https://de.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=68.6.230.65Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]2025-05-09T19:44:10ZBenutzerbeiträgeMediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.28https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118594Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-12-04T16:11:25Z<p>68.6.230.65: /* Continuation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800s]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s. Byzantines managed to re-capture most of Syria by 1025|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|Byzantine emperor|<br />
commander2=|[[Umayyad]] Caliphate then [[Abassid]] Caliphate|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], besieged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Retardation==<br />
<br />
The conquests of the Arabs began to retard (note this is the opposite of accelerate). Attempts at taking Anatolia ultimately failed. Under the Macedonian emperor [[Basil I]], the Byzantines were revived into a regional power, worthy of respect. However, the Arabs were successful in capturing Byzantines second largest city, Thessalonica, under the leadership of [[Thomas the Slav]], although this was re-captured quickly by the Byzantines. Under the reign of [[Basil II]], the Byzantines established a swath of new Themes stretching northeast from Aleppo (a Byzantine protectorate) to Manzikert.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to seize the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
'''Byzantine revival'''<br />
<br />
The Byzantine empire did not suffer beyond recovery after the loss of Egypt and the Levant. Anatolia continued to remain in Byzantine hands and with its fairly fertile land and population, the Byzantines were able to raise a good strong enough army to repell the Arab invaders. Under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the Byzantines had a strong and unified leadership in comparison to the Abassid dynasty which was split into many factions. <br />
<br />
Under the theme system of military and adinstrative government, the Byzantines could raise a force atleast 200,000 strong, though in practice these were strategically placed throughout the empire.<br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other [[Mongols|Mongolian invaders]] replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, [[Mongolian Empire| Mongolian invasions]], especially that of the [[Golden Horde]] and [[Timur]]. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-759-X.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118587Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-21T05:33:43Z<p>68.6.230.65: /* Continuation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800s]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s. Byzantines managed to re-capture most of Syria by 1025|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|Byzantine emperor|<br />
commander2=|[[Umayyad]] Caliphate then [[Abassid]] Caliphate|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], besieged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Retardation==<br />
<br />
The conquests of the Arabs began to retard (note this is the opposite of accelerate). Attempts at taking Anatolia ultimately failed. Under the Macedonian emperor [[Basil I]], the Byzantines were transformed into a regional power, worthy of respect. However, the Arabs were successful in capturing Byzantines second largest city, Thessalonica, although this was re-captured by the Byzantines.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to seize the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever and plaed her in a position to restore herself to the greater glories of the empire under Justinian.<br />
<br />
'''Byzantine revival'''<br />
<br />
The Byzantine empire did not suffer beyond recovery after the loss of Egypt and the Levant. Anatolia continued to remain in Byzantine hands and with its fairly fertile land and population, the Byzantines were able to raise a good strong enough army to repell the Arab invaders. Under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the Byzantines had a strong and unified leadership in comparison to the Abassid dynasty which was split into many factions.<br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-759-X.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118585Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-19T01:20:51Z<p>68.6.230.65: /* Continuation */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800s]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s. Byzantines managed to re-capture most of Syria by 1025|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|Byzantine emperor|<br />
commander2=|[[Umayyad]] Caliphate then [[Abassid]] Caliphate|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Retardation==<br />
<br />
The conquests of the Arabs began to retard (note this is the opposite of accelerate). Attempts at taking Anatolia ultimately failed. Under the Macedonian emperor [[Basil I]], the Byzantines were transformed into a regional power, worthy of respect. However, the Arabs were successful in capturing Byzantines second largest city, Thessalonica, although this was re-captured by the Byzantines.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to sieze the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
'''Byzantine revival'''<br />
<br />
The Byzantine empire did not suffer beyond recovery after the loss of Egypt and the Levant. Anatolia continued to remain in Byzantine hands and with its fairly fertile land and population, the Byzantines were able to raise a good strong enough army to repell the Arab invaders. Under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the Byzantines had a strong and unified leadership in comparison to the Abassid dynasty which was split into many factions.<br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-759-X.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118584Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-19T01:19:55Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800s]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s. Byzantines managed to re-capture most of Syria by 1025|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|Byzantine emperor|<br />
commander2=|[[Umayyad]] Caliphate then [[Abassid]] Caliphate|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Retardation==<br />
<br />
The conquests of the Arabs began to retard (note this is the opposite of accelerate). Attempts at taking Anatolia ultimately failed. Under the Macedonian emperor [[Basil I]], the Byzantines were transformed into a regional power, worthy of respect. However, the Arabs were successful in capturing Byzantines second largest city, Thessalonica, although this was re-captured by the Byzantines.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to sieze the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
'''Byzantine revival'''<br />
<br />
The Byzantine empire did not suffer beyond recovery after the loss of Egypt and the Levant. Anatolia continued to remain in Byzantine hands and with its fairly fertile land and population, the Byzantines were able to raise a good strong enough army to repell the Arab invaders. Under the [[Macedonian dynasty]], the Byzantines had a strong and unified leadership in comparison to the Abassid dynasty which was split into many factions.<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN 1-84176-759-X.<br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118577Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-15T06:16:34Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800s]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s. Byzantines managed to re-capture most of Syria by 1025|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|Byzantine emperor|<br />
commander2=|[[Umayyad]] Caliphate then [[Abassid]] Caliphate|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to sieze the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN: 184176759X. <br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118576Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-15T06:15:55Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800s]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s. Byzantines managed to re-capture most of Syria by 1025|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|Byzantine emperor<br />
commander2=|[[Umayyad]] Caliphate then [[Abassid]] Caliphate<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to sieze the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN: 184176759X. <br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118575Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-15T06:14:21Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800s]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|<br />
commander2=|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to sieze the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN: 184176759X. <br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118574Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-15T06:14:04Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]], [[800's]] - [[1185]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Anatolia, Crete, Sicily|<br />
result=Initial [[Arab]] victories but then stalemate|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|<br />
commander2=|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to sieze the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN: 184176759X. <br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118573Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-15T02:17:14Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa|<br />
result=[[Arab]] victory|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|<br />
commander2=|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==Continuation==<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab''' wars continued on for some time. The Arabs managed to sieze the Islands of Crete and Sicily. However, Crete was re-taken by the Byzantines in 961 and by 1025, the Byzantine empire had defeated the forces of the emir's of Iraq, captured parts of northern mesopatamia, and conquered Antioch and Aleppo. Basil II put an end to the Arab threat against Byzantium forever. <br />
<br />
After the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071, the Byzantines with Crusader help re-established their threatening position in the middle east as a superpower and an invasion of Egypt was planned in the twelfth century, which if successful, would have tipped the balance of power between the Christians and Muslims in favor of the Christians. The invasion mounted to little more than a raid and was cancelled<br />
<br />
==End game==<br />
<br />
The wars ended when the Turks and various other Mongolian invaders replaced the threat of either power. From the twelfth century onwards, the Byzantines were concentrating on fighting the Turks whilst the Arab forces where attempting to defend their lands against crusaders, Mongolian invasions, especially that of the Golden Horde and Timur. <br />
<br />
The rise of the Ottoman empire replaced the threat of the Arabs to the Byzantines and then the threat of Byzantine to the Arabs was replaced by them, which can be clearly seen when the Ottomans captured Egypt in the sixteenth century. <br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN: 184176759X. <br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118572Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-15T02:08:28Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa|<br />
result=[[Arab]] victory|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|<br />
commander2=|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war between the seventh and eigth centuries. <br />
<br />
Howeverm, over time, the Arab conquests began to slow down. The Ninth century saw the loss of Sicily to the Arab forces and the Island of Crete was successfully defended against a Byzantine counter-attack in the tenth century. However, in the eleventh century, the Byzantines re-captured much territory, and under the emperor soldier [[Basil II]], the Byzantines managed to take a large portion of Syria, including Aleppo and Antioch. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
<br />
''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
<br />
Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
<br />
==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
<br />
However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
<br />
The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
<br />
The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
<br />
==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN: 184176759X. <br />
<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabisch-Byzantinische_Kriege&diff=247118570Arabisch-Byzantinische Kriege2006-11-12T01:24:42Z<p>68.6.230.65: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|center|300px]]|<br />
caption=[[Greek fire]], first used by the [[Byzantine Navy]] during the Byzantine-Arab Wars.|<br />
conflict=Byzantine-Arab Wars|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]]|<br />
date=[[630]]-[[717]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria, Egypt, North Africa|<br />
result=[[Arab]] victory|<br />
territory=[[Levant]], [[Egypt]] and the whole of [[North Africa]] annexed by [[Arab]]s|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]<ref name="Levies">The Empire's levies included [[Christian]] [[Armenia]]ns, [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], and Arab [[Ghassanids]]</ref>,<br>Arab [[Ghassanids]],<br>[[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] (later)|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s<br>([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|<br />
commander2=|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
<br />
The '''Byzantine-Arab Wars''' was a long drawn-out war between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the emerging [[Arab Empire]]. As result the Byzantines, called the [[Western Roman Empire|Romans]] in [[Muslim]] historical chronicles, saw an extensive loss of territory during the war. <br />
<br />
==Opening Conflict==<br />
{{main|Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslim conquest of Egypt}}<br />
The Byzantine Empire, under the [[Emperor Heraclius]], had just come out of the exhausting [[Roman-Persian Wars]] prior to the Arabian conflict. The Arab conquest of the Levant and Persia began after the consolidation of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] under the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliphs]] during the the [[Ridda wars]] that followed the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[prophet]] [[Muhammed]] in [[632]]. The [[Byzantine army]] composed of Imperial troops as well as local levies<ref name="Levies"> </ref> engaged the [[Arab]] forces. Heraclius had fallen ill and was unable to lead his armies against during the Arab conquests of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine]] in [[634]]. Following the Byzantine defeat in [[636]] at the [[Battle of Yarmouk]], Heraclius who was at [[Antioch]], is said to have declared:<br />
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''"Farewell Syria, my fair province. Thou art an enemy's now"''<br />
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Heraclius then left Antioch for Constantinople where he began to array his remaining forces for a defence of Egypt. Sequestering both [[Damascus]] and [[Jerusalem]] from the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim armies left [[Antioch]] to Byzantine control. By the time Heraclius died, much of the Roman province of [[Egypt]] had also been conquered by the Arabs, thereby depriving the Byzantines of their valuable [[corn]] supply and causing [[bread]] shortages throughout the Byzantine Empire. The [[Library of Alexandria]], which had already suffered during the rule of the [[Western Roman Empire]], was finally destroyed by [[642]], shortly after the Arab conquest.<br />
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==Sieges of Constantinople==<br />
{{main articles|First Arab siege of Constantinople|Second Arab siege of Constantinople}}<br />
[[Image:Byzantijnse stadsmuren.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The [[Theodosian Walls]] of [[Constantinople]].]]<br />
In [[674]] the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] [[Muawiyah I]], who had emerged as the ruling dynasty of the Arab empire following the [[First Fitna|civil war]], beseiged [[Constantinople]] under [[Constantine IV]]. In this battle, the Umayyads unable to breach the [[Theodosian Walls]] blockaded the city along the River [[Bosporus]]. The approach of winter however forced the besiegers to withraw to an island 80 miles away.<br />
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However, prior to the siege a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] had recently invented for the Byzantine Empire a devastating new weapon that came to be known as "[[Greek fire]]". At the [[Battle of Syllaeum]] in [[677]], the [[Byzantine navy]] used this to decisely defeat the Umayyad navy in the [[Sea of Marmara]] and lift the siege in [[678]]. This victory halted the Umayyad expansion towards [[Europe]] for almost thirty years.<br />
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The conflict came to a close during the reigns of the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III the Isaurian]] and the Umayyad Caliph [[Umar II]], after the [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople]] in ([[717]]-[[718]]), where the Arab ground forces, led by [[Maslama]], were defeated by Constantinople's impregnable walls and the arrival of [[Bulgarian]] forces while their naval fleet was defeated by Greek Fire. The remnants of the Umayyad navy were subsequently sunk in a storm on its return home.<br />
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The conclusion of the war at this siege is often compared in significance to the later [[Battle of Tours]], in the fact that it halted Muslim expansion into Europe from the East for almost 700 years.<br />
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==800's - 1071==<br />
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The Byzantines continued to wage war against the Arabs, and they were met with some success and some defeat. The Macedonian emperors of the Byzantine empire were the most successful and under their leadership, Byzantine became a superpower in the region. The Byzantine armies defeated the emirs of Iraq and captured Antioch, though they were not always successful. The Arabs managed to inflict a defeat on the Byzantines when they tried to re-capture Crete, and Jerusalem never fell to the Byzantines.<br />
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After the [[Battle of Manzikert]], the Byzantines lost much territory, and though they rose in power, their wars with the Arabs ceased after the fall of the [[Komnenos]] dynasty.<br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Aegyptus (Roman province)]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Syria]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Battle of Tours]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
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==Sources==<br />
*''[http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S759X~ser=FOR The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453]'', [[Osprey Publishing]], ISBN: 184176759X. <br />
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[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Islamische_Eroberung_der_Levante&diff=105161239Islamische Eroberung der Levante2006-11-12T01:12:53Z<p>68.6.230.65: /* The Conquest under Umar */</p>
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<div>{{Infobox Military Conflict|<br />
image=|<br />
caption=|<br />
conflict=Muslim conquest of Syria|<br />
partof=the [[Muslim conquests]] and [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]|<br />
date=[[633]]-[[640]]|<br />
place=Palestine, Syria,|<br />
result=Muslim victory|<br />
territory=Levant annexed by Muslims|<br />
combatant1=[[Byzantine Empire]]|<br />
combatant2=[[Muslim]] [[Arab]]s ([[Rashidun]] and [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]ates)|<br />
commander1=|<br />
commander2=|<br />
strength1=|<br />
strength2=|<br />
casualties1=|<br />
casualties2=|<br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Byzantine-Arab}}<br />
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|right|The Age of the Caliphs]]<br />
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'''The Muslim conquest of Syria''' occured in the first half of the 7th century.<ref name="Brittanica Syria"> "Syria." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-29909]</ref> and refer's the region know as the [[Bilad al-Sham]] or the [[Levant]]. The region was the [[Iudaea Province]] of [[Byzantine|Byzantine (Roman) Empire]] and the their Arab client state ''(symmachos)'' of the [[Ghassanid]]s.<ref name="Brittanica Ghassan"> "Ghassan." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036664]</ref> [[Arab]] forces had appeared on the southern borders even before the death of the [[Islam]]ic [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]] in [[632]], but the real invasion started in 633–634 under his successors, the [[Rashidun]] [[Caliph]]s [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar ibn Khattab]] with [[Khalid ibn al-Walid]] as it's most important leader.<ref name="Brittanica Syria"/><br />
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==Byzantine Syria==<br />
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Syria had been administered from [[Constantinople]] for three centuries prior to the Arab conquest and was frequently contested over by the [[Persia]]ns.<ref name="Brittanica Syria2"> "Syria." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-29907]</ref> The Persian's under [[Khosrow I]] captured [[Antioch]] in [[540]] and in [[573]] the [[Sassanid]]s had resumed attacks.<ref name="Brittanica Syria2"/> The invasion of [[Khosrow II]] began in 606, had just been rolled back by the victories of [[Heraclius]], in the peace of 628 by capturing [[Jerusalem]] in [[614]] and winning at [[Chalcedon]] in [[617]].<ref name="Brittanica Iran"> "Iran." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32160]</ref><br />
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==The Conquest under Umar==<br />
The first territorial conquests were made under Khalid ibn Walid in Umar's reign; Damascus in 635. Damascus, and [[Jerusalem]] - considered by [[Muslim]]s, [[Christian]]s, and [[Jew]]s alike to be a holy city - in [[637]].<ref name="Clargary"> "Umar (634-644)", ''The Islamic World to 1600'' Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, University of Calgary. [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html Last accessed 20 Oct 2006]</ref> In 635 Damascus surrendered, its inhabitants being promised security for their lives, property, and churches, on payment of a poll tax; the ''[[Jizya]]''. A counterattack by the emperor [[Heraclius]] forced the arabs to abandon Jerusalem and Damascus but was defeated at the [[Battle of Yarmuk|Battle of the Yarmuk River]] in [[636]]. Damascus and Jerusalem was re-occupied and by [[640]] the conquest was virtually complete.<ref name="Brittanica Syria"/><br />
===Arab Administration===<br />
The new rulers divided Syria into four districts (''junds''): [[Damascus]], [[Hims]], [[Jordan]], and [[Palestine]] (to which a fifth, [[Kinnasrin]], was later added)<ref name="Brittanica Syria"/> and the Arab [[garrison]]s were kept apart in camps, and life went on much as before for the local population.<ref name="Brittanica Syria"/> Conversion to Islam was limited to the Arab tribes already settled in Syria; except for the tribe of Ghassan.<ref name="Brittanica Syria"/> The Muslim's adopted policy of tolerance towards other religions, resulting in a positive effect on the new subject people, especially the Christians Nestorian and Jacobite Christians and Jews ([[People of the Book]]), who had been previously persecuted under Byzantine rule.<ref name="Clargary"/><ref name="Brittanica Syria"/> The loyalty of his new subjects was paramount to the success of Muslim rule in the region, therefore excessive taxation or oppression was avoided.<ref name="Clargary"/> The taxes instituted were the ''kharaj'' - a tax that landowners and peasants paid according to the productivity of their fields - as well as the ''jizya'' - paid by non-Muslims in return for the freedom to practice their own religion.<ref name="Clargary"/> The Byzantines civil service was retained until a new system could be instituted therefore [[Greek]] remained the administrative language in the new Muslim territories for over 50 years after the conquests.<ref name="Clargary"/><ref name="Brittanica Syria"/><br />
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Umar was also engaged upon creating a buffer zone around all of [[Arabian Peninsula]], the birthplace of Islam, and so while Syria was being captured to the west, Muslim forces were also heading east and engaging the Sassanid Empire there.<ref name="Clargary"/> After the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]] the Muslims were able to resume the offensive against the Byzantines by pushing into [[Aegyptus (Roman province)]].<ref name="Clargary"/><br />
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under the [[Umayyad]] dynasty that came to power following the [[First Fitna|Muslim civil war]]<br />
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==The Conquest under Uthman==<br />
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While [[Uthman ibn Affan]] did not expand the [[Arab Empire]] to the same degree as Umar, his armies thwarted the Byzantine attempt to reconquer Byzantine North Africa. In 639 he named his cousin, [[Muawiyah I|Mu'awiya]], the governor of Syria and commissioned the construction of a Muslim fleet to guard the Mediterranean against Byzantine naval attacks.<ref name="Clargary"/><ref name="Brittanica Syria"/> These newly developed naval capabilities helped in the subsequent conquest of the island of [[Cyprus]] in 649.<ref name="Clargary"/><br />
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==The Rise of the Umayyads==<br />
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When the first [[First Fitna|civil war]] broke out in the Muslim empire, as a result of the murder of 'Uthman and the nomination of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|'Ali]] as caliph, Mu'awiyah used his base in Damascus to extended his authority over neighbouring provinces and was proclaimed caliph in 660.<ref name="Brittanica Syria"/> He was the first of the [[Umayyad]] line, which ruled the empire, with Syria as its core and Damascus its capital, for the next century.<ref name="Brittanica Syria"/> <br />
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==See also==<br />
*[[Iudaea Province]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquests]]<br />
*[[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]<br />
*[[Umayyad conquest of North Africa]]<br />
*[[Muslim conquest of Egypt]]<br />
*[[History of Syria]]<br />
*[[History of Jordan]]<br />
*[[Ghassanids]]<br />
*[[History of Palestine]]<br />
*[[History of the Levant]]<br />
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==Footnotes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the <ref(erences/)> tags--><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
*Multimedia History Tutorials by the Applied History Group, ''The Islamic World to 1600'' , University of Calgary. [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/index2.html]<br />
*Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter51.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 51<br />
*Bishop John NIkiou [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm ''The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu''] Chapters CXVI-CXXI<br />
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[[Category:History of Syria]]<br />
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]<br />
[[Category:Early Middle Ages]]<br />
[[Category:History of the Levant]]<br />
[[Category:Wars of the Byzantine Empire]]<br />
[[Category:Battles of the Umayyad Caliphate]]</div>68.6.230.65