Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Hayward-Verwerfung

2012-03-06T06:51:07Z

76.21.107.221: /* Notable earthquakes */ I think 1989_Loma_Prieta_earthquake#Oakland_and_Interstate_880.2FCypress_Viaduct would somehow argue that the Hayward Fault region has suffered major earthquakes since 1906, changing to focus on the paragraph's topic.

[[Image:122-38HaywardFault.jpg|thumb|300px|For recent activity in the region shown on this map see [http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/recenteqs/FaultMaps/122-38.htm the USGS map for this location.] With appropriate browser settings the "live" maps will also show the names of most of the faults shown on the map as you rollover with the cursor.]]

The '''Hayward Fault Zone''' is a [[geologic fault]] zone capable of generating significantly destructive [[earthquake]]s. This fault is about {{convert|74|mi|km|abbr=on}} long,<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://www.conservation.ca.gov/index/Pages/HaywardFaultFactSheet.aspx|title=Hayward Fault Fact Sheet|publisher=[[California Geological Survey]]|date=October 7, 2008|accessdate=2011-04-18}}</ref> situated mainly along the western base of the hills on the east side of [[San Francisco Bay]]. It runs through densely-populated areas, including the cities of [[Richmond, California|Richmond]], [[El Cerrito, Contra Costa County, California|El Cerrito]], [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]], [[Hayward, California|Hayward]], [[Fremont, California|Fremont]], and [[San Jose, California|San Jose]].

The Hayward Fault is parallel to its more famous (and much longer) westerly neighbor, the [[San Andreas Fault]], which lies offshore and through the San Francisco peninsula. To the east of the Hayward lies the [[Calaveras Fault]]. The Hayward Fault merges with the Calaveras Fault east of San Jose.

North of [[San Pablo Bay]], and somewhat offset from the Hayward Fault is the '''Rodgers Creek Fault''', considered by many{{by whom|date=September 2011}} to be an extension of the Hayward Fault Zone. Another fault further north, the [[Maacama Fault]], is also considered to be part of the "Hayward Fault subsystem".<ref>{{cite web|title=North-of-the-Delta Offstream Storage Investigation (draft)|url=http://www.water.ca.gov/storage/docs/NODOS%20Project%20Docs/NODOS%20Progress%20Report/App.%20O/o_reg_geo_plate_faulting.pdf|publisher=[[United States Bureau of Reclamation]]|pages=26|date=September 2008|accessdate=2011-12-11}}</ref><ref>[http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2005CD/finalprogram/abstract_85295.htm Paleoseismic Investigation Of The Maacama Fault At The Haehl Creek Site, Willits, California]</ref>

While the San Andreas Fault is the principal [[transform fault|transform boundary]] between the [[Pacific Plate]] and the [[North American Plate]], the Hayward Fault takes up a share of the overall motion between the plates.

==Tectonics of the Hayward Fault Zone==
:''Main articles: [[Seafloor spreading]], [[Subduction]], [[Plate tectonics]], [[Geologic fault]], [[Earthquake]]''
[[Image:PlateMovementEaNoPac.png|thumb|right|250px|Plate motions of the eastern North Pacific-North America region. The [[San Francisco Bay Area]] is in the middle of the diagonal green segment (showing slip–strike movement) near the center of the image. Red arrows indicate movement rates relative to the North American plate]]
The [[Pacific Plate]] is a major section of the Earth's crust, gradually [[Seafloor spreading|expanding]] by the eruption of [[magma]] along the [[East Pacific Rise]] to the southeast. It is also being subducted far to the northwest into the [[Aleutian Trench]] and also in a northerly direction under the North American Plate at the [[Cascadia subduction zone|Cascadia Fault]], well north of San Francisco at the terminus of the San Andreas. In California, the plate is sliding northwestward along a [[transform boundary]], the [[San Andreas Fault]], toward the subduction zone. At the same time, the [[North American Plate]] is moving southwestward, but relatively southeast along the fault. The westward component of the North American Plate's motion results in some compressive force along the San Andreas and its associated faults, thus helping lift the [[Pacific Coast Ranges]] and other parallel inland ranges to the west of the [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]], in this region most notably the [[Diablo Range]]. The Hayward Fault shares the same relative motions of the San Andreas. As with portions of other faults, a large extent of the Hayward Fault trace is formed from a narrow complex zone of deformation which can span hundreds of feet in width.

As the transform boundary defined by the San Andreas Fault is not perfectly straight, and the motion of the [[North American plate]] is not entirely parallel to the plate boundary. Movement along the boundary creates stresses in the crust on either side of the boundary, resulting in additional faulting on both sides of the San Andreas Fault. The Hayward Fault is one of the larger faults created this way, along with the [[Calaveras Fault]] to the east and the [[San Gregorio Fault]], west of the San Andreas.

===Rodgers Creek Fault Zone===
The '''Rodgers Creek Fault Zone''' is considered by many experts to be an extension of the Hayward Fault Zone. However, the connection between the two faults is still unclear as they are not aligned under San Pablo Bay. In fact, the Rodgers Creek Fault is actually aligned with the Pinole Valley Fault, not the Hayward Fault. Nonetheless, the current view is that the "Hayward Fault" and Rodgers Creek Fault are probably connected by a series of ''en echelon'' fault strands beneath San Pablo Bay. It is considered possible that a major seismic event on either fault may involve movement on the other, either concurrently or within an interval of up to several months. The [[Association of Bay Area Governments]] has prepared ground shaking maps that include a possible concurrent scenario (these are shown below).
[[Image:Flat eq map anotated.png|thumb|right|250px|Map showing the major faults in the Bay Area, with Hayward in medium and light blue. Numerous minor faults are also capable of generating locally destructive earthquakes.]]

===Calaveras Fault===
The [[Calaveras Fault]] is considered to be continuous from the Sunol area south to [[Hollister, California|Hollister]]. It was long believed that there was no connection between the Hayward Fault and the Calaveras. Recent geological studies<ref>[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/12/12/MN4OTS8KK.DTL&tsp=1 Hayward, Calaveras faults may be connected, geologist says]</ref> (particularly the examination of very small and deep earthquakes) suggest that the two faults may be connected. If true, this would have significant implications for the potential maximum strength of earthquakes on the Hayward, since this strength is determined by the maximum length of the fault rupture and this rupture could extend beyond the juncture point and so include some portion of the Calaveras. (This potential is not shown in the shake intensity maps shown below.)

[[Image:BayareaUSGS.jpg|thumb|right|250px|USGS Satellite photo of the San Francisco Bay Area. Light gray areas are heavily urbanized regions]]

==Notable earthquakes==
{{Main|1868 Hayward earthquake}}
The largest quake on the Hayward Fault in ''recorded'' history occurred in 1868, with an estimated [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] of 7.0. It occurred on the southern segment of the fault, receiving its name (some decades later) from the nascent town of [[Hayward, California|Hayward]] where it was determined the quake's epicenter was located. However, the 1868 quake caused much damage throughout the then sparsely-settled Bay Area, including the city of San Francisco.<ref>{{cite web|title=Earthquake in San Francisco and Neighboring Places — Nearly a Million Dollars Worth of Property Destroyed|url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9801E5DB1E3CE13BBC4A51DFB6678383679FDE|date=October 22,1868|publisher=''[[New York Times]]''}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=California's Last Big Earthquake — How the People of Oakland Feared for San Francisco|url=http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9401E3D71039E033A25757C1A96F9C94649ED7CF|publisher=''[[New York Times]]''|date=September 14, 1895}}</ref> In fact, the 1868 quake became known as the "Great San Francisco Earthquake" until the larger tremor in 1906.

Many seismologists believe that the [[1906 San Francisco Earthquake]], which occurred on the San Andreas fault, reduced the stress on many faults in the Bay Area including the Hayward fault, creating an "earthquake shadow": a quiescent period following a major earthquake. Since the 1906 San Andreas event there have been no moderately strong earthquakes on the Hayward fault as were seen before that earthquake. It also appears likely that this quiet period in the earthquake shadow is ending, as projected by the rate of plate motion and the stress state of other faults in the region.

The following table chronologically lists all of the historic earthquakes on the Hayward Fault Zone which have exceeded magnitude 5.5.

{|class="wikitable" border="1" align="center" width="600px"
|+
|+
|+
|+
!width="5%"|Year
!width="15%"|City
!width="20%"|Date
!width="5%"|Magnitude
!width="55%"|Epicenter and notes
|-
||1864|| South Hayward area||May 21, 1864||5.8||Epicenter coordinates:37.6,-121.9<ref>[http://www.consrv.ca.gov/CGS/rghm/quakes/historical/events/18640521_0201/18640521_0201.html California Geologic Survey, 1864 May 21]</ref>
|-
||[[1868 Hayward earthquake|1868]]||Hayward||October 21, 1868||6.8 to 7.0||Epicenter coordinates:37.7,-122.10<ref>[http://www.consrv.ca.gov/cgs/rghm/quakes/eq_chron.htm California Geologic Survey, Significant California Earthquakes]</ref><ref>[http://www.consrv.ca.gov/CGS/rghm/quakes/historical/events/18681021_1553/18681021_1553.html California Geologic Survey, 1868 October 21]</ref> This event left 30 dead, and $350,000 in property damage.
|-
||1870||Berkeley||April 2, 1870||5.8||Epicenter coordinates:37.9,-122.3<ref>[http://www.consrv.ca.gov/CGS/rghm/quakes/historical/events/18700402_1948/18700402_1948.html California Geologic Survey, 1870 April 2]</ref>
|-
||1889||Alameda County (now east Oakland area)||July 31, 1889||5.6||Epicenter coordinates:37.8,-122.2<ref>[http://www.consrv.ca.gov/CGS/rghm/quakes/historical/events/18890731_1247/18890731_1247.html California Geologic Survey, 1889 July 31]</ref>
|}

The 1868 earthquake occurred well before the [[East Bay (California)|East Bay]] region was extensively urbanized.<ref>[http://www.museumoflocalhistory.org/pages/list.php?topic=earthquake Museum of Local History, Links to the 1868 Earthquake]</ref> The following year, in 1869, the William Meek Estate became one of the first developments in the area, built on 3,000 acres (12 km²) in what became known as the Cherryland district of Eden Township.<ref>[http://www.haywardareahistory.org/meek.html Meek Estate], Hayward Area Historical Society</ref> Recent renovations of the Meek Mansion have revealed that with the 1868 earthquake still fresh in minds of residents of the time, some unusual diagonal bracing was built into the original construction.<ref>Historic Meek Mansion hides surprises, by Matt O'Brien, Oakland Tribune, November 20, 2006, Metro 4</ref> Although its magnitude was less than the [[1906 San Francisco Earthquake]], the intensity of shaking experienced in the Hayward area may have been greater than in 1906 due to the proximity of the Hayward Fault.

==Prehistoric earthquakes==
{{Main|Paleoseismology}}
Earlier earthquakes have been detected by trench exposure and associated [[carbon dating]]. Combined with the historic record, the last five major events were in 1315, 1470, 1630, 1725, and 1868,<ref>[http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2008/3019/fs2008-3019.pdf USGS The Hayward Fault—Is It Due for a Repeat of the Powerful 1868 Earthquake?]</ref> which have intervals of about 140 years (note that 2008 is 140 years from the major 1868 event).

==Recent activity==
[[Image:AlumRockEarthquakeOct30-2007-event40204628 ciim.gif|thumb|250px|right|October 30, 2007 [[Moment magnitude scale|moment magnitude]] for the [[2007 Alum Rock earthquake|5.6 Alum Rock earthquake]] ([[San Jose, California|San Jose]]) event ''perceived intensity map''. Determined by statistical analysis of self-reports via the internet from residents via [http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/shake/ca/ ''Did you feel it?''] ]]

During 2007, a number of small earthquakes occurred on the northern segment of the Hayward Fault from Oakland to Berkeley.

On October 30, 2007 at 20:04 Pacific time, a [[2007 Alum Rock earthquake|magnitude 5.6 earthquake]] struck the adjacent [[Calaveras Fault]] in [[Alum Rock Park]] near [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], close to where the Hayward Fault diverges from it. The effects of an earthquake of this size include the spilling of merchandise from store shelves but little structural damage. An earthquake of this size can be locally terrifying and this particular event was also widely felt throughout Northern California and as far north as [[Oregon]] owing to the time of day, when most people were awake and sitting quietly in their homes. Minor aftershocks continued through Spring 2008.

Between late August and late September 2011, a string of small earthquakes ranging from magnitude 3.6 to 3.2 centered in southeast Oakland near the [[Oakland Zoo]] occurred with the majority of the shaking felt in San Leandro. <ref>{{cite web|title=3.6 Earthquake hits San Leandro Tuesday night|url=http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=news/local/east_bay&id=8323534|author=|date=August 23, 2011|publisher=[[KGO-TV]]|accessdate=2011-10-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=3.6 earthquake hits near San Leandro Wednesday|url=http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=news/local/east_bay&id=8324338|date=August 24, 2011|publisher=[[KGO-TV]]|accessdate=2011-10-20}}</ref><ref>[http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsus/Quakes/nc71653461.php]</ref>

Over October and November 2011, a string of earthquakes ranging from magnitude 3.0 to 4.0 occurred on the Hayward Fault, centered near the UC-Berkeley campus. A magnitude 4.0 earthquake occurred on the Hayward Fault on October 20, 2011 at 14:41. This earthquake was centered in southeast Berkeley with an epicenter close to Memorial Stadium.<ref>{{cite web|title=4.0 quake hits East Bay|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2011/10/20/BAKA1LKBO2.DTL&tsp=1|author=Will Kane|coauthor=Nanette Asimov|date=October 20, 2011|publisher=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|accessdate=2011-10-20}}</ref> This was followed by less energetic but deeper and more strongly felt 3.8 event at 20:16, with an epicenter 0.9 mile (1.5 km) further south. Owing to the depths of the epicenters these moderate quakes were felt over a wide region, including the nine Bay Area counties. One week later, a magnitude 3.6 earthquake occurred near to Berkeley on October 27, 2011; however, since this happened at 05:36 in the early morning it was less widely observed. On November 5, 2011, a magnitude 3.1 earthquake occurred, centered in Piedmont. <ref>{{cite web|title=Magnitude 3.1 San Francisco Bay Area, California|url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsus/Quakes/nc71676251.html|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|accessdate=2011-11-12}}</ref>

In September 2003, an earthquake of similar magnitude to those of October 2011 occurred near Piedmont, close to Berkeley.<ref>{{cite web|title=Magnitude 4.0 near Piedmont, CA — Preliminary Earthquake Report |url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/eqinthenews/2003/nc40146204/|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|accessdate=2011-10-21}}</ref>

==Probability of future activity==
[[Image:Eq-prob.jpg|thumb|left|]]
[[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) scientists state that a major earthquake occurring on the zone is "increasingly likely".<ref name=Most>{{cite web|url=http://www.usgs.gov/newsroom/article.asp?ID=1899|title=The Hayward Fault: America’s Most Dangerous?|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|date=March 21, 2008|accessdate=February 26, 2009}}</ref> If a major earthquake were to occur on the fault, damage would be catastrophic. More than 1.5 trillion [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]] in property exists in the affected area, and more than 165 billion US dollars in damage would likely result if the 1868 quake were to recur. Since the fault runs through heavily populated areas, more than 5 million would be affected directly. The Eastern Span of the [[San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge|Bay Bridge]] would probably be destroyed (unless its [[Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge|replacement span]] had been completed by that time), cutting off easy transportation between San Francisco and Oakland along with up to 1,100 other roads. Water could be cut off to 2.4 million people living in California's [[San Francisco Bay Area]]<ref name=Most/>.

The probability of a major earthquake on the Hayward within the next thirty years was estimated at nearly 30 percent, compared to about 20 percent for the San Andreas Fault, which can have larger earthquakes but farther away from a significant portion of the urbanized parts of the Bay Area. Recent (January 2008) assessments<ref>[http://www.contracostatimes.com/search/ci_7692907 ''Major quake on Hayward fault more likely, scientists say''] (Contra Costa Times)</ref> suggest that the Hayward, Rodgers Creek, and Calaveras faults may be more likely to fail in the next few decades than previously thought.

The 140th anniversary of the 1868 event was in 2008, and the average time between the last five major events is also averaged at 140 years. Recent estimates<ref>[http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_8639349 MercuryNews.com (San Jose Mercury News) Report]: Next major earthquake on Hayward fault will be catastrophic</ref> of the damage potential of a major Hayward Fault earthquake by a professional [[risk management]] firm indicate the potential for huge economic losses, of which only a small percentage is insured against earth movement. (Earthquake insurance is not only quite expensive, it tends to be burdened with huge deductibles - at least 15 percent). Depending upon seasonal weather conditions at the time of a major event a seismic event could be followed by huge urban wildfires compounded by damage to water systems or massive landslides in saturated soils. In addition to direct damage the effects on commerce due to damaged infrastructure would also be substantial. Experience with large area urban destruction such as caused by earthquake, hurricane, and firestorms has shown that complete rebuilding can take up to a decade, owing to various factors including disputes with insurance companies, a lack of qualified local builders, shortages of supplies, and an influx of contractors from outside of the region of dubious qualifications with no incentive to maintain and enhance a local reputation.

The progressively more severe reports and estimates of event probability and consequences have awakened a broad interest in training people for emergency response. It is becoming widely understood that professional fire fighting, police, and medical services will be overwhelmed by a major event and that neighbors will have to assist each other as best they can. Appropriate area response organizations would likely be similar to the 1950s [[Civil Defense]] structure, but such civilian participation has yet to be organized.

==Principal segments==

The complete fault zone, including the Rodgers Creek fault, is divided by seismologists into three segments - Rodgers Creek, Northern Hayward, and Southern Hayward. It is expected that these segments may fail singly or in adjacent pairs, creating earthquakes of varying magnitude. The [[Association of Bay Area Governments]] (ABAG) in concert with other government agencies has sponsored the analysis of local conditions and the preparation of maps indicative of the destructive potential of these earthquakes. The various ABAG maps shown below represent some of the more likely possible combinations.

While there are indications that a substantial earthquake on a nearby parallel fault can release stress and so also decrease the near–term probability of an earthquake, the opposite appears to be true concerning sequential segments. A release on a major segment can substantially increase the likelihood of an earthquake on an adjacent fault segment, increasing the likelihood of two major regional earthquakes within a period of a few months.

==Fault effects==
[[Image:HaywardFaultCreep.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Aseismic creep|Fault creep]] has displaced this [[Fremont, California]], curb since its construction about 15 years previous. A major event here would cause a displacement of four to six feet (1.2 to 1.8 m) in less than a minute.]]
===Fault creep===
{{Main|Aseismic creep}}
The surface of the fault is creeping at less than 0.5 cm (0.2 in) per year in the regions of concern. Extreme southern regions of the fault are creeping more quickly, perhaps sufficiently to prevent fault rupture there, but mostly the creep is insufficient to relieve the accumulating forces upon most of the fault and so will not prevent a large earthquake. The creep is sufficient to displace roads, curbs, and sidewalks and so visibly reveal the surface trace in many locations. Creep damage to asphalt road surfaces will usually appear as a series of [[echelon]] cracks. Creep effects may be seen also in older structures crossing the fault, some of which have been fitted with expansion joints to accommodate this slow motion.

===Earthquake shaking===
The magnitude of an earthquake, as measured by the [[moment magnitude scale]] (or for small events the more commonly known [[Richter magnitude scale]]) is roughly proportional to the length of the rupture, while the ground motion in a large region surrounding the fault is highly dependent upon the local soil conditions, somewhat upon the distance and relationship to the progression of the fault rupture and (as recently recognized in the [[Loma Prieta earthquake]]) reflected energy from deep discontinuities in the Earth's structure. The area affected by an earthquake is also dependent upon the density and uniformity of the soils surrounding the fault.

Shaking intensity maps for various Hayward and Rodgers Creek Fault earthquake scenarios, from [http://quake.abag.ca.gov ABAG Quake website]
<center>
<gallery>
Image:RogersCrkNorthHayward.gif|Combined Rodgers Creek and northern Hayward fault slip, [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude]] 7.1
Image:NorthHaywardShake.gif|Northern Hayward fault slip, magnitude 6.5 *
Image:SouthHaywardShake.gif|Southern Hayward fault slip, magnitude 6.7 *
Image:Bayahaym.gif|Combined northern and southern Hayward fault slip, magnitude 6.9
</gallery>
</center>
:<nowiki>*</nowiki>Recent examination of damage reports from the 1868 event suggest that the rupture over only portions of the Northern and Southern Hayward fault could generate a magnitude 7.0 event, far more powerful than either the 6.5 event shown here or the 6.7 previously recognized as a likely maximum.<ref>Contra Costa Times article, February 6, 2007, page 1</ref>
:''The terms used by ABAG for shaking intensity differ from the official descriptions of the [[Mercalli intensity scale]], being somewhat softened (perhaps due to the extensive local experience with earthquakes), with terms such as "Rather Strong" becoming "Light", and "Ruinous" and "Disastrous" becoming variations of "Violent".

====Bayside soil conditions====
[[Image:SFBALiqufactionMap.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Liquefaction susceptibility map - excerpt of USGS map. Maps indicating shake amplification have similar appearance.]]
:''Main articles: [[Bay mud]], [[Soil liquefaction]], [[earthquake liquefaction]]
The Hayward fault is considered to be particularly dangerous due to the poor soil conditions in the [[alluvial plain]] that drops from the East Bay Hills to the eastern shoreline of [[San Francisco Bay]]. At the lower elevations near the bay the soil is mostly water saturated mud and sand, placed in the early 20th century as fill in marsh areas. This soil tends to amplify the effects of an earthquake and so producing significantly greater ground motion. Additionally, the soil itself can fail, turning into a liquid mud from the agitation, a mud unable to support buildings erected upon once-firm soil. This region is also covered with dense low-rise urban development, most of which was built soon after the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]], and long before even moderately earthquake resistant construction practices had been developed in the late 1920s.

Further improvement in the construction of resistant structures and the development of retrofitting method have only recently been developed, largely in response to the effects of the 1971 [[Sylmar earthquake|Sylmar]], 1989 [[Loma Prieta earthquake|Loma Prieta]], and 1994 [[Northridge earthquake|Northridge]] events in California – none of which were hugely catastrophic, but each of which caused loss of life in structures not thought to be vulnerable, and so increased public, engineering, and government awareness of the need for specific remediations and construction methods required for improved life safety.

Although many structures have undergone [[seismic retrofit]]ting there are a large number of dangerous un-reinforced [[masonry]] (mostly brick) structures and chimneys, which can be extremely hazardous to occupants in a large earthquake, and a large number of buildings which are either not bolted to their foundations or which are elevated upon partial stories that are insufficiently resistant to shear forces. Foundation and partial story weaknesses are easily remediated in most cases, but this is only effective if the work is competently done, with proper attention to minor details such as nailing patterns and proper connections. Local surveys of recently completed work have exposed deficient workmanship in a number of cases involving household retrofits. For the recommendations of a public agency for simple low-rise construction [http://www.ci.san-leandro.ca.us/develop/eq.pdf see this City of San Leandro site]

====Ancient and prehistoric massive landslides and modern instabilities====
{{Main|Landslide}}
There are many small active landslides and evidence of numerous large archaic landslides in the [[Berkeley Hills]]. Such areas may be stable only under present conditions. There is the possibility that a large earthquake could trigger very large earth flows, particularly if the soils are seasonally saturated with water, possibly rendering extensive areas unbuildable. (See the [[#Virtual tour|Virtual tour]] - Google Earth Flyover below.)

===Potentially impacted structures and features===
Many structures near the bay shore on either side would probably be severely affected by either a major Hayward Fault rupture or a nearby San Andreas Fault rupture. Severe effects were seen in both Oakland and northern San Francisco from the 1989 [[Loma Prieta earthquake]], even though this event was not extremely large and was centered a significant distance away in the Santa Cruz Mountains. Most of the severe effects of that event were due to poorly responding soil conditions and design deficiencies in large structures. Only a portion of the structural deficiencies in the larger area have been addressed, and the surface motion effects of a large event are likely to be far more severe than seen in the Loma Prieta event.

====Freeways and overcrossings====
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2008}} 
Many modifications have been made to freeway structures to reduce life hazards during seismic events. Significant adverse conditions remain which can cause disruption with possible long-term effects upon critical traffic infrastructure despite these modifications.

'''Warren Freeway portion of Highway 13'''

In its northern extent, the Hayward Fault lies directly beneath the portion of [[California State Route 13|Highway 13]] (the ''Warren Freeway'') that is south of its intersection [[California State Route 24|Highway 24]] and north of its terminal connection with [[Interstate 580 (California)|Interstate 580]] (the ''MacArthur Freeway''). In this [[rift]] valley there are a number of elevated street crossings in the [[Montclair, Oakland, California|Montclair District]] that cross the fault.

'''Highway 24'''

[[California State Route 24|State Highway 24]], connecting Oakland to Orinda, Lafayette, and Walnut Creek through the [[Caldecott Tunnel]], is composed of extensive earth fill at the location where the fault is crossed. An earthquake may cause minor landsliding on some slopes of the freeway, and the plastic movement of the fill would likely disrupt the pavement if the movement here of the surface displacement is substantial, possibly presenting a hazard to motorists and shutting down the highway for a while. More extensive disruption and greater hazard could be caused by the failure of elevated structures, both those over which the highway passes and overcrossings of the freeway, of which there are two nearby. As elsewhere in the area, such structures have undergone extensive [[retrofitting]] for safety.

'''Highways 80 and 880 and the Port of Oakland'''

[[Image:I-80 Eastshore Fwy.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Eastshore Freeway]]]]
A severe earthquake is more likely to disable the offshore causeway portions of [[Interstate 80 (California)|Interstate Highway 80]] (the [[Eastshore Freeway]]), since it is built on fill placed in the 1930s atop mudflats whose upper layers were deposited in the 19th century as a result of extensive [[placer mining|hydraulic gold mining]] in the distant [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] mountain foothills. This soft mud is expected to amplify earthquake shaking, and the mud supporting the heavy fill may liquefy, and so possibly cause major disruption of the highway due to failure by sinking of the highway and by differential movement of large sections. (More modern construction for these conditions employs linked and "floating" - in mud - lightweight [[concrete]] and plastic foam box structures to support a road.) Similar conditions underlie the eastern approach roads the Bay Bridge. Better, but still locally poor soils underlie the portion of [[Interstate 880 (California)|Interstate Highway 880]] that extends to the South Bay region from the eastern terminus of the [[San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge]]. As the bulk of cargo containers from the [[Port of Oakland]] travel on these two roads, the disabling of both would cause severe disruption of west coast import and export goods, owing to the consequent overloading of other West Coast container handling ports. Such disruption would be minor compared to that which could be produced by a large southern California earthquake, as the bulk of west coast container traffic is through the ports of [[Port of Long Beach|Long Beach]] and [[Port of Los Angeles|Los Angeles]].

'''Highway 580'''

A major route for commuters traveling from Southern Alameda County, the San Joaquin Valley and the East Bay hills to downtown Oakland and San Francisco, [[Interstate 580 (California)|Interstate 580]] crosses the fault twice, and runs very close to the fault between the intersections with [[State Route 13 (California)|State Route 13]] (the Warren Freeway) and [[Interstate 238 (California)|Interstate 238]].

====Eastern span of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge====
[[File:SFOBBESR-1787C-May15-2011.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Eastern span and replacement construction]]
{{Main|Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge}}
The 1989 [[Loma Prieta earthquake]] caused a failure of a single section of the upper deck of the eastern span of the [[San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge]], which closed the bridge for 30 days. Engineers and much of the public have long recognized that a strong earthquake centered close to the bridge on either the Hayward or San Andreas faults could cause a complete collapse of the eastern span. A replacement eastern span is currently under construction, with completion projected for late 2013 (originally 2010).
{{Clear}}

====Railroads====
Parallel to the Eastshore Freeway and inland only two blocks is a four–track railroad route used for general freight traffic, including that generated by the [[Port of Oakland]] ([[Union Pacific Railroad|Union Pacific]] and [[BNSF Railway|BNSF]] railroads) and by [[Amtrak]] passenger traffic to the Pacific Northwest and eastward through [[Reno, Nevada|Reno]] and [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]]. Along the north shore of [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]], substantial amounts of pressurized liquid gas, flammable liquids, caustic materials, and various toxics are stored temporarily in bulk railcars adjacent to passenger and freight traffic mainlines, with great potential hazards should a derailment occur. Derailments have often occurred during major earthquakes, both directly by tipping and by roadbed failures; industrial accidents involving these materials have caused extensive health hazards in the mixed residential–industrial areas of Richmond.

====Bay Area Rapid Transit====
{{Main|Bay Area Rapid Transit}}
:''For current BART information concerning various seismic retrofits see [http://www.bart.gov/about/projects/eqs/updates.aspx].''

In addition to extensive modifications to over crossings and elevated structures, largely to prevent dismantling due to shaking or destruction by soil failure, several other unique system feature require special treatment.

'''Transbay tube'''

BART trains travel between San Francisco and Oakland through a tube structure. The tube is composed of welded plate steel segments. Each oval outer section carries two inner train tubes of circular cross section and a central rectangular access and rescue tunnel, with the void between elements filled with concrete. The segments were sunk into a ditch dredged through bay mud and covered with rock fill, and then pumped free of water upon completion, making the resulting tube somewhat buoyant, but held in place with a rock overfill. Subsequent seismic analysis indicated the possibility that the overfill could fail due to agitation, allowing the buoyant tube to float upward, misaligning the tracks and possibly overstressing the bolted connections. This potential problem has been addressed by vibratory compaction of the overfill covering the tube. Additional stabilization includes the driving of large pilings and the connection of additional restraints.

'''Slip joint'''
{{Main|Seismic retrofit#Underwater tubes}}
The transbay tube terminates at an under-bay [[slip joint]] near the Embarcadero Station in San Francisco. The designed slip margin has been reduced by half due to unforeseen settlement of the tube structure. The projected worst-case motion at this joint has been determined to be beyond that for which the joint is presently capable, which could cause severe structural problems and mud and water entry into the tube and adjacent subway systems. This is to be corrected at great expense – first estimated at $142 million but expected to cost far more – probably the largest single cost item in the list of BART seismic retrofits.

'''Berkeley Hills Tunnel'''

In June 2006 Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) management announced that they have elected not to modify the Berkeley Hills Tunnel, which actually penetrates the Hayward Fault, arguing that it would be cheaper (and less disruptive to current operations) to rebore a misaligned portion after the fact than to protect riders (either by extensive modifications of the tunnel or by replacing it with a higher bore) against the small likelihood that a train (or two) would crash into or be cut in two by a major slippage of the fault. Modified train scheduling to prevent multiple train exposure at faults has been determined by BART engineers to be impractical due to variations in train passage, but [[automation|automated]] event-related realtime train operational response is considered practical (see below).

'''Seismic sensor network'''

BART has installed and continues to enhance a network of seismic sensors (an [[earthquake warning system]]) to trigger a system halt in the event of a major event, this to include automated event progression analysis to determine the best action with regard to individual trains for maximum safety (a fault rip can take up to several tens of seconds to completely propagate from the epicenter to the affected locations). Such sensor networks and warning devices have a potential to reduce the hazards from falling objects and furnishings provided that the people notified are well trained in appropriate responses (similar to the [[Cold War|Cold War's]] "[[duck and cover]]" training of schoolchildren).

====Refineries====
[[Image:ShellMartinez-refi.jpg|right|thumb|200px|View of Shell Oil Refinery in Martinez, California.]]
Of primary concern with respect to the Hayward Fault is the huge [[Chevron Richmond Refinery]] in [[Richmond, California|Richmond]]. Although founded on better ground than most of the shoreline, this refinery has extensive crude oil and finished product docks and pipelines extending into the bay, which could produce catastrophic spills into the bay, with the potential to adversely affect hundreds of miles of sensitive wetlands. Dismantling of high pressure and temperature process units and the consequent fire danger to personnel and equipment could produce substantial economic consequences for the western states. Large liquid storage tanks are protected by berms that are designed to contain the contents should a tank fail under normal conditions. Similar process and product conditions exist at other refineries further inland near [[Martinez, California|Martinez]], but mostly these plants are exposed to earthquakes from other faults.
{{Clear}}

====Fuel pipelines====
Gasoline is continuously shipped under pressure from Richmond and Martinez area refineries through [[Kinder Morgan Energy Partners]] pipelines which run under heavily populated East Bay urban areas to tank terminals near San Jose Airport in North San Jose. Aviation fuels are piped from these same refineries to the Oakland Airport. A number of spills have previously occurred due to landslides and such spill and related toxic and flammable material release may be prevalent in a major seismic event. A November 9, 2004, construction accident on this pipeline system in Walnut Creek killed five people.<ref>{{cite news| first = Henry | last = Lee | title = $6 million settlement in 2004 pipeline blast: 3 injured workers, dead man's kin to share funds | publisher = San Francisco Chronicle |date = 2006-10-20 | url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/20/BAG6TLST121.DTL | accessdate = 2006-01-23}}</ref> As seen in other worldwide pipeline ruptures, even an instantaneous stop of pumping would take several minutes to significantly lower pipeline pressure after a break, and would likely result in the release of significant amounts of flammable liquid fuels.

====Bay Area water supplies====
[[East Bay Municipal Utility District]] (EBMUD) supplies water to 800,000 East Bay customers who live west of the [[Berkeley Hills]]. Prior to the adoption and implementation of a $200 million seismic improvement project all of the water for these customers went through one vulnerable tunnel that crosses the Hayward Fault near the [[Caldecott Tunnel]]. As part of this project, that tunnel – the Claremont Tunnel – was seismically retrofitted. Additionally, EBMUD created a second route to bring water to these west-of-the-hills customers through the Southern Loop Bypass near [[Castro Valley]]. The Southern Loop was completed in 2002, while the seismic retrofitting of the Claremont tunnel was completed in February 2007.<ref>[http://www.quake06.org/quake06/best_practices/WSSIP.html EBMUD Water Supply Seismic Improvement Program]</ref><ref>[http://www.ktvu.com/news/11138463/detail.html Major East Bay Water Supply Line Retrofit Completed]</ref>

The [[Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct]], which supplies 270 to 315 million gallons of water per day to the City of San Francisco and other Bay Area communities, directly crosses the Hayward Fault in [[Fremont, California|Fremont]]. A 2002 report by the Bay Area Economic Forum suggests that a breakdown in the aqueduct due to an earthquake could cut off Hetch Hetchy water to the Bay Area for 60 days. In addition to depriving 85% of San Francisco residents of their drinking water, this would cut off supplies for firefighting and water-intensive industry, causing economic damage of $17.2-28.7 billion.<ref>[http://www.sfchroniclemarketplace.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/10/09/BA139730.DTL&hw=quakes&sn=553&sc=099 San Francisco Chronicle, October 9, 2002: "$28 billion Hetchy loss in big quake"]</ref> Extensive reconstruction work at the Hayward Fault crossing includes a multi-sectioned tunnel structure to allow shear without collapse, this is to contain a section of water pipe with ball joints and a slip joint.

====Lake Temescal====
The fault continues north under the eastern margin of [[Temescal Regional Park|Lake Temescal]] and its dam, which is unlikely to fail since it has been completely reinforced by the extensive earth fill supporting Highway 24.

====University of California, Berkeley====
[[Image:Berkeley Lab view.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Lawrence Berkeley Lab overlooking the Berkeley central campus.]]
Many of the structures at the UC Berkeley academic campus have been self rated as having "poor" earthquake performance. Numerous chemical, radiological, and biohazardous materials are present (in relatively small quantities) on campus and on the associated [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], in the hills above the university. However, the University has undertaken an extensive retrofitting project over the past decade to systematically retrofit all academic buildings on Campus to withstand a significant earthquake.
{{Clear}}

'''Memorial Stadium'''<br />
[[Image:CalMemStadFaultCreep.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Memorial Stadium supporting columns diverging at the top due to [[Aseismic creep|fault creep]] (the bottoms are in a common footing). Click image for additional information and diagram]]
Further north the fault passes under the lengthwise midline of the football field of [[California Memorial Stadium]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. Fault creep since 1923 has offset the walls at the north and south ends 13 inches (33 cm). There are no plans at this time to replace the stadium in its entirety at a more appropriate location, even though its "'''O'''" shape may possibly be split into two "'''C'''"s. One possible site for a replacement lies immediately to the east in Strawberry Canyon, although this has significant environmental problems, and would require an east-west alignment rather than the traditional north-south orientation. While there is only a small probability of an earthquake on this fault while the stadium is occupied, the results could be deadly.
[[Image:Berkeley stadium fault creep P1320489.jpg|thumb|left|100px|At the same section juncture shown at right the exterior is also offset]]
Extensive upgrades are currently underway<ref>[http://stadium.berkeley.edu/] California Memorial Stadium Website</ref> including replacement of the [[American football|football]] players' facilities, and a seismic retrofit. The work has been the subject of several lawsuits from neighborhood and environmental groups, who are concerned about such extensive construction on top of a major earthquake fault. As this will take more than a year to complete, the Cal Bears will play at [[AT&T Park]] in San Francisco for one season.<ref>[http://www.calbears.com/sports/m-footbl/spec-rel/051010aae.html Cal Football to Play 2011 Home Season at San Francisco's AT&T Park] (Official Cal Bears website)</ref> Some information concerning the retrofit is available,<ref>http://[football.ballparks.com/NCAA/Pac10/California/index.htm] (See "CAL BEGINS STADIUM WORK") </ref> the changes involving cutting portions of the stadium into large independent sections, demolishing portions over the rubble zone, and building new bridging sections that rest upon floating mats (foundations that do not penetrate the surface, rather sitting upon plastic sheets over level graded gravel or sand) where they pass over and near the fault, with appropriate sliding connections between the sections for the safety of spectators.
{{Clear}}

====Electrical and communication system disruption====
Affected areas are likely to be without electrical power for an extensive period. This in turn can make fuel supplies for vehicles and emergency generators unavailable locally and impact both domestic water, industrial water, sewage plants, and drainage pumping. Due to the extensive use of point of sale scanners and registers in supermarkets this could also impact the ability of stores to sell essential items such as groceries and to preserve frozen food items, as well as terminating cable TV and most internet access.

Cellphone and most landline telephone service, while theoretically survivable for a short time on battery and emergency power, could instead suffer immediate disruption from ground shaking effects.

====Cities affected====
Some of the cities in the eastern bay shore and south bay region near this fault include [[Richmond, California|Richmond]], [[El Cerrito, Contra Costa County, California|El Cerrito]], [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[Albany, California|Albany]], [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]], [[Kensington, California|Kensington]], [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Piedmont, California|Piedmont]], [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]], [[San Lorenzo, California|San Lorenzo]], [[Castro Valley, California|Castro Valley]], [[Hayward, California|Hayward]], [[Union City, California|Union City]], [[Fremont, California|Fremont]], [[Newark, California|Newark]], [[Milpitas, California|Milpitas]], [[Niles, California|Niles]], and portions of [[San Jose, California|San Jose]].

Similar dangerous soil conditions and insufficiently resistant buildings are also on the southern, western and northern boundaries of San Francisco and San Pablo bays and would also be severely affected by a major earthquake on the Hayward fault. As that portion includes the so-called [[Silicon Valley]], the potential economic disruption due to destruction of works in progress and the dismantling of microelectronics fabrication plants could have an economic effect extending worldwide. The current estimates of the probability of a major earthquake on any of the numerous regional faults range up to 70 percent within the thirty year period 2000-2029. A recent ''quiet period'' following many years of minor activity is considered to be particularly ominous by many, although geologists have not yet been able to predict earthquakes with any useful accuracy. They do warn that all residents of the region should be prepared for a large event and its subsequent effects (e. g., lack of water, firefighting, first aid, electricity, motor and heating fuels, etc.) and that much life-safety protective work remains to be done.

===Retrofits for survivability===
{{Main|Seismic retrofit}}
[[Image:BandedRetroColumn.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[State Route 24 (California)|State Route 24]] [[Seismic retrofit|retrofit]] at the [[Rockridge (BART station)|Rockridge BART Station]] parking lot.<br />Jacketed and grouted column on left, unmodified on right]]
It is primarily the likelihood of a severe earthquake on the Hayward or San Andreas faults that has spurred a substantial effort to [[Seismic retrofit|retrofit]] and sometimes replace large structures at risk, particularly the eastern and western spans of the [[San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge]], the [[San Francisco City Hall|San Francisco]] and [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] city halls, and numerous elevated rail, road, and pedestrian structures and [[overpass]]es. Much work remains to be done in the region and progress is being hampered by budget constraints imposed by trickle down federal-state-regional deficits, design and construction delays due to state and local political bickering over design, and unexpectedly high [[steel]] and [[cement]] costs due to the extensive construction work being done in [[People's Republic of China|China]]. Nonetheless, Bay area cities and counties have long expected a major earthquake and as a result all building in the past 30 years has been required to adhere to strict guidelines regarding earthquake resistance. Of all the earthquake prone regions of the world, the San Francisco Bay Area is among the most prepared structurally for the eventuality of a major quake while remaining grossly unprepared in both civil response planning and in the retrofitting of older buildings.<ref>[http://www.spur.org/publications/library/report/thedilemmaofexistingbuildings_020109 SPUR Report] "The dilemma of existing buildings: Private Property, Public Risk" (An extensive report and analysis for San Francisco, but with broad applicability to the region. This addresses particularly the difference in requirements between life safety and habitability after an earthquake)</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Further information==
===Virtual tour===
[[Image:GoogleEarthHaywardFaultOakBerk.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Google Earth tour - screen snapshot over North Oakland district, Emeryville, and Berkeley]]
The [[Google Earth]] website, in cooperation with the [[United States Geological Survey]], has prepared a [http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/research/geology/hf_map/GE_helicopter.htm virtual helicopter tour] of the fault, with much additional information available through the tour. Potentially dangerous landslide areas are also marked, showing great areas beyond the fault that could be rendered uninhabitable by a major event.

===References in popular culture===
The [[Tom Wolfe]] novel ''[[A Man in Full]]'' features a fictional major earthquake on the Hayward Fault as a [[deus ex machina]] method (freeing a major character from prison) and plot development point.

The [[James Bond]] movie ''[[A View to a Kill]]'' (1985) involved a plot, referred as "Main Strike", by [[Max Zorin]] to detonate explosives along the Hayward Fault, San Andreas Fault and at the "geological lock" to flood the two faults with water from nearby lakes and cause both faults to move causing a "double earthquake" that would destroy Silicon Valley, all in order for Zorin to monopolize the microchip market.

===Special exhibit===
[[Fremont, California|Fremont]] Earthquake Exhibit: ''The Hayward Fault Exposed''
[[Image:HaywardFaultExposed5911.JPG|left|250px|thumb|A docent leads a visitor to a viewing platform within the pit. Click image for more information]]
This [[geotourism]] exhibit (April through October 2006, now closed) featured a 12- to {{convert|15|ft|m|0|sing=on}} deep pit exposing the Hayward Fault, which could be viewed "face to face" from a shaded platform by descending a staircase. Significant features were noted and marked. Similar trench excavations are used in the determination of the frequency and magnitude of prehistoric earthquakes and to determine the location of latent faults as part of the science of [[Paleoseismology]]
*Extensive additional interpretive material concerning the geology and seismology of the Bay Area was presented for viewing, most of which is currently accessible online.[http://www.msnucleus.org/haywardfault/index.htm]
*Funding and organization for a permanent exhibit at this location is being actively sought, with planning in progress.[http://www.msnucleus.org/haywardfault/proposal07.pdf]
<center>
[[Image:HaywardFaultExposedComposite.jpg|thumb|600px|left|<center>Multiple image view from the platform.<br />The fault has here been marked with cordage and various features labeled.</center>]]
[[Image:HaywardFaultExposedNoted.jpg|thumb|600px|left|<center>Image with enhanced annotation added</center>]]

</center>
{{Clear}}

==See also==
{{Portal|San Francisco Bay Area}}
*[[Earthquake warning]]
*[[Earthquake prediction]]
*[[Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge]]
*[[San Andreas Fault]]
*[[Seismic retrofit]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/research/geology/hf_map/ USGS Satellite Maps - Hayward Fault] This includes links to the Google Earth virtual tour of the fault.
*[http://www.eastbayexpress.com/gyrobase/its-not-our-fault/Content?oid=1076729&showFullText=true "It's Not Our Fault"', article in the ''East Bay Express'']
*[http://www.bart.gov/docs/eqs/BART_Seismic_Study.pdf Bart seismic study document (PDF)]
*[http://seismo.berkeley.edu/geotour/ The geology of "Bear Territory"] - University of California at Berkeley geology tour
*[http://www.mcs.csuhayward.edu/~shirschf/tour-1.html Tour of the Hayward Fault] - California State University at Hayward web site with images showing fault creep.
*[http://www.msnucleus.org/haywardfault/index.htm Fremont Earthquake Exhibit - The Hayward Fault Exposed] msnucleus.org, K-12 math and science education site.
*[http://pasadena.wr.usgs.gov/shake/ca/ Recent significant events in the California region] with opportunity to report via ''did you feel it?''
*[http://3dparks.wr.usgs.gov/haywardfault/html/introduction.html Introduction to the Hayward Fault] [[USGS]] website with deep cross-section illustrations.
*[http://quake.abag.ca.gov/pickfault.html ABAG shaking hazard maps] - select locality, generating fault, and view ground shaking projections.
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jtAKPO4iHA KQED Quest video segment on the Hayward Fault]

{{-}}
{{California Faults}}

[[Category:Seismic faults of California]]
[[Category:Geography of the San Francisco Bay Area]]
[[Category:Geography of Alameda County, California]]
[[Category:Natural history of Contra Costa County, California]]
[[Category:Geography of Napa County, California]]
[[Category:Natural history of Solano County, California]]

[[fr:Faille de Hayward]]

Mordfall James Byrd junior

2011-09-22T01:47:25Z

76.21.107.221: /* Shawn Allen Berry */ Strange leading sentence; what does racism have to do with being convicted of murder? Was there doubt he knew someone was tied to his truck?

{{About||the Wyoming State Representative|James W. Byrd|the guitarist|James Byrd (guitarist)}}

{{Infobox person
| name = James Byrd, Jr.
| image =JamesByrdJr..jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1949|5|2}}
| birth_place = [[Beaumont, Texas]], United States
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1998|06|7|1949|05|2}}
| death_place = [[Jasper, Texas]], United States
| occupation =
}}
'''James Byrd, Jr.''' (May 2, 1949 – June 7, 1998) was an [[African-American]] who was [[murder]]ed by three white men in [[Jasper, Texas]], on June 7, 1998. Shawn Berry, Lawrence Brewer, and John King dragged Byrd behind a [[pick-up truck]] along an [[asphalt]] pavement after they wrapped a heavy logging chain around his ankles. Byrd was pulled along for about two miles as the truck swerved from side to side.<ref name ="dragging">{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/US/9807/06/dragging.death.02/|title=3 whites indicted in dragging death of black man in Texas|publisher=[[CNN]]|date=1998-07-06|accessdate=2010-07-24}}</ref>

Byrd, who remained conscious throughout most of the ordeal, was killed when his body hit the edge of a [[culvert]] severing his right arm and head. The murderers drove on for another mile before dumping his torso in front of an African-American cemetery in Jasper.<ref name ="dragging"/> Byrd's lynching-by-dragging gave impetus to passage of a Texas hate crimes law. It later led to the [[Federal government of the United States|Federal]] October 22, 2009 [[Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]], commonly known as the "[[Matthew Shepard]] Act". President [[Barack Obama]] signed the bill into law on October 28, 2009.

==Victim==
James Byrd, Jr. was born in [[Beaumont, Texas]], one of nine children, to Stella (1925 – October 7, 2010) and James Byrd, Sr. (born 1924).<ref name=KFDM>[http://www.kfdm.com/articles/pain-39700-dies-praised.html Mother of James Byrd, Jr. dies] (October 7, 2010)</ref>

===Family===
{{Ref improve section|date=August 2011}}
Ross Byrd, the only son of James Byrd, has been involved with Murder Victims' Families for Reconciliation, an organization that opposes capital punishment. He has campaigned to spare the lives of those who murdered his father and appears briefly in the documentary ''Deadline'' about the death penalty in Illinois.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jeralyn|title=Families of Murder Victims Opposed to Capital Punishment|url=http://www.talkleft.com/story/2002/07/05/175/14540|work=The Politics of Crime|publisher=TalkLeft.com|accessdate=27 August 2011}}</ref>{{Verify credibility|date=August 2011}}

==Murder==
On June 7, 1998, Byrd, age 49, accepted a ride from Shawn Berry (age 24), Lawrence Brewer (age 31), and John King (age 23). Berry, who was driving, was acquainted with Byrd from around town. Instead of taking Byrd home, the three men took Byrd to a remote county road out of town, beat him with anything they could find, urinated on his unconscious body, chained him by his ankles to their pickup truck dragging him for three miles. Brewer later claimed that Byrd's throat had been slashed by Berry before he was dragged. However, forensic evidence suggests that Byrd had been attempting to keep his head up while being dragged, and an [[autopsy]] suggested that Byrd was alive during much of the dragging. Byrd died after his right arm and head were severed after his body hit a [[culvert]]. His body had caught the culvert on the side of the road, resulting in Byrd's decapitation.<ref name="ClosingArguments">"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/22/dragging.death.03/ Closing arguments today in Texas dragging-death trial]," [[CNN]], February 22, 1999</ref>

Berry, Brewer, and King dumped their victim's mutilated remains in front of an African-American [[cemetery]] on Huff Creek Road; the three men then went to a barbecue. Along the area where Byrd was dragged, authorities found a wrench with "Berry" written on it. They also found a lighter that was inscribed with "Possum", which was King's prison [[nickname]].<ref>"[http://web.archive.org/web/20051227000441/http://www.texasobserver.org/showArticle.asp?ArticleID=275 Justice in Jasper]," ''[[Texas Observer]]'', September 17, 1999</ref> The following morning, Byrd's limbs were found scattered across a seldom-used road. The police found 75 places that were littered with Byrd's remains. State law enforcement officials, along with Jasper's [[District Attorney]], determined that since Brewer and King were well-known [[white supremacists]], the murder was a [[hate crime]]. They decided to call upon the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] less than 24 hours after the discovery of Byrd's remains.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}

King had several [[tattoo]]s considered to be racist: a black man hanging from a tree, [[Nazism|Nazi]] symbols, the words "[[Aryan race|Aryan]] Pride," and the patch for a gang of white supremacist inmates known as the [[Prison_gang#Notable_American_Prison_Gangs|Confederate Knights of America]].<ref>"[http://www.cnn.com/US/9902/16/dragging.death.04/index.html Texas sheriff 'knew somebody was murdered because he was black']," CNN, February 16, 1999</ref> In a jailhouse letter to Brewer that was intercepted by jail officials, King expressed pride in the crime and said he realized in committing the murder he might have to die. "Regardless of the outcome of this, we have made history. Death before dishonor. [[Sieg Heil]]!", King wrote.<ref name="ClosingArguments" /> An officer investigating the case also testified that witnesses said King had referenced ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'' after beating Byrd.<ref>[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/jasper1.html The officer's account of the initial stages of the investigation through an affidavit filed in Jasper County, Texas on June 9, 1998.]</ref>

Berry, Brewer, and King were tried and convicted for Byrd's murder. Brewer and King received the [[Capital punishment|death penalty]], while Berry was sentenced to [[Life imprisonment|life in prison.]]

==Perpetrators==
[[File:PolunskyUnitWestLivingstonTX.jpg|thumb|The perpetrators, who are under a death sentence, are held at the [[Allan B. Polunsky Unit]]]]
===Shawn Allen Berry===
The driver of the truck, Berry was the most difficult to convict of the three defendants because there was a lack of evidence to suggest that he himself was a racist.[[Template:Fact|Citation needed]] Berry had also claimed that Brewer and King were entirely responsible for the crime. Brewer, however, testified that it was Berry who cut Byrd's throat before he was tied to the truck. The jury decided that there was little evidence to support this claim.<ref name="Texas NAACP">{{cite web |title=Texas NAACP| url=http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm | accessdate=June 19, 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070430140528/http://www.texasnaacp.org/jasper.htm  |archivedate = April 30, 2007}}</ref> As a result, Berry was spared the death penalty and was sentenced to life in prison. Berry, [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice|TDCJ]]#00894758, is in the [[Ramsey Unit]] in [[Brazoria County, Texas]],<ref name="keysDidPrison">Keys, Perryn. "[http://www.beaumontenterprise.com/news/jasper__the_road_back__did_prison_time_turn_man_into_one_of_byrd_s_killers__06-30-2008_13_18_38.html?showFullArticle=y JASPER: THE ROAD BACK: Did prison time turn man into one of Byrd's killers?]" ''[[Beaumont Enterprise]]''. June 9, 2008. Retrieved on July 23, 2010.</ref> and his parole eligibility date is June 7, 2038.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/index2.htm Berry, Shawn Allen]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> As of 2003 Berry is in protective custody; he spends 23 hours per day in a {{convert|8|ft|m|adj=on}} by {{convert|6|ft|m|adj=on}} cell, with one hour for exercise. Berry married a woman named Christie Marcontell by proxy.<ref>King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas''. [[Random House, Inc.]], 2002. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dhH1GOJCrmkC&pg=PA207&lpg=PA207&dq=%22Shawn+Allen+Berry+is+at+the+Ramsey%22&source=bl&ots=4hdi_kbdSy&sig=mgjNcuQdCljQofrLdOrzhpdg8OI&hl=en&ei=LinSTN7gEoWBlAePt_S2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Shawn%20Allen%20Berry%20is%20at%20the%20Ramsey%22&f=false 207]. Retrieved from [[Google Books]] on November 3, 2010. ISBN 0375421327, 9780375421327.</ref>

===Lawrence Russell Brewer===
Brewer was a white supremacist who, prior to Byrd's murder, had served a prison sentence for drug possession and burglary. He was paroled in 1991. After violating his parole conditions in 1994, Brewer was returned to prison. According to his court testimony, he joined a white supremacist gang with King in prison in order to safeguard himself from other inmates.<ref name="Court TV Online">{{cite web | title=Court TV Online| url=http://www.courttv.com/archive/trials/brewer/092199_pm_ctv.html| accessdate=June 19, 2007}}</ref> Brewer and King became friends in the [[Beto Unit]] prison.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> A psychiatrist testified that Brewer did not appear repentant for his crimes. Brewer was ultimately convicted and [[death penalty|sentenced to death]].<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=03897953 Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> Brewer, TDCJ#999327,<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/brewerlawrence.htm Brewer, Lawrence Russell]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> was in the death row at the [[Polunsky Unit]].<ref name="keysDidPrison"/> Brewer was executed in the [[Huntsville Unit]] on September 21, 2011. The day before his execution, Brewer told KHOU 11 News in Houston: "As far as any regrets, no, I have no regrets. No, I'd do it all over again, to tell you the truth."<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/09/21/troy-davis-and-lawrence-b_n_974293.html Troy Davis And Lawrence Brewer, A Tale Of Two Executions]</ref>

===John William King===
King was accused of beating Byrd with a bat and then dragging him behind a [[pickup truck|truck]] until he died. King had previously claimed that he had been [[prison rape|gang-raped]] in prison by black inmates.<ref name="Prison Fellowship">{{cite web | title=Justice Fellowship| work="Prison Rape - It's No Joke" | url=http://www.justicefellowship.org/article.asp?ID=2695 | accessdate=February 9, 2007}}</ref> Although he had no previous record of racism, King had joined a white supremacist prison gang, allegedly for self-protection.<ref>Nolan, Pat: [http://www.justicefellowship.org/key-issues/issues-in-criminal-justice-reform/issue-1/pf-commentary-prison-rape/12780-prison-rape-its-no-joke "Prison Rape - It's No Joke"] Washington Post, June 25, 2009</ref> He was found guilty and sentenced to death for his role in Byrd's kidnapping and murder.<ref>"[http://168.51.178.33/webapp/TDCJ/InmateDetails.jsp?sidnumber=04684561 King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on January 5, 2010.</ref> King, TDCJ#999295,<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/stat/kingjohn.htm King, John William]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on August 25, 2010.</ref> is in the death row at the Polunsky Unit.<ref name="keysDidPrison"/>

==Reactions to the murder==
Numerous aspects of the Byrd murder echo [[lynching in the United States|lynching tradition]]s. These include [[mutilation]] or [[decapitation]] and revelry, such as a barbecue or a picnic, during or after.

Byrd's murder was strongly condemned by [[Jesse Jackson]] and the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change|Martin Luther King Center]] as an act of vicious [[racism]] and focused national attention on the prevalence of [[White supremacy|white supremacist]] [[prison gang]]s.

The victim's family created the [http://www.thebyrdfoundation.org/ James Byrd Foundation for Racial Healing] after his death. In 1999 [[Chantal Akerman]], inspired by the literary works of [[William Faulkner]], set out to make a film about the beauty of the American South. However, after arriving on location (in Jasper, Texas) and learning of the brutal racist murder, she changed her focus. Akerman made ''Sud'' (French for "South") a meditation on the events surrounding the crime and the history of racial violence in the United States. In 2003, a movie about the crime, titled ''[[Jasper, Texas (film)|Jasper, Texas]]'', was produced and aired on [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]]. The same year, a documentary named [http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2002/twotownsofjasper/index.html ''Two Towns of Jasper''], made by filmmakers Marco Williams and Whitney Dow, premiered on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]'s P.O.V. series.<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/pov/ PBS.org]</ref>

Basketball star [[Dennis Rodman]] offered to pay for Byrd's funeral. Although Byrd's family declined this offer, they accepted a $25,000 donation by Rodman to a fund started to support Byrd's family.

While at radio station [[WIAD|WARW]] in Washington, D.C., DJ [[The Greaseman|Doug Tracht]] (also known as "The Greaseman") made a derogatory comment about James Byrd after playing [[Lauryn Hill]]'s song "[[Doo Wop (That Thing)]]".<ref>"The Reliable Source" Annie Groer, Ann Gerhart. ''[[The Washington Post]]''. Washington, D.C.: March 18, 1999. pg. C.03</ref> The February 1999 incident proved catastrophic to Tracht's radio career, igniting protests from black and white listeners alike. He was quickly fired from WARW and lost his position as a volunteer deputy sheriff in [[Falls Church]], [[Virginia]].

===Impact in American politics===
Some advocacy groups, such as the [[NAACP]] National Voter Fund, made an issue of this case during [[George W. Bush]]'s presidential campaign in 2000. They accused Bush of implicit racism since, as governor of Texas, he opposed [[hate crime]] legislation. Also, citing a prior commitment, Bush could not appear at Byrd's funeral. Because two of the three murderers were sentenced to death and the third to life in prison (all charged with and convicted of capital murder, the highest felony level in Texas), Governor Bush maintained that "we don't need ''tougher'' laws". The 77th Texas Legislature passed the James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Act. With the signature of [[Governor of Texas|Governor]] [[Rick Perry]], who had inherited the balance of Bush's unexpired term, the act became Texas state law in 2001.<ref>{{cite news |title= Texas governor signs into law hate-crimes bill |agency= [[Associated Press]] |newspaper= The Deseret News |date= May 11, 2001 |page= A2}}</ref> In 2009, the [[Matthew Shepard Act|Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act]] expanded the [[Hate crimes in the United States#Federal prosecution of hate crimes|1969 United States federal hate-crime law]] to include crimes motivated by a victim's actual or perceived [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]], or [[disability]].<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/10/28/obama-signs-billion-defense-policy/ Obama Signs Defense Policy Bill That Includes 'Hate Crime' Legislation]</ref>

===Musical tributes===
In 2010, Alabama musician [[Matthew Mayfield]] penned, recorded, and released a song in Byrd's honor. The tune, titled "Still Alive," is the fourth track on Mayfield's EP "You're Not Home." "Still Alive" clearly related a stark bitterness towards racism and equated such hate crimes to genocide.

"The Ballad of James Byrd" is another tribute to Byrd, written and performed by Southern Californian musician Ross Durand.

"The New Hell" by death metal band [[The Famine]] mentions Byrd on their album The Architects of Guilt (2011).

"Jasper" by [[Confrontation Camp]], the fifth track on the album "[[Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear (Confrontation Camp album)|Objects in the Mirror Are Closer Than They Appear]]" (2000).

==See also==
{{Portal|Texas}}
* [[Dragging death]]
* [[Lynching]]
* [[Emmett Till]] - victim of a similar racially charged murder in 1955
* [[Murder of Jan Pawel and Quiana Jenkins Pietrzak]] - victims of a similar racially charged murder in 2008

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* King, Joyce. ''Hate Crime: The Story of a Dragging in Jasper, Texas.'' Pantheon, 2002.
* Temple-Raston, Dina. ''A Death in Texas: A Story of Race, Murder, and a Small Town's Struggle for Redemption.'' Henry Holt and Co., January 6, 2002.

==External links==
* [http://www.lizardproductions.com/RememberHisName.html Remember His Name - From Hate To Healing: The Long Road Home] documentary in production by Lizard Productions
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=7105192 James Byrd, Jr.] at Find A Grave
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0335185 ''Jasper, Texas''] - television movie
* [http://capmag.com/article.asp?ID=1464 Politically Correct Murder and Media Bias] by [[Larry Elder]] - compares media coverage of the Byrd case to the murder of [[Ken Tillery]]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~action/ads2/adnaacp.html NAACP National Voter Fund - Campaign ads 2000]
* [http://www.matthewmayfield.com/album/yourenothome.html Listen to "Still Alive" by Matthew Mayfield]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Byrd Jr., James
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = May 2, 1949
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[U.S.A]]
| DATE OF DEATH = June 7, 1998
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Jasper, Texas]] [[United States|U.S.A.]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Byrd Jr., James}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]
[[Category:1998 murders in the United States]]
[[Category:American murder victims]]
[[Category:Hate crimes]]
[[Category:Murdered African-American people]]
[[Category:Murders]]
[[Category:People from Texas]]
[[Category:People murdered in Texas]]
[[Category:Racially motivated violence against African Americans]]
[[Category:Homicides by motor vehicle]]
[[Category:1998 in Texas]]

[[ru:Берд, Джеймс]]