar Sadat: Visionary Who Dared By Joseph Finklestone] pages 5-7,31 ISBN 0714634875</ref>

[[Fathia Nkrumah]] was another Egyptian intimately tied with black Africa. She was the late wife of [[Ghana]]ian revolutionary [[Kwame Nkrumah]], whose marriage was seen as helping plant the seeds of cooperation between Egypt and other African countries as they struggled for independence from European colonization, which in turn helped advance the formation of the [[African Union]].<ref>[http://ausummit-accra.org.gh/index1.php?linkid=289&adate=04%2F07%2F2007&archiveid=140&page=1 African Union Summit]</ref>

In general, Arab had a more positive view of black women than black men, even if the women were of slave origin. More black women were enslaved than men, and, because the [[Qur'an]] was interpreted to permit [[Ma malakat aymanukum and sex|sexual relations between a male master and his female slave]] outside of marriage,<ref>See [[Tahfeem ul Qur'an]] by [[Maududi|Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]], Vol. 2 pp. 112-113 footnote 44; Also see commentary on verses {{Quran-usc-range|23|1|6}}: Vol. 3, notes 7-1, p. 241; 2000, Islamic Publications</ref><ref>[[Tafsir ibn Kathir]] 4:24</ref> many [[mixed race]] children resulted. When an enslaved woman became pregnant with her Arab captor's child, she became “umm walad” or “mother of a child”, a status that granted her privileged rights. The child would have prospered from the wealth of the father and been given rights of inheritance.<ref name="Arab Slave Trade">{{cite web|url=http://www.arabslavetrade.com|publisher="[[Owen 'Alik Shahadah]]"|title="Slavery in Arabia"}}</ref> Because of [[patrilineality]], the children were born free and sometimes even became successors to their ruling fathers, as was the case with Sultan [[Ahmad al-Mansur]], (whose mother was a [[Fulani]] concubine), who ruled [[Morocco]] from 1578-1608. Such tolerance, however, was not extended to wholly black persons, even when technically "free," and the notion that to be black meant to be a slave became a common belief.<ref>{{cite web| last = Hunwick| first = John| title = Arab Views of Black Africans and Slavery| url=http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Hunwick.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> The term "[[Abd (Arabic)|abd]]," ({{lang-ar
|عبد}},) "slave," remains a common term for black people in the Middle East, often though not always derogatory.<ref>{{cite news| first = Theola
| last = Labbé
| coauthors = Omar Fekeiki
| title = A Legacy Hidden in Plain Sight
| work = Washington Post
| url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A6645-2004Jan10
| date = 2004-01-11
| accessdate = 2008-01-29
}}</ref>

==In the Americas==
Approximately 12 million Africans were shipped to [[the Americas]] during the [[Atlantic slave trade]] from 1492 to 1888. Today their descendants number approximately 150 million,<ref>[http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/galci/Archive.htm "Community Outreach" Seminar on Planning Process for SANTIAGO +5 ], ''Global Afro-Latino and Caribbean Initiative'', February 4, 2006</ref> most of whom live in the [[United States]], the [[Caribbean]] and [[Latin America]], including [[Brazil]]. Many have a multiracial background of African, Amerindian, European and Asian ancestry. The various regions developed complex social conventions with which their multi-ethnic populations were classified.

===United States===
{{main|African American}}
{{see also|African immigration to the United States}}

In the first 200 years that blacks had been in the [[United States]], they commonly referred to themselves as Africans. In Africa, people primarily identified themselves by tribe or ethnic group (closely allied to language) and not by skin color. Individuals would be [[Asante]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]], [[Kikongo]] or [[Wolof]]. But when Africans were brought to [[the Americas]] they were forced to give up their tribal affiliations for fear of uprisings. The result was the Africans had to intermingle with other Africans from different tribal groups. This is significant as Africans came from a vast geographic region, the [[West Africa]]n coastline stretching from [[Senegal]] to [[Angola]] and in some cases from the south east coast such as [[Mozambique]]. A new identity and culture was born that incorporated elements of the various tribal groups and of European cultural heritage, resulting in fusions such as the [[Black church]] and [[AAVE|Black English]]. This new identity was now based on skin color and African ancestry rather than any one tribal group.<ref name=Shahadah>{{cite web| last = Shahadah| first = Owen 'Alik| authorlink =Owen 'Alik Shahadah| title =Linguistics for a new African reality| url=http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/language%20new%20reality.htm}}</ref>

In March 1807, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], which largely controlled the Atlantic, declared [[Abolition of the Slave Trade Act|the trans-atlantic slave trade illegal]], as did the United States. (The latter prohibition took effect January 1, 1808, the earliest date on which [[United States Congress|Congress]] had the power to do so under [[wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Section 9|Article I, Section 9]] of the [[United States Constitution]].)

By that time, the majority of blacks were U.S.-born, so use of the term "African" became problematic. Though initially a source of pride, many blacks feared its continued use would be a hindrance to their fight for full citizenship in the US. They also felt that it would give ammunition to those who were advocating repatriating blacks back to Africa. In 1835 black leaders called upon black Americans to remove the title of "African" from their institutions and replace it with "[[Negro]]" or "Colored American". A few institutions however elected to keep their historical names such as [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]]. "Negro" and "colored" remained the popular terms until the late 1960s.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1594200831/ African American Journeys to Africa page63-64]</ref>

The term ''black'' was used throughout but not frequently as it carried a certain stigma.
In his 1963 "[[I Have a Dream]]" speech,<ref>{{cite video|url=http://video.google.com/url?docid=1732754907698549493&esrc=sr1&ev=v&q=I+Have+a+Dream&vidurl=http://video.google.com/videoplay%3Fdocid%3D1732754907698549493%26q%3DI%2BHave%2Ba%2BDream&usg=AL29H20jaXzESJi0-5ByuawvRj8e-fNr-w| people = Martin Luther King, Jr.| title = I Have a Dream| medium = Google Video| location = Washington, D.C.|date=August 28, 1963 }}</ref> [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] uses the terms ''Negro'' 15 times and ''black'' 4 times. Each time he uses ''black'' it is in parallel construction with ''white'' (e.g., black men and white men).<ref>{{cite journal| last = Smith|first= Tom W.|title = Changing Racial Labels: From "Colored" to "Negro" to "Black" to "African American"| journal = The Public Opinion Quarterly| volume = 56| issue=4|pages = 496–514|issn= 0033-362X|oclc=192150485| url=http://www.soc.iastate.edu/soc522a/PDF%20readings/Smith.pdf|date = Winter, 1992| publisher = Oxford University Press| doi = 10.1086/269339|format=PDF}}</ref> With the successes of the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] a new term was needed to break from the past and help shed the reminders of legalized discrimination. In place of ''Negro'', ''black'' was promoted as standing for racial pride, militancy and power. Some of the turning points included the use of the term "[[Black Power]]" by Kwame Toure ([[Stokely Carmichael]]) and the release of James Brown's song "[[Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud]]".

In 1988 [[Jesse Jackson]] urged Americans to use the term [[African American]] because the term has a historical cultural base. Since then African American and black have essentially a coequal status. There is still much controversy over which term is more appropriate. Some strongly reject the term African American in preference for black citing that they have little connection with Africa.{{Who|date=August 2008}} Others believe the term black is inaccurate because African Americans have a variety of skin tones.<ref>{{cite news| last = McWhorter| first = John H.| title = Why I'm Black, Not African American| publisher = Los Angeles Times|date=2004-09-08| url = http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_latimes-why_im_black.htm}}</ref> Surveys show that when interacting with each other African Americans prefer the term black, as it is associated with intimacy and familiarity. The term "African American" is preferred for public and formal use.<ref>{{cite book| last = Miller| first = Pepper| coauthors = Kemp, Herb | title = What's Black About? Insights to Increase Your Share of a Changing African-American Market| publisher = Paramount Market Publishing, Inc| year= 2006| isbn = 0972529098|oclc=61694280}}</ref> The appropriateness of this term is further confused, however, by increases in black immigrants from [[African immigration to the United States|Africa]] the Caribbean and Latin America. The more recent immigrants, may sometimes view themselves, and be viewed, as culturally distinct from native descendants of African slaves.<ref name="Swarns">{{cite news|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CE5DB1F3EF93AA1575BC0A9629C8B63|title='African American' Becomes a Term for Debate|last=Swarns|first=Rachel L.|date=2004-08-29|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

The [[Race (United States Census)|U.S. census race definitions]] says a black is a person having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa. It includes people who indicate their race as "Black, African Am., or Negro," or who provide written entries such as African American, Afro American, [[Kenyan]], [[Nigerian]], or [[Haitian]]. However, the [[Census Bureau]] notes that these classifications are socio-political constructs and should not be interpreted as scientific or anthropological.<ref>[http://www.census.gov/mso/www/c2000basics/00Basics.pdf 2000 US Census basics]</ref>

A considerable portion of the [[U.S. population]] identified as ''black'' actually have some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] or [[European American]] ancestry. For instance, genetic studies of African American people show an ancestry that is on average 17-18% European.<ref>[http://www.isteve.com/2002_How_White_Are_Blacks.htm How White Are Blacks? How Black Are Whites? by Steve Sailer]</ref>

====One drop rule====
Historically the United States used a [[colloquial]] term, the ''[[one drop rule]]'', to designate a black as any person with any known African ancestry.<ref name=Davis>{{cite web| last = James| first = F. Davis| title = Who is Black? One Nation's Definition| url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jefferson/mixed/onedrop.html| publisher = [[PBS]]}}</ref> The one drop rule was virtually unique to the United States and was applied almost exclusively to blacks. Outside of the US, definitions of who is black vary from country to country but generally, multiracial people are not required by society to identify themselves as black (cf. [[mulatto]] and related terms). The most significant consequence of the one drop rule was that many African Americans who had significant European ancestry, whose appearance was very European, would identify themselves as black.

The one drop rule may have originated as a means of increasing the number of black slaves<ref>[[Clarence Page]], [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/essays/page_5-1.html A Credit to His Races], ''[[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]]'', May 1, 1997.</ref> and been maintained as an attempt to keep the white race pure,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://backintyme.com/essays/?p=25|title=Presenting the Triumph of the One-Drop Rule|last=Sweet|first=Frank|date=Backintyme Essays|work=The One-Drop Rule|publisher=2006-04-01|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref> but one of its [[unintended consequence]]s was uniting the African American community and preserving an African identity.<ref name=Davis/> Some of the most prominent civil rights activists were multiracial but yet stood up for equality for all. It is said that [[W.E.B. Du Bois]] could have easily passed for white yet he became the preeminent scholar in Afro-American studies.<ref>{{cite news| last = Nakao| first = Annie| title = Play explores corrosive prejudice within black community| publisher = San Francisco Chronicle| date=2004-01-28| url =http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2004/01/28/DDGL74I9TF1.DTL}}</ref> He chose to spend his final years in Africa and immigrated to [[Ghana]] where he died aged 95. [[Booker T. Washington]] had a white father,<ref>{{cite web| title = Mixed Historical Figures| url=http://www.mixedfolks.com/historical.htm}}</ref> and [[Malcolm X]] and [[Louis Farrakhan]] both had at least one white grandparent. That said, [[colorism]], or intraracial discrimination based on skin tone, does affect the black community. It is a sensitive issue or a taboo subject. Open discussions are often labeled as "airing dirty laundry".<ref>{{cite web| last = Crawford| first = Larry D.| title = Racism, Colorism and Power| url=http://www.nbufront.org/html/FRONTalView/ArticlesPapers/Crawford_RacismColorismPower.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| first = Trina | last = Jones| title =Shades of Brown: The Law of Skin Color| journal = Duke Law Journal| volume = 49 | issue=6|oclc=201336631|issn=0012-7086|pages = 1487–558|url=http://www.law.duke.edu/shell/cite.pl?49+Duke+L.+J.+1487| year = 2000| publisher = [[Duke University School of Law]]| doi =10.2307/1373052}}</ref>

Many people in the United States are rejecting the one drop rule and are questioning whether a person with one black parent should be considered black or [[Multiracial|biracial]]. Although politician [[Barack Obama]] self-identifies as black, 55 percent of whites and 61 percent of Hispanics classified him as biracial instead of black after being told that his mother is white. Blacks were less likely to acknowledge a multiracial category, with 66% labeling Obama as black.<ref>{{cite news| title = Obama and 'one drop of non-white blood'| publisher = BBS News|date=2007-04-13| url = http://bbsnews.net/article.php/20061222014017231}}</ref> Forty-two percent of African-Americans described [[Tiger Woods]] as black, as did 7% of white Americans.<ref>{{cite web| last = White| first =John Kennet| title =Barack Obama and the Politics of Race| place =Catholic University of America| url=http://www.mindstorminteractive.net/clients/idonline/index.htm}}</ref>

====Blackness====
[[Image:BarackObama2005portrait.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Barack Obama]], the first black President-elect in [[United States|U.S.]], has, throughout his campaign, been criticized as being either "too black" or "not black enough".<ref name=obama-speech>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/18_03_08_obama_speech.pdf |title=Remarks of Senator Barack Obama: 'A More Perfect Union' (transcript) |accessdate=2008-06-27 |date=2008-03-18 |publisher=BBC News|format=pdf |quote=This is not to say that race has not been an issue in the campaign. At various stages in the campaign, some commentators have deemed me either "too black" or "not black enough." We saw racial tensions bubble to the surface during the week before the South Carolina primary. The press has scoured every exit poll for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well. |pages=p2 }} See also: [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pWe7wTVbLUU video]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/jun/27/barackobama.ralphnader?gusrc=rss&feed=commentisfree |title=Too black or not black enough, Obama just can't win |accessdate=2008-06-27 |first=Lola|last= Adesioye |date=2008-06-27 |publisher=The Guardian|work=Comment is Free}}</ref><ref name=obama-time>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1584736,00.html |title=Is Obama Black Enough? |accessdate=2008-06-27 |first=Ta-Nehisi Paul last=Coates |date=2007-02-01 |publisher=Time |quote=Barack Obama's real problem isn't that he's too white — it's that he's too black.}}</ref>]]The concept of [[blackness]] in the United States has been described{{Who|date=June 2008}} as the degree to which one associates themselves with mainstream [[African American culture]] and values. This concept is not so much about skin color or tone but more about culture and behavior. [[Spike Lee]] may be considered authentically black by some for his contribution to black consciousness through film.

Blackness can be contrasted with "[[acting white]]" where black Americans are said to behave with assumed characteristics of stereotypical white Americans, with regard to [[fashion]], [[dialect]] and [[taste in music]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kent.edu/Magazine/Spring2007/ActingWhite.cfm|title=Acting White|last=Edler|first=Melissa|date=Spring 2007|publisher=Kent State Magazine|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

The notion of blackness can also be extended to non-black people. [[Toni Morrison]] once described [[Bill Clinton]] as the first black president,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://dir.salon.com/story/books/int/2002/02/20/clinton/index.html|title=Blacks and Bill Clinton|last=Hansen|first=Suzy|date=2002-02-20|publisher=Salon|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref> because of his warm relations with African Americans, his poor upbringing and also because he is a jazz musician. [[Christopher Hitchens]] was offended by the notion of Clinton as the first black president noting "we can still define blackness by the following symptoms: alcoholic mothers, under-the-bridge habits...the tendency to sexual predation and shameless perjury about the same"<ref>No One Left to Lie to by Christopher Hitchens, 1999, pg 47</ref> Some black activists were also offended, claiming Clinton used his knowledge of black culture to exploit black people like no other president before<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_go1637/is_200204/ai_n6880693 Find Articles 404 File not found]</ref> for political gain, while not serving black interests. They note his lack of action during the [[Rwanda genocide]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1182431,00.html|title=US chose to ignore Rwandan genocide|last=Carroll|first=Rory|date=2004-03-31|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref> his [[welfare reform]] which led to the worst [[child poverty]] since the 1960s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/jun1999/welf-j02.shtml|title=Clinton's welfare reform has increased child poverty|last=Roberts |first=Larry|date=1999-06-02|publisher=World Socialist Web Site|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref> along with the fact that number of blacks in jail increased during his administration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.counterpunch.org/gray1207.html|title=Soul Brother? Clinton and Black Americans|last=Gray|first=Kevin A.|date=2002-12-07|publisher=Counterpunch|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

The question of blackness also arose in Democrat [[Barack Obama]]'s [[United States presidential election, 2008|2008 presidential campaign]]. Commentators<ref name=obama-speech /> such as Time magazine<ref name=obama-time /> have questioned whether Obama, the likely first black presidential candidate of a major [[United States of America|American]] political party, is black enough, as his mother is [[white American]], and his father is a Kenyan immigrant. Obama refers to himself interchangeably as black and [[African American]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/02/11/60minutes/main2458530.shtml|title=A Transcript Excerpt Of Steve Kroft’s Interview With Sen. Obama|last=Kroft|first=Steve|date=2007-02-11|publisher=CBS News|accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

===Race in Brazil===
{{main|Race in Brazil}}
[[Image:Capoeira-in-the-street-2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Capoeira]], an Afro-Brazilian [[martial art]].]]
Unlike in the United States, race in Brazil is based on skin color and physical appearance rather than ancestry. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only two categories to choose from. Between a pure black and a very light mulatto over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with the combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred to appearance, not heredity.<ref name="skidmore">{{cite journal| first = Thomas E. | last = Skidmore | title = Fact and Myth: Discovering a Racial Problem in Brazil| journal = Working Paper| volume = 173|url=http://www.nd.edu/~kellogg/publications/workingpapers/WPS/173.pdf| month = April | year = 1992|format=PDF}}</ref>

There is some disagreement among scholars over the effects of social status on racial classifications in Brazil. It is generally believed that upward mobility and education results in reclassification of individuals into lighter skinned categories. The popular claim is that in Brazil poor whites are considered black and wealthy blacks are considered white. Some scholars disagree arguing that whitening of one's social status may be open to people of mixed race, but a typically black person will consistently be identified as black regardless of wealth or social status.<ref name=Telles>{{cite book| last = Edward E. | first = Telles| title = Race in Another America: The Significance of Skin Color in Brazil| pages = 95-98| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| year= 2004| isbn =0691118663 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal| first = Edward E. | last = Telles| title = Racial Ambiguity Among the Brazilian Population| journal = Ethnic and Racial Studies|url=http://www.ccpr.ucla.edu/ccprwpseries/ccpr_012_01.pdf| volume = 25| pages = 415–441| date= 3 May 2002| publisher = California Center for Population Research| doi = 10.1080/01419870252932133|format=PDF}}</ref>

====Statistics====
{{see also|Race and genetics#Admixture in Latin America}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;"
|+Demographics of Brazil
|-
! Year!! White !! Brown!! Black
|-
| 1835
| 24.4% || 18.2%||51.4%
|-
| 2000
| 53.7% ||38.5%||6.2%
|-
|}
From the year 1500 to 1850 an estimated 3.5 million Africans were forcibly shipped to Brazil.<ref name=Telles/> An estimated 80 million Brazilians, almost half the population, are at least in part descendants of these Africans. Brazil has the largest population of Afro-descendants outside of Africa. In contrast to the US there were no segregation or anti-[[miscegenation]] laws in Brazil and as a result intermarriage has affected a large majority of the Brazilian population. Even much of the white population has either African or Amerindian blood. According to the last census 54% identified themselves as white, 6.2% identified themselves as black and 39.5% identified themselves as [[Pardo]] (brown)- a broad multiracial category.<ref>{{cite web| title = CIA World Factbook: Brazil| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html#People}}</ref>

A philosophy of whitening emerged in Brazil in the 19th century. Until recently the government did not keep data on race. However, statisticians estimate that in 1835 half the population was black, one fifth was Pardo (brown) and one fourth white. By 2000 the black population had fallen to only 6.2% and the Pardo had increased to 40% and white to 55%. Essentially most of the black population was absorbed into the multiracial category by intermarriage.<ref name="skidmore"/> A recent study found that at least 29% of the middle class white Brazilian population had some recent African ancestry.<ref>[http://www.funpecrp.com.br/gmr/year2007/vol2-6/gmr0330_full_text.htm Sex-biased gene flow in African Americans but not in American Caucasians]</ref>

====Race relations====
Because of the ideology of miscegenation, Brazil has avoided the polarization of Society into black and white. The bitter and sometimes violent racial tensions that divide the US are notably absent in Brazil.
However the philosophy of the racial democracy in Brazil has drawn criticism from some quarters. Brazil has one of the largest gaps in income distribution in the world. The richest 10% of the population earn 28 times the average income of the bottom 40%. The richest 10 percent is almost exclusively white. One-third of the population lives under the poverty line of which blacks and other non-whites account for 70 percent of the poor.<ref>{{cite web| last = Barrolle| first = Melvin Kadiri| title = African 'Americans' in Brazil| publisher =New America Media| url=http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=5b8d531de860940110af2433244782c6}}</ref>

In the US blacks earn 75% of what whites earn, in Brazil non-whites earn less than 50% of what whites earn. Some have posited that Brazil does in fact practice the one drop rule when social economic factors are considered. This because the gap income between blacks and other non-whites is relatively small compared with the large gap between whites and non-whites. Other factors such as illiteracy and education level show the same patterns.<ref>{{cite web| last = Roland| first = Edna Maria Santos| title = The Economics of Racism: People of African Descent in Brazil| url=http://www.falapreta.org.br/durban/racism.doc}}</ref>
Unlike in the US where African Americans were united in the civil rights struggle, in Brazil the philosophy of whitening has helped divide blacks from other non-whites and prevented a more active civil rights movement.

Though Afro-Brazilians make up half the population there are very few black politicians. The city of [[Salvador, Bahia]] for instance is 80% Afro-Brazilian but has never had a black mayor. Critics indicate that in US cities like [[Detroit]] and [[New Orleans]] that have a black majority, have never had white mayors since first electing black mayors in the 1970s.<ref>Charles Whitaker, "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1077/is_n4_v46/ai_9329550/pg_3 Blacks in Brazil: The Myth and the Reality]," ''[[Ebony (magazine)|Ebony]]'', February 1991</ref>

Non-white people also have limited media visibility. The Latin American media, in particular the Brazilian media, has been accused of hiding its black and indigenous population. For example the [[telenovelas]] or [[Soap Opera|soaps]] are said to be a hotbed of white, largely blonde and blue/green-eyed actors who resemble [[Scandinavia]]ns or other northern Europeans more than they resemble the typical whites of Brazil, who are mostly of [[Southern European]] descent.<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/3069253/site/newsweek/%5B/url%5D Soap operas on Latin TV are lily white]</ref><ref>
[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A19009-2000Aug1&notFound=true The Blond, Blue-Eyed Face of Spanish TV]</ref><ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/08/19/pride_or_prejudice/ Skin tone consciousness in Asian and Latin American populations]</ref>

These patterns of discrimination against non-whites have led some to advocate for the use of the Portuguese term 'negro' to encompass non-whites so as to renew a black consciousness and identity, in effect an African descent rule.<ref>[http://www.newamerica.net/publications/articles/2006/brazil_separates_into_a_world_of_black_and_white Brazil Separates Into a World of Black and White], ''Los Angeles Times'', September 3, 2006</ref>

==In Asia and Australasia==
[[Image:Vanuatu blonde.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Pacific Islander boy: a [[Melanesian]] from [[Vanuatu]]<ref>[http://news.softpedia.com/news/Naturally-Blonde-Blacks-48181.shtml Naturally blonde blacks]</ref>]]
There are several groups of dark-skinned people who live in various parts of [[Asia]], [[Australia]] and [[Oceania]]. They include the [[Indigenous Australians]], the [[Melanesians]] (now divided into [[Austronesian]]-speaking populations and [[Papuan]]s, and including the great genetic diversity of [[New Guinea]]), the [[Andamanese]] people of the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] of [[India]], the [[Semang]] people of the [[Malay peninsula]], the [[Aeta]] people of [[Luzon]], the [[Ati (tribe)|Ati]] of [[Panay]], the [[Vedda people]] of [[Sri Lanka]]<ref name=andaman>[http://www.andaman.org/BOOK/chapter6/text6.htm Chapter 6: The Negrito Race]</ref>, and various [[indigenous peoples]] sometimes collectively known as [[Negritos]].

By their external physical appearance ([[phenotype]]) such people resemble Africans with dark skin and sometimes tightly coiled hair. Genetically they are distant from Africans and are more closely related to the surrounding Asian populations.<ref>{{cite journal| first = Kumarasamy | last = Thangaraj| coauthors = Singh, Lalji; Reddy, Alla G.; Rao, V. Raghavendra; Sehgal, Subhash C.; Underhill, Peter A.; Pierson, Melanie; Frame, Ian G.; Hagelberg, Erika| title = Genetic Affinities of the Andaman Islanders, a Vanishing Human Population|url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/CB_2002_p1-18.pdf| journal =Current Biology | volume = 13| issue=2| pages = 86–93| date= 2003-01-21| doi = 10.1080/00438240600564987|oclc=112009350|issn=0960-9822|format=PDF}}</ref>

==In Europe==

{{main|Afro-European}}

For many centuries throughout the [[Age of Discovery]] and the [[Colonialism|colonial empires]], black people came from the colonies to the "mother country", either voluntarily (sometimes for education) or under duress (sometimes as slaves). Even prior to that, the [[Arab slave trade]] brought large numbers of Africans to the furthest reaches of Europe; for example, [[Peter the Great]] took as a protégé [[Abram Petrovich Gannibal]], whose descendants number poet [[Alexandr Pushkin]] and [[Hugh Grosvenor, Earl Grosvenor|Hugh Grosvenor]], [[heir apparent]] to [[Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster|Britain's wealthiest aristocrat]].<ref>[http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/specials/rich_list/ Sunday Times Rich List 2007 - Business]</ref> Most of the black people living in [[Europe]], however, have their origins in relatively recent waves of immigration. Since the decolonisation of the mid-twentieth century, substantial black populations have moved to certain countries in Europe; other European countries have very few black people. At present, black people have limited visibility in mainstream European society, except in a handful of roles such as sporting activities.

===Britain===
''See also: [[British African-Caribbean community]] and [[Black British]]''

According to [[National Statistics]], as of the 2001 census, there are over a million black people in the [[United Kingdom]]; 1% of the total population describe themselves as "Black Caribbean", 0.8% as "Black African", and 0.2% as "Black other".<ref>[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=273 National Statistics Online]</ref> The largest single number comes from [[Nigeria]], just over 88,000<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/born_abroad/countries/html/overview.stm BBC NEWS | UK | Born Abroad | Countries of birth]</ref>. Britain encouraged workers from the [[Caribbean]] after [[World War II]]; the first symbolic movement was those who came on the ship the ''[[Empire Windrush]]''. The preferred official [[umbrella term]] is "black and minority ethnic" (BME), but sometimes the term "black" is used on its own, to express unified opposition to racism, as in the [[Southall Black Sisters]], which started with a mainly [[British Asian]] constituency. Black Britons tend to live in the cities, whereas the white population is moving more to suburbs and the countryside (see [[white flight]]). The total Black British population is currently thought to be much higher with around 2 million Nigerians in the country alone.<ref>[http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/nigeria?profile=intRelations&pg=4 http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/sub-saharan-africa/nigeria?profile=intRelations&pg=4]</ref>

===Eastern Europe===
As African states [[decolonisation|became independent]] in the 1960s, the [[Soviet Union]] offered them the chance to study in Russia; over 40 years, 400,000 African students came, and many settled there.<ref>[http://www.mediarights.org/film/black_russians MediaRights: Film: Black Russians]</ref><ref>[http://www.africana.ru/Golden/info/black_russians_project_engl.htm Лили Голден и Лили Диксон. Телепроект "Черные русские": синопсис. Info on "Black Russians" film project in English]</ref> This extended beyond the Soviet Union to many countries of the [[Eastern bloc]].

===Russia===
A cultural classification of people as "black" exists in [[Russia]]. Certain groups of people who are ethnically different, and generally darker, than ethnic [[Russians]] are pejoratively referred to as "blacks" (''chernye''), and face specific sorts of [[social exclusion]] (see [[Racism in Russia]]). [[Romani people|Roma]], [[Georgians]], and [[Tatar]]s fall into this category.<ref> ''The Unmaking of Soviet Life: Everyday Economies After Socialism'' By Caroline Humphrey [[Cornell University]] 2002 p36-37</ref> Those referred to as "black" are from the [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet republics]], predominantly [[peoples of the Caucasus]], e.g. [[Chechens]].<ref>Lisa Taylor, [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/63/333.html Emergency—Explosion of State and Popular Racism follows Moscow Blasts], International Solidarity with Workers in Russia (ISWoR), 13 September 1999.</ref> Although "Caucasian" is used in [[American English]] to mean "[[white people]]", in [[Russian language|Russian]] – and [[List of dialects of the English language|most other varieties of English]] – it only refers to the [[Caucasus]], not European people in general.

==Debates on historical populations==
===Ancient Egyptian race controversy===
{{main|Ancient Egyptian race controversy}}
{{see also|Egyptians}}
[[Image:Egyptian races.jpg|thumb|1820 drawing of a fresco of the tomb of [[Seti I]], depicting (from left): [[Libyan]], [[Nubian]], [[Asian people|Asiatic]], [[Egyptians]].<ref>[http://personalwebs.coloradocollege.edu/~ctorresrouff/walkerlabpubs/buzon2006current.pdf Biological and Ethnic Identity in New Kingdom Nubia]</ref>]]
A controversy over the skin color and ethnic origins of the [[ancient Egypt]]ians was sparked as part of the [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentric]] debate.<ref name = "hrsvxs">[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Articles_Gen/afrocent_roth.html Building bridges to Afrocentrism]</ref> [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentrist]] scholars such as [[Cheikh Anta Diop]] contend that [[ancient Egypt]] was primarily a "black civilization". One source cited in support of their argument is [[Herodotus]], who wrote around 450 B.C. that "Colchians, Ethiopians and Egyptians have thick lips, broad nose, woolly hair and they are burnt of skin."<ref>{{cite web |title=Huge Ancient Egyptian Photo Gallery| url=http://www.freemaninstitute.com/RTGhistory.htm}}</ref> However, Classical scholar [[Frank M. Snowden, Jr.|Frank Snowden, Jr.]] cautions against the reliance on accounts by ancient writers to describe the physical characteristics of other ancient peoples, as they held different connotations from those of modern-day terminology in the West. He also points out that other ancient writers clearly distinguished between Egyptians and Ethiopians.<ref>{{cite book | last=Snowden, Jr. | first=Frank M. | editor=Mary R. Lefkowitz and Guy MacLean Rogers (eds.) | title=Black Athena Revisited | location=Chapel Hill | publisher=University of North Carolina Press | year=1996 | pages=113-14 | quote=....the Afrocentrists are mistaken in assuming that the terms ''Afri'' (Africans) and various color adjectives for dark pigmentation as used by Greeks and Romans are always the classical equivalents of Negores or blacks in modern usage.... That the pigmentation of the Egyptians was seen as lighter than that of Ethiopians is also attested by the adjective ''subfusucli'' ("somewhat dark") which Ammianus Marcellinus (22.16.23) chose to describe the Egyptians....}}</ref>

Keita and Boyce confront this issue in a 1996 article entitled, "The Geographical Origins and Population Relationships of Early Ancient Egyptians". As anthropologists, they point out the danger in relying on ancient interpretation to reveal for us the biological make up of a population. In any case they contend, the relevant data indicates greater similarity between Egyptians and Ethiopians than the former group with the Ancient Greeks.<ref>{{cite book | last=Keita, Boyce | first=Shomarka, A.J.| editor=Theodore Celenko(ed) | title=Egypt in Africa | location=Chapel Hill | publisher=Indianapolis Museum of Art | year=1996 | pages=25-27 | quote=....''The descriptions and terms of ancient Greek writers have sometimes been used to comment on Egyptian origins. This is problematic since the ancient writers were not doing population biology. However, we can examine one issue. The Greeks called all groups south of Egypt "Ethiopians." Were the Egyptians more related to any of these "Ethiopians" than to the Greeks? As noted, cranial and limb studies have indicated greater similarity to Somalis, Kushites and Nubians, all "Ethiopians" in ancient Greek terms.''....}}</ref>

Ancient Egyptians are often portrayed in modern media as Caucasians, and many blacks, Afrocentrists in particular, have been critical of this.<ref>{{cite web| title = The Identity Of Ancient| url=http://www.calumet.purdue.edu/mcnair/cynthia_research.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> According to [[Egyptology|Egyptologists]], ancient Egypt was a multicultural society of Middle Eastern, Northeast African, and Saharan influences.<ref name = "hrsvxs"/><ref>[http://homelink.cps-k12.org/teachers/filiopa/files/AC383EB269C648AAAA659593B9FC358C.pdf Were the Ancient Egyptians black or white]</ref> Anthropological and archaeological evidence shows that an [[Africoid]] element was evident in ancient Egypt,<ref>{{cite video| people = [[Basil Davidson]]| title=The Nile|url=http://www.lincoln.edu/history/his307/davidson/1/dif3.wmv}}</ref> which was predominant in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] in the [[First dynasty of Egypt]].<ref>Studies and Comments on Ancient Egyptian Biological Relationships, by S.O.Y. Keita, History in Africa, 20: 129-154 (1993)</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Keita | first=S.O.Y. | title=Further studies of crania from ancient northern Africa: an analysis of crania from First Dynasty Egyptian tombs | journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology | year=1992 | month=March | volume=87 | issue= 3 | pages=245–254 | url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110482899/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 | accessdate= 2007-09-23 | quote=The predominant craniometric pattern in the [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] [First Dynasty] royal tombs is "southern" (tropical African variant)... However, lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity... The centroid values of the various upper Egyptian series viewed collectively are seen to vary over time. The general trend from Badari to Nakada times, and then from the Nakadan to the First Dynasty epochs demonstrate change toward the northern-Egyptian centroid value on Function I with similar values on Function 11. This might represent an average change from an Africoid (Keita, 1990) to a northern-Egyptian-Maghreb modal pattern.... This northern modal pattern, which can be called coastal northern African, is noted in general terms to be intermediate, by the centroid scores of Function I, to equatorial African and northern European phenotypes. | doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330870302}}</ref>

===Biblical perspective===
{{further|[[Hamitic]]}}
According to some historians, the tale in [[Curse of Ham|Genesis 9]] in which Noah cursed the descendants of his son Ham with servitude was a seminal moment in defining black people, as the story was passed on through generations of Jewish, Christian and Islamic scholars.<ref>Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry, (Oxford University Press, 1982), pp. 28-117</ref> According to columnist Felicia R. Lee, "Ham came to be widely portrayed as black; blackness, servitude and the idea of racial hierarchy became inextricably linked." Some people believe that the tradition of dividing humankind into three major races is partly rooted in tales of Noah's three sons repopulating the Earth after the [[Noah's Flood|Deluge]] and giving rise to three separate races.<ref>{{cite web| title = The Descendants of Noah| url=http://www.bible-truth.org/GEN10.HTM}}</ref>

The biblical passage, [[Book of Genesis]] 9:20-27, which deals with the [[sons of Noah]], however, makes no reference to race. The reputed [[curse of Ham]] is not on [[Sons of Noah|Ham]], but on [[Canaan]], one of Ham's sons. This is not a racial but geographic referent. The Canaanites, typically associated with the region of the Levant (Palestine, Lebanon, etc) were later subjugated by the Hebrews when they left bondage in Egypt according to the Biblical narrative.<ref>{{cite book| last = Redford| first = Donald B. | title = Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times| pages = 23-87| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| year= 1993| isbn = 0691000867 }}</ref><ref name=Goldenberg>{{cite book| last = Goldenberg| first = David M.| title = The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam| publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]| date = New Ed edition (July 18, 2005)| isbn = 0691123705 }}</ref> The alleged inferiority of Hamitic descendants also is not supported by the Biblical narrative, nor claims of three races in relation to Noah's sons. Shem for example seems a linguistic not racial referent. In short the Bible does not define blacks, nor assign them to racial hierarchies.<ref name=Goldenberg/>

Historians believe that by the 19th century, the belief that blacks were descended from Ham was used by southern United States whites to justify slavery.<ref name=FRLee>Felicia R. Lee, ''[http://www.racematters.org/noahscurseslaverysrationale.htm Noah's Curse Is Slavery's Rationale]'', Racematters.org, November 1, 2003</ref> According to Benjamin Braude, a professor of history at Boston College:

{{quote|in 18th- and 19th century Euro-America, Genesis 9:18-27 became the curse of Ham, a foundation myth for collective degradation, conventionally trotted out as God's reason for condemning generations of dark-skinned peoples from Africa to slavery.<ref name=FRLee/>}}

Author David M. Goldenberg contends that the Bible is not a racist document. According to Goldenberg, such [[racist]] interpretations came from post-biblical writers of antiquity like [[Philo]] and [[Origen of Alexandria]], who equated blackness with darkness of the soul.<ref>Goldenberg, D. M. (2005) ''The Curse of Ham: Race & Slavery in Early Judaism, Christian'', Princeton University Press</ref>

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
{{sisterlinks}}
* [[List of topics related to Black and African people]]
* [[Africans]]
* [[African-American]]
* [[Afro-Latin American|Afro-Latino]]
* [[Black British]]
* [[Negritos]]
* [[Black pride]], [[Black Power]], [[Black nationalism]], [[Black separatism]], [[Black supremacy]]
* [[Stereotypes of black people]]
* [[White people]]

[[Category:Black Africa]]
[[Category:Black African diaspora]]
[[Category:Latin American caste system]]
[[Category:Race]]

[[ar:أسود (شخص)]]
[[cs:Negroidní rasa]]
[[de:Schwarzafrikaner]]
[[es:Negro (persona)]]
[[fr:Race noire]]
[[gl:Negro (raza)]]
[[ko:흑인]]
[[hr:Negroidi]]
[[ig:Ndi oji]]
[[id:Ras Negroid]]
[[he:שחורים]]
[[ka:ნეგროიდული რასა]]
[[lt:Juodaodis]]
[[pl:Czarna rasa człowieka]]
[[pt:Negros]]
[[ru:Негроидная раса]]
[[simple:Black people]]
[[sk:Negroidná rasa]]
[[fi:Negridinen rotu]]
[[vi:Đại chủng Phi]]
[[tr:Zenciler]]
[[zh:黑人]]

Arabisch-Demokratische Nasseristische Partei

2008-10-04T13:28:52Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:الحزب العربي الديمقراطي الناصري

{{Infobox_Egyptian_Political_Party
| party_name = Arab Democratic Nasserist Party
| party_color =
| motto =
| chairman = [[Diaa Eldin Daoud]]
| foundation = [[April 19]], [[1992]]
| headquarters = [[Cairo]]
| ideology = [[Socialism]], [[Pan-Arab]]
| papers = Al-Arabi Newspaper - Weekly
| website = http://www.al-araby.com/index.htm
| }}

The '''Arab Democratic Nasserist Party''' ({{lang-ar|الحزب العربى الديمقراطى الناصرى}}) is a [[political party]] in [[Egypt]].

At the 2000 parliamentary elections, the party had 3 out of 454 seats. However, at the last [[legislative]] [[elections in Egypt|elections]], November and December 2005, the party failed to win any seats.

== Platform ==
The party platform calls for:
*Social change towards progress and development.
*Defence and freedom of national will.
*Renouncing violence and combating [[terrorism]].
*Protecting public freedoms.
*Enhancing the role of the [[public sector]].
*Modernizing the Egyptian industries.
*Developing the agriculture sector.
*Encouraging [[pan-Arabism|inter-Arab]] economic integration.
*Providing [[Universal health care|free-of-charge medical treatment]] for citizens.
*Promoting peace in the world arena.

== History ==
[[Sadat]]'s [[Infitah|economic liberalizations]], as well as his foreign policy moves, alienated many ideological [[Nasserism|Nasserists]] in the late 1970s and early 1980s. One illegal group, the Thawrat Misri, or Egyptian Revolution was formed in 1980. After it was broken up by the government, several of [[Nasser]]'s relatives were shown to be involved.

Ideological Nasserists gravitated to either the [[Socialist Labour Party (Egypt)|Socialist Labor Party]] or the [[National Progressive Unionist Party|NPUF]] through out the rest of the decade. They were finally allowed to have an open legal party, the Arab Democratic Nasserist Party, led by Diya al-din Dawud, in 1992.

== References ==
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Politics/Parties/Parties/041102000000000007.htm] The Nasserist party from Egypt state information service.

* ''Political Parties of the Middle East and North Africa'' Frank Tachau Ed. Westport Conn: Greenwood Press 1994

==External links==
*[http://www.al-araby.com/index.htm Al-Araby] Nasserist party official newspaper.

{{Egyptian political parties}}

[[Category:Political parties in Egypt]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 1992]]
[[Category:Nasserist political parties]]

{{Egypt-party-stub}}

[[ar:الحزب العربي الديمقراطي الناصري]]
[[fr:Parti nassériste arabe démocratique]]

Bau des World Trade Centers

2008-09-19T13:30:22Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:بناء مبنى التجارة العالمي

{{for|the post-9/11 rebuilding and ongoing construction at the World Trade Center site|World Trade Center site}}
[[Image:World trade center new york city construction flickr.png|thumb|right|250px|View of the World Trade Center's construction from [[New Jersey]], across the [[Hudson River]]]]
The '''construction of the [[World Trade Center]]''' was conceived as an [[urban renewal]] project, spearheaded by [[David Rockefeller]], to help revitalize [[Lower Manhattan]]. The project was developed by the [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey]], which hired architect [[Minoru Yamasaki]] who came up with the specific idea for twin towers. After extensive negotiations, the [[New Jersey]] and [[New York|New York State]] governments, which oversee the Port Authority, agreed to support the World Trade Center project at the [[Radio Row, Manhattan|Radio Row]] site on the lower-west side of [[Manhattan]]. To make the agreement acceptable to New Jersey, the Port Authority agreed to take over the bankrupt Hudson & Manhattan Railroad (renamed as [[Port Authority Trans-Hudson|PATH]]), which brought commuters from New Jersey to the Lower Manhattan site.

The towers were designed as [[Tube (structure)|framed tube structures]], which provided tenants with open floor plans, uninterrupted by columns or walls. This was accomplished using numerous closely-spaced perimeter columns to provide much of the strength to the structure, along with gravity load shared with the core columns. The [[elevator]] system, which made use of [[sky lobby|sky lobbies]] and a system of express and local elevators, allowed substantial floor space to be freed up for use as office space by making the structural core smaller. The design and construction of the World Trade Center twin towers involved many other innovative techniques, such as the [[slurry wall]] for digging the [[Foundation (architecture)|foundation]], and [[wind tunnel]] experiments. Construction of the World Trade Center's North Tower began in August 1968, and the South Tower in 1969. Extensive use of prefabricated components helped to speed up the construction process. The first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970 and into the South Tower in January 1972. Four other low-level buildings were constructed as part of the World Trade Center in the 1970s, and a [[7 World Trade Center|seventh]] building was constructed in the mid-1980s.

==Planning==
In 1942, [[Austin J. Tobin]] became the Executive Director of the [[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey|Port Authority]], beginning a 30-year career during which he oversaw the planning and development of the World Trade Center.<ref name="Doig-chap1">{{cite book |last=Doig |first=Jameson W. |title=Empire on the Hudson |year=2001 |publisher=Columbia University Press |chapter=Chapter 1}}</ref> The concept of establishing a "[[Worldwide world trade center|world trade center]]" was conceived during the post-[[World War II]] period, when the United States thrived economically and international trade was increasing. In 1946, the [[New York State Legislature]] passed a bill that called for a "world trade center" to be established.<ref name="nyt-07061946">{{cite news |title=Dewey Picks Board for Trade Center |publisher=The New York Times |date=July 6, 1946}}</ref> The World Trade Corporation was founded, and a board was appointed by New York Governor [[Thomas E. Dewey]] to develop plans for the project.<ref name="nyt-07061946"/> Architect [[John Eberson]] and his son Drew devised a plan that included 21 buildings over a ten-block area, at an estimated cost of $150 million.<ref>{{cite news |title=Plans are Tabled for Trade Center |author=Crisman, Charles B. |publisher=The New York Times |date=November 10, 1946}}</ref> In 1949, the World Trade Corporation was dissolved by the New York State Legislature, and plans for a "world trade center" were put on hold.<ref>{{cite news |title=Lets Port Group Disband, State Senate for Dissolution of World Trade Corporation |publisher=The New York Times |date=March 11, 1949}}</ref>

===Original plans===
[[Image:East-side-wtc.png|thumb|right|300px|Architect's model for the proposed World Trade Center on the East River]]
During the post-war period, economic growth was concentrated in [[Midtown Manhattan]], in part stimulated by the [[Rockefeller Center]], which was developed in the 1930s. Meanwhile, Lower Manhattan was left out of the [[Boom and bust|economic boom]]. One exception was the construction of [[One Chase Manhattan Plaza]] in the [[Financial District, Manhattan|Financial District]] by [[David Rockefeller]], who led [[urban renewal]] efforts in Lower Manhattan.<ref name="Gillespie-chap1">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |chapter=Chapter 1 |publisher=Rutgers University Press}}</ref> In 1958, Rockefeller established the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association (DLMA), which commissioned [[Skidmore, Owings and Merrill]] to draw up plans for revitalizing [[Lower Manhattan]]. The plans, made public in 1960, called for a World Trade Center to be built on a {{convert|13|acre|m2}} site along the [[East River]], from [[Old Slip]] to [[Fulton Street (Manhattan)|Fulton Street]] and between [[Water Street (Manhattan)|Water Street]] and [[South Street (Manhattan)|South Street]].<ref name="Levinson">{{cite book|last=Levinson |first=Leonard Louis| title=Wall Street| year=1961| publisher=Ziff Davis Publishing| location=New York| page=346}}</ref><ref name="nyt-01271960">{{cite news |title=A World Center of Trade Mapped Off Wall Street |date=January 27, 1960 |publisher=The New York Times |author=Grutzner, Charles}}</ref> The complex would include a 900-foot (275 m) long [[Convention center|exhibition hall]], and a 50–70 story building, with some of its upper floors used as a hotel.<ref>{{cite book |title=Men of Steel: The Story of the Family That Built the World Trade Center |author=Koch, Karl III |publisher=Three Rivers Press |year=2002 |pages=p. 173}}</ref> Other amenities would include a theater, shops, and restaurants.<ref name="dlma-plan">{{cite news |title=Text of Trade Center Report by the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association |publisher= The New York Times |date=January 27, 1960}}</ref> The plan also called for a new [[security (finance)|securities]] exchange building, which the Downtown-Lower Manhattan Association hoped would house the [[New York Stock Exchange]].<ref name="nyt-01271960"/>

David Rockefeller suggested that the Port Authority would be a logical choice for taking on the project,<ref name="nyt-01271960"/> and argued that the Trade Center would provide great benefits in facilitating and increasing volume of international commerce coming through the Port of New York.<ref name="dlma-plan"/> Given the importance of [[New York City]] in global commerce, Port Authority director Austin J. Tobin remarked that the proposed project should be ''the'' World Trade Center, and not just ''a'' "world trade center".<ref>{{cite news |title=Tobin Says Proposed Center Should Be World's Best |publisher=The New York Times |date=May 5, 1960}}</ref> After a year-long review of the proposal, the Port Authority formally backed the project on March 11, 1961.<ref>{{cite news |title=355 Million World Trade Center Backed by Port Authority Study |publisher=The New York Times |date=March 12, 1961}}</ref>

===Agreement===
[[Image:Wtc locator map.png|thumb|right|300px|Location of World Trade Center and originally proposed site]]
The States of New York and New Jersey also needed to approve the project, given their control and oversight role of the Port Authority. Objections to the plan came from [[New Jersey]] Governor [[Robert B. Meyner]], who resented that [[New York]] would be getting this $335 million project.<ref name="Gillespie-chap1"/> Meanwhile, ridership on New Jersey's [[Hudson and Manhattan Railroad]] (H&M) had declined substantially from a high of 113 million riders in 1927 to 26 million in 1958, after new automobile tunnels and bridges opened across the [[Hudson River]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Rails Under the Mighty Hudson |author=Cudahy, Brian J. |publisher=Fordham University Press |year=2002 |pages=p. 56}}</ref> Toward the end of 1961, negotiations with outgoing New Jersey Governor Meyner regarding the World Trade Center project reached a stalemate. In December 1961, Tobin met with newly elected New Jersey Governor [[Richard J. Hughes]], and made a proposal to shift the World Trade Center project to a west side site where the [[Hudson Terminal]] was located.<ref name="nyt-1961dec29">{{cite news |title=Port Unit Backs Linking of H&M and Other Lines |author=Grutzner, Charles |publisher=The New York Times |date=December 29, 1961}}</ref> In acquiring the Hudson & Manhattan Railroad, the Port Authority would also acquire the Hudson Terminal and other buildings which were deemed obsolete.<ref name="nyt-1961dec29"/> On January 22, 1962, the two states reached an agreement to allow the Port Authority to take over the railroad and to build the World Trade Center on Manhattan's lower west side.<ref>{{cite news |title=2 States Agree on Hudson Tubes and Trade Center |author=Wright, George Cable |date=January 23, 1962 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> The shift in location for the World Trade Center to a site more convenient to New Jersey, together with Port Authority acquisition of the H&M Railroad, brought New Jersey to agreement in support of the World Trade Center project.

===Controversy===
Even once the agreement between the states of New Jersey, New York, and the Port Authority was finalized, the World Trade Center plan faced continued controversy. The site for the World Trade Center was the location of [[Radio Row]], which was home to hundreds of commercial and industrial tenants, property owners, small businesses, and approximately 100 residents.<ref name="Gillespie-chap1"/> The World Trade Center plans involved evicting these business owners, some of whom fiercely protested the forced relocation.<ref name="Gillespie-chap1"/> In June 1962, a group representing approximately 325 shops and 1,000 other affected small businesses filed an [[injunction]], challenging the Port Authority's power of [[eminent domain]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Injunction Asked on Trade Center |date=June 27, 1962 |publisher=The New York Times |author=Clark, Alfred E.}}</ref> The dispute with local business owners worked its way through the court system, up to the [[New York Court of Appeals|New York State Court of Appeals]], which in April 1963 upheld the Port Authority's right of eminent domain, saying that the project had a "public purpose."<ref>{{cite news |title=World Trade Center Here Upheld by Appeals Court |author=Crowell, Paul |publisher=The New York Times |date=April 5, 1963}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Merchants Ask Supreme Court to Bar Big Trade Center Here |publisher=The New York Times / Associated Press |date=August 26, 1963}}</ref> On November 12, 1963, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] refused to accept the case.<ref name="nyt-1963nov13">{{cite news |title=High Court Plea is Lost by Foes of Trade Center |author=Arnold, Martin |publisher=The New York Times |date=November 13, 1963}}</ref><ref>[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=CASE&court=US&vol=375&page=78 375 US. 4] - ''Courtesy Sandwich Shop, Inc., et al. v. Port of New York Authority''</ref> Under the state law, the Port Authority was required to assist business owners in relocating, though many business owners regarded what the Port Authority offered as inadequate.<ref name="nyt-1963nov13"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Port Body Raises Relocation Aid |author=Apple, Jr. R.W. |publisher=The New York Times |date=November 16, 1963}}</ref> Questions continued while the World Trade Center was constructed, as to whether the Port Authority really ought to take on the project, described by some as a "mistaken social priority."<ref>{{cite news |title=Kheel Urges Port Authority to Sell Trade Center |date=November 12, 1969 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref>

Private [[real estate]] developers and members of the Real Estate Board of New York also expressed concerns about this much "subsidized" office space going on the open market, competing with the private sector when there was already a glut of vacancies.<ref name="Gillespie-chap1"/><ref>{{cite news |title=New Fight Begun on Trade Center |author=Knowles, Clayton |date=February 14, 1964 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> An especially vocal critic was Lawrence A. Wien, owner of the [[Empire State Building]], which would lose its title of [[List of tallest buildings and structures in the world|tallest building in the world]].<ref name="Gillespie-chap1"/><ref>{{cite news |title=Critics Impugned on Trade Center |author=Ennis, Thomas W. |date=February 15, 1964 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> Wien organized a group of builders into a group called the "Committee for a Reasonable World Trade Center" to demand that the project be scaled down.<ref>{{cite news |title=All Major Builders are Said to Oppose Trade Center Plan |author=Knowles, Clayton |date=March 9, 1964 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref>

In January 1964, the Port Authority inked a deal with the State of New York to locate government offices at the World Trade Center.<ref>{{cite news |title=State Will Rent at Trade Center |author=Sibley, John |publisher=The New York Times |date=January 14, 1964}}</ref> The Port Authority began signing commercial tenants in the spring and summer of 1964, including several banks.<ref>{{cite news |title=4th Bank Signed by Trade Center |date=July 14, 1964 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> In 1965, the Port Authority signed the [[United States Customs Service]] as a tenant.<ref>{{cite news |title=Customs to Move to Trade Center |author=Fowler, Glenn |date=July 7, 1965 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref>

A final obstacle for the Port Authority was getting approval from New York City Mayor [[John Lindsay]] and the [[New York City Council]], who raised concerns about the limited extent that the Port Authority involved the city in the negotiations and deliberations. Negotiations between The City of New York and the Port Authority were centered on tax issues. A final agreement was made on August 3, 1966, that the Port Authority would make annual payments to the City, in lieu of taxes, for the portion of the World Trade Center leased to private tenants.<ref>{{cite news |title=City Ends Fight with Port Body on Trade Center |author=Smith, Terence |date=August 4, 1966 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> In subsequent years, the payments would rise as the [[Property tax|real estate tax]] rate increased.<ref>{{cite news |title=Mayor Signs Pact on Trade Center |author=Smith, Terence |publisher=The New York Times |date=January 26, 1967}}</ref>

==Design==
On September 20, 1962, the Port Authority announced the selection of [[Minoru Yamasaki]] as lead architect, and [[Emery Roth|Emery Roth & Sons]] as associate architects.<ref>{{cite news |title=Architect Named for Trade Center |author=Esterow, Milton |date=September 21, 1962 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> Originally, Yamasaki submitted to the Port Authority a concept incorporating twin towers, but with each building only 80 stories tall. Yamasaki remarked that the "obvious alternative, a group of several large buildings, would have looked like a housing project."<ref name="nyt-1964jan19a">{{cite news |title=A New Era Heralded |author=Huxtable, Ada Louise |publisher=The New York Times |date=January 19, 1964}}</ref>
[[Image:World Trade Center Building Design with Floor and Elevator Arrangment.svg|thumb|250px|A typical floor layout and elevator arrangement of the WTC towers]]
To meet the Port Authority's requirement to build 10 million [[Square foot|square feet]] (930,000 m²) of office space, the buildings would each need to be 110 stories tall. A major limiting factor in building heights is elevators; the taller the building, the more [[elevator]]s are needed to service the building, requiring more space-consuming elevator banks.<ref>{{cite news |title=Biggest Buildings Herald New Era |author=Huxtable, Ada Louise |date=January 26, 1964 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> Yamasaki and the engineers decided to use a new system with sky lobbies, which are floors where people can switch from a large-capacity express elevator, which goes only to the sky lobbies, to a local elevator that goes to each floor in a section (the local elevators can be stacked within the same elevator shaft). Located on the 44th and 78th floors of each tower, the sky lobbies enabled the elevators to be used efficiently, while also increasing the amount of usable space on each floor from 62 to 75 percent by reducing the number of required elevator shafts.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 9 |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref> The World Trade Center towers were the second [[supertall]] buildings to use sky lobbies, after the [[John Hancock Center]] in [[Chicago]].<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.otis.com/otis150/section/1,2344,ARC3066_CLI1_RES1_SEC5,00.html|publisher=[[Otis Elevator Company]]|title= Otis History: The World Trade Center|accessdate=2006-12-07}}</ref> This system was inspired by the [[New York City Subway]] system, whose lines include local stations where local trains stop and express stations where all trains stop.<ref name="gillespie-p76">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 76}}</ref>
[[Image:Wtc model at skyscraper museum.jpg|thumb|left|185px|Original architectural and engineering model]]
Yamasaki's design for the World Trade Center was unveiled to the public on January 18, 1964, with an eight-foot model.<ref name="nyt-1964jan19a"/> The towers had a square plan, approximately 207 feet (63 m) in dimension on each side.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 7 |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref> The buildings were designed with narrow office windows, only 18 [[inch]]es (45 [[Centimetre|cm]]) wide, which reflected on Yamasaki's [[Acrophobia|fear of heights]] and desire to make building occupants feel secure.<ref name="pekala">{{cite news |title=Profile of a lost landmark; World Trade Center |publisher=Journal of Property Management |date=2001-11-01 |author=Pekala, Nancy}}</ref> Yamasaki's design called for the building facades to be sheathed in aluminum-alloy.<ref name="nyt-1966may29">{{cite news |title=Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Buildings |author=Huxtable, Ada Louise |date=May 29, 1966 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> In all, the World Trade Center complex contained six buildings within the {{convert|16|acre|m2}} [[City block#Superblock|superblock]].

The World Trade Center design brought criticism of its aesthetics from the [[American Institute of Architects]] and other groups.<ref>{{cite news |title=Marring City's Skyline |author=Steese, Edward |date=March 10, 1964 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name="nyt-1966may29"/> [[Lewis Mumford]], author of ''[[The City in History]]'' and other works on [[urban planning]], criticized the project and described it and other new skyscrapers as "just glass-and-metal filing cabinets."<ref>{{cite news |title=Mumford Finds City Strangled By Excess of Cars and People |author=Whitman, Alden |publisher=The New York Times |date=March 22, 1967}}</ref> [[Television]] broadcasters raised concerns that the World Trade Center twin towers would cause interference in television reception for viewers in the [[New York metropolitan area|New York City area]].<ref>{{cite news |title=TV Group Objects to Trade Towers |author=Schumach, Murray |date=February 20, 1966 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> In response to these concerns, the Port Authority offered to provide new television transmission facilities at the World Trade Center.<ref>{{cite news |title=TV Mast Offered on Trade Center |date=February 24, 1966 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> The [[Linnaean Society]] of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] also opposed the Trade Center project, citing hazards the buildings would impose on [[Bird migration|migrating bird]]s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Big Trade Center Called Bird Trap |author=Knowles, Clayton |publisher=The New York Times |date=March 16, 1967}}</ref>

The structural engineering firm Worthington, Skilling, Helle & Jackson worked to implement Yamasaki's design, developing the tube-frame structural system used in the buildings. The Port Authority's Engineering Department served as [[geotechnical engineering|foundation engineers]], Joseph R. Loring & Associates as [[electrical engineering|electrical engineers]], and Jaros, Baum & Bolles as [[mechanical engineering|mechanical engineers]]. [[Tishman Reality & Construction|Tishman Realty & Construction Company]] was the [[general contractor]] on the World Trade Center project. Guy F. Tozzoli, director of the World Trade Department at the Port Authority, and the Port Authority's Chief Engineer, Rino M. Monti, oversaw the project.<ref>{{cite book |author=National Construction Safety Team |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1CollapseofTowers.pdf |format =PDF | title=Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers |publisher=NIST |chapter=Chapter 1 |date=September 2005 |pages=p. 1}}</ref>

===Structural design===
As an interstate agency, the Port Authority was not subject to local laws and regulations of the City of New York, including [[building code]]s. Nonetheless, the Port Authority required architects and structural engineers to follow the New York City building codes. At the time when the World Trade Center was planned, new building codes were being devised to replace the 1938 version that was still in place. The structural engineers ended up following draft versions of the new 1968 building codes, which incorporated "advanced techniques" in [[building design]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. xxxviii |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref>

The World Trade Center towers included many [[structural engineering]] innovations in [[skyscraper design and construction]], which allowed the buildings to reach new heights and become the [[List of tallest buildings in the world|tallest]] in the world. Traditionally, [[skyscraper]]s used a skeleton of [[column]]s distributed throughout the interior to support building loads, with interior columns disrupting the floor space. The tube-frame concept was a major innovation, allowing open floor plans and more space to rent. The buildings used high-strength, load-bearing perimeter [[steel]] columns called [[Truss#Vierendeel truss|Vierendeel trusses]] that were spaced closely together to form a strong, rigid wall structure. There were 59 perimeter columns, narrowly spaced, on each side of the buildings. These were designed to provide support for virtually all lateral loads (such as wind loads) and to share the gravity loads with the core columns.<ref>{{cite book |author=National Construction Safety Team |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1CollapseofTowers.pdf |title=Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers |publisher=NIST |format =PDF |date=September 2005 |chapter=Chapter 1 |pages=p. 6}}</ref> Structural analysis of major portions of the World Trade Center were computed on an [[IBM 1620]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Taylor | first = R. E. | year = 1966 | month = December | title = Computers and the Design of the World Trade Center | journal = [[ASCE]], Structural Division | volume = 92 | issue = ST-6 | pages = pp. 75–91}}</ref>
[[Image:Nistncstar1-1-fig2-4.png|thumb|right|Typical WTC architectural floor plan]]

The perimeter structure was constructed with extensive use of prefabricated modular pieces, which consisted of three columns, three stories tall, connected by [[wikt:spandrel|spandrel]] plates. The perimeter columns had a square cross section, 14 inches (36 cm) on a side, and were constructed of welded steel plate.<ref name="NIST-chapter1">{{cite book |author=National Construction Safety Team |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1CollapseofTowers.pdf |format =PDF |title=Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers |publisher=NIST |date=September 2005}}</ref> The thickness of the plates and grade of [[structural steel]] varied over the height of the tower, ranging from 36,000 to 100,000 pounds per square inch<ref>[[A36 steel]] has a nominal [[Yield (engineering)|yield strength]] of 36,000 to 100,000 pounds per square inch.</ref> (260 to 670 MPa). The strength of the steel and thickness of the steel plates decreased with height because they were required to support lesser amounts of building mass on higher floors.<ref name="NIST-chapter1"/> The tube-frame design required 40 percent less structural steel than conventional building designs.<ref name="steel">{{cite journal |author=American Iron and Steel Institute |title=The World Trade Center - New York City |journal=Contemporary Steel Design |volume=1(4) |year=1964 |publisher=American Iron and Steel Institute}}</ref> From the 7th floor to the ground level, and down to the foundation, the columns were spaced 10 feet (3 m) apart.<ref>{{cite book |author=National Construction Safety Team |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1CollapseofTowers.pdf |format =PDF |title=Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers |publisher=NIST |date=September 2005 |pages=p. 10}}</ref> All columns were placed on [[bedrock]], which, unlike that in Midtown Manhattan, where the bedrock is shallow, is at 65–85 feet (20–26 m) below the surface.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nae.edu/nae/bridgecom.nsf/weblinks/CGOZ-58NLJ9?OpenDocument |title=World Trade Center "Bathtub": From Genesis to Armageddon |journal=Bridges |author=Tamaro, George J. |date=Spring 2002 |volume=32(1)}}</ref>

The spandrel plates were welded to the columns to create the modular pieces off-site at the fabrication shop.<ref>{{cite book |author=National Construction Safety Team |url=http://wtc.nist.gov/NISTNCSTAR1CollapseofTowers.pdf |format =PDF |title=Final Report on the Collapse of the World Trade Center Towers |publisher=NIST |date=September 2005 |pages=p. 8}}</ref> The modular pieces were typically 52 inches (1.3 m) deep, and extended for two full floors and half of two more floors.<ref name="NIST-chapter1"/> Adjacent modules were bolted together, with the splices occurring at mid-span of the columns and spandrels. The spandrel plates were located at each floor, transmitting [[shear stress]] between columns, allowing them to work together in resisting lateral loads. The joints between modules were staggered vertically, so the column splices between adjacent modules were not at the same floor.<ref name="NIST-chapter1"/>

The building's core housed the elevator and utility shafts, restrooms, three stairwells, and other support spaces. The core of each tower was a rectangular area 87 by 135 feet (27 by 41 m), and contained 47 steel columns running from the bedrock to the top of the tower.<ref name="NIST-chapter1"/> The columns tapered after the 66th floor, and consisted of welded box-sections at lower floors and rolled wide-flange sections at upper floors. The structural core in 1 WTC was oriented with the long axis east to west, while that of 2 WTC was oriented north to south. All elevators were located in the core. Each building had three stairwells, also in the core, except on the [[mechanical floor]]s where they were located outside the core.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 8 |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref>
[[Image:Wtc floor truss system.png|thumb|left|Schematic of composite floor truss system]]
The large, column-free space between the perimeter and core was bridged by prefabricated floor trusses. The floors supported their own weight, as well as [[live loads]], provided lateral stability to the exterior walls, and distributed wind loads among the exterior walls. The floors consisted of 4 inch (10 cm) thick lightweight [[concrete]] slabs laid on a fluted steel deck. A grid of lightweight bridging trusses and main trusses supported the floors. The trusses had a span of 60 feet (18.2 m) in the long-span areas and 35 feet (11 m) in the short span area.<ref name="NIST-chapter1"/> The trusses connected to the perimeter at alternate columns, and were on 6 foot 8 inch (2.03 m) centers. The top chords of the trusses were bolted to seats welded to the spandrels on the exterior side and a channel welded to the core columns on the interior side. The floors were connected to the perimeter spandrel plates with [[Viscoelasticity|viscoelastic]] dampers, which helped reduce the amount of sway felt by building occupants. The trusses supported a {{convert|4|in|mm|sing=on}} thick (10 cm) lightweight concrete floor slab, with shear connections for composite action.<ref name="NIST-chapter1"/>

Hat [[truss]]es (or "outrigger truss") located from the 107th floor to the top of the buildings were designed to support a tall communication [[Antenna (radio)|antenna]] on top of each building.<ref name="NIST-chapter1"/> Only 1 WTC (north tower) actually had an antenna fitted, which was added in 1978.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/newyork/sfeature/sf_building.html |title=New York: A Documentary Film - The Center of the World (Construction Footage) |publisher = Port Authority / PBS |accessdate=2007-05-16}}</ref> The truss system consisted of six trusses along the long axis of the core and four along the short axis. This truss system allowed some load redistribution between the perimeter and core columns and supported the transmission tower.

===Wind effects===
The tube frame design using steel core and perimeter columns protected with sprayed-on fire resistant material created a relatively lightweight structure that would sway more in response to the wind, compared to traditional structures such as the [[Empire State Building]] that have thick, heavy [[masonry]] for [[fireproofing]] of steel structural elements.<ref>{{cite book |title=City in the Sky |author=Glanz, James and Eric Lipton |pages=p. 138 |publisher=Times Books |year=2003}}</ref> During the design process, [[wind tunnel]] tests were done at [[Colorado State University]] and at the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]] in the U.K. to establish design wind pressures that the World Trade Center towers could be subjected to and structural response to those forces.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design and Construction of Structural Systems (NCSTAR 1-1A) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 65 |author=Fanella, David A., Arnaldo T. Derecho, S.K. Ghosh |date=September 2005}}</ref> Experiments also were done to evaluate how much sway occupants could tolerate. Subjects were recruited for "free eye exams," while the real purpose of the experiment was to subject them to simulated building sway and find out how much they could comfortably tolerate.<ref>{{cite book |title=City in the Sky |author=Glanz, James and Eric Lipton |pages=p. 139-144 |publisher=Times Books |year=2003}}</ref> Many subjects did not respond well, experiencing [[dizziness]] and other ill effects. One of the chief engineers [[Leslie Robertson]] worked with Canadian engineer Alan G. Davenport to develop viscoelastic [[Damping|dampers]] to absorb some of the sway. These viscoelastic dampers, used throughout the structures at the joints between floor trusses and perimeter columns, along with some other structural modifications reduced the building sway to an acceptable level.<ref>{{cite book |title=City in the Sky |author=Glanz, James and Eric Lipton |pages=p. 160-167 |publisher=Times Books |year=2003}}</ref>

===Aircraft impact===
The structural engineers on the project also considered the possibility that an aircraft could crash into the building. In July 1945, a [[B-25 bomber]] that was lost in the fog had crashed into the 79th floor of the [[Empire State Building]]. A year later, another airplane nearly crashed into the [[40 Wall Street]] building, and there was another near-miss at the Empire State Building.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F02E2DD1F3FF93BA3575AC0A9649C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=10 |title=The Height of Ambition |author=Glanz, James and Eric Lipton |date=2002-09-08 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> In designing the World Trade Center, structural engineers considered the scenario of the impact of a jet airliner, the [[Boeing 707]]. It was assumed that the jetliner would be lost in the fog, seeking to land at JFK or at Newark.<ref name="Robertson">{{cite web | last =Robertson | first = Leslie E. | year = 2002 | url = http://www.nae.edu/nae/bridgecom.nsf/weblinks/CGOZ-58NLCB?OpenDocument | title = Reflections on the World Trade Center | work = The Bridge Volume 32, Number 1 | publisher = National Academy of Engineering | accessdate = 2006-07-28}}</ref><ref name="Nalder">{{cite news |author=Nalder, Eric |title=Twin Towers Engineered to Withstand Jet Collision |publisher=The Seattle Times |date=1993-02-27 |url=http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com/cgi-bin/texis.cgi/web/vortex/display?slug=1687698&date=19930227}}</ref> NIST found a three page [[white paper]] that provided evidence that aircraft impact was indeed considered, but the original documentation of the study was lost when Port Authority offices were destroyed in the collapse of WTC1 and the copies held in WTC7 were also lost.<ref>Sadek, Fahim. ''Baseline Structural Performance and Aircraft Impact Damage Analysis of the World Trade Center Towers''(NCSTAR 1-2 appendix A). NIST 2005. pp. 305-307.</ref> In 1993, John Skilling recalled doing the analysis, and remarked, "The building structure would still be there."<ref name="Nalder"/> However in the analysis, it is unclear whether the effect of jet fuel and aircraft contents was a consideration in the original building design.<ref>NIST wrote: "One view suggests that an analysis was done indicating the biggest problem would be the fact that all the fuel would dump into the building and there would be a horrendous fire. Another view suggests that the fuel load, and the fire damage that it would cause, may not have been considered. Without the original calculations, which were used to render its conclusions any further comment would amount to speculation</ref> They assumed that the World Trade Center's lightweight trusses and columns would perform as well as the heavy masonry and steel structure in the Empire State Building.<ref>{{cite book |author=Glanz, James and Eric Lipton |title=City in the Sky: The Rise and Fall of the World Trade Center |date=2003 |publisher=Times Books |pages=pp. 138-139}}</ref> [[Leslie Robertson]] did a second analysis of this possibility which is also now lost, but after the 9/11 attacks, he remarked, "To the best of our knowledge, little was known about the effects of a fire from such an aircraft, and no designs were prepared for that circumstance."<ref name="Robertson"/>

===Fire protection===
[[Fireproofing|Sprayed-fire resistant material]]s (SFRMs) were used to protect some structural steel elements in the towers, including all floor trusses and beams.<ref name="NCSTAR 1-1-p8">{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 8 |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref> [[Gypsum]] [[wallboard]] in combination with SFRMs, or in some cases gypsum wallboard alone, was used to protect core columns.<ref name="NCSTAR 1-1-p8"/> [[Vermiculite]] plaster was used on the interior-side and SFRMs on the other three sides of the perimeter columns for fire protection.<ref name="NCSTAR 1-1-p8"/> The 1968 New York City building codes were more lenient in some aspects of fire protection, such as allowing three exit stairwells in the World Trade Center towers, instead of six as required under older building codes.<ref name="NCSTAR 1-1-p153">{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 153 |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref>

More fireproofing was added after a fire in February 1975 that spread to six floors before being extinguished.<ref name="FEMA">{{cite web | last = Hamburger | first = Ronald, et al | title = World Trade Center Building Performance Study | work = | publisher = Federal Emergency Management Agency| date = | url = http://www.fema.gov/pdf/library/fema403_ch2.pdf | format = pdf|accessdate = 2006-07-27 }}</ref> After the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing|1993 bombing]], inspections found fireproofing to be deficient. The Port Authority was in the process of replacing it, but replacement had been completed on only 18 floors in WTC 1, including all the floors affected by the aircraft impact and fires on 9/11,<ref>NCSTAR 1-6, (p lxxi) NIST lists upgraded floors as 92-100 and 102 plus 8 unspecified floors.</ref> and on 13 floors in WTC 2, although only three of these floors (77,78 & 85) were directly affected by the aircraft impact.<ref>NCSTAR 1-6, (p lxvii-lxix) NIST lists upgraded floors as 77,78,85,88,89,92,96 and 97 plus 5 unspecified floors. Although replacement fireproofing was specified at 1.5 inches in thickness, NIST found the average thickness to be 2.5 inches. (NCSTAR 1-6A p xl ) NIST concluded that "The existing condition of the fireproofing prior to aircraft impact and the fireproofing thickness on the WTC floor system did not play a significant role".</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Dwyer, Jim and Kevin Flynn |year=2005 |title=102 Minutes |publisher=Times Books |pages=pp. 9-10}}</ref>

The 1968 New York City building codes did not require [[Fire sprinkler|sprinkler]]s for [[high-rise]] buildings, except for underground spaces. In accordance with building codes, sprinklers were originally installed only in the underground parking structures of the World Trade Center.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 162 |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref> Following a major fire in February 1975, the Port Authority decided to start installing sprinklers throughout the buildings. By 1993, nearly all of Tower 2 [South Tower] and 85 percent of Tower 1 had sprinklers installed,<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 163 |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref> and the entire complex was retrofitted by 2001.<ref>{{cite book |title=Active Fire Protection Systems (NCSTAR 1-4) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 14 |author=Evans, David D., Richard D. Peacock, Erica D. Kuligowski, W. Stuart Dols, William L. Grosshandler |date=September 2005}}</ref>

==Construction==
In March 1965, the Port Authority began acquiring property at the World Trade Center site.<ref>{{cite news |title=Port Agency Buys Downtown Tract |author=Ingraham, Joseph C. |date=March 29, 1965 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> The Ajax Wrecking and Lumber Corporation was hired for the demolition work, which began on March 21, 1966 to clear the site for construction of the World Trade Center.<ref name="gillespie-p61">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 61}}</ref>

[[Groundbreaking]] was on August 5, 1966, marking the beginning of construction of the World Trade Center's foundations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Jackhammers Bite Pavement to Start Trade Center Job |date=August 6, 1966 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> The site of the World Trade Center was located on [[landfill]], with the bedrock located 65 feet (20 m) below.<ref name="iglauer">{{cite news |title=The Biggest Foundation |author=Iglauer, Edith |date=1972-11-04 |publisher=The New Yorker}}</ref> In order to construct the World Trade Center, it was necessary to build the "bathtub", with the [[slurry wall]] along the [[West Side Highway|West Street]] side of the site, to keep water from the [[Hudson River]] out. This method was used in place of conventional dewatering methods because lowering the [[groundwater table]] would cause large [[groundwater-related subsidence|settlements]] of nearby buildings not built on [[deep foundation]]s.<ref>{{cite news |title=Tall Towers will Sit on Deep Foundations |last=Kapp |first=Martin S |publisher=Engineering News Record |date=July 9, 1964}}</ref> The slurry method involves digging a [[trench]], and as [[excavation]] proceeds, filling the space with a "slurry" mixture, composed of [[bentonite]] which plugs holes and keeps water out. When the trench was dug out, a steel cage was inserted, with concrete poured in, forcing the "slurry" out. The "slurry" method was devised by Port Authority chief engineer John M. Kyle, Jr. Towards the end of 1966, work began on building the slurry wall, led by [[Montreal]]-based Icanda, a subsidiary of an Italian engineering firm, Impresa Costruzioni Opere Specializzate (I.C.O.S.).<ref name="gillespie-p68">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 68}}</ref> It took fourteen months for the slurry wall to be completed, which was necessary before excavation of material from the interior of the site could begin.<ref name="gillespie-p68"/> The original [[Downtown Hudson Tubes|Hudson Tubes]], which carried PATH trains into Hudson Terminal, remained in service as elevated tunnels until 1971 when a new [[World Trade Center (PATH station)|PATH station]] was built.<ref>{{cite news |author=Carroll, Maurice |title=A Section of the Hudson Tubes is Turned into Elevated Tunnel |date=December 30, 1968 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref>
[[Image:Wtc panynj 1973.jpg|thumb|right|200px|World Trade Center in 1973]]
[[Construction|Construction work]] began on the North Tower in August 1968 with construction beginning on the South Tower by January 1969.<ref name="pbstimeline">{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/newyork/timeline/index.html |title=Timeline: World Trade Center chronology |publisher=PBS - American Experience |accessdate=2007-05-15}}</ref> In January 1967, $74 million in contracts were awarded to the [[PACCAR|Pacific Car and Foundry Company]], [[Laclede Steel Company]], [[U.S. Steel|Granite City Steel Company]], and [[Karl Koch Steel Consulting|Karl Koch Erecting Company]] to supply [[steel]] for the project.<ref name="nyt-1967jan24">{{cite news |title=Contracts Totaling $74,079,000 Awarded for the Trade Center |publisher=The New York Times |date=January 24, 1967}}</ref> The Port Authority chose to use many different steel suppliers, bidding on smaller portions of steel, rather than buy larger amounts from a single source such as [[Bethlehem Steel]] or [[U.S. Steel]] as a cost-saving measure.<ref name="gillespie-p83">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 83}}</ref> Karl Koch was also hired to do all the work of erecting the steel, and a contract for work on the aluminum facade was awarded to the [[Alcoa|Aluminum Company of America]].<ref name="nyt-1967jan24"/> [[Tishman Realty & Construction]] was hired in February 1967 to oversee construction of the project.<ref>{{cite news |title=Trade Center Job To Go To Tishman |author=Kihss, Peter |publisher=The New York Times |date=February 27, 1967}}</ref>

Extensive use of [[prefabrication|prefabricated]] parts for the perimeter framing and floor truss systems helped speed up the construction process and reduce costs, while providing greater [[quality control]].<ref name="steel"/> Steel components were freighted into a [[Penn Central Transportation|Penn Central]] yard in [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City]]. From there, they were brought in early morning hours through the [[Holland Tunnel]] to the construction site, and lifted into place by a [[Crane (machine)|crane]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Trade Center is Doing Everything Big |publisher=The New York Times |date=June 6, 1969 |author=Kaufman, Micheal T.}}</ref> Larger pieces were brought to the construction site by [[tugboat]]s.<ref name="gillespie-p88">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 88}}</ref> A special type of crane, suitable for constructing such tall buildings, that used [[hydraulics]] to lift components and provided its own power was used in construction of the World Trade Center. The Favco Standard 2700 Crane, manufactured by Favelle Mort Ltd. of [[New South Wales]], Australia was informally called a "[[kangaroo]] crane".<ref name="gillespie-p92">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 92-94}}</ref>

In 1970, tugboat workers went on [[Strike action|strike]], halting the transport of material to the construction site.<ref>{{cite news |title=300 Tugboats Idle as Men Walk Out for Doubled Wage |author=McFadden, Robert D. |date=1970-02-02 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> The Port Authority attempted other means of transporting material, including via [[helicopter]]. When this method was tried, the helicopter lost its load of steel into the [[Kill Van Kull]].<ref name="gillespie-p91">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 91}}</ref> Some other mishaps occurred during the construction process, including disruption of [[telephone]] service in Lower Manhattan when telephone cables were crushed by [[pile driver]]s.<ref>{{cite news |author=Carroll, Maurice |title=Phones Disrupted by a Pile Driver |date=March 19, 1969 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> On March 16, 1970, a [[propane]] gas explosion injured six workers when a truck hit a propane tank.<ref>{{cite news |title=Propane Blast Hits Trade Center |author=Van Gelder, Lawrence |date=1970-03-17 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> In all, 60 workers were killed in construction accidents while the World Trade Center was being built.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/americarebuilds/engineering/engineering_qfacts.html |title=America Rebuilds: Quick Facts |publisher=PBS |accessdate=2007-05-15}}</ref>

The [[Topping out]] ceremony of 1 WTC (North Tower) took place on December 23, 1970, with 2 WTC's ceremony (South Tower) occurring later on July 19, 1971.<ref name="pbstimeline"/> The first tenants moved into the North Tower in December 1970, and into the South Tower in January 1972.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. xxxvi |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref> The buildings were dedicated on April 4, 1973; Tobin, who had resigned the year before, was absent from the ceremonies.<ref name="Darton-chap6">Darton, Eric (1999) ''Divided We Stand: A Biography of New York's World Trade Center'', Chapter 6, Basic Books.</ref>

Building the World Trade Center involved excavating 1.2 million [[cubic yard]]s (917,000 [[Cubic metre|m³]]) of material.<ref name="gillespie-p71">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 71}}</ref> Rather than transporting this material at great costs out to sea or to landfills in [[New Jersey]], the fill material was used to expand the [[Manhattan]] shoreline across West Street.<ref name="gillespie-p71"/> Work to demolish the [[pier]]s began on January 5, 1967, including Pier 7 to Pier 11 which were all constructed around 1910.<ref>{{cite news |title=Demolition Begun on 5 City Piers |author=Horne, George |publisher=The New York Times |date=January 5, 1967}}</ref> The demolition work moved forward, despite conflicts between [[David Rockefeller]], Governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and Mayor [[John Lindsay]] regarding plans for [[Battery Park City, Manhattan|Battery Park City]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Conflicts Stall Landfill Plans |author=Roberts, Steven V. |publisher=The New York Times |date=January 17, 1967}}</ref> Landfill material from the [[World Trade Center]] was used to add land, and a cellular [[cofferdam]] was constructed to retain the material.<ref name="iglauer">{{cite news |url=http://www.newyorker.com/archive/content/articles/010924fr_archive02 |title=The Biggest Foundation |author=Iglauer, Edith |date=1972-11-04 |publisher=The New Yorker}}</ref> The result was a 700 foot (210 m) extension into the Hudson River, running six blocks or 1,484 feet (450 m).<ref name="gillespie-p71"/> This land was a "gift" to New York City, allowing more [[tax]]-generating developments in Battery Park City.<ref>{{cite news |title=New York Gets $90 Million Worth of Land for Nothing |publisher=Engineering News Record |date=April 18, 1968}}</ref>

The original estimates put forth by the Port Authority had the costs for construction of the World Trade Center at $350 million—an optimistic figure.<ref name="gillespie-p70">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 70}}</ref> In December 1966, the Port Authority announced increased cost estimates, bringing the estimated total to $575 million.<ref name="gillespie-p69">{{cite book |author=Gillespie, Angus K. |year=1999 |title=Twin Towers: The Life of New York City's World Trade Center |publisher=Rutgers University Press |pages=p. 69}}</ref> This announcement brought criticism of the project from private real estate developers, ''[[The New York Times]]'', and others in New York City.<ref>{{cite news |title=Questions on the Trade Center |publisher=The New York Times |date=December 24, 1966}}</ref> The critics charged that the Port Authority figure was an unrealistically low estimate, and they estimated the project would end up costing $750 million.<ref>{{cite news |title=Estimate Raised for Trade Center |author=Phillips, McCandlish |date=December 29, 1966 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref> When the World Trade Center twin towers were completed, the total costs to the Port Authority had reached $900 million.<ref name="Cudahy">Cudahy, Brian J. (2002) ''Rails Under the Mighty Hudson: The Story of the Hudson Tubes, the Pennsy Tunnels, and Manhattan Transfer'', Chapter 3, Fordham University Press.</ref> The project was financed through [[Tax exemption|tax-exempt]] [[Bond (finance)|bond]]s issued by the Port Authority.<ref>{{cite news |author=Allan, John H. |title=Bonds: Port of New York Authority to Raise $100-Million |date=February 28, 1968 |publisher=The New York Times}}</ref>

==Other buildings==
The World Trade Center complex included four other smaller buildings constructed during the 1970s. 3 World Trade Center was a 22-story building, which was home to the [[Marriott World Trade Center]]. It was designed by [[Skidmore, Owings and Merrill]] in 1978–79.<ref>{{cite book |author=McAllister, Therese, Johnathan Barnett, John Gross, Ronald Hamburger, Jon Magnusson |chapter=WTC3 |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study |publisher=FEMA |date=May 2002}}</ref> [[4 World Trade Center]], [[5 World Trade Center]], and [[6 World Trade Center]] were all 8–9 story buildings that were designed by the same team as the Twin Towers, including Minoru Yamasaki, Emery Roth & Sons, and Skilling, Helle, Christiansen, Robertson.<ref>{{cite book |author=McAllister, Therese, Johnathan Barnett, John Gross, Ronald Hamburger, Jon Magnusson |chapter=WTC4, 5, and 6 |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study |publisher=FEMA |date=May 2002}}</ref> A seventh building ([[7 World Trade Center]]) was built in the mid-1980s, just to the north of the main World Trade Center site. The 47-story building was designed by Emery, Roth & Sons, and constructed on top of a [[Con Edison]] power [[substation]].<ref>{{cite book |author=McAllister, Therese, Johnathan Barnett, John Gross, Ronald Hamburger, Jon Magnusson |chapter=WTC7 |title=World Trade Center Building Performance Study |publisher=FEMA |date=May 2002}}</ref>

==Modifications==
Over time, numerous structural modifications were made to suit the needs of tenants in the Twin Towers. Modifications were made in accordance with the Port Authority's ''Tenant Alteration Review Manual'' and were reviewed by the Port Authority to ensure the changes did not compromise structural integrity of the buildings. In many instances, openings were cut in the floors to accommodate new stairways to connect tenant floors. Some steel beams in the core were reinforced and strengthened to accommodate heavy live loads, such as large amounts of heavy files that tenants had on their floors.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. xliv |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref>

Repairs to structural elements on the lower levels of 1 WTC [North Tower] were made following the [[1993 World Trade Center bombing]]. The greatest damage occurred on levels B1 and B2, with significant structural damage also on level B3.<ref>{{cite book |title=Design, Construction, and Maintenance of Structural and Life Safety Systems (NCSTAR 1-1) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. xlv |author=Lew, H.S., Richard W. Bukowski, Nicholas J. Carino |date=September 2005}}</ref> Primary structural columns were not damaged, but secondary steel members experienced some damage.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interfire.org/res_file/pdf/Tr-076.pdf |format =PDF |title=Experiences of the Chief Engineer of the Port Authority |author=Fasullo, Eugene |publisher=United States Fire Administration |accessdate=2007-05-15}}</ref> Floors that were blown out needed to be repaired to restore the structural support they provided to columns.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.interfire.org/res_file/pdf/Tr-076.pdf |format =PDF |title=The World Trade Center Complex |author=Port Authority Risk Management Staff |publisher=United States Fire Administration |accessdate=2007-05-15}}</ref> The slurry wall was in peril following the bombing and loss of the floor slabs which provided lateral support to counteract pressure from Hudson River water on the other side.<ref name="ennala">{{cite journal |author=Ramabhushanam, Ennala and Marjorie Lynch |title=Structural Assessment of Bomb Damage for World Trade Center |journal=Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities |volume=8(4) |pages=229–242}}</ref> The [[refrigeration]] plant on sublevel B5, which provided [[air conditioning]] to the entire World Trade Center complex, was heavily damaged and replaced with a temporary system for the summer of 1993.<ref name="ennala"/> The [[fire alarm]] system for both towers needed to be replaced, after critical wiring and signaling in the original system was destroyed in the 1993 bombing. Installation of the new system took years to complete, and replacement of some components was still underway at the time of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Active Fire Protection Systems (NCSTAR 1-4) |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |pages=p. 44 |author=Evans, David D., Richard D. Peacock, Erica D. Kuligowski, W. Stuart Dols, William L. Grosshandler |date=September 2005}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Collapse of the World Trade Center]]
*[[Freedom Tower]]
*[[150 Greenwich Street]]
*[[175 Greenwich Street]]
*[[200 Greenwich Street]]
*[[Plans to rebuild the World Trade Center]]
*[[Philippe Petit]], who wirewalked between the two towers

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/newyork/sfeature/sf_building.html New York: A Documentary Film - The Center of the World] - ''Building the World Trade Center'', an 18-minute film, with construction footage, produced by the Port Authority in 1983
*[http://www.skyscraper.org/WHAT%27S_UP/WTC_DOSSIER/wtc.htm World Trade Center] - Skyscraper Museum
*{{Cite web
| title = Corus in construction - Systems evolution
| accessdate = 2007-05-14
| url = http://corusconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching_resources/architectural_studio_reference/design/tall_building_designs/systems_evolution/
}}
*[http://wtc.nist.gov/ NIST and the World Trade Center]
*[http://www.ericdarton.net/ New York's World Trade Center - A Living Archive] - by author, Eric Darton
*[http://www.antiqueradio.com/Sep02_RadioRow_Steinhardt.html The Death of New York's Radio Row], by Syd Steinhard - Downtown Express

{{WTC navigation}}
{{Featured article}}

[[Category:World Trade Center]]
[[Category:Building projects|World Trade Center]]

[[ar:بناء مبنى التجارة العالمي]]

Papyrus 52

2008-09-15T05:05:27Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:بردية 52

{{New Testament manuscript infobox
|form=Papyrus
|number='''P52'''
|image=
|caption=
|name=
|text=[[Gospel of John|John]] 18:31-33.37-38
|script=[[Greek language|Greek]]
|date=c. 125
|found=[[Egypt]]
|now at=[[John Rylands Library]]
|cite=
|size=fragment
|type= not ascertainable
|cat=I
|hand=
|note=}}

[[Image:P52 recto.jpg|thumb|right|200px|upright|John Rylands Library Papyrus P52, recto]]
[[Image:P52 verso.jpg|thumb|right|200px|upright|John Rylands Library Papyrus P52, verso]]
The '''Rylands Library Papyrus P52''', also known as the '''St John's fragment''', is a fragment from a [[papyrus]] [[codex]], measuring only 3.5 by 2.5 inches (9 by 6.4 cm) at its widest; and conserved at the [[John Rylands Library]], [[Manchester]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. The front (recto) contains lines from the [[Gospel of John]] 18:31-33, in [[Greek language|Greek]], and the back (verso) contains lines from verses 37-38.

Although Rylands P52 is generally accepted as the earliest extant record of a canonical [[New Testament]] text<ref>See [[7Q5]] for an alternate candidate.</ref>, the dating of the papyrus is by no means the subject of consensus among critical scholars. The style of the script is strongly [[Hadrian]]ic, which would suggest a date somewhere between 125 and 160 CE. But the difficulty of fixing the date of a fragment based solely on [[paleography|paleographic]] evidence allows for a range of dates that extends from before [[100]] CE past [[150]] CE.

==Greek text==

The papyrus is written on both sides. The characters in bold style are the ones that can be seen in Papyrus P52.

''[[Gospel of John]] 18:31-33'' (recto)

{{quote|'''ΟΙ ΙΟΥΔΑΙ'''ΟΙ '''ΗΜΙ'''Ν ΟΥΚ ΕΞΕΣΤΙΝ ΑΠΟΚΤΕΙΝΑΙ '''OYΔΕΝΑ ΙΝΑ Ο Λ'''ΟΓΟΣ ΤΟΥ ΙΗΣΟΥ ΠΛΗΡΩΘΗ ΟΝ ΕΙ'''ΠΕΝ ΣΕΜΑΙΝΩ'''Ν ΠΟΙΩ ΘΑΝΑΤΩ ΗΜΕΛΛΕΝ ΑΠΟ'''ΘΝΕΣΚΕΙΝ Ε'''ΙΣΗΛΘΕΝ ΟΥΝ ΠΑΛΙΝ ΕΙΣ ΤΟ ΠΡΑΙΤΩ'''ΡΙΟΝ Ο ΠΙ'''ΛΑΤΟΣ ΚΑΙ ΕΦΩΝΗΣΕΝ ΤΟΝ ΙΗΣΟΥΝ '''ΚΑΙ ΕΙΠ'''ΕΝ ΑΥΤΩ ΣΥ ΕΙ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΤΩΝ ΙΟΥΔΑ'''ΙΩ'''N}}

{{quote|...'''the Jews, "To us''' it is lawful to kill
''' no one" so that the word''' of Jesus might be fulfilled which
''' he said signifying''' by what sort of death he was about
''' to die. He entered ''' again into the
'''Praetorium Pilate''' and called Jesus
''' and said''' to him "Are you king of the
''' Jews?''' ...}}

''[[Gospel of John]] 18:37-38'' (verso)

{{quote|ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ ΕΙΜΙ ΕΓΩ ΕΙΣ '''ΤΟΥΤΟ ΓΕΓΕΝΝΗΜΑΙ''' ΚΑΙ (ΕΙΣ ΤΟΥΤΟ) ΕΛΗΛΥΘΑ ΕΙΣ ΤΟΝ ΚΟ'''ΣΜΟΝ ΙΝΑ ΜΑΡΤ'''ΥΡΗΣΩ ΤΗ ΑΛΗΘΕΙΑ ΠΑΣ Ο ΩΝ Ε'''Κ ΤΗΣ ΑΛΗΘΕ'''IΑΣ ΑΚΟΥΕΙ ΜΟΥ ΤΗΣ ΦΩΝΗΣ Λ'''ΕΓΕΙ ΑΥΤΩ''' Ο ΠΙΛΑΤΟΣ ΤΙ ΕΣΤΙΝ ΑΛΗΘΕΙΑ ΚΑ'''Ι ΤΟΥΤ'''Ο ΕΙΠΩΝ ΠΑΛΙΝ ΕΞΗΛΘΕΝ ΠΡΟΣ '''ΤΟΥΣ Ι'''ΟΥΔΑΙΟΥΣ ΚΑΙ ΛΕΓΕΙ ΑΥΤΟΙΣ ΕΓΩ ΟΥΔΕΜΙΑΝ ΕΥΡΙΣΚΩ ΕΝ ΑΥ'''ΤΩ''' ΑΙΤΙΑΝ}}

{{quote|King am I. I for this ''' reason have been born'''
(and for this reason) I have come into ''' the world so that I shall testify'''
to the truth. Everyone being ''' of the truth'''
hears my voice.''' Says to him '''
Pilate, "What is truth?" ''' and this '''
saying, again he went out to ''' the Jews '''
and says to them, "I ''' nothing''' ...}}

There appears insufficient room for the repeated phrase(ΕΙΣ ΤΟΥΤΟ) in the second line of the verso, and it is suggested that these words were inadvertantly dropped through [[haplography]].

The writing is generously scaled – letter forms vary between 0.3 and 0.4 cm in height, lines are spaced approximately 0.5 cm apart, and there is a margin of 2 cm at the top. C.H. Roberts commented; "To judge from the spacing and the size of the text, it is unlikely that the format was affected by considerations of economy". This is consistent with the manuscript being intended for public reading. If the original codex did indeed contain the entire text of the canonical Gospel of John, it would have constituted a single [[quire]] book of around 130 pages (i.e. 33 folded papyrus sheets written on both sides); measuring approximately 21 by 20 cm when closed. Roberts describes the handwriting as "heavy, rounded and rather elaborate", but nevertheless not the work of "a practised scribe" (i.e. not a professional bookhand).

==History==
The fragment of papyrus was among a group acquired on the Egyptian market in 1920 by [[Bernard Grenfell]].<ref>The papyrus may have come surreptitiously from [[Oxyrhyncus]].</ref> The original transcription and translation of the fragment of text was not done until 1934, by [[Colin H. Roberts]].<ref>Roberts, “An Unpublished Fragment of the Fourth Gospel in the John Rylands Library”, ''Bulletin of the John Rylands Library'' XX, 1936:45-55.</ref> Roberts found comparator hands in papyri then dated between [[50]] CE and [[150]] CE, with the closest match of [[Hadrian]]ic date. Since the contents would unlikely have been written before circa [[100]] CE<ref>For the date of the text, see [[Gospel of John]].</ref> he proposed a date in the first half of the second century. Over the 70 years since Roberts' essay, the estimated ages of his particular comparator hands have been revised (in common with most other undated antique papyri) towards dates a couple of decades older; while other comparator hands have subsequently been discovered with possible dates ranging into the second half of the second century.

==Date==
The significance of P52 rests on both its early date, and its geographic dispersal from the presumed site of authorship. As the fragment is removed from the autograph by at least one step of transmission, the date of authorship for the Gospel of John must be at least a few years prior to the dating of P52. The location of the fragment in Egypt extends that time even further, allowing for the dispersal of the documents from the point of authorship and transmission to the point of discovery. The Gospel of John is perhaps quoted by [[Justin Martyr]], and hence is highly likely to have been written before circa [[160]] CE; but many New Testament scholars have argued from the proposed dating of P52 prior to this, that this Gospel must have been written rather earlier — and indeed close to the traditionally accepted date of circa 90 CE.

Skepticism about the use of P52 to date the Gospel of John (not about the fragment's authenticity) is based on two issues. First, the papyrus has been rather narrowly dated based on the handwriting alone, without the support of textual evidence. Secondly, in common with every other surviving early Gospel manuscript, this fragment is not from a scroll but from a [[codex]]; a bound book not a roll. If it dates to the first half of the second century, this fragment would be amongst the earlier surviving examples of a codex (around [[90]] CE, [[Martial]] describes the codex form as then new to Rome). Nevertheless, while some experts in [[paleography]] have disputed the dating, it is agreed that this piece of papyrus is the earliest known fragment of any portion of the New Testament.<ref>J.K. Elliott, "The Biblical Manuscripts of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester" ''Bulletin of the John Rylands Library'' '''91(2)''' 7–8.</ref> Its closest rival in date is the [[Egerton Gospel]], a late-second-century fragment of a codex that records a gospel not identical to any of the canonical four, but which has closer parallels to ''John'' than with the synoptic gospels; and whose hand employs letter forms consistently rather later than those of P52. Thus the Egerton Gospel may represent a less-developed example of the Johannine gospel tradition (though in a manuscript of slightly later date).

In recent years the early date for P52 favoured by many [[New Testament]] scholars has been challenged by A. Schmidt, who favours a date around 170 AD, plus or minus twenty-five years; on the basis of a comparison with [[Chester Beatty Papyri|Chester Beatty Papyrus X]]<ref>A. Schmidt, "Zwei Ammerkungen zu P. Ryl. III 457," ''APF'' '''35''' (1989:11–12).</ref> . The ways both earlier and later dating tendencies have been used, are criticised by Brent Nongbri:<ref>Nongbri, p. 48.</ref>, who collected and published a wide range of dated comparitor manuscripts; demonstrating that, although the preponderance of hands most similar to P52 are found in the first three decades of the 2nd century, nevertheless there are other examples of hands with similar characteristics dated as late as 152 CE — and that a prudent margin of error must allow the possibility of P52 being younger still by several decades (or equally, as much as a century older).

{{quote|What emerges from this survey is nothing surprising to papyrologists: paleography is not the most effective method for dating texts, particularly those written in a literary hand. Roberts himself noted this point in his edition of P52. The real problem is the way scholars of the New Testament have used and abused papyrological evidence. I have not radically revised Roberts's work. I have not provided any third-century documentary papyri that are absolute "dead ringers" for the handwriting of P52, and even had I done so, that would not force us to date P52 at some exact point in the third century. Paleographic evidence does not work that way. What I have done is to show that any serious consideration of the window of possible dates for P52 must include dates in the later second and early third centuries. Thus, P52 cannot be used as evidence to silence other debates about the existence (or non-existence) of the Gospel of John in the first half of the second century. Only a papyrus containing an explicit date or one found in a clear archaeological stratigraphic context could do the work scholars want P52 to do. As it stands now, the papyrological evidence should take a second place to other forms of evidence in addressing debates about the dating of the Fourth Gospel.}}

Nevertheless, most biblical scholars continue to favour the earlier dating as being more probable, even though the possibility of a later date cannot be entirely discounted; such that John Rylands Library say of P52 that it "may with some confidence be dated in the first half of the second century A.D."<ref>[http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/specialcollections/collections/stjohnfragment/ John Rylands Library]</ref>

If the early dating of the papyrus is in fact correct, then the fact that the fragment is from a [[codex]] rather than a [[scroll]] would testify to the very early adoption of this mode of writing amongst Christians, in stark contrast to the invariable practice of contemporary [[Judaism]]. Furthermore, an assessment of the length of 'missing' text between the recto and verso readings corresponds with that in the counterpart canonical Gospel of John; and hence confirms that there are unlikely to have been substantial additions or deletions in this whole portion. Since this fragment is small — about nine by five centimeters — it is uncertain whether it comes from a full copy of the ''John'' that we know; but it may be presumed that the original text must have been of near full gospel length to be worth the extra care and time required in writing in codex form.

P52 is small, and although a plausible reconstruction can be attempted for most of the fourteen lines represented, nevertheless the proportion of the text of the Gospel of John for which it provides a direct witness is necessarily limited, so it is rarely cited in textual debate.<ref>Tuckett 2001:544; [http://www.skypoint.com/~waltzmn/ManuscriptsPapyri.html#P52 New Testaments Manuscripts: Papyri]; [http://www.historian.net/P52.html "The oldest New Testament: P52"].</ref> There has however, been some contention as to whether the name ''ΙΗΣΟΥ'' (Jesus) in the 'missing' portions of recto lines 2 and 5 was originally written as [[nomina sacra]]; and hence contracted to ''ΙΣ'' or ''ΙΗΣ'' in accordance with otherwise universal Christian practice in surviving early Gospel manuscripts. Roberts originally considered that the divine name was more likely to have been spelled out in full; but later changed his mind, and this is also the view of Larry. W. Hurtado; with C.M. Tuckett maintaining Roberts' original opinion. The verses included in P52 are also witnessed in Bodmer Papyrus P66 — usually dated to the beginning of the 3rd century CE — but, in the amount of text preserved, it has not proved possible to determine whether P52 represents an example of the same proto-[[Alexandrian text-type]].

==See also==
*[[Papyrus 1]]
*[[Papyrus 46]]
*[[Magdalen papyrus|Papyrus 64]]
*[[Papyrus 66]]
*[[7Q5]]
*[[List of New Testament papyri]]
*[[List of New Testament uncials]]
*[[4Q108]]
*[[4QMMT]]
*[[John 18:38]] (verso)

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Hurtado, Larry. W., 2003. "P52 (P.Rylands Gr 457) and the ''Nomina Sacra''; Method and Probability." ''Tynedale Bulletin'' 54.1.
* Nongbri, Brent, 2005. "The Use and Abuse of P52: Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel." ''Harvard Theological Review'' 98:23-52.
* Roberts, C.H., 1936. “An Unpublished Fragment of the Fourth Gospel in the John Rylands Library.” ''Bulletin of the John Rylands Library'' 20:45-55.
* Schnelle, Udo, 1998. ''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings''.
* Tuckett, Christopher M., 2001. "P52 and ''Nomina Sacra''." ''New Testament Studies'' 47:544-48.

==External links==
*[http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/specialcollections/collections/stjohnfragment John Rylands Library: An Unpublished Fragment of the Fourth Gospel]
*[http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/greek/johnpap.html K. C. Hanson - P52: A Fragment of the Gospel of John]
*[http://www.historian.net/P52.html historian.net: P52]

[[Category:New Testament papyri]]
[[Category:African archaeology|Papyrus 052]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt|Papyrus 052]]

[[ar:بردية 52]]
[[cs:P 52]]
[[da:Rylands Papyrus (P52)]]
[[es:Papiro P52]]
[[fr:Papyrus P52]]
[[it:Papiro P52]]
[[nl:Papyrus 52]]
[[pl:Papirus Rylandsa]]
[[pt:Papiro P52]]
[[sv:P52]]

Escuadrilla acrobatica Cruz del Sur

2008-09-15T01:30:25Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:صلبان الجنوب

'''''Escuadrilla Acrobática Cruz del Sur''''' ("Southern Cross Aerobatic Squad") is the [[Aerobatics|aerobatic]] demonstration squadron for the [[Argentine Air Force]] (FAA).

The squadron flies 7 [[Sukhoi Su-29]]AR aerobatic aircraft. It is composed of seven active FAA officers. The squadron is part of the 4th aerial division of the [[Fuerza Aerea Argentina|FAA]], located in the city of [[Mendoza]].

==External links==
* {{es_icon}} [http://www.fuerzaaerea.mil.ar/prensa/cruz.html Official site]

{{Modern aerobatic teams}}

{{Aviation-stub}}
[[Category:Aerobatic teams]]
[[Category:Argentine Air Force]]

[[ar:صلبان الجنوب]]
[[el:Southern Cross squadron]]

Siyawasch

2008-09-07T12:52:51Z

AkhtaBot: robot Modifying: ceb:Seyāvash

{{unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
'''Siyâvash''' (in {{lang-fa|'''سياوش'''}}) (common spelling: '''Siavash''') is a character in [[Ferdowsi]]'s epic, [[Shahnameh]]. He was a legendary [[Persian people|Persian]] prince from the earliest days of the [[Persian Empire]]. He was a son of [[Kai Kavoos]], then [[Shah]] of Iran, and due to the treason of his stepmother, [[Sudabeh]] (with whom he refused to have sex and betray his father), self-exiled himself to [[Turan]] where he was killed innocently by order of The Turanian king [[Afrasiab]]. He was later avenged by his son [[Kai Khosrow]]. He is a symbol of innocence in [[Persian Literature]]. His name literally means "the one with the black horse". Ferdowsi in Shahnameh dubs his horse as ''Shabrang Behzād'' ([[Persian]]: شبرنگ بهزاد) literally meaning "Blackish Purebred".

{{Shahnameh}}

[[Category:History stubs]]
[[Category:Persian mythology]]

{{MEast-myth-stub}}

[[ar:سياوش]]
[[ceb:Seyāvash]]
[[fa:سیاوش پسر کاووس]]
[[ko:시야바슈]]

Esfandiyar

2008-09-05T05:40:42Z

AkhtaBot: robot Modifying: ceb:Esfandyār

'''Esfandiar''' (also known as '''Esfandyar''' or '''Asfandyar''' and in {{lang-fa|'''اسفنديار'''}}) is a legendary [[Iran]]ian hero. He was the son and the crown prince of the [[Kayanian]] King Goshtasp (from [[Middle Persian]] ''Wishtasp'' from [[Avestan]] language ''[[Vishtaspa]]'') and brother of the saintly Pashotan (Middle Persian Peshotan, Avestan [[Peshotanu]]).

Perso-Arabic 'Esfandyar' derives from Middle Persian 'Spandadat' or 'Spandyat' (the variance is due to ambiguities inherent to [[Pahlavi]] script), which in turn derives from [[Avestan]] Spentodata "Given by/through bounty" or "Given by (the) holy" (see [[Amesha Spenta|Amesha ''Spenta'']] for other meanings of ''spenta-''). The [[Median language]] *Spendata - as it is reconstructed - probably motivated a similar [[Old Persian]] form, which may be inferred from Greek Sphendadates, a 5th century BCE political figure unrelated to the Esfandiar of legend. Equally unrelated is the [[Sassanid]]-era feudal house of Spandyat, that - like numerous other feudal houses also - adopted a Kayanian name in order to legitimize and emphasize the antiquity of their genealogy.

== In the Shahnameh ==
The Esfandyar of legend is best known from the tragic story of a battle with [[Rostam]], as described in [[Ferdowsi]]'s epic [[Shahnameh]], or Book of Kings. It is one of the longest episodes in the epic, and one of its literary highlights:

Esfandyar is promised the throne by his father Goshtasp if he manages to repel an invasion in far-off provinces. Esfandyar is successful at this, but his father stalls and instead sends him off on another mission to suppress a rebellion in [[Turan]]. Esfandyar is again successful, and upon his return Goshtasp hedges once again and - although he is aware of a prediction that foretells the death of Esfandyar at the hand of Rostam - compels the young hero to go and bring the aging Rostam in chains for his arrogance and not paying due respect to the king. Although Esfandyar initially protests, reminding his father of Rostam's fame, great age and services to the dynasty, he eventually complies with his father's wishes and sets out towards Rostam.

Upon reaching the home of Rostam, Esfandyar delivers the message, but Rostam refuses to comply with being put in chains, accepting only to accompany the young prince to his father's. Esfandyar insists, but Rostam - although making numerous concessions - stands his ground, and the two eventually meet in single combat. Unknown to Rostam is the fact that Esfandyar had bathed in a pool of invincibility, and in the subsequent battle, Esfandyar is unaffected by Rostam's blows while the champion is seriously wounded.

Pleading respite to dress his wounds, Rostam withdraws, where he learns of Esfandyar's secret and of his weakness: when Esfandyar swam in the pool of invincibility, he kept his eyes closed, and it is through these that the young prince can be vanquished. Upon hearing this, Rostam fashions a forkhead arrow with a feather of [[Simurgh]] and a twig of a [[tamarisk]] tree, and when the battle resumes the next morning, Esfandyar is slain by a shot through the eyes.

== See also ==
* the heel of [[Achilles heel|Achilles]]
* the shoulder of [[Sigurd]] (Siegfried)
* the thighs of [[Duryodhana]]

[[Category:Shahnameh characters]]

{{Shahnameh}}

[[ar:اسفنديار]]
[[ceb:Esfandyār]]
[[fa:اسفندیار پسر گشتاسپ]]

Peter Reid (Fußballspieler)

2008-08-30T08:01:07Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:بيتر ريد

: ''For the Ironman Triathlete see [[Peter Reid (triathlete)]]''
{{Infobox Football biography
| playername = Peter Reid
| image = [[Image:Peter Reid Sunderland 1998small.jpg]]
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1956|6|20|df=y}}
| cityofbirth = [[Huyton]], [[Liverpool]]
| countryofbirth = [[England]]
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=8}}
| position =[[Midfielder (football)|Midfielder]] (retired)
| youthyears =
| youthclubs = Huyton Boys [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]]
| years = 1974–1982 1982–1989 1989–1990 1990–1993 1993–1994 1994 1994–1995
| clubs = [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]] [[Everton F.C.|Everton]] [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]] [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]] [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]] [[Bury F.C.|Bury]] '''Total'''
| caps(goals) = 225 (23) 159 {{0}}(8) {{0}}29 {{0}}(1) 103 {{0}}(1) {{0}}{{0}}7 {{0}}(0) {{0}}{{0}}5 {{0}}(0) {{0}}{{0}}1 {{0}}(0) '''529 (33) '''
| nationalyears = 1985–1988
| nationalteam = [[England national under-21 football team|England U-21s]] [[England national football team|England]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = {{0}}{{0}}6 {{0}}(?) {{0}}13 {{0}}(0)
| manageryears = 1990–1993 1995 1995–2002 2003 2004–2005 2008–
| managerclubs = [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] [[England national under-21 football team|England U-21s]] [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]] [[Leeds United A.F.C.|Leeds United]] [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]] [[Thailand national football team|Thailand]]}}

'''Peter Reid''' (born [[20 June]] [[1956]] in [[Huyton]], [[Liverpool]]) is an [[England|English]] [[association football|football]] [[coach (sport)|manager]], [[pundit (expert)|pundit]] and former player.

In his playing career Reid played for [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]], [[Everton F.C.|Everton]] and [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]], as well as representing [[England national football team|his country]], after which he managed [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]], [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]], [[Leeds United A.F.C.|Leeds United]] and [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]]. It is reported that he is to be the next manager of [[Thailand national football team|Thailand]].<ref name=Telegraph_thailand>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2008/07/10/sfntha110.xml|title= Peter Reid to be named Thailand manager|first=Graham|last=Chase|date=2008-07-10|publisher=''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''|accessdate=2008-07-10}}</ref><ref name=goal.com_thailand>{{cite web|url=http://www.goal.com/en/Articolo.aspx?ContenutoId=770572|publisher=www.goal.com|title=Reports: Thailand To Unveil Reid This Month|date=2008-07-10|accessdate=2008-07-10}}</ref>

==Playing career==
Reid signed professional forms with [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]] in 1974. He first won a medal when Bolton won the championship of the [[Football League Second Division]] in 1978. He was transferred to [[Everton F.C.|Everton]] for a cut-price fee of £60,000 in 1982 only 12 months after a much larger fee had been mooted - a succession of injuries had cut the price.

At club level his greatest achievement was as part of the Everton team which in 1984 won the [[FA Cup Final 1984|FA Cup]], in [[1984-85 in English football#First Division|1985]] and [[1986-87 in English football#First Division|1987]] the [[Football League First Division|Football League championship]] and in [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup 1984-85#Final|1985]] the European [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup|Cup Winners' Cup]]. They nearly won a unique treble but lost 1–0 to [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] in the [[FA Cup Final 1985|1985 FA Cup final]]. In that game, Reid was recklessly challenged by Manchester United defender [[Kevin Moran (footballer)|Kevin Moran]] who became the first player to be sent off in an FA Cup final.

At his peak Reid was the finest midfield enforcer in Europe. Peter Reid was voted [[PFA Players' Player of the Year|PFA Footballer of the Year]] in 1985. He made 159 appearances (plus eight as substitute) for Everton. In 2006 Peter Reid was awarded with the 'Everton Giant' accolade.

Reid won 13 caps for [[England national football team|England]]. Given his chance by the injuries to other players, he became the linchpin of the England team in the [[1986 FIFA World Cup]] in [[Mexico]]. In the England v [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] quarter-final at that tournament Reid was one of the England players left behind by [[Diego Maradona]] as he burst from inside his own half to score his [[Goal of the Century|second goal]].

Reid was given a free transfer to [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]] in 1989 but only stayed for ten months before starting his managerial career.
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}

==Managerial career==
===Manchester City===
Reid's [[coach (sports)|managerial]] career began in November 1990 at [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]. He was appointed [[player-manager]] at the [[Maine Road]] club after [[Howard Kendall (footballer)|Howard Kendall]] resigned to begin the second of his three spells in charge of [[Everton F.C.|Everton]].
In [[1990-91 in English football|1990–91]], Manchester City finished fifth (one place above neighbours Manchester United) and equalled this achievement the following season. In the first season of the [[Premier League]] ([[1992-93 in English football|1992–93]]), City slipped into ninth place with an increasingly stale brand of '[[long ball]]' football and Reid was sacked after a poor start to the following season.

Many have argued that Reid's dismissal was rash however his time at City contributed to the break up of a potentially excellent side.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} Examples of seeming mis-management included Reid paying massively over-inflated prices for average players (such as [[Keith Curle]] and [[Terry Phelan]] who cost £2.5 million each) while selling quality players for knock down fees. This could clearly be seen when [[Colin Hendry]] was sold only to be eventually replaced by [[Michel Vonk]]. [[Clive Allen]] would also be sold for a nominal fee despite an excellent goal to game ratio seemingly because of a personal disagreement with Reid. Similar rumours surrounded the sale of youngster [[Michael Hughes (footballer)|Michael Hughes]] who was sold and replaced by [[Rick Holden]]. Reid also came under criticism following [[Paul Lake]]'s second major injury only two games into his comeback with some feeling that he should have been rested for the match against [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]]. The charge was levelled at Reid that he was a 'Long Ball Merchant' who was totally in awe of his unpopular assistant [[Sam Ellis]] and, in time, City's style of play became far too easily read by opposing teams and Reid seemed unable or unwilling to change his tactics.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}

===Southampton===
Following his dismissal by Manchester City, in October 1993 Reid was persuaded by [[Ian Branfoot]] to resume his playing career with [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]] who were then in the middle of a crisis, with the Saints fans calling for Branfoot to be sacked with the club at a very low ebb, having lost eight of their first nine games. Reid brought a touch of guile and stability to the Saints side and despite playing only eight games he made a major contribution to the team's fortunes as Saints' season started to come together, leading them to some important victories, most specially over [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] on [[24 October]] [[1993]] in which [[Matthew Le Tissier]] scored two of the most sublime goals of his career. His final game for Saints was a 3–1 victory over [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] on [[28 December]] [[1993]].

Branfoot was sacked a few days later (after a home defeat by [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]]). Reid was touted as a possible replacement for Branfoot, but he stated that, as Branfoot had brought him to the club, it would only be fair that he left as well. Reid then had brief playing spells with [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]] and [[Bury F.C.|Bury]] before he hung up his playing boots.

===Sunderland===
Reid made his return to management in March 1995 with [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]], who were battling against relegation in the [[Football League First Division|First Division]]. He kept the club up and the following season they were crowned champions of the division and were promoted to the Premier League. In 1996 a group of Sunderland fans operating under the name ''Simply Red and White'' had a [[top 50]] hit with the song ''Cheer Up Peter Reid'' – an altered version of the song ''[[Daydream Believer]]''. The season they were relegated back to the First Division after losing their final game of the season, so their new 42,000-seat [[Stadium of Light]] would replace [[Roker Park]] initially as a second-tier stadium rather than one hosting Premier League football.

Sunderland missed automatic promotion by one place in [[1997-98 in English football|1997–98]], and drew 4–4 with [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] in the Division play-off final. Reid's side missed out on promotion after losing 7–6 in a penalty shoot out in one of the most dramatic games ever seen at [[Wembley Stadium (1924)|Wembley]]. The following season Sunderland bounced back from this defeat, winning the First Division with a then-record breaking 105 points.

Throughout [[1999-2000 in English football|1999–2000]], Sunderland were competing for a place in [[UEFA|European]] competition but in the end missed out after finishing in seventh place. Still, Reid's team had achieved one of the highest finishes ever achieved by a Premier League team in the season after promotion. Striker [[Kevin Phillips (footballer)|Kevin Phillips]] was the highest league scorer in England and Europe with 30 goals in the Premier League. Reid also had a brief spell as manager of the [[England national under-21 football team|England under-21]] team in this season. For a while in [[2000-01 in English football|2000–01]], Sunderland were second in the league and it looked as though they would secure qualification for the [[UEFA Champions League]], but their form dipped in the final stages of the season and again they finished seventh.

Reid's team suffered a downturn in the [[2001-02 in English football|2001–02]] season ending up one place above the relegation zone and with just 28 goals from 38 games – fewer than any other team in the division. In a bid to halt the decline, Reid paid a club record £6.75million for [[Norway|Norwegian]] striker [[Tore André Flo]] from [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] but was unsuccessful. Reid was let go in October 2002 after nearly eight years as Sunderland manager.

=== Leeds United ===
Reid was out of work until March 2003, when he was appointed [[interim manager]] of [[Leeds United A.F.C.|Leeds United]] after the dismissal of [[Terry Venables]]. The [[Elland Road]] club had been hit by £80million debts after their £100million outlay on new players in the space of five seasons had failed to land them a trophy. Reid looked to be the man to reverse the decline, especially after a 6–1 away win over Charlton Athletic and a 3–2 away win over [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] which ended the opposition's title hopes. After keeping Leeds up, he was awarded the job on a permanent basis.

Leeds were still in a poor financial state and Reid was forced to sell [[Harry Kewell]] and bring in cheaper signings from abroad as replacements. His new signings failed to gel and Leeds were in another relegation battle and he was fired in November 2003 after a 6–1 defeat against newly-promoted [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]]. Although many of his signings left Leeds after the club was relegated, [[Kevin Blackwell]], who Reid had bought to Leeds as assistant manager, later went on to become manager in 2004.

===Coventry City===
Reid was appointed manager of First Division side [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]] in May 2004 with the aim of getting the club promoted to the Premier League. His spell at [[Highfield Road]] lasted only eight months as he departed on [[6 January]] [[2005]] with the club 20th in the Championship.

In the autumn of 2006, it was rumoured that Reid would be returning to Sunderland as [[Director of Football]] under new chairman [[Niall Quinn]], who had played under Reid at Manchester City and Sunderland, but this appointment never happened. It is reported that his next managerial post will be that of the national team of [[Thailand national football team|Thailand]].<ref name=Telegraph_thailand/><ref name=goal.com_thailand/>

==Punditry work==
Since his days as manager of Sunderland Reid has made occasional appearances on [[Sky Sports]] and its related channels as a football pundit. With the decline of his managing career his appearances on these programmes gradually increased and as of 2007 he is a semi-regular on [[Sky Sports News]]'s Saturday results programme. During the 2006 World Cup finals in [[Germany]], Reid worked for the BBC, often appearing alongside [[Lee Dixon]] in post-match analysis.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/world_cup_2006/4991466.stm BBC SPORT | Football | World Cup 2006 | Germany 2-0 Sweden]</ref> He now works as a pundit and provides match analysis for the [[Football Channel]] alongside [[Carlton Palmer]].

He also works as a football agent. He is registered with [[FIFA]]<ref name="Players' Agents List">{{cite news
| title = Players' Agents List
| url = http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/administration/playersagents/association=eng.html
| publisher = FIFA
| accessdate = 2007-07-12}}</ref> with his younger brother, [[Shaun Reid|Shaun]], also working as a football agent.

== Honours ==
=== As a player ===
'''[[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]]'''
*'''[[Football League Second Division|Second Division Title]]''' winner: [[1977-78 in English football|1977–78]]

'''[[Everton F.C.|Everton]]'''
*'''[[FA Cup]]''' winner: [[1984 FA Cup Final|1984]]
*'''[[Football League First Division|First Division Title]]''' winner: [[1984-85 in English football|1984–85]], [[1986-87 in English football|1986–87]]
*'''FA Cup''' runner-up: [[1985 FA Cup Final|1985]]
*'''[[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners' Cup]]''' winner: [[1985]]
*'''[[PFA Players' Player of the Year|PFA Footballer of the Year Title]]''' winner: [[1985]]

==Career statistics==
[http://www.national-football-teams.com/v2/player.php?id=19383]
{{Football player statistics 1|YY}}
{{Football player statistics 2|ENG|YY}}
|-
|[[The Football League 1974-75|1974-75]]||rowspan="9"|[[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]]||rowspan="4"|[[Football League Second Division|Second Division]]||27||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1975-76|1975-76]]||42||2||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1976-77|1976-77]]||42||5||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1977-78|1977-78]]||38||9||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1978-79|1978-79]]||rowspan="2"|[[Football League First Division|First Division]]||14||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1979-80|1979-80]]||17||3||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1980-81|1980-81]]||rowspan="3"|[[Football League Second Division|Second Division]]||18||2||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1981-82|1981-82]]||12||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1982-83|1982-83]]||15||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1982-83|1982-83]]||rowspan="7"|[[Everton F.C.|Everton]]||rowspan="7"|[[Football League First Division|First Division]]||7||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1983-84|1983-84]]||35||2||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1984-85|1984-85]]||36||2||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1985-86|1985-86]]||15||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1986-87|1986-87]]||16||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1987-88|1987-88]]||32||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1988-89|1988-89]]||18||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1988-89|1988-89]]||rowspan="2"|[[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]]||rowspan="2"|[[Football League First Division|First Division]]||14||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1989-90|1989-90]]||15||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1989-90|1989-90]]||rowspan="5"|[[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]||rowspan="3"|[[Football League First Division|First Division]]||18||1||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1990-91|1990-91]]||30||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1991-92|1991-92]]||31||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1992-93|1992-93]]||rowspan="2"|[[Premier League]]||20||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993-94]]||4||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993-94]]||[[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]]||[[Premier League]]||7||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1993-94|1993-94]]||[[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]]||[[Football League First Division|First Division]]||5||0||||||||||||||||
|-
|[[The Football League 1994-95|1994-95]]||[[Bury F.C.|Bury]]||[[Football League Third Division|Third Division]]||1||0||||||||||||||||
{{Football player statistics 3|1|ENG}}529||33||||||||||||||||
{{Football player statistics 5}}529||33||||||||||||||||
|}

==Managerial statistics==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
!rowspan="2"|Team
!rowspan="2"|Nat
!rowspan="2"|From
!rowspan="2"|To
!colspan="5"|Record
|-
!G!!W!!L!!D!!Win %
|-
|align=left|[[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]
|{{flagicon|England}}
|align=left|November 1990
|align=left|August 1993
||131||56||44||31||42.7
|-
|align=left|[[England national under-21 football team|England U-21s]]
|{{flagicon|England}}
|align=left|1995
|align=left|1995
||||||||||
|-
|align=left|[[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]]
|{{flagicon|England}}
|align=left|March 1995
|align=left|October 2002
||353||159||99||95||45.0
|-
|align=left|[[Leeds United A.F.C.|Leeds United]]
|{{flagicon|England}}
|align=left|March 2003
|align=left|November 2003
||22||6||12||4||27.3
|-
|align=left|[[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]]
|{{flagicon|England}}
|align=left|June 2004
|align=left|January 2005
||31||10||13||8||32.3
|-
|align=left|[[Thailand national football team|Thailand]]
|{{flagicon|Thailand}}
|align=left|September 2008
|align=left|
||||||||||
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}
*{{soccerbase|6648|Peter Reid}}
*{{soccerbase (manager)|1031|Peter Reid}}
*{{cite book |
author=Duncan Holley & Gary Chalk |
title=In That Number - A post-war chronicle of Southampton FC |
publisher=[[Hagiology Publishing|Hagiology]] |
year=2003|
id=ISBN 0-9534474-3-X}}

==External links==
*{{soccerbase|id=6648|name=Peter Reid}}
*{{soccerbase (manager)|id=1031|name=Peter Reid}}
*[http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/agents/agentnamesList/0,1529,ENGPAG,00.html List of FIFA-registered agents in England]

{{England Squad 1986 World Cup}}
{{England Squad 1988 European Championship}}
{{Manchester City F.C. managers}}
{{Template:England national under-21 football team Managers}}
{{Sunderland A.F.C. managers}}
{{Leeds United A.F.C. managers}}
{{Coventry City F.C. managers}}
{{Thailand national football team managers}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Reid, Peter}}
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Huyton]]
[[Category:People from Liverpool]]
[[Category:English footballers]]
[[Category:England international footballers]]
[[Category:Premier League players]]
[[Category:Premier League managers]]
[[Category:Bolton Wanderers F.C. players]]
[[Category:Everton F.C. players]]
[[Category:Queens Park Rangers F.C. players]]
[[Category:Manchester City F.C. players]]
[[Category:Southampton F.C. players]]
[[Category:Notts County F.C. players]]
[[Category:Bury F.C. players]]
[[Category:English football managers]]
[[Category:Manchester City F.C. managers]]
[[Category:Sunderland A.F.C. managers]]
[[Category:Leeds United A.F.C. managers]]
[[Category:Coventry City F.C. managers]]
[[Category:1986 FIFA World Cup players]]
[[Category:UEFA Euro 1988 players]]
[[Category:The Football League players]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) midfielders]]
[[Category:Thai football managers]]

[[ar:بيتر ريد]]
[[fr:Peter Reid]]
[[sl:Peter Reid (nogometaš)]]
[[fi:Peter Reid]]
[[sv:Peter Reid]]

Jesus und die Ehebrecherin

2008-08-30T04:00:23Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:الزانية في الإنجيل

[[Image:GuercinoAdultress1621Dulwich.jpg|thumb|300px|''Christ with the Woman Taken in Adultery'', by [[Giovanni Francesco Barbieri|Guercino]], 1621 (Dulwich Picture Gallery).]]
The '''Pericope Adulterae''' ({{pronEng|pəˈrɪkəpi əˈdʌltəri}} in [[Anglicisation|anglicised]] [[Latin]])<ref>
''Pericope Adulterae'' ({{IPA2|peˈrikope aˈdulterai}} or '''Pericope de Adultera''' in Latin.</ref>
is a traditional name for a famous passage ([[pericope]]) about an adulterous woman—[[Chapters and verses of the Bible|verses]] {{bibleverse-nb||John|7:53-8:11}} of the [[Gospel of John]]. The passage describes a confrontation between [[Jesus]] and the [[scribes]] and [[Pharisees]] over whether a woman, caught in an act of [[adultery]], ought to be [[stoning|stoned]].

Although in line with many stories in the Gospels and probably primitive (''[[Didascalia Apostolorum]]'' refers to it, possibly [[Papias]] also), most scholars agree that it was not part of the original text of John's Gospel.<ref name ="Oxford">'Pericope adulterae', in FL Cross (ed.), ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', (New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 2005).</ref>
The standard Greek texts of John, and almost all modern translations, mark it off with double brackets—<nowiki>[[...]]</nowiki>—indicating this opinion.

The English idiomatic phrase to "[[Wiktionary:cast the first stone|cast the first stone]]" is derived from this passage.[http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/385600.html]
==The passage==
{{bibleverse||John|7:53-8:11|9}} in the [[King James Version]]:
<blockquote>
7:53 And every man went unto his own house.
8:1 Jesus went unto the mount of Olives.
2 And early in the morning he came again into the temple, and all the people came unto him; and he sat down, and taught them.
3 And the scribes and Pharisees brought unto him a woman taken in adultery; and when they had set her in the midst,
4 They say unto him, Master, this woman was taken in adultery, in the very act.
5 Now Moses in the law commanded us, that such should be stoned: but what sayest thou?
6 This they said, tempting him, that they might have to accuse him. But Jesus stooped down, and with his finger wrote on the ground, as though he heard them not.
7 So when they continued asking him, he lifted up himself, and said unto them, He that is without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her.
8 And again he stooped down, and wrote on the ground.
9 And they which heard it, being convicted by their own conscience, went out one by one, beginning at the eldest, even unto the last: and Jesus was left alone, and the woman standing in the midst.
10 When Jesus had lifted up himself, and saw none but the woman, he said unto her, Woman, where are those thine accusers? hath no man condemned thee?
11 She said, No man, Lord. And Jesus said unto her, Neither do I condemn thee: go, and sin no more.
</blockquote>

== Textual history ==
[[Image:John7-8B.JPG|thumb|right|350px|John 7:52–8:12 in [[Codex Vaticanus]] (''c''. 350 AD): lines 2&3 end 7:52; lines 4&5 start 8:12.]]

The [[pericope]] is not found in its canonical place in any of the earliest surviving Greek Gospel manuscripts; neither in the two 3rd century [[papyrus]] witnesses to John - P66 and P75; nor in the 4th century [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and [[Codex Vaticanus]]. The first surviving Greek manuscript witness to the pericope is the Latin/Greek diglot [[Codex Bezae]] of the fifth century. [[Papias]] (circa 125 CE) refers to a story of Jesus and a woman "accused of many sins" as being found in the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]], which may well refer to this passage; while there is a certain reference to the ''pericope adulterae'' in the 3rd Century Syriac ''[[Didascalia Apostolorum]]''; though without any indication as to which Gospel, if any, then contained the story.

Until recently, it was not thought that any Greek Church Father had taken note of the passage before the 12th Century; but in [[1941]] a large collection of the writings of [[Didymus the Blind]] (c313- 398) was discovered in Egypt, including a reference to the ''pericope adulterae'' as being found in "several gospels"; and it is now considered established that this passage was present in its canonical place in a minority of Greek manuscripts known in Alexandria from the 4th Century onwards. In support of this it is noted that the 4th century [[Codex Vaticanus]], which was written in Egypt, marks the end of John chapter 7 with an "umlaut", indicating that an alternative reading was known at this point.

[[Jerome]] reports that the ''pericope adulterae'' was to be found in its canonical place in "many Greek and Latin manuscripts" in Rome and the Latin West in the late 4th Century. This is confirmed by the consensus of Latin Fathers of the 4th and 5th Centuries CE; including [[Ambrose]], and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]. The latter claimed that the passage may have been improperly excluded from some manuscripts in order to avoid the impression that Christ had sanctioned adultery:
<blockquote>Certain persons of little faith, or rather enemies of the true faith, fearing, I suppose, lest their wives should be given impunity in sinning, removed from their manuscripts the Lord's act of forgiveness toward the adulteress, as if he who had said, Sin no more, had granted permission to sin.<ref>
"Sed hoc videlicet infidelium sensus exhorret, ita ut nonnulli modicae fidei vel potius inimici verae fidei, credo, metuentes peccandi impunitatem dari mulieribus suis, illud, quod de adulterae indulgentia Dominus fecit, auferrent de codicibus suis, quasi permissionem peccandi tribuerit qui dixit: Iam deinceps noli peccare, aut ideo non debuerit mulier a medico Deo illius peccati remissione sanari, ne offenderentur insani." Augustine, ''De Adulterinis Conjugiis'' 2:6–7.
Cited in Wieland Willker, [http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-John-PA.pdf ''A Textual Commentary on the Greek Gospels''], Vol. 4b, p. 10.</ref>
</blockquote>

==History of textual criticism on John 7:53-8:11==
{{citations missing|section|date=February 2008}}

During the 16th Century, Western European scholars - both [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] - sought to recover the most correct Greek text of the [[New Testament]], rather than relying on the [[Vulgate]] Latin translation. At this time, it was noticed that a number of early manuscripts containing John's Gospel lacked John 7:53-8:11 inclusive; and also that some manuscripts containing the verses marked them with critical signs, usually a [[Lemniscate|lemniscus]] or [[asterisk]]. It was also noted that, in the lectionary of the Greek church, the set gospel reading for Pentecost runs from John 7:37 to 8:12, but skips over the twelve verses of this pericope.

The first to systematically apply the critical marks of the Alexandrian critics was '''Origen''':<ref>[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02.html Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge. Vol II: Basilica - Chambers], [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02/Page_117.html I. Greek Version 1. LXX, ~ 4, Hexapla of Origen]</ref>
<blockquote>
"In the Septuagint column [Origen] used the system of diacritical marks which was in use with the Alexandrian critics of Homer, especially Aristarchus, marking with an [[obelus]] under different forms, as "./.", called lemniscus, and "/.", called a hypolemniscus, those passages of the Septuagint which had nothing to correspond to in Hebrew, and inserting, chiefly from Theodotion under an asterisk (*), those which were missing in the Septuagint; in both cases a metobelus (Y) marked the end of the notation."
</blockquote>

Early textual critics familiar with the use and meaning of these marks in classical Greek works like [[Homer]], interpreted the signs to mean that the section (John 7:53-8:11) was an [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] and not an original part of the Gospel.

Beginning with Lachmann (in Germany, 1840), reservations about the pericope became more strongly argued in the modern period, and these opinions were carried into the English world by [[Samuel Davidson]] (1848-1851), [[Samuel Prideaux Tregelles|Tregelles]] (1862), and others; the argument against the verses being given body and final expression in [[Fenton John Anthony Hort|Hort]] (1886). Those opposing the authenticity of the verses as part of John are represented in the 20th century by men like Cadbury (1917), Colwell (1935), and [[Bruce Metzger|Metzger]] (1971).

On the other hand, many scholars strongly defended the Johannine authorship of these verses, and presented opposing arguments and counter-analysis. This group of critics is typified by such scholars as Nolan (1865), and [[John William Burgon|Burgon]] (1886); and find modern counterparts and apologists in Hoskier (1920), O.T. Fuller (1978), Pickering (1980), Hodges & Farstad (1985), Pierpont, and Robinson (2005).

Almost all modern translations now include the Pericope de Adultera at John 7:53-8:11; but some enclose it in brackets, and/or add a note concerning the oldest and most reliable witnesses.

==Authorship==
===Arguments against Johannine authorship===

Bishop J.B. [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]] wrote that absence of the passage from the earliest manuscripts, combined with the occurrence of stylistic characteristics untypical of John; together implied that the passage was an [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]]. Nevertheless, he considered the story to be authentic history.<Ref>"The passages which touch Christian sentiment, or history, or morals, and which are affected by textual differences, though less rare than the former, are still very few.
Of these, the pericope of the woman taken in adultery holds the first place of importance.
In this case a deference to the most ancient authorities, as well as a consideration of internal evidence, might seem to involve immediate loss.
The best solution would probably be to place the passage in brackets, for the purpose of showing, not, indeed, that it contains an untrue narrative (for, whencesoever it comes, it seems to bear on its face the highest credentials of authentic history), but that evidence external and internal is against its being regarded as an integral portion of the original Gospel of St. John." J.B. Lightfoot, R.C. Trench, C.J. Ellicott, The Revision of the English Version of the NT, intro. P. Schaff, (Harper & Bro. NY, 1873) Online at CCEL (Christian Classic Ethereal Library)</ref>

===Arguments for Johannine authorship===
[[Zane C. Hodges]] and Arthur L. Farstad argue for Johannine authorship of the pericope.<ref>"If it is not an original part of the Fourth Gospel, its writer would have to be viewed as a skilled Johannine imitator, and its placement in this context as the shrewdest piece of interpolation in literary history!" The Greek New Testament According to the Majority Text with Apparatus: Second Edition, by Zane C. Hodges (Editor), Arthur L. Farstad (Editor) Publisher: Thomas Nelson; ISBN-10: 0840749635</ref> They suggest points of similarity between the pericope's style and the style of the rest of the gospel. They claim that the details of the encounter fit very well into the context of the surrounding verses. They argue that the pericope's appearance in the majority of manuscripts, if not in the oldest ones, is evidence of its authenticity.

===Arguments for Luke authorship===
James Patrick Holding argues may have been originally recorded by Luke; Holdings's examples being:
*The inclusion of the story in some mss. of Luke.
*The use of unique Lukan or Synoptic vocabulary:
**orthros ("early" -- John 8:2; Luke 24:1, Acts 5:21
**"all the people" (John 8:2; appears almost 20 times in Luke-Acts, but only 5 times in Mark and Matthew together)
**paraginomai ("appear" -- John 8:2; appears over two dozen times in Luke-Acts, but only 3 times in Matt, once in Mark, and once elsewhere in John)
**kategoros ("accusers" -- found elsewhere only in Acts, 5 times)
**suneideis ("conscience" -- found only here, and twice in Acts)
**"Mount of Olives", "scribes and Pharisees", "eldest" (8:1, 8:3, 8:9) -- unique to the Synoptics, other than here in John
*The story fits well with Luke's special interest in women.
==Manuscript evidence==
[[Image:Adulterae.JPG|thumb|right|250px|John 7:52–8:12 in [[Codex Sinaiticus]]]]

Both ''[[Novum Testamentum Graece]]'' (NA27) and the [[United Bible Societies]] (UBS4) provide critical text for the pericope, but mark this off with <nowiki>[[double brackets]]</nowiki>, indicating that the pericope is regarded as a later addition to the text.<ref>
Describing its use of double brackets UBS4 states that they "enclose passages which are regarded as later additions to the text, but which are of evident antiquity and importance."</ref>
However, UBS4 rates its reconstruction of the ''wording'' of the pericope as { A }, meaning "virtually certain" to reflect the original text of the ''addition''.
#'''Exclude pericope'''. [[List of New Testament papyri|Papyri]] [[Papyrus 66|66]] (''c''. 200) and [[Papyrus 75|75]] (early [[3rd century]]); Codices [[Codex Sinaiticus|Sinaiticus]] and [[Codex Vaticanus|Vaticanus]] ([[4th century]]), also apparently [[Codex Alexandrinus|Alexandrinus]] and [[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus|Ephraemi]] ([[5th century|5th]]), Codices [[Codex Washingtonianus|Washingtonianus]] and [[Codex Borgianus|Borgianus]] also from the 5th century, [[Codex Regius (New Testament)|Regius]] from the [[8th century|8th]], Athous Lavrensis (''c''. 800), [[Codex Petropolitanus Purpureus|Petropolitanus Purpureus]], [[Codex Macedoniensis|Macedoniensis]], Sangallensis and [[Codex Koridethi|Koridethi]] from the [[9th century]] and [[Codex Monacensis|Monacensis]] from the [[10th century|10th]]; [[List of New Testament uncials|Uncials]] 0141 and 0211; [[List of New Testament minuscules|Minuscules]] 22, 33, 157, 209, 565, 1230, 1241, 1253, 1333, 2193 and 2768; the majority of [[List of New Testament lectionaries|lectionaries]]; some [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]], the majority of the [[Syriac]], the [[Sahidic]] dialect of the [[Coptic language|Coptic]], the [[Gothic language|Gothic]], some [[Armenian language|Armenian]], and the [[Georgian (language)|Georgian]] translations; [[Diatessaron]] ([[2nd century]]); apparently [[Clement of Alexandria]] (died 215), other [[Church Fathers]] namely [[Tertullian]] (died 220), [[Origen]] (died 254), [[Cyprian]] (died 258), [[John Chrysostom]] (died 407), [[Nonnus]] (died 431), [[Cyril of Alexandria]] (died 444) and [[Cosmas]] (died 550).
#'''Include pericope'''. [[Codex Bezae]] ([[5th century]]), 9th century Codices [[Codex Boreelianus|Boreelianus]], [[Codex Seidelianus I|Seidelianus I]], [[Codex Seidelianus II|Seidelianus II]], [[Codex Cyprius|Cyprius]], [[Codex Campianus|Campianus]] and [[Codex Nanianus|Nanianus]], also Tischendorfianus from the 10th; Minuscules 28, 700, 892, 1009, 1010, 1071, 1079, 1195, 1216, 1344, 1365, 1546, 1646, 2148, 2174; the [[Byzantine text-type|Byzantine majority text]]; the majority of the [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]], the [[Vulgate]], some Syriac, the Bohairic dialect of the Coptic, some Armenian, and the Ethopian translations; [[Didascalia]] (3rd century); [[Ambrosiaster]] (4th century), [[Ambrose]] (died 397), [[Jerome]] (died 420), [[Augustine]] (died 430).
#'''Question pericope'''. Marked with asterisks (*) or [[obeli]] (÷). [[Codex Vaticanus 354]] (S) and the Minuscules 1077, 1443 and 1445 include entire pericope from 7:53; the [[menologion]] of Lectionary 185 includes 8:1ff; [[Codex Basilensis]] (E) includes 8:2ff; Codices Tischendorfianus III (Λ) and Petropolitanus (П) also the menologia of Lectionaries 69, 70, 211, 1579 and 1761 include 8:3ff.
#'''Relocate pericope'''. [[Family 1]] and nearly all Armenian translations place the pericope after John 21:25; [[Family 13]] place it after Luke 24:53; a corrector to Minuscule 1333 added 8:3–11 after Luke 24:53; and Minuscule 225 includes the pericope after John 7:36.

==See also==
{{commonscat|Pericope Adulteræ}}
*[[Comma Johanneum]]
*[[New Testament]]
*[[Textual criticism]]
*[[John 21]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
*{{bibleverse||John|7:53-8:11|31}} (NIV)
*{{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=John|chapter=7|verse=53|range=-8:11}} (KJV)
*[http://adultera.awardspace.com/ The Pericope de Adultera Homepage] Links to a wide range of scholarly published material about all aspects of this text, dozens of new articles here.
*[http://cadesign.webworkercanada.com/pa/ The Pericope de Adultera Homepage] Alternate link to mirror site.
*[http://www.tektonics.org/af/adulterypericope.html Does John 7:53-8:11 Belong in Our Bibles?] On a Misplaced Pericope by James Patrick Holding. Suggested authorship of Luke.
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-John-PA.pdf Jesus and the Adultress], a detailed study by Wieland Willker.

[[Category:Biblical criticism]]
[[Category:Doctrines and teachings of Jesus]]
[[Category:Gospel episodes]]
[[Category:King James Only movement]]
[[Category:Johannine literature]]

[[ar:الزانية في الإنجيل]]
[[pl:Pericope adulterae]]
[[pt:Perícopa da Adúltera]]
[[vi:Người đàn bà ngoại tình]]

Buch Mose (Mormonentum)

2008-08-20T02:59:38Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:كتاب موسى

{{distinguish|Five Books of Moses|Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses}}

The '''''Book of Moses''''' is a text published by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and thought by those within [[Mormonism]] to be the translated writings of [[Moses]]. It is published today as part of the [[Pearl of Great Price (Latter Day Saints)|Pearl of Great Price]].

==Origin==
In [[1830]], according to adherents of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], Joseph Smith was commanded by [[God]] to create a new translation of the [[Bible]], in order to restore lost portions and correct mistranslations in the modern text. The Book of Moses is a partial result of that work. See [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]].

==Content==
The first chapter describes an encounter between [[Moses]], [[God]], and [[Satan]]. Smith believed that this chapter was missing from the original Bible as it was lost in modern versions of the account. The encounter describes the magnificence of deity, and Moses' understanding of man's insignificance in comparison. Moses is shown the entirety of the history of the world and all that will come to pass. After this vision God leaves Moses to himself, whereupon Satan comes tempting Moses to worship him. Moses recognizes the weakness of Satan, and drives him away in the name of Christ. Afterwards, God returns to Moses and shows him the numberless worlds with numberless people that God has created. A prophecy alluding to Joseph Smith is given in the final verses.

The following chapters generally follow the first chapters of the [[Book of Genesis]], but provide additional detail not found in the [[Bible]]. An expanded account of the creation of the earth and the story of the [[Garden of Eden]], along with details of the generations of [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]. More information is given concerning [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]], including several otherwise unknown prophecies and Enoch's teachings, and details the [[baptism]] of Adam by God.

The ''Book of Moses'' ends just before the [[flood of Noah]].

==Genealogy==
The Book of Moses contains a detailed account of [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]]'s descendants. Genealogy from the [[Book of Abraham]] is shown below. Bold denotes individuals not from [[Genesis]]. The names Egyptus and Pharaoh are not present in the Book of Moses.

{{familytree/start}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | ADM |y| EVE | | | | | | | | ADM=Adam|EVE=Eve}}
{{familytree | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|^|v|-|-|-|-|.| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | SON | | CAN | | ABL | | | SET | | | | SON='''son'''|CAN=Cain|ABL=Abel|SET=Seth}}
{{familytree | | | | |!| | | |:| | | | | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | DAU |~|y|J| | | | | | | | ENO | | | | DAU='''daughter'''|ENO=Enos}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | ENO | | | | | | | | CAI | | | | ENO=Enoch|CAI=Cainan}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | IRA | | | | | | | | MAH | | | | IRA=Irad|MAH=Mahalaleel}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | MAH | | | | | | | | JAR | | | | MAH=Mahujael|JAR=Jared}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | MET | | | | | | | | ENO | | | | MET=Methusael|ENO=Enoch}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | |`|-|.| | | | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | ADA |y| LAM |y| ZIL | | MET | | | | ADA=Adah|LAM=Lamech|ZIL=Zillah|MET=Methuselah}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | |,|-|-|-|v|-|'| |,|-|^|-|.| | | |!| | | | }}
{{familytree | JAB | | JUB | | TUB | | NAA | | LAM | | | | JAB=Jabal|JUB=Jubal|TUB=Tubal Cain|NAA=Naamah|LAM=Lamech}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|'| | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | NOH | | | | | NOH=Noah}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|(| | | | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | JAP | | SHE | | HAM |y| EGY | JAP=Japheth|SHE=Shem|HAM=Ham|EGY='''Egyptus'''}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | EGY | | | EGY='''Egyptus'''}}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | }}
{{familytree | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | PHA | | | PHA='''Pharaoh'''}}
{{familytree/end}}

{{portal|Latter-day Saints|Christus statue temple square salt lake city.jpg| 40}}
{{Wikisource}}

{{LDS|hide|hide|show}}
[[Category:Pearl of Great Price (Latter Day Saints)]]
[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]
[[Category:Creation myths]]
[[Category:Texts which have been attributed to Moses]]

[[ar:كتاب موسى]]
[[fr:Livre de Moïse]]
[[fi:Mooseksen kirja (mormonismi)]]

Kevin Kim

2008-08-16T20:30:14Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:كيفن كيم

{{Infobox Tennis player
|playername= Kevin Kim
|image= [[Image:Kevin Kim 1.JPG|250px]]
|country= {{USA}}
|residence= [[Newport Coast, Newport Beach, California|Newport Coast, California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|datebirth= {{birth date and age|1978|7|26}}
|placebirth= [[Torrance, California]], U.S.
|height= 180cm (5ft 11in)
|weight= 75kg (165lb)
|turnedpro= 1997
|plays= Right; One-handed backhand
|careerprizemoney= $1,154,841
|singlesrecord= 36 - 75
|singlestitles= 0
|highestsinglesranking= No. 63 ([[March 21]], [[2005]])
|AustralianOpenresult= 3rd (2005)
|FrenchOpenresult= 2nd (2006)
|Wimbledonresult= 2nd (2005)
|USOpenresult= 1st (96,99,00,05,06)
|doublesrecord= 19 - 36
|doublestitles= 0
|highestdoublesranking= 118 ([[August 27]], [[2001]])
|updated= [[June 23]], [[2008]]
}}

'''Kevin Kim''' (born [[July 26]] [[1978]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[tennis]] player of [[Korea]]n descent. He was accepted to UCLA as a tennis player and dropped out of UCLA to pursue a career in tennis. He is currently 185th in the [[Association of Tennis Professionals|ATP]] rankings.

== Grand Slam results timeline ==
{| bgcolor="#f7f8ff" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" border="1" style="font-size: 95%; border: #cccccc solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;"
! Year
! [[Australian Open]]
! [[French Open (tennis)|French Open]]
! [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]]
! [[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]
|- align="center" bgcolor="EFEFEF"
|[[1996]]||||||||1st round
|- align="center"
|[[1999]]||||||||1st round
|- align="center" bgcolor="EFEFEF"
|[[2000]]||||||||1st round
|- align="center"
|[[2004]]|| ||1st round || ||
|- align="center" bgcolor="EFEFEF"
|[[2005]]||3rd round||1st round||2nd round||1st round
|- align="center"
|[[2006]]||2nd round||2nd round||1st round||1st round
|- align="center" bgcolor="EFEFEF"
|[[2007]]||1st round||||1st round||
|- align="center"
|[[2008]]|| || ||1st round||
|}

== External links ==
* {{ATP|id=K358}}
* [http://google.com Kevin Kim Recent Match Results]
* [http://google.com Kevin Kim World Ranking History]



{{DEFAULTSORT:Kim, Kevin}}
[[Category:1978 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American tennis players]]
[[Category:Korean Americans]]
[[Category:People from Torrance, California]]
[[Category:People from Newport Beach, California]]

{{US-tennis-bio-stub}}

[[ar:كيفن كيم]]
[[es:Kevin Kim]]
[[fr:Kevin Kim]]
[[nl:Kevin Kim]]
[[sk:Kevin Kim]]

Robert Gordon University

2008-08-16T19:00:49Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:جامعة روبرت غوردون

{{Infobox University
|name = The Robert Gordon University
|native_name =
|latin_name =
|image_name = The_Robert_Gordon_University_Logo.gif
|image_size = 144px
|motto = ''Omni Nunc Arte Magistra (Make the best of all your abilities)''
|established = 1992
|type = [[public university|Public]]
|endowment =
|staff =
|principal = Professor [[Mike Pittilo]]
|chancellor = Sir [[Ian Wood]]
|students = 12,790 <ref name="HESA">{{cite web |url=http://www.hesa.ac.uk/holisdocs/pubinfo/student/institution0506.htm |title=Table 0a - All students by institution, mode of study, level of study, gender and domicile 2005/06 |work=[[Higher Education Statistics Agency]] online statistics |accessdate=2007-04-05}}</ref>
|undergrad = 8,815 <ref name="HESA" />
|postgrad = 3,975 <ref name="HESA" />
|doctoral =
|city = [[Aberdeen]]
|country = [[Scotland]]
|campus =
|free_label =
|free =
|colours =
|mascot =
|affiliations =
|website = http://www.rgu.ac.uk/
}}

'''The Robert Gordon University''' (often known as '''RGU''') is a modern [[university]] located in [[Aberdeen]], [[Scotland]]. Granted university status in 1992, Robert Gordon University currently has approximately 12,790 students<ref name="HESA" /> at its two campuses at Garthdee and Schoolhill, studying on over 145 full-time and part-time undergraduate and postgraduate courses.

The origins of the University date back to 1750, when Robert Gordon's Hospital was established to provide residential education for the sons and grandsons of Aberdeen's [[burgess]]es.

==History==

In 1720 [[Robert Gordon]] retired to Aberdeen, having amassed a considerable fortune. On his death 11 years later he willed his entire estate to build a residential school for educating young boys. In the summer of 1750 the ''Robert Gordon's Hospital'' was born. In 1881 this was converted into a day school to be known as [[Robert Gordon's College]]. This school also began to hold day and evening classes for boys, girls, and adults in primary, secondary, mechanical and other subjects. Many of these classes were organised after consultation with the ''Aberdeen Mechanics' Institute'', and included scientific, technical and commercial courses for clerks, apprentices and others. In 1884 the whole educational work of the Aberdeen Mechanics' Institute was transferred to the college.

About the same time, local businessman John Gray offered to provide a school of science and art upon condition that the Governors named it ''Gray's School of Science and Art''. In 1903 the then [[Education and Lifelong Learning Directorate|Scotch Education Department]] designated the vocational courses work of the college as a [[Central Institution]], at which point it became ''Robert Gordon's Technical College''.

The name ''Robert Gordon's Institute of Technology'', or RGIT as it was popularly known, was adopted in 1965.

In 1991 the name changed again, to ''The Robert Gordon Institute of Technology''. By this point, it was one of the largest Central Institutions in Scotland. In 1992, the RGIT was awarded university status as ''The Robert Gordon University'', and the first Chancellor, Sir Robert Reid, was installed.<ref name="RGU">{{cite web |url = http://www.rgu.ac.uk/governance/who/page.cfm?pge=10341|title = RGU History|accessdate = 2007-09-30|publisher = Robert Gordon University}}</ref>

Robert Gordon's mercantile adventures founded a strong and remarkably modern belief that his investment in the education of his townsfolk would equip them with the skills and knowledge to strengthen their success in Europe and further afield.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

The city of Aberdeen is also home to the [[University of Aberdeen]]. The two Universities based in Aberdeen discussed a merger in 2002 but they decided to maintain their independence.

==Statistics==
There are approximately 12,790 [[student]]s studying over 145 full-time and part-time courses at undergraduate, post-experience and [[postgraduate]] levels. In addition, RGU is the top university in Scotland for graduate employment, and the 4th best in the UK, according to [[The Times]] [http://extras.timesonline.co.uk/gug/gooduniversityguide.php Good University Guide 2007]. In 2002 98.1 per cent of RGU students were in employment or further study six months after graduation. (Source: [[Higher Education Statistics Agency|HESA]] First Destination statistic 2002, published 2003)

As well as full-time and part-time on campus study, the University provides a complete range of [[distance learning]] facilities over the [[Internet]] via its Virtual Campus, with over 8000 students from 113 countries studying online for a wide range of courses.

Robert Gordon's currently ranks 3 in the United Kingdom for excellence in further education (according to Guardian newspaper 2/06){{Fact|date=July 2007}}

==Governance and organisation==
Robert Gordon University’s governing body is the Board of Governors, which comprises 23 governors appointed to exercise the functions of management and control though, at an operational level, most of these functions are delegated to the Principal and Vice Chancellor. The Board of Governors also delegates functions relating to the overall planning, co-ordination, development and supervision of the academic work of the University to the University’s Academic Council. Both the Board of Governors and the Academic Council are supported by a wide range of committees.

'''Chancellors'''

* Sir Bob Reid (1992-2005)
* Sir [[Ian Wood]] [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (2004-Present)

The Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the university is its general [[chief executive]] and is the administrative head of the institution, second in precedence only to the Chancellor.

'''Principal and Vice-Chancellors'''

*Professor William Stevely CBE (1997-2005)
*Professor R. Michael Pittilo (2005-Present)

==Structure==
The academic activities of the University are divided into two [[Faculty (university)|faculties]] each with constituent Schools, and the Aberdeen Business School with cognate departments:

* '''Faculty of Design and Technology'''
** [[Gray's School of Art]]
** [[Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and The Built Environment]]
** School of Computing
** School of Engineering

* '''Faculty of Health and Social Care'''
** School of Applied Social Studies
** School of Health Sciences
** School of Life Sciences
** School of Nursing and Midwifery
** School of Pharmacy

* '''Aberdeen Business School'''
** Human Resources Management
** Hotel, Tourism and Retail Management
** Communication and Media
** Information Management
** Accounting and Finance
** Business and Management
** Marketing
** Economics and Public Policy
** Law

==Facilities==
The Garthdee [[campus]] just outside the city centre has seen spending of over £60 million in recent years with two new buildings housing the Aberdeen Business School and the Faculty of Health and Social Care. The building for the Business School was designed by renowned architect [[Norman Foster, Baron Foster of Thames Bank|Norman Foster]]. The building for the Faculty of Health and Social Care was designed by Aberdeen architects Halliday Fraser Munro.The Garthdee campus is also the site of a new state-of-the-art Sports Centre which opened in February 2005.

The Schoolhill campus, based in the city centre, is housed in more traditional surroundings, within some of the city’s famous [[granite]] buildings. Over the next 10 years RGU is planning to move all of its Schoolhill Campus out to [[Garthdee]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.rgu.ac.uk/pressrel/020605Public%20Consultation%2Edoc|title = RGU Invites Public to View Garthdee Plans|accessdate = 2007-07-26|date = 2006-06-02|format = MS Word Document|publisher = Robert Gordon University}}</ref>

Students from the [[Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and The Built Environment]], RGU Garthdee Campus, run a highly successful lecture series which is known as [[5710]], where world renowned architects from the UK and abroad are invited to lecture on Thursday evenings.

==References==
{{Refimprove|date=July 2007}}
<references />

== External links ==
*[http://www.rgu.ac.uk/ The Robert Gordon University website]
*[http://www.rguunion.co.uk/ RGU Student Association]
*[http://www.5710.org.uk/ 5710 Lecture Series and Society]

{{Scottish Universities}}
{{Universities in the United Kingdom}}

[[Category:Robert Gordon University| ]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1992]]

[[ar:جامعة روبرت غوردون]]
[[gd:Oilthigh Robert Gordon]]
[[tr:Robert Gordon Üniversitesi]]
[[zh:罗伯特戈登大学]]

Paul Goldstein

2008-08-15T13:30:17Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:بول غولدستاين

{{Infobox Tennis player
|playername = Paul Goldstein
|image =[[Image:Paul goldstein 2.jpg|250px]]
|nickname = Goldy
|country = {{USA}}
|residence = [[San Francisco]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|datebirth = {{birth date and age|1976|8|4}}
|placebirth = [[Washington D.C.]], [[United States|U.S.]]
|height = 5' 10'' (177 cm)
|weight = 158 lbs (71 kg)
|turnedpro = 1998
|retired = 2008
|plays = Right-handed
|careerprizemoney = [[United States dollar|US$]]1,619,456
|singlesrecord = 85-115
|singlestitles = 0
|highestsinglesranking = 58 (24-Apr-06)
|AustralianOpenresult = 3R (1999)
|FrenchOpenresult = 2R (2000)
|Wimbledonresult = 3R (1999, 2000)
|USOpenresult = 2R (1998, 1999, 2004, 2006)
|doublesrecord = 56-87
|doublestitles = 0
|highestdoublesranking = 40 (5-Feb-07)
|updated = [[July 8]], [[2007]]
}}

{{MedalTableTop}}
{{MedalCompetition|Pan American Games}}
{{MedalGold|[[1999 Pan American Games|1999 Winnipeg]]|Men's Singles}}
{{MedalBottom}}
'''Paul Herbert Goldstein''' (born [[August 4]], [[1976]], in [[Washington, D.C.]]) is a retired [[tennis player]] from the [[United States]], who turned professional in 1998. He announced his retirement from professional tennis in February, 2008, as he will start working with a clean energy company.

The [[right-hander]] reached his highest individual ranking on the [[ATP Tour]] on [[April 24]], [[2006]], when he became the # 58 player in the world. He was 95th in the ATP rankings as of [[July 8]], [[2007]]. In doubles, he reached # 40 on [[February 5]], [[2007]].

==Early life==
Goldstein is the son of Clark Goldstein, a former national [[table tennis]] champion. He began playing tennis when he was nine years old. An all-court player with strong groundstrokes and excellent concentration, he reached the final of the 1990 USTA National Boys’ 14s Indoor Championships.

His first major victory came when he was ranked # 1 in the [[USTA]] Boys' 16 age group in 1992, and won the USTA Boys 16 title.

He then won the USTA Boys' 18s in both [[1993]] and 1994 (in 1994, defeating [[Jan-Michael Gambill]], becoming the first player in 45 years to repeat as singles champion). He also won the 1994 doubles championship with Scott Humphries.[http://ustaboys.com/tournament/past_winners.php] In doubles, he also reached US Open Juniors final and the semifinals at Australian Open and Wimbledon (both with Scott Humphries).

He is a graduate of the [[Sidwell Friends School]] in [[Washington, DC]], where he was a four-time [[Washington Post]] First Team All Met selection ('91-'94).[http://www.usta.com/protennis/fullstory.sps?iNewsID=269803&itype=&iCategoryID=][http://209.85.165.104/search?q=cache:Y0vbo_2egJUJ:www.playheadfirst.com/about_team.jsp+paul+goldstein+sidwell+friends&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=9&gl=us]

==College career==
Later, while at [[Stanford University]] from 1994-98, earning [[All-American]] honors all four years, Goldstein teamed with Scott Humphries to win numerous doubles championships. He also became the first athlete in college tennis history to play for four [[NCAA]] team tournament champions.

During Paul's senior year, he played No. 1 singles and led Stanford to a 28-0 regular season record. He reached the 1998 NCAA singles final. but lost to teammate [[Bob Bryan]]. His coach at Stanford, Dick Gould, praised Goldstein, saying, "I have been blessed with outstanding young people in my 36 years of coaching at the collegiate level. However, I can think of only one or maybe two players for whom I could give as high a recommendation as Paul. And certainly no one would receive a higher endorsement from me than Paul."

Goldstein is one of very few college graduates among the top 200 ranked men, and has said, "it's always been a priority for me to try to strike a balance between my academics and my tennis."

He graduated in 1998 with a degree in [[human biology]].

In 1997, was the recipient of the Rafael Osuna Award, given for symbolic competitive excellence and contribution to the game. In 1997 and 1998 he received the [[Arthur Ashe]] Sportsmanship and Leadership Award.

==Pan American Games==
Goldstein won the [[gold medal]] in singles during the [[Pan American Games]] in 1999 in [[Winnipeg, Canada]].

==Pro career==
He has a total of 26 USTA Circuit titles during his career through November 2005 – 12 in singles and 14 in doubles - making him the winningest player in USTA Pro Circuit history.[http://www.usta.com/protennis/fullstory.sps?iNewsID=269803&itype=&iCategoryID=]

In January 1999 at the Australian Open he shocked world # 8 [[Greg Rusedski]], 6–4, 6–7(11,) 7–6(5), 6–2. In June at Wimbledon he upset both world # 33 [[Jan Siemerink]], 6–4, 5–7, 4–6, 6–2, 6–1, and # 17 [[Felix Mantilla]], 6–2, 6–4, 6–7(5), 6–2. In August he upset world # 8 [[Alex Corretja]] of Spain 7–6(11), 7–6(5), in Washington DC.

In February 2000 he defeated world # 17 [[Patrick Rafter]] of Australia 4–6, 6–1, 6–2, in Delray Beach, Florida.

He won the [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] tournament in mid-November 2003 by beating [[Robert Kendrick]] 6–3 6–3 in the final.

Later that month, he won the title in [[Champaign, Illinois]].

Goldstein won his first singles title of 2004 in [[Covington, Louisiana]] during September. He defeated Israeli youngster [[Dudi Sela]] 6–3, 5–7, 6–4 in the semifinals. He won the title with a 6–2, 6–0 victory over Adre Sa in the final. He won the doubles honors as well, along with partner KJ Hippensteel.

That same month, Paul and his partner [[Brian Vahaly]] won the [[College Station, Texas]], hard court doubles title.

Goldstein had a stellar performance winning the [[Hilton Waikoloa Village]] USTA Challenger in January 2005.

Goldstein also won a title in [[Busan]] at the doubles event. With Ram as his partner, they defeated [[Wesley Moodie]] and [[Justin Gimelstob]] in the final.

In the 2005 US Open, Goldstein and [[Jim Thomas (tennis)|Jim Thomas]] upset defending champions and #1 seeds [[Mark Knowles]] and [[Daniel Nestor]] in the first round, as well as [[Simon Aspelin]] and [[Todd Perry]] in the QFs, before losing to eventual champions [[Bob Bryan]] and [[Mike Bryan]] in the SFs. In the 2006 US Open, Goldstein and Thomas again defeated Knowles and Nestor (this time in the 3rd round).

Goldstein and [[Jim Thomas (tennis)|Jim Thomas]] lost in the doubles finals of the 2006 [[SAP Open]] to 47 year old [[John McEnroe]] and [[Jonas Björkman]]. They also were doubles finalists in two other ATP tournaments in 2006 (Indianapolis, won by [[Andy Roddick]] and [[Bobby Reynolds]], and Tokyo, won by [[Ashley Fisher]] and [[Tripp Phillips]]).

In February 2006 he beat world # 18 [[Robby Ginepri]] 6–7(4), 6–3, 6–1, in Las Vegas, and in July he defeated world # 13 [[Lleyton Hewitt]] 6–4, 6–4 in Los Angeles. In the January Australian Open, he beat future champion [[Novak Đoković]] in the first round 6–2, 1–6, 6–3, 6–2.

In January 2007 he defeated world # 21 [[Dominik Hrbaty]] of Slovakia 6–2, 7–6(4), in Adelaide, Australia. The next month he defeated world # 45 [[Julien Benneteau]] in Las Vegas, 6–1, 6–0. Despite losing in the first round of singles at the Tunica Resorts Challenger in May, he and American teen phenom [[Donald Young (tennis)|Donald Young]] won the doubles final, defeating [[Pablo Cuevas]] and [[Horacio Zeballos]] 4–6, 6–1, 10-4.

==Retirement==
He officially retired in February of 2008. Goldstein started working with a clean energy company in the [[San Francisco Bay]] Area. Goldstein had married his high school sweetheart, Abbie, and partner of nine years in 2004; his wife had originally persuaded him to play on during the 2007 season. Goldstein became a father on [[June 15]], [[2007]], to a daughter named Sadie.

==Singles titles (12)==
{|class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#eeeeee"
|'''Legend (Singles)'''
|- bgcolor="#e5d1cb"
|Grand Slam (0)
|- bgcolor="ffffcc"
|Tennis Masters Cup (0)
|- bgcolor="silver"
|ATP Masters Series (0)
|- bgcolor="#dfe2e9"
|ATP Tour (0)
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|Challengers (12)
|}

{|class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
|'''No.'''
|'''Date'''
|'''Tournament'''
|'''Surface'''
|'''Opponent in the final'''
|'''Score'''
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|1.
|[[August 3]], [[1998]]
|[[Lexington]], [[United States]]
|Hard
|{{flagicon|KOR}} [[Lee Hyung-taik]]
|6–1, 6–4
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|2.
|[[January 24]], [[2000]]
|[[Waikoloa]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|BRA}} [[André Sá]]
|7–5, 6–2
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|3.
|[[July 30]], [[2001]]
|[[Lexington]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Jack Brasington]]
|1–6, 6–3, 6–2
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|4.
|[[October 28]], [[2002]]
|[[Tyler]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Mardy Fish]]
|6–7, 6–4, 6–3
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|5.
|[[June 2]], [[2003]]
|[[Tallahassee]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Alex Kim]]
|2–6, 6–2, 4–0 ret.
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|6.
|[[November 10]], [[2003]]
|[[Austin, Texas|Austin]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Robert Kendrick]]
|6–3, 6–3
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|7.
|[[November 17]], [[2003]]
|[[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]], United States
|Hard Indoors
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Brian Vahaly]]
|6–3, 6–1
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|8.
|[[September 20]], [[2004]]
|[[Covington]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|BRA}} [[André Sá]]
|6–2, 6–0
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|9.
|[[January 24]], [[2005]]
|[[Waikoloa]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|PHI}} [[Cecil Mamiit]]
|6–2, 6–2
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|10.
|[[October 31]], [[2005]]
|[[Boston]], United States
|Hard (i)
|{{flagicon|CAN}} [[Frank Dancevic]]
|5–7, 7–5, 6–3
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|11.
|[[October 9]], [[2006]]
|[[Sacramento]], United States
|Hard
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Rajeev Ram]]
|7–6, 4–6, 7–5
|- bgcolor="moccasin"
|12.
|[[May 14]], [[2007]]
|[[Forest Hills]], United States
|Clay
|{{flagicon|CHI}} [[Adrián García]]
|walkover
|}

==External links==
*{{ATP|id=G333}}
*{{ITF male profile|number=10010184}}
*[http://steveghelper.com/MatchResults.php?players=Goldstein&weeks=12 Goldstein Recent Match Results]
*[http://steveghelper.com/RankingHistory.php?player=Goldstein Goldstein World Ranking History]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Paul_Goldstein.html Jewish Virtual Library bio]
*[http://www.jewsinsports.org/profile.asp?sport=tennis&ID=13 Jews in Sports bio]
*[http://www.usta.com/protennis/fullstory.sps?iNewsID=269803&itype=&iCategoryID= "Paul Goldstein: Circuit Player of the Week", 11/9/05]
*[http://jimthomas11.tripod.com/index.html Jim Thomas (Paul's doubles partner) official website]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Goldstein, Paul}}
[[Category:1976 births]]
[[Category:American tennis players]]
[[Category:Jewish tennis players]]
[[Category:Jewish American sportspeople]] 
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Stanford University alumni]]

[[ar:بول غولدستاين]]
[[es:Paul Goldstein]]
[[fr:Paul Goldstein]]
[[sk:Paul Goldstein]]

Koei

2008-08-12T03:31:28Z

AkhtaBot: robot Modifying: ar:كويه (شركة)

:''This article is about the software company. For the Japanese era name, see [[Kōei (era)]].''
{{Infobox Company
| name = Koei Company, Limited 株式会社コーエー
| logo = [[Image:Koei.png|220px|Koei's current company logo]]
| type = [[Public Company|Public]] ({{tyo|9654}})
| foundation = [[Ashikaga, Tochigi|Ashikaga]], [[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]], [[Japan]] ([[July 25]], [[1978]])
| founder = [[Yoichi Erikawa]] and [[Keiko Erikawa]]
| location = {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Yokohama]], [[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]], [[Japan]].
| area_served =
| key_people =
| industry = [[Video game industry]]
| products = ''[[Dynasty Warriors]]'' ''[[Samurai Warriors]]'' ''[[Nobunaga's Ambition series]]'' ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms (video game)|Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''
| services =
| revenue = [http://www.koei.co.jp/english/html/financial/pdfs/annualreport2006.pdf]
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| owner =
| num_employees =
| parent =
| divisions =
| subsid =
| slogan = N/A
| homepage = [http://www.koei.com www.koei.com]
| footnotes =
| intl =
}}
'''Koei Company, Limited''' (株式会社コーエー ''[[Kabushiki Kaisha|Kabushiki-gaisha]]'' Kōē), formerly 光栄 (Kōei)) ({{tyo|9654}}) is a [[Japan]]ese [[video game publisher]] and [[video game developer|developer]] founded in [[1978 in video gaming|1978]]. The company is best known for its historical simulation games based on the novel ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', as well as simulation games based on historical events.

The company has also found mainstream success in a series of loosely historical action games, the flagship titles of which are ''[[Dynasty Warriors]]'' (真・三國無双 (Shin-Sangoku Musō)) and ''[[Samurai Warriors]]'' (戦国無双 (Sengoku Musō)), the Musō (無双) series. Koei also owns a division known as Ruby Party, which focuses in dating sim games.

==History==
Koei was established in July 1978 by [[Yoichi Erikawa]] and [[Keiko Erikawa]]. Mr. Erikawa was a student at [[Keio University]], and when his family's rural [[dye]]stuffs business failed he decided to pursue his interest in programming. The company to this day is located in the town of [[Hiyoshi]], [[Yokohama]] along with Mr. Erikawa's alma mater, and the company's name is simply a [[spoonerism]] of the school's.

'''Ko'''u Shibusawa and '''Ei'''ji Fukuzawa, whose names are supposed to have made up the name of the company, do not really exist and are names used by the company to avoid giving credit to individual contributors, effectively acting as alter-egos for Mr. Erikawa.

The company initially focused on [[personal computer]] sales and made-to-order business [[software]]. In 1983 it released ''[[Nobunaga's Ambition]]'' (信長の野望 ''Nobunaga no Yabo''), a historical [[strategy game]] set during the [[Sengoku period]] of [[History of Japan|Japanese history]]. The game went on to receive numerous awards, and Koei produced several more such games set against the backdrop of world history, including ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms (game)|Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'', set during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period of [[History of China|Chinese history]], and ''[[Uncharted Waters]]'' (大航海時代 ''Dai Kōkai Jidai''; lit. ''Great Navigation Era''), set in [[Portugal]] during the [[Age of Exploration]].

In 1988, Koei established a [[North America]]n [[subsidiary]], '''Koei Corporation''', in [[California]]. This subsidiary localized Koei games for export to all territories outside of Japan, as well as producing original games and concepts with the leadership of designer [[Stieg Hedlund]], like ''[[Liberty or Death]]'', ''[[Celtic Tales: Balor of the Evil Eye]]'', ''[[Gemfire]]'' and ''[[Saiyuki: Journey West]]''. After Hedlund's departure, this subsidiary ceased game development in 1995, focusing instead on localization, sales and marketing.

A [[Canada|Canadian]] subsidiary, '''Koei Canada, Inc.''' was established in early 2001, and a [[Europe]]an subsidiary, '''Koei Limited''' was established in early 2003 in [[Hertfordshire]], [[United Kingdom]]. Koei also maintains subsidiaries in [[mainland China]], [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]] and [[Lithuania]]. Recently, Koei created a Singapore branch for game development such as ''[[Sangokushi Online]]''.

Koei's Ruby Party division specializes on games labeled as Neoromance: [[GxB]] dating sims, usually with extra side-quests. Out of the three Neoromance series, the best known is [[Angelique]], which has been in production since 1994. [[Harukanaru Toki no Naka De]] is a newer Neoromance hit, with many sequels and an [[anime]] TV series based on it. The newest game in the series, [[Kiniro no Corda]], is gaining popularity partially because the [[manga]] series it was based on, has been recently licensed by ''[[Viz (comics)|Viz]]'' for [[English language]] publishing. It gaining more popularity though, and an anime TV series based on it began airing in October 2006 [http://anidb.info/perl-bin/animedb.pl?show=anime&aid=4509]. A sequel was also released on the [[Sony Playstation 2]] in March 2007 [http://www.gamecity.ne.jp/ps2/corda2/].

== Games Created by Koei ==
{{update}}
Koei has built a large base of franchises, and have developed on various consoles and computers. Below is a list of game series developed by Koei.

===Action games===
*''[[Bladestorm: The Hundred Years' War]]'' An action/strategy game based on the Hundred Years' War between England and France. (For the [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Xbox 360]]).
*''[[Crimson Sea]]'' (initially released for [[Xbox]] in 2002, whereas its sequel was released for [[PlayStation 2]] in 2004).
*''[[Destrega]]'' A unique 1 vs 1 fighter produced for the [[PlayStation]] system.
*''[[Dynasty Warriors]]'' 1 - 6 (as well as expansions 'Xtreme Legends' for 3 - 5, 'Empires' for 4 - 5, plus a [[Game Boy Advance]], a [[Nintendo DS]] and two [[PlayStation Portable]] games)'' (真・三國無双 ''Shin-Sangoku Musō''; [[spin-off]] of ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms (game)|Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'').
*''[[Dynasty Warriors: Gundam]]'' For the [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Xbox 360]], it is based on the mechanics of ''Dynasty Warriors'' and ''Samurai Warriors'', only using the ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'' franchise as its base. (''ガンダム無双'' Gundam Musō).
*''[[Heroes]]'' for the [[Nintendo GameCube]] and [[PlayStation 2]].
*''[[Ni-Oh]]'' ([[PlayStation 3]] game, movie tie-in).
*''[[Samurai Warriors]]'' 1 & 2 (as well as an Xtreme Legends expansion to both, and Empires expansion to 2, a PSP game, 'State of War' and ''[[Samurai Warriors: Katana]]'' for the [[Wii]].) (''戦国無双'' Sengoku Musō).
*''[[Stop That Roach!]]'' Action/Puzzle game released in 1994 for [[Game Boy]].
*''[[Warriors Orochi]]'' For the [[PlayStation 2]], [[PSP]], [[Personal computer|PC]] and [[Xbox 360]], it is the first Koei [[Fictional crossover|crossover]] title, featuring characters from the ''Dynasty Warriors'' and ''Samurai Warriors'' games. (''無双OROCHI'').
*''[[WinBack]]'' [[Stealth game]] for [[Nintendo 64]] and [[PlayStation 2]].

=== History Simulation ===
*''[[Genghis Khan (video game)|Genghis Khan]] series.
*''[[Liberty or Death]]'' - Based on the American Revolutionary war.
*''[[Nobunaga's Ambition series]]'' - published on various platforms.
*''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms (game)|Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' I to XI released on the MSX, MSX2, NES, SNES, Genesis, Amiga, PC-Engine CD-ROM, Sega Saturn, PS1, PS2 and PC - turn based strategy games

===Strategy games===
*''[[Bandit Kings of Ancient China]]'' released on the Nintendo Entertainment System, MS-DOS, Amiga, Macintosh, and PlayStation.
*''[[Gemfire]]'' - [[Medieval fantasy]] simulator.
*''[[L'Empereur]]'' Turn-based strategy game released on the Nintendo Entertainment System
*''[[Teitoku no Ketsudan]]'' (''PTO: Pacific Theater of Operations'' in North America) [[Pacific War]] strategy games.
:*''[[PTO: Pacific Theater of Operations|P.T.O.: Pacific Theater of Operations ]]''
:*''[[P.T.O. II: Pacific Theater of Operations]]''
:*''[[P.T.O. IV: Pacific Theater of Operations]]''
*''[[Kessen]]'', ''[[Kessen II]]'' and ''[[Kessen III]]'' Real time strategy games for the PS2 set in Feudal Japan and China during the Three Kingdoms period.
*''[[Operation Europe: Path to Victory]]'', a strategy game set in [[Europe]] during [[World War II]]

===Executive Series===
*''[[Aerobiz]]'' - Airline business simulator series.
*''[[Famicom Top Management|Top Management]]'' - Business simulator series.
*''[[Winning Post]]'' - [[Thoroughbred horse racing]] management and [[horse breeding]] simulator series.

===Neoromance games===
*''[[Angelique (Japanese series)|Angelique]]'' (''アンジェリーク'')
*''[[Harukanaru Toki no Naka de]]'' (''遙かなる時空の中で'' , translates to ''From a Faraway Time'')
*''[[Kiniro no Corda]]'' (''金色のコルダ'', translates to ''Golden Corda'')

===[[Role-playing game|RPGs]]===
*''[[Brandish]]'' ([[Super NES]] port)
*''[[Celtic Tales: Balor of the Evil Eye]]''
*''[[Inindo: Way of the Ninja]]'' (for [[Super NES]]) Also part of Rekoeition series
*''[[Saiyuki: Journey West]]'' (西遊記 Saiyuki)
*''[[Sangokushi Eiketsuden]]'', ''[[Sangokushi Koumeiden]]'', ''[[Sangokushi Sousouden]]'' (as Tactical RPG)
*''[[Opoona]]''

===Sports games===
*''[[G1 Jockey]]''
*''[[G1 Jockey 4 2007]]''
*''[[Fatal Inertia]]''
*''[[Winning Post 7 Maximum 2007]]''
*''[[Yanya Caballista: City Skater]]''

===Music games===
*''[[Gitaroo Man]]'' (As well as a PlayStation Portable version called ''Gitaroo Man Lives!'')

===Rekoeition===
*''[[Ishin no Arashi]]'' First game of Rekoeition series.
*''[[Inindo: Way of the Ninja]]'' {{nihongo|伊忍道打倒信長}}
*''[[Uncharted Waters]]'' (大航海時代 ''Dai Kōkai Jidai''; lit. ''Great Navigation Era'')
*''[[Taikou Risshiden]]'' （太閤立志伝）

==Games published by Koei in Europe==
*''[[Disgaea]]'' series
*''[[La Pucelle: Tactics]]''
*''[[Atelier Iris]]'' series
*''[[Phantom Brave]]''
*''[[Makai Kingdom]]''
*''[[Colosseum: Road to Freedom]]''

==See also==
* [[Omega Force]]

==External links==
*[http://www.koei.co.jp/ Koei Co., Ltd. (Japan) website]
*[http://www.koeikorea.co.kr/ Koei Co., Ltd. (Korea) website]
*[http://www.koei.com.tw/ Koei Co., Ltd. (Taiwan) website]
*[http://www.koei.com/ Koei Co., (United States) website]
*[http://www.koei.co.uk/ Koei Ltd. (Europe) website]
*[http://www.koei.fr/ Koei Ltd. (France) website]
*[http://www.koeicanada.ca/ Koei Canada, Inc. website]
*[http://gamecity.net.cn/ Koei Gamecity (China) Entertainment website]
*[http://www.gamecity.co.jp/ Koei Gamecity (Japan) Entertainment website]
*[http://www.gamecity.ne.kr/ Koei Gamecity (Korea) Entertainment website]
*[http://www.gamecity.com.tw/ Koei Gamecity (Taiwan) Entertainment website]

{{Musou series}}
{{Dynasty Warriors series}}
{{Romance of the Three Kingdoms series}}

[[Category:Companies established in 1978]]
[[Category:Japanese video game companies]]
[[Category:Koei|*]]
[[Category:Companies headquartered in Kanagawa]]
[[Category:Video game publishers]]
[[Category:Video game developers]]

[[ar:كويه (شركة)]]
[[es:Koei]]
[[fr:Koei]]
[[ko:코에이]]
[[id:KOEI]]
[[ms:Koei]]
[[ja:コーエー]]
[[no:Koei]]
[[pt:Koei]]
[[tr:Koei]]
[[zh:光榮株式會社]]

Wikipedia:Enzyklopädie/Michael Snow

2008-08-04T11:00:07Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:مايكل سنو (محامي)

[[Image:Wikimania 2008 - Closing Ceremony - Michael Snow - 5.jpg|thumb|Michael Snow, at the closing ceremony of [[Wikimania]] in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] on [[19 July]] [[2008]]]]

'''Michael Snow''' (born [[January 22]], [[1974]] in [[Pfullendorf]], [[Germany]]) is a [[Seattle]]-based lawyer and the current chair of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] Board of Trustees.<ref> {{cite news |title=Wikimedia Foundation edits its board of trustees |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-13577_3-9994148-36.html |last=McCarthy |first=Caroline |publisher=[[CNET]] |date=[[2008-07-18]] |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref> He was elected on [[July 17]] [[2008]], after being appointed to the board in February.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/foundation-l/2008-July/044723.html |title=Welcome to our new chair... |publisher=English Wikipedia mailing list |accessdate=2008-07-22}}</ref>

Snow has volunteered for [[Wikipedia]] since December [[2003]].<ref>{{cite news | last =Withers | first =Stephen| title =Wikimedia Foundation trustees get new chair and a new member | work =iTWire | date =2008-07-23 | url =http://www.itwire.com/content/view/19594/50/ | accessdate = 2008-08-02}}</ref> He is also a Wikipedia administrator and the founder of the [[English Wikipedia]] community newsletter, ''The Signpost''.<ref>{{cite news | last =Cohen | first =Noam | title =A Contributor to Wikipedia Has His Fictional Side | work =[[The New York Times]] | publisher =[[The New York Times Company]] | date =2007-03-05 | url =http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/05/technology/05wikipedia.html?hp=&pagewanted=all | accessdate = 2008-08-02 }}</ref> In 2006 Snow served as a spokesman for the Wikimedia Foundation.<ref>{{cite news | last =Chao | first =Loretta | title =Beijing Partially Lifts Year-Old Ban on Wikipedia | work =[[The Wall Street Journal]] | publisher =Dow Jones & Company, Inc. | date =2006-10-17 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-npo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Florence Devouard]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chair of the [[Wikimedia Foundation]]|years= [[July 17]], [[2008]]}}
{{s-aft|after=Incumbent}}
{{end}}

{{Wikipediahistory}}

{{bio-stub}}

[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Lawyers]]

[[ar:مايكل سنو (محامي)]]

Puleva

2008-08-03T16:31:09Z

AkhtaBot: robot Ajoute: ar:بولفا

{{Infobox Société
|nom officiel = Puleva
|logo =[[Image:Puleva.gif|250px]]
|forme juridique =
|date de création = [[1958]]
|date de disparition =
|dates-clés = [[1910]]: création de l'Unión Vinicola Industrial - [[1958]]: création d'UNIASA - [[1992]]: création de Puleva
|slogan = ''trabajamos por el bienestar de toda la familia''
|siège (ville) = [[Grenade (Espagne)|Grenade]] ([[Espagne]])
|fondateur =
|direction actuelle =
|personnages-clés =
|actionnaires =
|secteurs d'activités = produits laitiers
|produits =
|société mère =
|société_soeur =
|filiales = [[Yofres]]
|effectif =
|concurrents = [[Covap]]
|capitalisation boursière = 1976
|fonds propres =
|dette =
|chiffre d'affaires = € 2,685 millions<ref>[http://www.ebropuleva.com/ep/oficina_prensa/prensa.jsp?orig=same&find=all Actualidad del Grupo EbroPuleva]</ref>
|résultat net =
|site web = http://www.puleva.es
}}

'''Puleva''', acronyme de '''''Pu'''ra '''Le'''che de '''Va'''ca'' (pur lait de vache, en castillan), est une entreprise de l'[[industrie laitière]], leader du secteur laitier espagnol, basée dans la ville [[Andalousie|andalouse]] de [[Grenade (Espagne)|Grenade]] ([[Espagne]]).

==Histoire<ref>[http://www.puleva.es/tegustariaconocernos/historia.html Historia]</ref>==
===L'Union Vinicole Industrielle===
En avril [[1910]] fut crée l'Union Vinicole Industrielle (''Unión Vinicola Industrial'') par un groupe de commerçants et de professionnels de l'hôtellerie de [[Grenade (Espagne)|Grenade]], dans le but de coordonner leur approvisionnement en [[vin]], alcools et [[Eau-de-vie|eaux-de-vie]]. L'entreprise fut complétée plus tard par la fabrication et la distribution de [[glace]] et d'[[eau gazeuse]].

===La création d'UNIASA===
Au milieu des [[années 1950]], pour des raisons [[Qualité sanitaire de la nourriture|sanitaires]], l'approvisionnement en [[Industrie laitière#Traitement|lait traité]] devint codifiée. En [[1958]], la société demanda et obtint la qualification de Laiterie Centrale pour la ville de [[Grenade (Espagne)|Grenade]] et changea son nom pour celui d'''UNIASA'' (Unión Industrial y Agroganadera S.A.).

Les premières installations permettaient la production journalière de {{formatnum:20000}} litres de lait [[Pasteurisation|pasteurisé]] à partir du lait des élevages de la Plaine de Grenade (Vega de Granada).

===Les années 1960===
Par la suite, les difficultés rencontrées pour obtenir de façon régulière la matière première, notamment selon la saison, alors que la demande était, elle, identique tout au long de l'année, oligèrent l'entreprise à élaborer d'autres produits de conservation longue comme le lait en poudre, le [[beurre]] et, plus tard, les frappés. Des agrandissements de l'usine furent nécessaires en [[1961]], [[1966]], [[1968]] et [[1970]]. À la fin des [[années 1960]], la production quotidienne atteignit les {{formatnum:200000}} litres de lait.

===Les années 1970===
Dans les [[années 1970]], la croissance rapide des provinces [[Andalousie|andalouses]] et du reste du pays menèrent l'entreprise à créer à [[Grenade (Espagne)|Grenade]], en [[1975]], un centre de production entièrement nouveau, toujours en fonction actuellement, situé au Camino de Purchil. La production laitière y était alors de {{formatnum:400000}} litres par jour.

===Les années 1980===
UNIASA entra en bourse en [[1976]] et fut déclarée en [[1981]] valeur apte pour les réserves techniques de compagnies d'assurance et autres fonds.

En [[1982]], UNIASA acquit la totalité de la Compañía de Dietéticos y Alimentación SA (EDDA), entrant ainsi dans le secteur de l'alimentation infantile: laits pour nourrissons et farines lactées pour purées.

La même année, l'entreprise commença à produire son propre lait. Au fil des années, ce sont jusqu'à {{formatnum:10000}} têtes de race Frisonne qui constituèrent le [[cheptel]]. De plus, toujours en [[1982]] commença la fabrication de fromage, avec une capacité de production de {{formatnum:1000}} tonnes par an.

Entre [[1987]] et [[1988]], l'entreprise acquit la Coopérative d'Élevage La Merced, la Laiterie Centrale de [[Cadix]], la Comercial Malagueña SA (COLEMA), la Producción Lactaria de Andalucía (PROLAN) de [[Séville]] et LEDESA SA à [[Salamanque]].

===Les années 1990===
Le {{date|29|juin|1992}}, le conseil général des actionnaires approuva le changement de nom d'UNIASA qui devint un mois plus tard Puleva Unión Industrial y Agroganadera, SA<ref>Données du Registre du Commerce de Grenade (Registro Mercantil de Granada) publiées le 29 juillet 1992 par Don Luis Rojas Montes, Notaire de Grenade</ref>.

En [[1992]] fut inaugurée la nouvelle fabrique de nutrition infantile et l'usine de [[cogénération]], plus connue sous le nom de Grelva (Granada, Electricidad y Vapor).

En [[1997]], l'entreprise décida de prendre le nom de sa société laitière pour devenir simplement Puleva SA<ref>Données du Registre du Commerce de Grenade (Registro Mercantil de Granada) publiées le 7 août 1997 par par Don Vicente Moreno Torres, Notaire de Grenade</ref>.

===Les années 2000===
Entre [[1999]] et [[2000]], Puleva acquit la totalité du groupe Leyma /Ram, puis le groupe Granja Castelló, devenant ainsi de leader du secteur laitier espagnol.

Le {{date|23|octobre|2000}}, Puleva et Azucarera Ebro Agrícolas annoncèrent leur fusion, apération acceptée le 13 décembre par les actionnaires. Ainsi naquirent le groupe Ebro Puleva et sa filiale Puleva Food S.L.

En [[2001]] fut créée [[Yofres]], compagnie spécialisée dans les yaourts frais et les desserts lactés.

==Centres de production==
Ils sont actuellement au nombre de cinq, à [[Grenade (Espagne)|Grenade]] (1 million de litres par jour), [[Nadela (Espagne)|Nadela]] ([[province de Lugo]]), [[León (Espagne)|León]], [[Mollerussa]] ([[province de Lleida]]) et [[Alcalá de Guadaira]] ([[province de Séville]]).

==Produits<ref>[http://www.puleva.es/alimentossaludables/listadoproductos.html Lista de productos]</ref>==
===Aliments pour enfants===
*Puleva Peques
**Laits Puleva Peques 1, 2 et 3 (avec [[Oméga-3]] ou céréales)
**Purées
***Puleva Papilla sans gluten avec céréales, fruits ou crème de riz
***Puleva Papilla 7 céréales, 8 céréales et miel, céréales et fruits et [[Avena|avoine]]
*Puleva MAX
===Laits===
*Classiques
**Lait entier
**Lait du jour
*Enrichis
**Calcium [[Lait UHT|UHT]] (entier, partiellement écrémé, écrémé, complet)
**Calcium et soja (entier, écrémé)
**Puleva [[Oméga-3]]
**Puleva Mamá
**A+D (entier, écrémé, hôtellerie)
===Frappés===
*Cacao (normal, bas en calories, avec céréales)
*Fraise
*Vanille
*TutiFruti
*Leche merengada
===[[Horchata de chufa|Horchatas]]===
*Horchata
===Crème===
*Crème à fouetter
*Crème légère pour sauces
*Crèsme fouettée en bombe
===Beurre===
*En plaque (nature ou salé)
*En barquette
**microbarquette,
**facile à tartiner (nature, à l'huile d'olive, légère)

==R&D==
Puleva possède une division [[Recherche et développement]], [[Puleva Biotech]], fusionnée depuis [[2000]] avec [[Azucarera Ebro]], formant le groupe [[Ebro Puleva]].

== Références ==
{{références|colonnes=3}}

==Liens externes==
* {{lien web
| url=http://www.puleva.es
| titre=Puleva
| auteur=www.puleva.es
| consulté le=29 mars 2008
}}
* {{lien web
| url=http://www.pulevabiotech.es
| titre=Puleva Biotech
| auteur=www.pulevabiotech.es
| consulté le=29 mars 2008
}}

[[Catégorie:Entreprise andalouse]]
[[Catégorie:Société cotée à la Bourse de Madrid]]
[[Catégorie:Entreprise agroalimentaire espagnole]]
[[Catégorie:Marque d'Espagne]]

[[ar:بولفا]]
[[es:Puleva]]

Mark Anatoljewitsch Sacharow

2008-08-03T16:01:45Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:مارك زاخاروف

'''Mark Anatolyevich Zakharov''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Марк Анатольевич Захаров) is a Russian theatrical director and playwright. He was also a professor of the Moscow Theatre Institute (GITIS).

Born on [[October 13]] [[1933]] in [[Moscow|Moscow, former USSR]], Mark Zakharov's father was a [[Red Army]] soldier during the [[Russian Civil War]] of 1918-1920, and his mother was an actress. Zakharov was raised in Moscow, where he was encouraged by his mother in his persistent efforts to become an actor. He was admitted after several attempts, and graduated from the acting school of the State Theatre Institute in [[1955]].

Zakharov helped create an ensemble of actors who worked with him at Moscow's [[Lenkom Theatre]], including: Inna Churikova, Leonid Bronevoy, Oleg Yankovsky, Aleksandr Abdulov, Nikolai Karachentsov, Aleksandr Zbruyev, Aleksandra Zakharova, Tatyana Kravchenko, Aleksandr Lazarev, and Dmitri Pevtsov.

Mark Zakharov has been the Artistic Director of Moscow's [[Lenkom Theatre]] since [[1973]], where he has helped to define the landscape of Moscow's theatrical culture.

==Filmography==
{{Expand-section|date=June 2008}}
* [[Formula of Love (film)|Formula of Love]] (1984)

==External links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0952272/bio IMDb bio]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zakharov, Mark}}
[[Category:1933 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Moscow]]
[[Category:Soviet film directors]]
[[Category:Russian and Soviet theatre directors]]
[[Category:Russian dramatists and playwrights]]

[[ar:مارك زاخاروف]]
[[fr:Mark Zakharov]]
[[it:Mark Anatol'evič Zacharov]]
[[ru:Захаров, Марк Анатольевич]]

Enver Hadžiabdić

2008-07-31T08:59:42Z

AkhtaBot: robot Adding: ar:إنفير هادزيابديتش

'''Enver Hadžiabđić''' ([[Serbian Cyrillic]]: Енвер Хаџиабдић) (born [[November 6]], [[1945]] in [[Belgrade]], [[Yugoslavia]]) is a [[Bosnia-Herzegovina|Bosnian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] [[Coach (sport)|manager]] and former player. Currently, he is employed as a head coach of [[FK Željezničar]].

==Playing career==

His first club was Bratstvo Travnik. In 1965, he moved to [[FK Željezničar]]. During the next nine years, he played more than 450 games for the club. He also won the [[Yugoslav League Championship|championship title]] in [[Yugoslav First League 1971/72|1971/1972 season]]. In 1974, he went to [[Belgium|Belgian]] side [[R. Charleroi S.C.|Charleroi]] where he stayed for three seasons. He has ended his professional playing career in 1979 at the age of 32.

He was one of the best European defenders in the early 1970s. That fact secured him a place in [[Yugoslavia national football team]] in which he have collected 11 [[Cap (sport)|caps]]. He was also a member of the team that participated in [[1974 FIFA World Cup]] and in [[1976 European Football Championship]].

==Managing career==

After retirement, he returned to [[Sarajevo]] where he graduated from [[University of Sarajevo]] Faculty of Physical Education. In 1993, he became a coach of [[Iran]]ian olympic football team, and two years later coach of [[Qatar]]i [[Al-Rayyan Sports Club|al-Rayyan]] junior squad. In 1997, he took over the place of a head coach in his favourite FK Željezničar. He managed to lead the club to the [[Bosnian Premier League|Bosnian championship title]] in his first season. In winter of 1999. he stepped down because of a disappointing league results and despite winning a [[Super Cup of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian Super Cup]] in 1998. against the club's biggest rivals - [[FK Sarajevo]]. Nevertheless, he was back again next season in which he guided the club to its first [[Kup Bosne i Hercegovine|Bosnian Cup]] title.

After several years working as a stadium director, he yet again became a coach of FK Željezničar on [[January 10]], [[2007]].

== References ==
* {{sr icon}} [http://www.reprezentacija.co.yu/reprezentativci/Hadziabdic_Enver.htm Serbian national football team website]

{{Yugoslavia Squad 1974 World Cup}}
{{Yugoslavia Squad 1976 UEFA Euro}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hadziabdic, Enver}}
[[Category:Bosnia and Herzegovina footballers]]
[[Category:FK Željezničar players]]
[[Category:R. Charleroi S.C. players]]
[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1974 FIFA World Cup players]]
[[Category:UEFA Euro 1976 players]]
[[Category:People from Belgrade]]
[[Category:Yugoslavian footballers]]
[[Category:Pre-1992 Yugoslavia international footballers]]

[[ar:إنفير هادزيابديتش]]