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National Baptist Convention of America

2016-03-04T05:50:07Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

{{Infobox Christian denomination
| name = National Baptist Convention of America, Inc.
| image =
| imagewidth =
| caption =
| main_classification = [[Protestant]]
| orientation = [[Baptist]]
| Presiding Prelate = [[Reverend Dr. Lincoln W. Norris]]
| founder =
| founded_date = 1915
| founded_place =
| separated_from = [[National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.]]
| parent =
| merger =
| separations = [[National Missionary Baptist Convention of America]] (separated 1988)
| associations =
| congregations = 6,716
| members = 3.5 million <ref>[http://www.ncccusa.org/news/080215yearbook1.html National Council of Churches USA]</ref>
| footnotes =
}}

The '''National Baptist Convention of America, Inc.''' ('''NBCA''') is an [[African-American]] [[Baptist]] body organized in 1915 as the result of a struggle to keep the National Baptist Publishing Board of [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] independent. Those supporting the independence of the publishing board, headed by [[Richard Henry Boyd|Rev. R. H. Boyd]], and rejecting a proposed new charter, incorporation, and ownership of the publishing board, withdrew from the [[National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.]] to form the National Baptist Convention of America. In 2000, the NBCA had about 3.5 million members in more than 8000 churches.<ref>[http://www.thearda.com/Denoms/D_1390.asp "National Baptist Convention of America"], Association of Religion Data Archives, 2002</ref> It is the third-largest African-American denomination in the United States after the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.

Another NBCA controversy surrounding the publishing board led to the formation of the [[National Missionary Baptist Convention of America]] in 1988.

The NBCA's headquarters are located in [[Shreveport, Louisiana|Shreveport]], [[Louisiana]].
Dr. Samuel Tolbert of Lake Charles, Louisiana, is the current president.

{{Baptist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nbcainc.com/ National Baptist Convention of America, Inc.] - Official website
*[http://www.thearda.com/Denoms/D_1390.asp Profile of the NBCA on the Association of Religion Data Archives website]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Baptists in America|editor=Leonard, Bill J.}}
*{{cite book|title=Handbook of Denominations|first=Frank S.|last=Mead|author2=Samuel S. Hill |author3=Craig D. Atwood }}
*{{cite book|title=Baptists Around the World|last=Wardin, Jr.|first=Albert W.}}

{{US baptist denominations}}
{{Black church}}
{{Baptist World Alliance Members}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:National Baptist Convention Of America, Inc.}}
[[Category:Historically African-American Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Baptist denominations in North America]]
[[Category:Organizations based in Shreveport, Louisiana]]
[[Category:Religious organizations established in 1915]]
[[Category:Baptist denominations established in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Members of the National Council of Churches]]

Texas Eagle (Missouri Pacific)

2016-02-16T06:21:26Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

{{italic title}}
{{Infobox rail service
| box_width =
| name = ''Texas Eagle''
| logo =
| logo_width =
| image = Texas and Pacific Railway ticket.JPG
| image_width = 300px
| caption = A Texas and Pacific [[EMD E7]] leads an ''Eagle'' in this 1950s ticket cover.
| type =
| status =
| locale =
| predecessor =
| first = August 15, 1948
| last = April 30, 1971
| successor =
| operator =
| formeroperator = [[Missouri Pacific Railroad]] [[Texas and Pacific Railway]]
| ridership =
| ridership2 =
| website =
| start =
| stops =
| end =
| distance =
| journeytime =
| frequency =
| trainnumber =
| line_used =
| class =
| access =
| seating =
| sleeping =
| autorack =
| catering =
| observation =
| entertainment =
| baggage =
| otherfacilities =
| stock =
| gauge =
| el =
| speed =
| owners =
| routenumber =
| map =
| map_state =
}}
The '''''Texas Eagle''''' was a [[streamliner|streamlined]] passenger train operated by the [[Missouri Pacific Railroad]] and the [[Texas and Pacific Railway]] between [[St. Louis, Missouri]], and multiple destinations in the state of [[Texas]]. It operated from 1948 to 1971. The ''Texas Eagle'' was one of many trains discontinued when [[Amtrak]] began operations in 1971, although Amtrak would revive service over the Missouri Pacific with the ''[[Inter-American (train)|Inter-American]]'' in 1974. This train was renamed the ''Eagle'' in 1981 and finally the ''[[Texas Eagle]]'' in 1988.

== History ==
[[File:Missouri Pacific Planetarium Dome 1961.JPG|thumb|350px|Planetarium Dome coaches were featured equipment on the ''Texas Eagle''.]]
The ''Texas Eagle'' began on August 15, 1948, with the renaming of the ''[[Sunshine Special]]''.<ref name="sanders" />{{rp|119}} For thirteen years, the ''Texas Eagle'' operated as two separate sections, leaving [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] in the late afternoon, one following behind the other at an approximately 10-minute interval. At [[Longview, Texas|Longview]], the routes diverged. The west Texas section continued to Dallas and El Paso, while the south Texas section operated to Austin and San Antonio, where a connection was made to the ''Aztec Eagle'' for [[Laredo, Texas]] and [[Mexico City]]. In 1952, dome cars were added to the train. After 1961, the ''Texas Eagle'' was consolidated as a single, very long train, between [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] and [[Longview, Texas]], where the train was split into several sections, each serving different [[Texas]] cities. The west Texas section (the ''West Texas Eagle'') of the Texas Eagle continued from [[Longview, Texas|Longview]] to [[Dallas]], [[Fort Worth]], and [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]]; the south Texas section (''South Texas Eagle'') served [[Palestine, Texas|Palestine]], [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], [[San Antonio]], and [[Laredo, Texas|Laredo]], with a through [[Pullman Company|Pullman]] continuing to [[Mexico City]]. A third section of the ''Texas Eagle'' split from the main train at [[Palestine, Texas|Palestine]], providing service to [[Houston]].<ref name="Schafer">{{Schafer-More-Classic|pages=87-88}}</ref>

From its inception in 1948 the ''Texas Eagle'' carried through sleepers from the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]]'s ''[[Penn Texas]]'', providing a one-seat ride from [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[New York City]] to [[Texas]]. Through sleeper service ended on June 30, 1961, but it was still possible to make a connection between the two trains.<ref name="welsh" />{{rp|134–135}}

The western section ended May 31, 1969, leaving a San Antonio-St. Louis service.<ref name="Schafer" /> The Missouri Pacific discontinued the remaining Texas intrastate segment of the ''Texas Eagle'' on September 22, 1970. The Missouri Pacific bypassed the [[Interstate Commerce Commission]] by arguing (to the [[Texas Railroad Commission]]) that the "Texas Eagle" was not an interstate train but rather three intrastate trains: one which ran San Antonio-[[Texarkana]], another which ran from Texarkana to the Missouri border, and a third which ran from the Missouri border to St. Louis. The Texas Railroad Commission accepted this argument and permitted the Missouri Pacific to end the Texas portion of the ''Texas Eagle''.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Waiting For The Train | journal=Texas Monthly |date=August 1974 | volume=2 | number=8 | first=Griffin | last=Smith | pages=79–83, 89–99}}; 91.</ref> The Texas Railroad Commission ruling was handed down less than a month before President Nixon signed Railpax legislation which placed a moratorium on passenger train discontinuances in anticipation of the start-up of Amtrak. The St. Louis-Texarkana truncation of the Texas Eagle continued running until the advent of [[Amtrak]] on May 1, 1971, when it was discontinued.<ref name="Schafer" />

== Sample consist ==
The December 1952 edition of the ''[[Official Guide of the Railways]]'' listed the following for a southbound ''Texas Eagle'':<ref>{{cite web | title=The Texas Eagle - December 1952 | accessdate=2010-08-07 | url=http://www.streamlinerschedules.com/concourse/track9/texeagle195212.html | work=Streamliner Schedules}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!Type
!Seating
!Route
!Notes
|-
| colspan=4 | ''No. 1 : St. Louis—Fort Worth—El Paso''
|-
|Sleeper
|14 [[roomette]]s, 1 [[drawing room]], 2 double bedrooms
|St. Louis—Fort Worth
|
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|New York—El Paso
|Conveyed New York—St. Louis by the [[Pennsylvania Railroad]]
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|Washington—Fort Worth
|Conveyed Washington—St. Louis by the [[Baltimore and Ohio Railroad]]
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|Memphis—Fort Worth
|Conveyed Memphis—Little Rock by No. 201
|-
|Sleeper
|Roomettes and bedrooms
|Dallas—Los Angeles
|Conveyed El Paso—Los Angeles by the [[Southern Pacific Railroad]]
|-
|Lounge
|5 bedrooms
|St. Louis—Fort Worth
|
|-
|Diner
|
|St. Louis—Fort Worth
|
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—El Paso
|
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—Fort Worth
|Planetarium dome
|-
|Coach
|
|Memphis—Fort Worth
|Conveyed Memphis—Little Rock by No. 201
|-
!Type
!Seating
!Route
!Notes
|-
| colspan=4 | ''No. 21 : St. Louis—Palestine—Houston/San Antonio''
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 1 drawing room, 2 double bedrooms
|St. Louis—Galveston
|
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|Memphis—Houston
|Conveyed Memphis—Little Rock by No. 201
|-
|Sleeper
|10 roomettes, 6 double bedrooms
|Washington—Houston
|Conveyed Washington—St. Louis by the Pennsylvania Railroad
|-
|Sleeper
|10 roomettes, 6 double bedrooms
|New York—Houston
|Conveyed New York—St. Louis by the Pennsylvania Railroad
|-
|Sleeper
|10 roomettes, 6 double bedrooms
|New York—San Antonio
|Conveyed New York—St. Louis by the Pennsylvania Railroad
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|St. Louis—San Antonio
|
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|St. Louis—San Antonio
|
|-
|Diner lounge
|
|St. Louis—Houston
|
|-
|Diner lounge
|
|St. Louis—San Antonio
|
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—Houston
|
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—Corpus Christi
|Conveyed Houston—Odem by No. 11; Odem—Corpus Christi by No. 205
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—San Antonio
|Planetarium dome
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—San Antonio
|
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—San Antonio
|
|-
|Coach
|
|St. Louis—San Antonio
|
|-
|Coach
|
|Houston—Galveston
|
|-
!Type
!Seating
!Route
!Notes
|-
| colspan=4 | ''No. 201 : Memphis—Little Rock''
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|Memphis—Fort Worth
|Conveyed Little Rock—Fort Worth by No. 1
|-
|Sleeper
|14 roomettes, 4 double bedrooms
|Memphis—Houston
|Conveyed Little Rock—Houston by No. 21
|-
|Coach
|
|Memphis—Little Rock
|
|-
|Coach
|
|Memphis—Fort Worth
|Conveyed Little Rock—Fort Worth by No. 1
|}

== See also ==
*''[[Texas Eagle]]'', a successor service operated by [[Amtrak]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="sanders">{{Sanders-Indiana}}</ref>
<ref name="welsh">{{Welsh-Broadway}}</ref>
}}

{{MP named trains}}

[[Category:Named passenger trains of the United States]]
[[Category:Passenger trains of the Missouri Pacific Railroad]]
[[Category:Passenger trains of the Texas and Pacific Railway]]
[[Category:Railway services introduced in 1948]]
[[Category:Railway services discontinued in 1971]]

Feldbahnen der Chiriquí Land Company

2016-02-12T13:09:59Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

Since 1974, the only functioning [[Rail transport|railroad]] in [[Panama]] is '''Panama Canal Railway Company''', successor of [[Panama Railway]] - the oldest transcontinental railroad in the world. It provides passenger and freight service between [[Panama City]] and [[Colón, Panama|Colón]]. Historically, there were also narrow gauge railroads in [[Chiriquí Province]] ('''Ferrocarril de Chiriquí'''); they have however been abandoned in the late twentieth century.<ref>[http://ediciones.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2003/02/21/hoy/nacionales/884959.html Ediciones prensa.com]</ref>

== Panama Canal Railway Company ==
{{main|Panama Canal Railway}}
[[Image:Panama Canal Railway - Passenger Train.JPG|thumb|Panama Canal Railway Passenger train in yard at Colon]]
[[Image:Panama Canal Railway - Container Train.JPG|thumb|Panama Canal Railway Container train arrival at Colon]]
During the first half of the nineteenth century, travel across the Isthmus of Panama was difficult and dangerous. The need for a more reliable interoceanic communication grew stronger after the acquisition of [[California]] by the [[United States]]. The construction of a transcontinental railroad started in 1850 and the first train from coast to coast passed on January 28, 1855. However, more than twelve thousand workers probably died during the construction.

The railway greatly assisted in the building of [[Panama Canal]], which closely paralleled and in some places took over the rail line. Parts of the rail route were moved during the building of the canal, and considerable additions were made to the rail system. The rebuilt and improved Panama Railway beside the canal was completed in 1912.

In 1979, the US government handed over control to the government of Panama. On 19 June 1998, the government of Panama turned over control to the private Panama Canal Railway Company ("PCRC"). The Panama Railway was originally {{Track gauge|1524mm|lk=on}} broad gauge, but when it was rebuilt in 2000, the gauge was changed to {{Track gauge|1435mm|lk=on}} so as to use [[standard gauge]] equipment.

As of 2015, Panama Canal Railway Company runs both passenger and freight trains between [[Panama City]] and [[Colón, Panama|Colón]] [http://www.panarail.com/en/passenger/index-01.html Timetable and fares]. Passenger service consists of one serivce per direction Monday-Friday and the regular one way fare is US$25.

== Ferrocarril de Chiriquí ==
At the end of the nineteenth century, the government of Panama studied the feasibility of additional railroads. In 1910, Panama Railway was commissioned to estimate cost of a railroad from [[Panama City]] to [[David, Panama|David, Chiriquí]] with branches to [[Antón]] ([[Coclé Province]]) and [[Los Santos Province|Los Santos]]. The costs were however too high and the government decided to construct additional network in Chiriquí Province only. In 1914, a contract was signed for construction of a railroad David - [[Boquete]] - [[Concepción, Panama|Concepción]] with a branch [[Dolega, Chiriquí|Dolega]] - [[Potrerillos Abajo|Potrerillos]] and another short one to Puerto [[Pedregal, David|Pedregal]]. The railroad was inaugurated on April 23, 1916 with the first train from David to Boquete. ([http://www.alonsoroy.com/era/era13.html Dr. Alonso Roy])

Edwards Rail Car company reports an [http://www.edwardsrailcar.com/Kudos.html undated acknowledgment] of their three railcars, which were delivered to Ferrocarril de Chiriquí probably in the 1920s.

In the 1930s and 1940s, the railroads are mentioned in connection with Chiriquí Land Co., a [[United Fruit]] company, involved in banana growing and real estate management in Panama. The railroad used [[List of GE locomotives|General Electric]] engines ([http://home.att.net/~Berliner-Ultrasonics/boxcabge.html#chiriqui]). 
In [[Bocas del Toro Province]], Chiriqui Land Co. also operated a railroad system that covered [[Almirante, Bocas del Toro|Almirante]], [[Changuinola]], [[Guabito]] and parts of [[Sixaola]]. This railroad was removed in 1999, leaving only the bridge over [[Changuinola River]].

After 1974, the infrastructure of Chiriquí Railroads was transferred to Ministry of Public Works (Ministerio de Obras Públicas) and operations were stopped. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the tracks of the defunct railroads are being dismantled and reused for construction of bridges in rural areas [http://ediciones.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2003/02/21/hoy/nacionales/884959.html La Prensa February 21, 2003].

== Trams ==
{{Main|Tramways of Panama}}
Two separate and distinct [[tram]] or [[streetcar]] systems operated in [[Panama City]]. The first started service on October 1, 1893, and ended during the [[Thousand Days' War]]. The second started in 1913 and operated, with reorganizations and company transferrals, until May 31, 1941.<ref name="morrison">{{Cite web|last=Morrison|first=Allen|url=http://www.tramz.com/co/pa/pa.html|title=The Tramways of Colombia / Panama|date=1 February 2008|accessdate=2011-05-05}}</ref>

== Feristsa ==
The [[FERISTSA]] Railway was proposed to connect Mexico with Panama.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bnamericas.com/news/infrastructure/Shaw_Group_in_talks_with_US_railroad_cos_for_Feristsa_project
|accessdate=2010-10-16
|title=Shaw Group in talks with US railroad cos for Feristsa project, Central America, Infrastructure, news
}}</ref>

== Panama City Metro ==

In 2010, contracts were awarded for line 1 of a [[Panama Metro|metro system for Panama City]].

== See also ==
{{commons category|Rail transport in Panama}}
* [[Panama]]
* [[Transportation in Panama#Railways|Transport in Panama]]
* [[Panama Railway]]
* [[Rail transport by country]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.panarail.com/ Panama Canal Railway Company]
* [http://www.alonsoroy.com/era/era13.html Inauguration of Ferrocarril de Chiriquí (Alonso Roy, Spanish)]
* [http://www.pavelj.net/pruplav.mpg Video] from [http://amerika.pavelj.net/ Pája's Travelogue] featuring a train ride along Panama Railway and engines (mules) of Panama Canal (narrative in [[Czech language|Czech]])
* [http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3dee2cb60&query=panama%20map UNHCP Atlas Map]

{{Central America topic|Rail transport in}}
{{South America in topic|Rail transport in}}
{{North America in topic|Rail transport in}}

[[Category:Rail transport in Panama| ]]

Feldbahnen der Chiriquí Land Company

2016-02-12T13:09:18Z

68.228.230.203: TIDYING UP

Since 1974, the only functioning [[Rail transport|railroad]] in [[Panama]] is '''Panama Canal Railway Company''', successor of [[Panama Railway]] - the oldest transcontinental railroad in the world. It provides passenger and freight service between [[Panama City]] and [[Colón, Panama|Colón]]. Historically, there were also narrow gauge railroads in [[Chiriquí Province]] ('''Ferrocarril de Chiriquí'''); they have however been abandoned in the late twentieth century.<ref>[http://ediciones.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2003/02/21/hoy/nacionales/884959.html Ediciones prensa.com]</ref>

== Panama Canal Railway Company ==
{{main|Panama Canal Railway}}
[[Image:Panama Canal Railway - Passenger Train.JPG|thumb|Panama Canal Railway Passenger train in yard at Colon]]
[[Image:Panama Canal Railway - Container Train.JPG|thumb|Panama Canal Railway Container train arrival at Colon]]
During the first half of the nineteenth century, travel across the Isthmus of Panama was difficult and dangerous. The need for a more reliable interoceanic communication grew stronger after the acquisition of [[California]] by the [[United States]]. The construction of a transcontinental railroad started in 1850 and the first train from coast to coast passed on January 28, 1855. However, more than twelve thousand workers probably died during the construction.

The railway greatly assisted in the building of [[Panama Canal]], which closely paralleled and in some places took over the rail line. Parts of the rail route were moved during the building of the canal, and considerable additions were made to the rail system. The rebuilt and improved Panama Railway beside the canal was completed in 1912.

In 1979, the US government handed over control to the government of Panama. On 19 June 1998, the government of Panama turned over control to the private Panama Canal Railway Company ("PCRC"). The Panama Railway was originally {{Track gauge|1524mm|lk=on}} broad gauge, but when it was rebuilt in 2000, the gauge was changed to {{Track gauge|1435mm|lk=on}} so as to use [[standard gauge]] equipment.

As of 2015, Panama Canal Railway Company runs both passenger and freight trains between [[Panama City]] and [[Colón, Panama|Colón]] [http://www.panarail.com/en/passenger/index-01.html Timetable and fares]. Passenger service consists of one serivce per direction Monday-Friday and the regular one way fare is US$25.

== Ferrocarril de Chiriquí ==
At the end of the nineteenth century, the government of Panama studied the feasibility of additional railroads. In 1910, Panama Railway was commissioned to estimate cost of a railroad from [[Panama City]] to [[David, Panama|David, Chiriquí]] with branches to [[Antón]] ([[Coclé Province]]) and [[Los Santos Province|Los Santos]]. The costs were however too high and the government decided to construct additional network in Chiriquí Province only. In 1914, a contract was signed for construction of a railroad David - [[Boquete]] - [[Concepción, Panama|Concepción]] with a branch [[Dolega, Chiriquí|Dolega]] - [[Potrerillos Abajo|Potrerillos]] and another short one to Puerto [[Pedregal, David|Pedregal]]. The railroad was inaugurated on April 23, 1916 with the first train from David to Boquete. ([http://www.alonsoroy.com/era/era13.html Dr. Alonso Roy])

Edwards Rail Car company reports an [http://www.edwardsrailcar.com/Kudos.html undated acknowledgment] of their three railcars, which were delivered to Ferrocarril de Chiriquí probably in the 1920s.

In the 1930s and 1940s, the railroads are mentioned in connection with Chiriquí Land Co., a [[United Fruit]] company, involved in banana growing and real estate management in Panama. The railroad used [[List of GE locomotives|General Electric]] engines ([http://home.att.net/~Berliner-Ultrasonics/boxcabge.html#chiriqui]). 
In [[Bocas del Toro Province]], Chiriqui Land Co. also operated a railroad system that covered [[Almirante, Bocas del Toro|Almirante]], [[Changuinola]], [[Guabito]] and parts of [[Sixaola]]. This railroad was removed in 1999, leaving only the bridge over [[Changuinola River]].

After 1974, the infrastructure of Chiriquí Railroads wAS transferred to Ministry of Public Works (Ministerio de Obras Públicas) and operations were stopped. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, the tracks of the defunct railroads are being dismantled and reused for construction of bridges in rural areas [http://ediciones.prensa.com/mensual/contenido/2003/02/21/hoy/nacionales/884959.html La Prensa February 21, 2003].

== Trams ==
{{Main|Tramways of Panama}}
Two separate and distinct [[tram]] or [[streetcar]] systems operated in [[Panama City]]. The first started service on October 1, 1893, and ended during the [[Thousand Days' War]]. The second started in 1913 and operated, with reorganizations and company transferrals, until May 31, 1941.<ref name="morrison">{{Cite web|last=Morrison|first=Allen|url=http://www.tramz.com/co/pa/pa.html|title=The Tramways of Colombia / Panama|date=1 February 2008|accessdate=2011-05-05}}</ref>

== Feristsa ==
The [[FERISTSA]] Railway was proposed to connect Mexico with Panama.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bnamericas.com/news/infrastructure/Shaw_Group_in_talks_with_US_railroad_cos_for_Feristsa_project
|accessdate=2010-10-16
|title=Shaw Group in talks with US railroad cos for Feristsa project, Central America, Infrastructure, news
}}</ref>

== Panama City Metro ==

In 2010, contracts were awarded for line 1 of a [[Panama Metro|metro system for Panama City]].

== See also ==
{{commons category|Rail transport in Panama}}
* [[Panama]]
* [[Transportation in Panama#Railways|Transport in Panama]]
* [[Panama Railway]]
* [[Rail transport by country]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.panarail.com/ Panama Canal Railway Company]
* [http://www.alonsoroy.com/era/era13.html Inauguration of Ferrocarril de Chiriquí (Alonso Roy, Spanish)]
* [http://www.pavelj.net/pruplav.mpg Video] from [http://amerika.pavelj.net/ Pája's Travelogue] featuring a train ride along Panama Railway and engines (mules) of Panama Canal (narrative in [[Czech language|Czech]])
* [http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=3dee2cb60&query=panama%20map UNHCP Atlas Map]

{{Central America topic|Rail transport in}}
{{South America in topic|Rail transport in}}
{{North America in topic|Rail transport in}}

[[Category:Rail transport in Panama| ]]

Verfassungskonvent der Vereinigten Staaten

2016-02-10T16:57:00Z

68.228.230.203: ,

{{about|the original convention that created the U.S. Constitution|that Constitution's yet-unused method of changing itself|Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution}}
{{redirect|Federal Convention}}

[[File:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States.jpg|400px|thumb|''[[Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States]]'']]

The '''Constitutional Convention'''<ref name=Jillson>{{cite book|last= Jillson|first= Calvin C. |title= American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.)|year= 2009|publisher= Taylor & Francis|location= |isbn= 978-0-203-88702-8}}</ref>{{rp|31}} (also known as the '''Philadelphia Convention''',<ref name=Jillson />{{rp|31}} the '''Federal Convention''',<ref name=Jillson />{{rp|31}} or the '''Grand Convention at Philadelphia'''<ref>{{cite book|last1=Odesser-Torpey|first1=Marilyn|title=Insiders' Guide to Philadelphia & Pennsylvania Dutch Country|date=2013|publisher=Morris Book Publishing, LLC|page=26|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCpelbKPeKcC&lpg=PA26&dq=Grand%20Convention%20at%20Philadelphia&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q=Grand%20Convention%20at%20Philadelphia&f=false|accessdate=10 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Rossiter|first1=Clinton|title=1787: The Grand Convention|date=1987|publisher=W.W. Norton|isbn=9780393304046|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zzViQgAACAAJ&dq=Grand+Convention+at+Philadelphia&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CC4Q6AEwA2oVChMItozHveqEyQIVg7gUCh0K_AH0|accessdate=10 November 2015}}</ref>) took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]. Although the Convention was intended to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them [[James Madison]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]], was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected [[George Washington]] to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the [[United States Constitution]], placing the Convention among the most significant events in the [[history of the United States]].

The most contentious disputes revolved around the composition and election of the [[United States Senate|Senate]], how "proportional representation" was to be defined (whether to include slaves or other property), whether to divide the [[Executive (government)|executive power]] between three persons or invest the power into a single president, how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could stand for reelection, what offenses should be impeachable, the nature of a fugitive slave clause, whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade, and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or executive. Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues, while the powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary were not heavily disputed. Once the Convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention, then they agreed on Madison's [[Virginia Plan]] and began to modify it. A [[Committee of Detail]] assembled during the July 4 recess and produced a rough draft. Most of this rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution. After the final issues were resolved, the Committee on Style produced the final version, and it was voted on and sent to the states.

==Historical context==
Before the Constitution was drafted, the nearly 4 million inhabitants<ref>{{cite web|last=United States Census Bureau|title=Pop Culture: 1790|url=http://www.census.gov/history/www/through_the_decades/fast_facts/1790_fast_facts.html|accessdate=July 15, 2012}}</ref> of the 13 newly independent states were governed under the [[Articles of Confederation]], created by the [[Second Continental Congress]]. It soon became evident to nearly all that the chronically underfunded Confederation government, as originally organized, was inadequate for managing the various conflicts that arose among the states.<ref name=Larson>{{cite book|last= Larson|first= Edward J.|last2= Winship |first2=Michael P.|title= The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison|year= 2005|publisher= The Modern Library|location=New York|isbn= 0-8129-7517-0}}</ref>{{rp|4–5}}<ref name=Beeman>{{cite book|last= Beeman|first=Richard|title=Plain Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution|year=2009|publisher=Random House|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-6570-7}}</ref>{{rp|14–16}} As the Articles of Confederation could only be amended by unanimous vote of the states, any state had effective veto power over any proposed change.<ref name="ReferenceA">Articles of Confederation, Art. 13.</ref> In addition, the Articles gave the weak federal government no taxing power: it was wholly dependent on the states for its money, and had no power to force delinquent states to pay.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

Once the immediate task of winning the [[American Revolutionary War]] had passed, the states began to look to their own interests, and disputes arose. These included a [[Maryland v. West Virginia|dispute between Maryland and Virginia]] over the [[Potomac River]] and opposition to Rhode Island's imposing taxes on all traffic passing through it on the [[Boston Post Road|post road]] that linked all the states. [[James Madison]] suggested that state governments should appoint commissioners "to take into consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative situation and trade of said states; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interests and permanent harmony".<ref name=Hunt>{{cite book|last= Hunt|first= Gaillard|title= The Life of James Madison|year= 1902|publisher= Doubleday|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Th9CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA92|location= |isbn=}}</ref>{{rp|92}}

In September 1786, at the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]], delegates from five states called for a constitutional convention in order to discuss possible improvements to the Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional convention took place in Philadelphia on May 14, 1787.
Rhode Island, fearing that the Convention would work to its disadvantage, boycotted the Convention and, when the Constitution was put to the states, initially refused to ratify it.<ref>[http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/constitution-day/ratification.html The Ratification of the Constitution] National Archives</ref>

==The Convention==
[[File:Independence Hall 10.jpg|thumb|left|Independence Hall's Assembly Room]]
Due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century, very few of the selected delegates were present on the designated day of May 14, 1787, and it was not until May 25 that a quorum of seven states was secured. (New Hampshire delegates would not join the Convention until more than halfway through the proceedings, on July 23.)<ref name=Larson />{{rp|103}} James Madison arrived first, and soon most of the Virginia delegation arrived. While waiting for the other delegates, the Virginia delegation produced the [[Virginia Plan]], which was designed and written by [[James Madison]]. On May 25, the delegations convened in the [[Independence Hall (United States)|Pennsylvania State House]].

George Washington was unanimously elected president of the Convention,<ref name="JMU">{{cite book|title=The living U.S. Constitution: Historical Background Landmark Supreme Court Decisions with Introductions indexed Guide Pen Portraits of Signers |last=Padover |first=Saul K. |year=1995 |publisher=NY: A Meridian Book |location=New York |editor=Jacob W. Landynski |version=3}}</ref> and it was agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting.<ref name=Larson />{{rp|11}} Although [[William Jackson (secretary)|William Jackson]] was elected as secretary, his records were brief and included very little detail. Madison's ''[[Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787]],'' supplemented by the notes of [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]], remain the most complete record of the Convention.<ref name=Larson />{{rp|162–164}} Throughout the debate, delegates constantly referred to precedents from history in support of their position. Most commonly, they referred to the [[History of the Constitution of the United Kingdom|history of England]], in particular the [[Glorious Revolution]] (often simply called "The Revolution"), classical history (mainly the [[Roman Republic]] and the leagues of [[Greek city-states]]), and recent precedents from [[Holland]] and [[Germany]].

Outside the Convention in Philadelphia, there was a national convening of the [[Society of the Cincinnati]]. Washington was said to be embarrassed. The 1776 "old republican" delegates like [[ Elbridge Gerry|Elbridge Gerry (MA)]] found anything military or hereditary [[anathema]]. The [[Westminster Confession of Faith|Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia and New York]] convention was meeting to redefine its Confession, dropping the faith requirement for civil authority to prohibit false worship.<ref>Irons, Lee., [http://www.upper-register.com/papers/1788_revision.pdf The 1788 American Revision of the Westminster Standards], viewed September 15, 2011. Referencing "Records of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America 1706–1788" (1969).</ref> Protestant Episcopalian Washington attended a Roman Catholic Mass and dinner.{{sfn|Bowen|2010|p=22}} Revolution veteran [[Jonas Phillips]], of the [[Congregation Mikveh Israel|Mikveh Israel Synagogue]], petitioned the Convention to avoid a national oath including belief in both Old and New Testaments. Merchants of Providence, Rhode Island, petitioned for consideration, even though their Assembly had not sent a delegation.{{sfn|Bowen|2010|pp=19–20, 37, 173–6, 216–217}}

[[Manasseh Cutler]] came directly from the U.S. Capital in New York and found himself a frequent dinner guest among the delegates. He carried grants of five million acres to parcel out among [[Ohio Company of Associates|The Ohio Company]] and "speculators", some of whom would be found among those attending the Convention.{{refn|group = lower-alpha|Manasseh Cutler was a Congregationalists minister and former Army chaplain from Massachusetts. He arrived directly from lobbying success in New York City during the [[Northwest Ordnance]] negotiations at the Articles Congress.{{sfn|Bowen|2010|pp=37, 173–176, 216–217}}}} A Philadelphia guest of Robert Morris, [[Noah Webster]] would write a pamphlet as "A Citizen of America" immediately after the signing. "Leading Principles of the Federal Convention" advocated adoption of the Constitution. It was published much earlier and more widely circulated than today's better known [[Federalist Papers]].<ref>Teaching American History.org, [http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?document=1782 A citizen of America: an examination into the leading principles of America], viewed October 20, 2011. Scudder, Horace Elisha. [https://books.google.com/books?id=C29hfOcW32kC&pg=PA146&lpg=PA146&dq=Noah+Webster+at+the+Convention&source=bl&ots=5PIVaDlMdx&sig=vz-iL6PW_GGrIzWUITBVF8vQ0eY&hl=en&ei=Z9-fTs75KYPv0gGamaXRBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=constitutional%20convention&f=false Noah Webster], 1885 ed., p. 129.</ref>

===James Madison's blueprint===
While waiting for the Convention to formally begin, James Madison sketched out his initial draft, which became known as the [[Virginia Plan]] and reflected his views as a strong nationalist.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|47}} By the time the rest of the Virginia delegation arrived, most of the Pennsylvania delegation had arrived as well. They agreed on Madison's plan, and formed what came to be the predominant coalition. By the time the Convention started, the only blueprints that had been assembled were Madison's Virginia Plan, and [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney's]] plan. As Pinckney didn't have a coalition behind his plan, Madison's plan was the starting point for deliberations.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|47}}
[[File:James Madison Portrait2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|James Madison, the author of the Virginia Plan]]
The Convention agreed on several principles. Most importantly, they agreed that the Convention should go beyond its mandate merely to amend the [[Articles of Confederation]], and instead should produce a new constitution outright. While some delegates thought this illegal, the Articles of Confederation were closer to a treaty between sovereign states than they were to a national constitution, so the genuine legal problems were limited.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|64}} Another principle they agreed on was that the new government would have all the powers of the Confederation Congress, plus additional powers over the states.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|64}} Once agreeing on these principles, the Convention voted on the Virginia plan and signaled their approval for it. Once this was done, they began modifying it.

Madison's plan operated on several assumptions that were not seriously challenged. During the deliberations, few raised serious objections to the planned bicameral congress, nor the separate [[Executive (government)|executive function]], nor the separate judicial function.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|67}} As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions, law making embodied in the legislature, and law executing embodied in the king and his courts, the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point.<ref name="JMU"/>

The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house wasn't questioned either, despite the obscure origins of the English [[House of Lords]] and its role as the representative of the hereditary nobility.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|82}} Americans had seldom known any but [[bicameral]] legislatures, both in Britain and in most state governments. The main exceptions to this were the dysfunctional Confederation Congress and the unicameral [[Pennsylvania legislature]], which was seen as quickly vacillating between partisan extremes after each election.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|82}} Experience had convinced the delegates that an upper house was necessary to tame the passions of the people. However, since America had no native [[hereditary aristocracy]], the character of this upper house was uncertain, other than the belief that it should represent the "betters" of society.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|85}}
{{quotebox|quote=In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to answer these purposes, they ought to have permanency and stability.|salign=right|source=--James Madison, quoted in [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/yates.asp ''Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787''] by Robert Yates|align=left|width=25%}}
The delegates also agreed with Madison that the executive function had to be independent of the legislature. In their aversion to kingly power, American legislatures had created state governments where the executive was beholden to the legislature, and by the late 1780s this was widely seen as being a source of paralysis.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|82}} The Confederation government was the ultimate example of this.

Furthermore, in the English tradition, judges were seen as being agents of the King and his court, who represented him throughout his realm.<ref name="JMU"/> Madison believed that in the American states, this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through [[patronage]], and thought the link had to be severed between the two, thus creating the "third branch" of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point.<ref name="JMU"/> Madison, however, did not believe that the judiciary should be truly independent, but rather beholden to the legislature rather than the executive. At the Convention, some sided with Madison that the legislature should choose judges, while others believed the president should choose judges. A compromise was eventually reached that the president should choose judges and the Senate confirm them.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|84}}

In a few areas, Madison's plan included provisions that had little support among the delegates. Few agreed with Madison that the legislature should be able to invalidate state laws, so the idea was dropped. While most thought there should be some mechanism to invalidate bad laws by congress, few agreed with Madison that a board of the executive and judges should decide on this. Instead, the power was given solely to the executive in the form of the veto. Many also thought this would be useful to protect the executive, whom many worried might become beholden to an imperial legislature.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|141}} Also, during the deliberations, the [[New Jersey Plan]] was introduced, although it was more of a protest to the excessive national character of the Virginia plan, and was not seriously considered.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|230}} The office of [[Vice President]] was also included later in the deliberations, mainly to provide the president a successor if he was unable to complete his term.

=== The early debate ===
Each state was allowed to cast a single vote either for or against a proposal during the debates in accordance with the majority opinion of the state's delegates.<ref name=Larson />{{rp|83}} Throughout the Convention, delegates would regularly come and go, with only 30 – 40 being present on a typical day.<ref name=Larson />{{rp|83}} Consequently, if a state's delegates were equally divided in their views on a given proposal, or if too few of the state's delegates were in attendance to establish a quorum for the delegation when votes were being cast on a particular proposal, that state's delegation had essentially no effect on the outcome of the vote on the proposal. Thus, for example, after two of New York's three delegates abandoned the Convention in mid July with no intention of returning, New York was left unable to vote on any further proposals at the Convention, although Hamilton would continue to periodically attend and occasionally to speak during the debates.<ref name=Larson />{{rp|83}}
{{quote box|quote=All communities divide themselves into the few and the many. The first are the rich and well born, the other the mass of the people. The voice of the people has been said to be the voice of God; and however generally this maxim has been quoted and believed, it is not true in fact. The people are turbulent and changing; they seldom judge or determine right. Give therefore to the first class a distinct, permanent share in the government. They will check the unsteadiness of the second, and as they cannot receive any advantage by a change, they therefore will ever maintain good government. Can a democratic assembly, who annually revolve in the mass of the people, be supposed steadily to pursue the public good? Nothing but a permanent body can check the imprudence of democracy. Their turbulent and uncontroling disposition requires checks.|salign=right|source=--Alexander Hamilton, quoted in [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/const/yates.htm ''Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787''] by Robert Yates|align=right|width=25%}}
The first area of major dispute was the manner by which the lower house would be [[United States congressional apportionment|apportioned]]. A minority wanted it to be apportioned so that all states would have equal weight, though this was never seriously considered. Most wanted it apportioned in accordance with some mixture of property and population.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|117}} Though there was discussion on how to calculate property for this purpose, the issue of property was later dropped because of its difficulty, and an assumption that property would closely correlate to population.

Most accepted the desire among the slave states to count slaves as part of the population, although their servile status was raised as a major objection against this. The [[Three-Fifths Compromise]] assessing population by adding the number of free persons to three-fifths of "all other persons" (slaves) was agreed to without serious dispute.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|119}} In 1783, when attempting to assess a national taxation system, the Confederation Congress had considered a three fifths ratio, which did not achieve unanimity.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|119}}<ref>[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=3&psid=163 The Three-Fifth Compromise] Digitalhistory.uh.edu</ref> This compromise resulted in a large coalition of states, including the small slave states of South Carolina and Georgia, backing the Virginia plan and thus expanding the power of the primary coalition. That the lower house was to be elected directly by the voters was also accepted without major dispute.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|119}}
[[File:Virginia plan front 1 - hi-res.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Front side of the Virginia Plan]]

More contentious than the lower house was the question of the upper house. Few agreed with Madison that its members should be elected by the lower house. James Wilson suggested election by popular vote versus election by state legislature, but his proposal was shot down 10-1 by the delegates.<ref>{{cite book|last=Farrand|first=Max|title=The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, Volume 1|year=1966|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-00080-1|pages=155}}</ref> Most delegates didn't question the intelligence of the voters, rather what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|122}} At the time of the Convention, they noted that local newspapers said little of current events, and what little they had was sketchy and dated. Local papers even said little about the meeting of the Convention.{{Citation needed|date=October 2015|reason=A citation of a primary witness, and/or examples of several local papers from the time period, are needed to support this statement.}}

Besides the problems of direct election, the new Constitution was seen as such a radical break with the old system, by which delegates were elected to the [[Confederation Congress]] by state legislatures, that the Convention agreed to retain this method of electing senators to make the constitutional change less radical.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|122}} The more difficult problem was the issue of apportionment. The Connecticut delegation [[Connecticut compromise|offered a compromise]], whereby the number of representatives for each state in the lower house would be apportioned based on the relative size of the state's population, while the number of representatives in the upper house would be the same for all of the states, irrespective of size. The large states, fearing a diminution of their influence in the legislature under this plan, opposed this proposal. Unable to reach agreement, the delegates decided to leave this issue for further consideration later during the meeting.

The delegates couldn't agree on whether the executive should be a single person, or a [[Triumvirate|board of three]]. Many wished to limit the power of the executive and thus supported the proposal to divide the executive power between three persons.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|134}} The possible problems of this system, in addition to the knowledge that [[George Washington]] would probably be the first president,{{Citation needed|date=October 2015|reason=Further evidence is needed to support the claim that the delegates believed that Washington would be the first president.}} calmed the fears enough so that the proponents of a singular executive could accumulate a large coalition.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|134}} This issue came up occasionally after the matter was settled, but was never again seriously doubted.

Another issue concerned the election of the president. Few agreed with Madison that the executive should be elected by the legislature. There was widespread concern with direct election, because information diffused so slowly in the late 18th century, and because of concerns that people would only vote for candidates from their state or region. A vocal minority wanted the national executive to be chosen by the governors of the states.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|136}}

The issue was one of the last major issues to be resolved, and was done so in the [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral college]]. At the time, before the formation of modern [[party system|political parties]], there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college. The method of resolving this problem therefore was a contested issue. Most thought that the house should then choose the president, since it most closely reflected the will of the people. This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states, who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage. To resolve this dispute, the Convention agreed that the house would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc, rather than individually.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|136}}

As the Convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states that were present at that time at the Convention. The members of this "Grand Committee," as it has come to be known, included [[Elbridge Gerry]], [[Oliver Ellsworth]], [[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]], [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]], [[Gunning Bedford, Jr.]], [[George Mason]], [[William Davie]], [[John Rutledge]], [[Abraham Baldwin]], and [[Benjamin Franklin]]. In its report to the Convention on July 5, the committee offered a compromise. The large states had opposed the [[Connecticut Compromise]], because they felt it gave too much power to the smaller states. The Grand Committee's proposal made two important modifications. It added the requirement that revenue bills originate in the lower house and not be subject to modification by the upper house (although this [[Origination Clause]] would later be modified so that revenue bills could be amended in the upper house, or Senate).<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|199}}

The proposal also specified that each senator—rather than each state delegation—was to get one vote, and that each state would have multiple senators. This meant that the senators would each be voting individually, rather than as a bloc by state as delegates always had. This made senators free agents, presumably acting on behalf of their state at large, rather than as mere agents of the state legislatures. As such, the Senate would bring a [[Federalism in the United States|federal character]] to the government, not because senators were elected by state legislatures, but because each state was equally represented in the Senate, which was the main aim of the smaller states. It was this, not simply Madison's earlier agreement to replace the word ''national'' with the word ''federal'', that convinced the delegates that the Constitution had a federal character. The final document was thus a mixture of Madison's original "national" constitution and the desired "federal" Constitution that many of the delegates sought.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|199}}

===The first draft===
The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the [[Committee of Detail]], which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by [[John Rutledge]] (nicknamed "Dictator John" as a reflection of the extraordinary power he had assumed as South Carolina’s governor during the early days of the Revolution),<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|267}} with the other members including [[Edmund Randolph]], [[Oliver Ellsworth]], [[James Wilson]], and [[Nathaniel Gorham]]. Although the membership of the committee disproportionately favored the larger states,<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|264}} it was fairly evenly balanced in terms of geographic distribution: Gorham (Massachusetts) representing northern New England, Ellsworth (Connecticut) representing lower New England, Wilson (Pennsylvania) representing the middle states, Randolph (Virginia) representing the upper South, and Rutledge (South Carolina) representing the lower South.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|264}}<ref name=Stewart>{{cite book|last= Stewart|first= David O.|title= The Summer of 1787|year= 2007|publisher= Simon & Schuster|location=New York|isbn= 978-0-7432-8692-3}}</ref>{{rp|164}} Other than Gorham, the committee members had all been lawyers of distinction, and would be leading legal figures in the new government (Randolph would be the first [[United States Attorney General|attorney general]], while Rutledge, Ellsworth and Wilson would become Supreme Court justices). They had all known one another as delegates to the Confederation Congress, and had seen its weaknesses first hand. With the exception of Randolph, they had all been serving in the Confederation Congress when its fiscal problems had become acute. They also had already played important roles in the Convention: Randolph had presented the Virginia Plan, Rutledge and Wilson had been key in crafting the compromise on representation, Ellsworth had led the small states during the battle over per-state voting in the Senate, and Gorham had chaired the Committee of the Whole, where he called for compromise during the bitter debate over representation.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|165–166}}

Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee’s handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge’s edits, and the committee’s final report to the Convention.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|168}} From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the Convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the [[Articles of Confederation]], provisions of the state constitutions, and even [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney's]] plan, to produce the first full draft,<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|269–270}}<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|165}} which author [[David O. Stewart]] has called a "remarkable copy-and-paste job."<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|165}}

Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|270}}

Much of what was included in the committee’s report consisted of numerous details that the Convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee’s proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|169}} Examples of these details included the [[Speech and Debate Clause]], which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate.

However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government’s power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge’s urging, the committee went beyond what the Convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked" and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far-reaching provisions that the Convention had never discussed.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|165}}

[[File:John Rutledge.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Rutledge]], a judge and former governor of South Carolina, chaired the committee that wrote the first draft of the Constitution. He argued for a federal government of limited power.]]

The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate “in all cases for the general interests of the Union” that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the Convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph’s outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific “enumerated” powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress’ authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|273–274}}<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|170–171}} Rutledge, however, was not able to completely convince all of the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the “[[Necessary and Proper Clause]]”) was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power “to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.”<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|274}}<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|171–172}} Another revision of Wilson’s draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge’s list of enumerated powers.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|274–275}}<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|172}} In addition, Wilson’s draft modified the language of the [[Supremacy Clause]] adopted by the Convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|172}}

These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual-sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|172}}

Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee’s report was presented to the Convention. On the day the Convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|269,275}}<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|173}} Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates must have been delighted to see that the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress’ authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England's “[[Navigation Acts]]”) pass only with two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee’s report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals would provoke outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|275}}<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|173–174}}

The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September.

===Further modifications and concluding debate===
Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|187}} Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan.

One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]] starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the [[Fugitive Slave Clause]] in exchange for removing a requirement that two-thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts" (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two-thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|196}}

Once the Convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to ''[[habeas corpus]]'', [[freedom of the press]], and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts.

A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|207}} The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with Indian tribes, and Franklin's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee's input.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|209}} They adopted Wilson's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty".

The committee also shortened the president's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved [[Impeachment in the United States|impeachment trials]] from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office and to preside over the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|212}} One controversial issue throughout much of the Convention had been the length of the president's term, and whether the president was to be [[term limit]]ed. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option.

Near the end of the Convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge's Committee of Detail.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|235}} Some have argued that Randolph's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival [[Patrick Henry]] in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts" with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|236}} Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president.

Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors" to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the Convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment, in which two-thirds of the states had to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|238}} All amendments to the Constitution have been made through this latter method.

Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the Convention's business to an end and return home. As the Convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a [[bill of rights]], which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|241}}

Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the [[anti-Federalist]]s against ratification. Most of the Convention's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last-minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|243}}

===Drafting and signing===
[[File:Constitution Sesquicentennial 1937 Issue-3c.jpg|thumb|U.S. Postage, Issue of 1937, depicting Delegates at the signing of the Constitution, engraving after a painting by [[Junius Brutus Stearns]]<ref>[http://www.junior-philatelists.com/USStampsHistory37.htm United States Postage Stamps]</ref>]]
Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house." Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members were mostly in favor of a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states' rights.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|229–230}} They were [[William Samuel Johnson]] (Connecticut), [[Alexander Hamilton]] (New York), [[Gouverneur Morris]] (Pennsylvania), [[James Madison]] (Virginia), and [[Rufus King]] (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style" was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the Convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the Convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter his language was now inserted, creating the [[contract clause]].<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|243}}

Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: [[Edmund Randolph]] of [[Virginia]], [[George Mason]] of [[Virginia]], and [[Elbridge Gerry]] of [[Massachusetts]]. [[George Mason]] demanded a [[Bill of Rights]] if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow.<ref name="bor">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/bill_of_rights.html|author=National Archives|title=Bill of Rights|accessdate=November 21, 2007}}</ref> Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. [[George Washington]] spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|112}} Ultimately, 39 of the original 55 delegates ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by [[Benjamin Franklin]], who said, <blockquote>I confess that There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution. ... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies...<ref>[http://www.usconstitution.net/franklin.html Speech of Benjamin Franklin - The U_S_ Constitution Online - USConstitution_net]</ref></blockquote>

Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York's three delegates did not stay at the Convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton."<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|244}} Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the Convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names.

At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an [[anecdote]] on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington's [[Chippendale furniture|Chippendale chair]].<ref name="RisingSun">"Rising Sun" in ''The Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America's Founding'', Vol. 1 (ed. John R. Vile: ABC-CLIO, 2005), p. 681.</ref> As recounted in Madison's notes:

<blockquote>Whilst the last members were signing it Doctr. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.<ref name="RisingSun"/><ref>[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_917.asp Madison Notes for September 17, 1787].</ref></blockquote>

The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own [[United States Constitution#Article Seven: Ratification|Article VII]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Akhil Reed Amar|title=America's Constitution: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4bVBs5OOkFEC|year=2006|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-0-8129-7272-6|page=29}}</ref>

==Proposed plans==
Several plans were introduced, with the most important plan being that of James Madison (the Virginia Plan). The Convention's work was mostly a matter of modifying this plan. Charles Pinckney also introduced a plan, although this wasn't considered and its exact character has been lost to history. After the Convention was well under way, the New Jersey Plan was introduced though never seriously considered.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|230}} It was mainly a protest to what some delegates thought was the excessively radical change from the Articles of Confederation.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|230}} Alexander Hamilton also offered a plan after the Convention was well under way, though it included an executive serving for life and therefore the delegates felt it too closely resembled a monarchy.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|137}} Historians are unsure how serious he was about this, and some have speculated that he may have done it to make Madison's plan look moderate by comparison.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|137}} The Connecticut Compromise wasn't a plan but one of several compromises offered by the Connecticut delegation. It was key to the ultimate ratification of the constitution, although was only included after being modified by Benjamin Franklin in order to make it more appealing to larger states.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|199}}

===Virginia Plan===
{{Main|Virginia Plan}}
[[File:Virginia Plan.png|thumb|350px|The Virginia Plan]]

Prior to the start of the Convention, the Virginian delegates met and, drawing largely from [[James Madison|Madison's]] suggestions, came up with what came to be known as the Virginia Plan, also known as the Large State Plan.<ref name="usconstitution">{{cite web|url=http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html|author=US Constitution.net|title=Constitutional Topic: The Constitutional Convention|accessdate=October 17, 2007}}</ref> For this reason, James Madison is sometimes called the Father of the Constitution.<ref name="usconstitution"/> Presented by Virginia governor [[Edmund Randolph]] on May 29, 1787, the Virginia Plan proposed a very powerful bicameral legislature.<ref name="usconstitution"/> Both houses of the legislature would be determined proportionately.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The lower house would be elected by the people, and the upper house would be elected by the lower house.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The executive would exist solely to ensure that the will of the legislature was carried out and would therefore be selected by the legislature.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The Virginia Plan also created a judiciary, and gave both the executive and some of the judiciary the power to veto, subject to override.

===New Jersey Plan===
{{Main|New Jersey Plan}}
[[File:New Jersey Plan.png|thumb|350px|The New Jersey Plan]]

After the Virginia Plan was introduced, New Jersey delegate [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]] asked for an adjournment to contemplate the Plan.<ref name="usconstitution"/> Under the [[Articles of Confederation]], each state had equal representation in Congress, exercising one vote each.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The Virginia Plan threatened to limit the smaller states' power by making both houses of the legislature proportionate to population. On 14 and 15 June 1787, a small-state caucus met to create a response to the Virginia Plan. The result was the New Jersey Plan, otherwise known as the Small State Plan.<ref name="usconstitution"/>

Paterson's New Jersey Plan was ultimately a rebuttal to the Virginia Plan, and was much closer to the initial call for the Convention: drafting amendments to the Articles of Confederation to fix the problems in it.<ref name="usconstitution"/> Under the New Jersey Plan, the existing Continental Congress would remain, but it would be granted new powers, such as the power to levy taxes and force their collection.<ref name="usconstitution"/> An executive branch was created, to be elected by Congress (the plan allowed for a multi-person executive).<ref name="usconstitution"/> The executives would serve a single term and were subject to recall on the request of state governors.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The plan also created a judiciary that would serve for life, to be appointed by the executives.<ref name="usconstitution"/> Lastly, any laws set by Congress would take precedence over state laws.<ref name="usconstitution"/> When Paterson reported the plan to the Convention on June 15, 1787, it was ultimately rejected, but it gave the smaller states a rallying point for their interests.<ref name="usconstitution"/>

===Hamilton's plan===
[[File:Hamilton Plan.png|thumb|350px|The Hamilton Plan]]

Unsatisfied with the New Jersey Plan and the Virginia Plan, [[Alexander Hamilton]] proposed his own plan. It also was known as the British Plan, because of its resemblance to the British system of strong centralized government.<ref name="usconstitution"/> In his plan, Hamilton advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty and consolidating the states into a single nation.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The plan featured a bicameral legislature, the lower house elected by the people for three years. The upper house would be elected by electors chosen by the people and would serve for life.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The plan also gave the Governor, an executive elected by electors for a life-term of service, an absolute veto over bills.<ref name="usconstitution"/> State governors would be appointed by the national legislature,<ref name="usconstitution"/> and the national legislature had [[Legislative veto in the United States|veto power]] over any state legislation.<ref name="usconstitution"/>

Hamilton presented his plan to the Convention on June 18, 1787.<ref name="usconstitution"/> The plan was perceived as a well-thought-out plan, but it was not considered, because it resembled the British system too closely.<ref name="usconstitution"/> It also contemplated the loss of most state authority, which the states were unwilling to allow.

===Pinckney's plan===
[[File:Pinckney Plan.png|thumb|350px|The Pinckney Plan]]

Immediately after Randolph finished laying out the Virginia Plan, [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of South Carolina presented his own plan to the Convention. As Pinckney did not reduce it to writing, the only evidence we have are Madison's notes,<ref name="YAP">{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/const/pinckney.htm|author=The Plan of Charles Pinckney (South Carolina), Presented to the Federal Convention, May 29, 1787|title=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School|accessdate=November 28, 2007}}</ref> so the details are somewhat vague. It was a confederation, or treaty, among the thirteen states. There was to be a bicameral legislature made up of a Senate and a House of Delegates. The House would have one member for every one thousand inhabitants. The House would elect Senators who would serve by rotation for four years and represent one of four regions. Congress would meet in a joint session to elect a President, and would also appoint members of the cabinet. Congress, in joint session, would serve as the court of appeal of last resort in disputes between states. Pinckney did also provide for a supreme Federal Judicial Court. The Pinckney plan was not debated, but it may have been referred to by the [[Committee of Detail]].<ref name="YA2">{{cite web|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/debates/529.htm#23|author=The Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 reported by James Madison : May 29|title=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School|accessdate=November 28, 2007}}</ref>

===Connecticut Compromise===
{{Main|Connecticut Compromise}}

The [[Connecticut Compromise]], forged by [[Roger Sherman]] from Connecticut, was proposed on June 11.<ref name="usconstitution"/> In a sense it blended the Virginia (large-state) and New Jersey (small-state) proposals. Ultimately, however, its main contribution was in determining the apportionment of the Senate, and thus retaining a federal character in the constitution. Sherman sided with the two-house national legislature of the Virginia Plan, but proposed "That the proportion of suffrage in the 1st. branch [house] should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more."<ref name="usconstitution"/> This plan failed at first, but on July 23 the question was finally settled.<ref name="usconstitution"/>

What was ultimately included in the constitution was a modified form of this plan. In the Committee of Detail, Benjamin Franklin added the requirement that revenue bills originate in the house, and rather than the state delegations voting as a bloc as instructed by their state legislatures, Franklin's modification made them free agents.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|199}} As such, the Senate would bring a federal character to the government, not because senators were elected by state legislatures, but because each state was equally represented.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|199}}

==Slavery==
Among the most controversial issues confronting the delegates was that of [[slavery in the United States|slavery]]. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the Convention.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|68}} Twenty-five of the Convention's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|68–69}} Slaves comprised approximately one-fifth of the population of the states;<ref name=USDLCB>{{cite book|last= United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census|title= A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900|year= 1909|publisher= Government Printing Office|place=D.C. |url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit}}</ref>{{rp|139}} and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived throughout all regions of the country.<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|132}} The majority of the slaves (more than 90%),<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|132}} however, lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families).<ref name=USDLCB />{{rp|135}} The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the Convention were unwilling to accept any proposals that they believed would threaten the institution.
[[File:JohnDickinson4.gif|thumb|upright|Quaker [[John Dickinson (politician)|John Dickinson]] argued forcefully against slavery during the Convention. Once Delaware's largest slaveholder, he had freed all of his slaves by 1787.]]

Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that several Southern states refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery practiced within the confines of the new nation be completely outlawed. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the Convention's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The Convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven-member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two-thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|318–329}}

Another contentious slavery-related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress, or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation.<ref name="crf">{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.crf-usa.org/lessons/slavery_const.htm|author=Constitutional Rights Foundation|title=The Constitution and Slavery|accessdate=November 21, 2007}}</ref> Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population.<ref name="crf"/> Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation.<ref name="crf"/>

Finally, delegate [[James Wilson]] proposed the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]].<ref name="usconstitution"/> This was eventually adopted by the Convention.

==Delegates==
The states had originally appointed seventy representatives to the Convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving 55 delegates who would ultimately craft the Constitution.<ref name=Nara70>{{cite web|last=United States National Archives and Records Administration|title=America's Founding Fathers, Delegates to the Constitutional Convention|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers.html/|accessdate=July 21, 2012}}</ref>

Almost all of the fifty-five delegates had taken part in the Revolution, with at least twenty-nine having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command.<ref name=Nara29>{{cite web|last=United States National Archives and Records Administration|title=America's Founding Fathers, Delegates to the Constitutional Convention|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_founding_fathers_overview.html|accessdate=July 21, 2012}}</ref> All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|65}} The vast majority (about 75%) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution.<ref name=Stewart />{{rp|25}} Several had been state governors.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|65}}<ref name=Nara29/> Just two delegates, [[Roger Sherman]] and [[Robert Morris (financier)|Robert Morris]], would be signatories to all three of the nation’s founding documents: the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution.<ref name=Nara29/>

More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had even been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal means of business. There were also merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers or financiers, two or three physicians, a minister, and several small farmers.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|65–68}}<ref name=Nara29/> Of the twenty-five who owned slaves, sixteen depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Most of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most, with the possible exception of Roger Sherman and William Few, were very comfortably wealthy.<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|66–67}} George Washington and Robert Morris were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.<ref name=Nara29/>

{{col-begin}}
{{col-1-of-5}}
'''[[Connecticut]]'''
*[[Oliver Ellsworth]]*
*[[William Samuel Johnson]]
*[[Roger Sherman]]

'''[[Delaware]]'''
*[[Richard Bassett (politician)|Richard Bassett]]
*[[Gunning Bedford, Jr.]]
*[[Jacob Broom]]
*[[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]]
*[[George Read (signer)|George Read]]

'''[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]'''
*[[Abraham Baldwin]]
*[[William Few]]
*[[William Houstoun (lawyer)|William Houstoun]]*
*[[William Pierce (politician)|William Pierce]]*
{{col-2-of-5}}
'''[[Maryland]]'''
*[[Daniel Carroll]]
*[[Luther Martin]]*
*[[James McHenry]]
*[[John Francis Mercer]]*
*[[Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer]]

'''[[Massachusetts]]'''
*[[Elbridge Gerry]]*
*[[Nathaniel Gorham]]
*[[Rufus King]]
*[[Caleb Strong]]*

'''[[New Hampshire]]'''
*[[Nicholas Gilman]]
*[[John Langdon (politician)|John Langdon]]
{{col-3-of-5}}
'''[[New Jersey]]'''
*[[David Brearley]]
*[[Jonathan Dayton]]
*[[William Houston]]*
*[[William Livingston]]
*[[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]]

'''[[New York]]'''
*[[Alexander Hamilton]]
*[[John Lansing, Jr.]]*
*[[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]]*

'''[[North Carolina]]'''
*[[William Blount]]
*[[William Richardson Davie]]*
*[[Alexander Martin]]*
*[[Richard Dobbs Spaight]]
*[[Hugh Williamson]]
{{col-4-of-5}}
'''[[Pennsylvania]]'''
*[[George Clymer]]
*[[Thomas Fitzsimons]]
*[[Benjamin Franklin]]
*[[Jared Ingersoll]]
*[[Thomas Mifflin]]
*[[Gouverneur Morris]]
*[[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]]
*[[James Wilson]]

'''[[South Carolina]]'''
*[[Pierce Butler]]
*[[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]
*[[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]]
*[[John Rutledge]]
{{col-5-of-5}}
'''[[Virginia]]'''
*[[John Blair]]
*[[James Madison]]
*[[George Mason]]*
*[[James McClurg]]*
*[[Edmund Randolph]]*
*[[George Washington]]
*[[George Wythe]]*

'''[[Rhode Island]]'''
''Rhode Island did not send delegates to the Convention.''
{{col-end}}

(*) ''Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign.''

The names of several prominent [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founders]] are notable for their ''not'' having participated in the Constitutional Convention. [[Thomas Jefferson]] was abroad, serving as the minister to France (nonetheless, Jefferson, in a letter to John Adams, would describe the delegates approvingly as a gathering of “demi-gods”).<ref name=Farrand>{{cite book|last= Farrand|first= Max|title= The Framing of the Constitution of the United States|year= 1913|publisher=Yale University Press|location= New Haven|isbn= |url=https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods}}</ref>{{rp|13}} [[John Adams]] was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. [[Patrick Henry]] refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy." Also absent were [[John Hancock]] and [[Samuel Adams]]. Many of the states’ older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the Convention,<ref name=Beeman />{{rp|65}} which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.

== See also ==
* [[Constitution Day (United States)]]
* [[Constitution of the United States]]
* [[Convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution]]
* [[The Federalist Papers|''The Federalist'' Papers]]
* [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]
* [[History of the United States Constitution]]
* [[History of the United States]]
* [[National Constitution Center]]
* [[Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution]]
* [[United States Bill of Rights]]
* [[Syng inkstand]]
* [[America's Critical Period]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=
}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|60em}}
*{{cite book|last= Beeman|first=Richard|title=Plain Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution|year=2009|publisher=Random House|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4000-6570-7|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last= Farrand|first= Max|title= The Framing of the Constitution of the United States|year= 1913|publisher= Yale University Press|location= New Haven|isbn= |url=https://archive.org/stream/framingofconstit00farruoft#page/38/mode/2up/search/demigods|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last= Hunt|first= Gaillard|title= The Life of James Madison|year= 1902|publisher= Doubleday|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Th9CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA92|location= |isbn= |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last= Jillson|first= Calvin C. |title= American Government: Political Development and Institutional Change (5th ed.)|year= 2009|publisher= Taylor & Francis|location= |isbn= 978-0-203-88702-8|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last= Larson|first= Edward J.|last2= Winship |first2=Michael P.|title= The Constitutional Convention: A Narrative History from the Notes of James Madison|year= 2005|publisher= The Modern Library|location= New York|isbn= 0-8129-7517-0|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last= Stewart|first= David O.|title= The Summer of 1787|year= 2007|publisher= Simon & Schuster|location= New York|isbn= 978-0-7432-8692-3|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|last= United States Department of Labor and Commerce Bureau of the Census|title= A Century of Population Growth: From the First Census of the United States to the Twelfth, 1790–1900|year= 1909|publisher= Government Printing Office|place=Washington, D.C.|url=https://archive.org/details/centuryofpopulat00unit|ref=harv}}

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Constitutional Convention (United States)}}
{{wikisource|Portal:Federal Convention of 1787|the Federal Convention of 1787}}
*[http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html USConstitution.net – The Constitutional Convention]
*[http://www.footnote.com/browse.php#3239563 The Original Source Documents from The Constitutional Convention]
*[http://founders-blog.blogspot.com/ Founders' Blog-Republishing Madison's notes on the convention 220 years later]
*[http://www.TeachingAmericanHistory.org/convention TeachingAmericanHistory.org – The Constitutional Convention]
*[http://www.footnote.com/page/103 Transcription from the Report from the Grand Compromise Committee]
*[http://www.constitutioncenter.org/ National Constitution Center]
*[http://www.edsitement.neh.gov EDSITEment] Lesson Plan: [http://edsitement.neh.gov/view_lesson_plan.asp?id=726 The Constitutional Convention of 1787] (from the National Endowment for the Humanities)
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/coll/const.html Constitution Convention Broadside Collection at the Library of Congress]
*[http://p.variorumconstitution.com/ Variorum Constitution, Text P]: The Text of the Parchment Signed by the Convention Delegates
*[http://f.variorumconstitution.com/ Variorum Constitution, Text F]: The Text of the Printed Edition of the Constitution Authorized by the Convention

{{US Constitution}}
{{US history}}

{{good article}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:History of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Constitutional conventions]]
[[Category:Drafting of the United States Constitution]]
[[Category:1787 in the United States]]

Calumet River

2016-02-07T10:03:46Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

{{infobox river
|name = Calumet River
|image_name = LOOKING NORTH AT MAIN SPAN, FROM 100TH STREET BRIDGE.jpg
|caption = The Calumet River, with the [[Chicago Skyway]] traversing it
|image_size = 
|image_map = 
|map_caption =
|origin = [[Confluence]] of the Little Calumet and the Grand Calumet, Chicago
|origin_coordinates = {{coord|41.6438889|-87.5608333|format=dms|display=inline|name=Calumet River origin|type:river_region:US-IL}}
|mouth = [[Confluence]] with Lake Michigan, Chicago
|mouth_coordinates = {{coord|41.7327778|-87.5294444|format=dms|display=inline|name=Calumet River mouth|type:river_region=US-IL}}
|progression = Calumet River → Lake Michigan → Great Lakes → [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] → [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]]
|elevation_ft = 581
|mouth_elevation_ft = 574
|length_mi =
|blank_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] ID
|blank_info = {{GNIS 4|405379}}
}}
{{GeoGroup}}
The '''Calumet River''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|l|ju:|ˈ|m|ɛ|t}} refers to a system of heavily industrialized [[river]]s and canals in the region between the neighborhood of [[South Chicago, Chicago|South Chicago]] in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and the city of [[Gary, Indiana]].

==Background==
The name "Calumet" is from the French colonial name for a particular type of [[Indigenous peoples in the United States|Native American]] [[ceremonial pipe]] that served as a universal sign of peace among the [[Illiniwek]], and which was presented to [[Jacques Marquette|Pere Marquette]] in 1673.

The area is extremely flat and the course and even the direction of the river system has changed repeatedly. The low gradient gives the river only a very small current. Before human alteration, water flowed westward from [[LaPorte County, Indiana]], along the Little Calumet River, made a complete turn, and flowed east along the Grand Calumet into [[Lake Michigan]] in the [[Miller Beach]] community of [[Gary, Indiana]].

Industrial development in the Calumet River area began around the 1870s, and by 1890 the western reach of the Grand Calumet River was heavily polluted with the waste of [[steel mill]]s, [[foundries]], a [[meat packing]] plant, and glue and cornstarch factories. Industry continued to spread along the eastern reach of the river between 1890 and 1910, with similar results. These decades of unrestricted pollution have left the river sediments highly contaminated to this day.<ref>[http://www.lrc.usace.army.mil/projects/current/grand_cal_fs/file/Grand_Cal_Feas_Study_PMP.pdf Project Management Plan]</ref>

In September 2008, areas of [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake]] and [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter County]], Indiana, were declared national disaster areas. The Little Calumet River breached its [[levee]] and flooded portions of the towns of [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]] and [[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland]], Indiana.

==Segments of the Calumet River system==
[[File:ChicagoRiver.svg|thumb|Map of area rivers]]

===Calumet River===
The Calumet River, on the [[South Side, Chicago|south side]] of [[Chicago]], originally simply drained [[Lake Calumet]] to Lake Michigan. A canal extending it, legendarily claimed to have been created by [[voyageurs]] at the site of a frequent portage, was dug connecting the two Calumet Rivers at the point where the name now changes from Grand to Little.

===Grand Calumet River===
{{main|Grand Calumet River}}

The Grand Calumet River, originating in [[Miller Beach]], flows {{convert|16.0|mi}}<ref name=NHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map], accessed May 19, 2011</ref> through the cities of Gary, [[East Chicago, Indiana|East Chicago]] and [[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]], as well as [[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]] and [[Burnham, Illinois|Burnham]] on the [[Illinois]] side. The majority of the river's flow drains into [[Lake Michigan]] via the [[Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal]], sending about {{convert|1500|cuft|m3}} per second of water into the lake. Today, a large portion of the river's flow originates as municipal and industrial [[effluent]], cooling and process water and storm water overflows. Although discharges have been reduced, a number of contaminants continue to impair the area.

===Little Calumet River===
[[File:Residents boat down a main street in Munster, IN.jpg|thumb|Residents boat through floodwaters of the Little Calumet in [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]] in 2008]]
The [[Little Calumet River]] originally flowed in [[New Durham Township, LaPorte County, Indiana]], to its junction with the Grand Calumet and Calumet rivers, but construction of the [[Port of Indiana|Burns Waterway]] in 1926 effectively cut the Little Calumet River into a west and an east arm. The west arm is now known as the Little Calumet River proper, and it flows through or borders the towns of [[Portage, Indiana|Portage]], [[Lake Station, Indiana|Lake Station]], [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], [[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland]], [[Griffith, Indiana|Griffith]], [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]], and [[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]], then through [[South Holland, Illinois|South Holland]], [[Dolton, Illinois|Dolton]], [[Lansing, Illinois|Lansing]], [[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]], [[Harvey, Illinois|Harvey]], [[Riverdale, Illinois|Riverdale]], [[Phoenix, Illinois|Phoenix]], [[Dixmoor, Illinois|Dixmoor]], Burnham, and [[Blue Island, Illinois|Blue Island]] in Illinois, connecting at the junction of the Grand Calumet River and Calumet River. This arm of the river is {{convert|41|mi}} long.<ref name=NHD/> Its flow has been divided by the Burns Waterway since 1926 with the portion east of Hart Ditch in Munster flowing east to the Burns Waterway and out to Lake Michigan, and the portion west of Hart Ditch in Munster flowing west to the Calumet River and Cal-Sag Channel.<ref name=NOAA>{{cite report |title=State of Indiana Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program Environmental Assessment |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |page=13 |date=2007-09 |url=http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/assessments/docs/IndianaFinalCNPEA.pdf |accessdate=2011-05-02 }}</ref><ref>{{gnis|424126|Little Calumet River}}</ref> The Little Calumet has {{convert|109|mi|km}} of river and tributaries and drains {{convert|213|sqmi|km2}}.<ref>[http://www.mwrd.org/Engineering/OurCommunityFlooding/OCFDiagram0103.htm Our Community & Flooding - Federal Programs]</ref>

The [[East Arm Little Calumet River]], also known as the [[Little Calumet River East Branch]] begins just east of [[Holmesville, Indiana|Holmesville]] in [[New Durham Township, LaPorte County, Indiana]], and also flows through [[Chesterton, Indiana|Chesterton]], [[Porter, Indiana|Porter]], and [[Burns Harbor, Indiana|Burns Harbor]] where it connects to the [[Port of Indiana|Port of Indiana-Burns Waterway]].<ref>{{gnis|450501|East Arm Little Calumet River}}</ref> It has a total length of {{convert|22|mi}}.<ref name=NHD/> It used to continue westward to Illinois as the Little Calumet River, but construction of the Burns Waterway in 1926 diverted its flow into Lake Michigan.<ref name=NOAA/>

Until sometime in the late 1940s or early 1950s, the Little Calumet River was heavily polluted with sewage, and the only fish living in the river were carp. During heavy spring rains, the river would often flood areas adjacent to the river.

The Little Calumet River has been undergoing construction of a $200 million flood control and recreation project by the Chicago District of the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] since 1990. The project was expected to be complete in 2013. The project includes construction of {{convert|22|mi|km}} of [[levees]] and [[floodwall]]s, a control structure at Hart Ditch, and almost {{convert|17|mi|km}} of hiking trails. Additionally, seven miles (11 km) of the river channel is being relocated to allow better water flow, and highway bridges are being modified to permit unobstructed flow of water. A flood warning system is also being implemented. When complete, the project will protect over 9,500 homes and businesses in the towns of Gary, Griffith, Hammond, and Munster in Indiana, and prevent nearly $11 million in flood damage annually. On September 15, 2008, the remnants of [[Hurricane Ike]] released heavy rain which flooded the banks of the Little Calumet River. Houses and strip malls in northern Munster and southern Hammond were evacuated. Hundreds of homes were damaged due to flooding. Recently, a new levee, along Northcote Avenue in Munster, is being built to protect residents from future floods.<ref>[http://www.lrc.usace.army.mil/projects/current/little_cal/main.htm USACE Chicago Dist - Little Calumet River Home]</ref>

===Cal-Sag Channel===
The Cal-Sag Channel (short for "Calumet-Saganashkee Channel") is a navigation [[canal]] in southern [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]], [[Illinois]]. It serves as a channel between the [[Little Calumet River]] and the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]]. It is 16 miles (26 km) long and was dug over an 11-year period, from 1911 until 1922.

The Cal-Sag Channel serves barge traffic in what was an active zone of [[heavy industry]] in the far southern neighborhoods of the city of [[Chicago]] and adjacent suburbs. As of 2006 it was also used more as a conduit for wastewater from southern Cook County, including the Chicago-area [[Tunnel and Reservoir Plan|Deep Tunnel Project]], into the [[Illinois Waterway]]. It is also used by pleasure crafts in the summer time.

The western 4.5 miles (7.3 km) of the channel flow through the Palos Hills Forest Preserves, a large area of parkland operated by the [[Forest Preserve District of Cook County]].

The Cal-Sag Channel served as the [[rowing (sport)|rowing]] venue for the [[1959 Pan American Games]].<ref>{{cite news| last = Lyke| first = Bill| title = Drive Out to the Pan-Am Gamnes!| pages = B1| publisher = Chicago Tribune| date = 29 August 1959| url = http://www.nileslibrary.org:2065/pqdweb?index=122&did=576576152&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1250221424&clientId=68442| accessdate = 14 August 2009}}</ref>

The ''Calumet-Sag Trail'', a 26-miles-long (41 km) [[Greenway (landscape)|greenway]], will border the channel and will stretch from the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal to the ''Burnham Greenway'' when it is completed.

==See also==
*[[Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal]]
*[[Lake Calumet]]
*[[List of Illinois rivers]]
*[[List of Indiana rivers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/aoc/grandcal.html US EPA Area of Concern]
*[http://www.prairierivers.org/ Prairie Rivers Network]
*[http://www.topoquest.com/map.asp?z=16&n=4611370&e=442368&s=100&size=l&datum=nad83&layer=DRG25 TopoQuest, Cal Sag and Little Calumet]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/203.html Encyclopedia of Chicago - Calumet River System]

{{Chicagoland}}

[[Category:Rivers and streams of Indiana]]
[[Category:Transportation in Gary, Indiana]]
[[Category:Rivers of Illinois]]
[[Category:Canals in Indiana]]
[[Category:Canals in Illinois]]
[[Category:Pollution in the United States]]
[[Category:Tributaries of Lake Michigan]]
[[Category:Geography of Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:Landforms of Lake County, Indiana]]

Calumet River

2016-02-07T10:02:18Z

68.228.230.203: ,

{{infobox river
|name = Calumet River
|image_name = LOOKING NORTH AT MAIN SPAN, FROM 100TH STREET BRIDGE.jpg
|caption = The Calumet River, with the [[Chicago Skyway]] traversing it
|image_size = 
|image_map = 
|map_caption =
|origin = [[Confluence]] of the Little Calumet and the Grand Calumet, Chicago
|origin_coordinates = {{coord|41.6438889|-87.5608333|format=dms|display=inline|name=Calumet River origin|type:river_region:US-IL}}
|mouth = [[Confluence]] with Lake Michigan, Chicago
|mouth_coordinates = {{coord|41.7327778|-87.5294444|format=dms|display=inline|name=Calumet River mouth|type:river_region=US-IL}}
|progression = Calumet River → Lake Michigan → Great Lakes → [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] → [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]]
|elevation_ft = 581
|mouth_elevation_ft = 574
|length_mi =
|blank_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] ID
|blank_info = {{GNIS 4|405379}}
}}
{{GeoGroup}}
The '''Calumet River''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|l|ju:|ˈ|m|ɛ|t}} refers to a system of heavily industrialized [[river]]s and canals in the region between the neighborhood of [[South Chicago, Chicago|South Chicago]] in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and the city of [[Gary, Indiana]].

==Background==
The name "Calumet" is from the French colonial name for a particular type of [[Indigenous peoples in the United States|Native American]] [[ceremonial pipe]] that served as a universal sign of peace among the [[Illiniwek]], and which was presented to [[Jacques Marquette|Pere Marquette]] in 1673.

The area is extremely flat and the course and even the direction of the river system has changed repeatedly. The low gradient gives the river only a very small current. Before human alteration, water flowed westward from [[LaPorte County, Indiana]], along the Little Calumet River, made a complete turn, and flowed east along the Grand Calumet into [[Lake Michigan]] in the [[Miller Beach]] community of [[Gary, Indiana]].

Industrial development in the Calumet River area began around the 1870s, and by 1890 the West reach of the Grand Calumet River was heavily polluted with the waste of [[steel mill]]s, [[foundries]], a [[meat packing]] plant, and glue and cornstarch factories. Industry continued to spread along the East reach of the river between 1890 and 1910, with similar results. These decades of unrestricted pollution have left the river sediments highly contaminated to this day.<ref>[http://www.lrc.usace.army.mil/projects/current/grand_cal_fs/file/Grand_Cal_Feas_Study_PMP.pdf Project Management Plan]</ref>

In September 2008, areas of [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake]] and [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter County]], Indiana, were declared national disaster areas. The Little Calumet River breached its [[levee]] and flooded portions of the towns of [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]] and [[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland]], Indiana.

==Segments of the Calumet River system==
[[File:ChicagoRiver.svg|thumb|Map of area rivers]]

===Calumet River===
The Calumet River, on the [[South Side, Chicago|south side]] of [[Chicago]], originally simply drained [[Lake Calumet]] to Lake Michigan. A canal extending it, legendarily claimed to have been created by [[voyageurs]] at the site of a frequent portage, was dug connecting the two Calumet Rivers at the point where the name now changes from Grand to Little.

===Grand Calumet River===
{{main|Grand Calumet River}}

The Grand Calumet River, originating in [[Miller Beach]], flows {{convert|16.0|mi}}<ref name=NHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map], accessed May 19, 2011</ref> through the cities of Gary, [[East Chicago, Indiana|East Chicago]] and [[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]], as well as [[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]] and [[Burnham, Illinois|Burnham]] on the [[Illinois]] side. The majority of the river's flow drains into [[Lake Michigan]] via the [[Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal]], sending about {{convert|1500|cuft|m3}} per second of water into the lake. Today, a large portion of the river's flow originates as municipal and industrial [[effluent]], cooling and process water and storm water overflows. Although discharges have been reduced, a number of contaminants continue to impair the area.

===Little Calumet River===
[[File:Residents boat down a main street in Munster, IN.jpg|thumb|Residents boat through floodwaters of the Little Calumet in [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]] in 2008]]
The [[Little Calumet River]] originally flowed in [[New Durham Township, LaPorte County, Indiana]], to its junction with the Grand Calumet and Calumet rivers, but construction of the [[Port of Indiana|Burns Waterway]] in 1926 effectively cut the Little Calumet River into a west and an east arm. The west arm is now known as the Little Calumet River proper, and it flows through or borders the towns of [[Portage, Indiana|Portage]], [[Lake Station, Indiana|Lake Station]], [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], [[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland]], [[Griffith, Indiana|Griffith]], [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]], and [[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]], then through [[South Holland, Illinois|South Holland]], [[Dolton, Illinois|Dolton]], [[Lansing, Illinois|Lansing]], [[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]], [[Harvey, Illinois|Harvey]], [[Riverdale, Illinois|Riverdale]], [[Phoenix, Illinois|Phoenix]], [[Dixmoor, Illinois|Dixmoor]], Burnham, and [[Blue Island, Illinois|Blue Island]] in Illinois, connecting at the junction of the Grand Calumet River and Calumet River. This arm of the river is {{convert|41|mi}} long.<ref name=NHD/> Its flow has been divided by the Burns Waterway since 1926 with the portion east of Hart Ditch in Munster flowing east to the Burns Waterway and out to Lake Michigan, and the portion west of Hart Ditch in Munster flowing west to the Calumet River and Cal-Sag Channel.<ref name=NOAA>{{cite report |title=State of Indiana Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program Environmental Assessment |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |page=13 |date=2007-09 |url=http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/assessments/docs/IndianaFinalCNPEA.pdf |accessdate=2011-05-02 }}</ref><ref>{{gnis|424126|Little Calumet River}}</ref> The Little Calumet has {{convert|109|mi|km}} of river and tributaries and drains {{convert|213|sqmi|km2}}.<ref>[http://www.mwrd.org/Engineering/OurCommunityFlooding/OCFDiagram0103.htm Our Community & Flooding - Federal Programs]</ref>

The [[East Arm Little Calumet River]], also known as the [[Little Calumet River East Branch]] begins just east of [[Holmesville, Indiana|Holmesville]] in [[New Durham Township, LaPorte County, Indiana]], and also flows through [[Chesterton, Indiana|Chesterton]], [[Porter, Indiana|Porter]], and [[Burns Harbor, Indiana|Burns Harbor]] where it connects to the [[Port of Indiana|Port of Indiana-Burns Waterway]].<ref>{{gnis|450501|East Arm Little Calumet River}}</ref> It has a total length of {{convert|22|mi}}.<ref name=NHD/> It used to continue westward to Illinois as the Little Calumet River, but construction of the Burns Waterway in 1926 diverted its flow into Lake Michigan.<ref name=NOAA/>

Until sometime in the late 1940s or early 1950s, the Little Calumet River was heavily polluted with sewage, and the only fish living in the river were carp. During heavy spring rains, the river would often flood areas adjacent to the river.

The Little Calumet River has been undergoing construction of a $200 million flood control and recreation project by the Chicago District of the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] since 1990. The project was expected to be complete in 2013. The project includes construction of {{convert|22|mi|km}} of [[levees]] and [[floodwall]]s, a control structure at Hart Ditch, and almost {{convert|17|mi|km}} of hiking trails. Additionally, seven miles (11 km) of the river channel is being relocated to allow better water flow, and highway bridges are being modified to permit unobstructed flow of water. A flood warning system is also being implemented. When complete, the project will protect over 9,500 homes and businesses in the towns of Gary, Griffith, Hammond, and Munster in Indiana, and prevent nearly $11 million in flood damage annually. On September 15, 2008, the remnants of [[Hurricane Ike]] released heavy rain which flooded the banks of the Little Calumet River. Houses and strip malls in northern Munster and southern Hammond were evacuated. Hundreds of homes were damaged due to flooding. Recently, a new levee, along Northcote Avenue in Munster, is being built to protect residents from future floods.<ref>[http://www.lrc.usace.army.mil/projects/current/little_cal/main.htm USACE Chicago Dist - Little Calumet River Home]</ref>

===Cal-Sag Channel===
The Cal-Sag Channel (short for "Calumet-Saganashkee Channel") is a navigation [[canal]] in southern [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]], [[Illinois]]. It serves as a channel between the [[Little Calumet River]] and the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]]. It is 16 miles (26 km) long and was dug over an 11-year period, from 1911 until 1922.

The Cal-Sag Channel serves barge traffic in what was an active zone of [[heavy industry]] in the far southern neighborhoods of the city of [[Chicago]] and adjacent suburbs. As of 2006 it was also used more as a conduit for wastewater from southern Cook County, including the Chicago-area [[Tunnel and Reservoir Plan|Deep Tunnel Project]], into the [[Illinois Waterway]]. It is also used by pleasure crafts in the summer time.

The western 4.5 miles (7.3 km) of the channel flow through the Palos Hills Forest Preserves, a large area of parkland operated by the [[Forest Preserve District of Cook County]].

The Cal-Sag Channel served as the [[rowing (sport)|rowing]] venue for the [[1959 Pan American Games]].<ref>{{cite news| last = Lyke| first = Bill| title = Drive Out to the Pan-Am Gamnes!| pages = B1| publisher = Chicago Tribune| date = 29 August 1959| url = http://www.nileslibrary.org:2065/pqdweb?index=122&did=576576152&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1250221424&clientId=68442| accessdate = 14 August 2009}}</ref>

The ''Calumet-Sag Trail'', a 26-miles-long (41 km) [[Greenway (landscape)|greenway]], will border the channel and will stretch from the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal to the ''Burnham Greenway'' when it is completed.

==See also==
*[[Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal]]
*[[Lake Calumet]]
*[[List of Illinois rivers]]
*[[List of Indiana rivers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/aoc/grandcal.html US EPA Area of Concern]
*[http://www.prairierivers.org/ Prairie Rivers Network]
*[http://www.topoquest.com/map.asp?z=16&n=4611370&e=442368&s=100&size=l&datum=nad83&layer=DRG25 TopoQuest, Cal Sag and Little Calumet]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/203.html Encyclopedia of Chicago - Calumet River System]

{{Chicagoland}}

[[Category:Rivers and streams of Indiana]]
[[Category:Transportation in Gary, Indiana]]
[[Category:Rivers of Illinois]]
[[Category:Canals in Indiana]]
[[Category:Canals in Illinois]]
[[Category:Pollution in the United States]]
[[Category:Tributaries of Lake Michigan]]
[[Category:Geography of Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:Landforms of Lake County, Indiana]]

Calumet River

2016-02-07T10:00:28Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

{{infobox river
|name = Calumet River
|image_name = LOOKING NORTH AT MAIN SPAN, FROM 100TH STREET BRIDGE.jpg
|caption = The Calumet River, with the [[Chicago Skyway]] traversing it
|image_size = 
|image_map = 
|map_caption =
|origin = [[Confluence]] of the Little Calumet and the Grand Calumet, Chicago
|origin_coordinates = {{coord|41.6438889|-87.5608333|format=dms|display=inline|name=Calumet River origin|type:river_region:US-IL}}
|mouth = [[Confluence]] with Lake Michigan, Chicago
|mouth_coordinates = {{coord|41.7327778|-87.5294444|format=dms|display=inline|name=Calumet River mouth|type:river_region=US-IL}}
|progression = Calumet River → Lake Michigan → Great Lakes → [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] → [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]]
|elevation_ft = 581
|mouth_elevation_ft = 574
|length_mi =
|blank_name = [[Geographic Names Information System|GNIS]] ID
|blank_info = {{GNIS 4|405379}}
}}
{{GeoGroup}}
The '''Calumet River''' {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|l|ju:|ˈ|m|ɛ|t}} refers to a system of heavily industrialized [[river]]s and canals in the region between the neighborhood of [[South Chicago, Chicago|South Chicago]] in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and the city of [[Gary, Indiana]].

==Background==
The name "Calumet" is from the French colonial name for a particular type of [[Indigenous peoples in the United States|Native American]] [[ceremonial pipe]] that served as a universal sign of peace among the [[Illiniwek]], and which was presented to [[Jacques Marquette|Pere Marquette]] in 1673.

The area is extremely flat and the course and even the direction of the river system has changed repeatedly. The low gradient gives the river only a very small current. Before human alteration, water flowed westward from [[LaPorte County, Indiana]] along the Little Calumet River, made a complete turn, and flowed east along the Grand Calumet into [[Lake Michigan]] in the [[Miller Beach]] community of [[Gary, Indiana]].

Industrial development in the Calumet River area began around the 1870s, and by 1890 the West reach of the Grand Calumet River was heavily polluted with the waste of [[steel mill]]s, [[foundries]], a [[meat packing]] plant, and glue and cornstarch factories. Industry continued to spread along the East reach of the river between 1890 and 1910, with similar results. These decades of unrestricted pollution have left the river sediments highly contaminated to this day.<ref>[http://www.lrc.usace.army.mil/projects/current/grand_cal_fs/file/Grand_Cal_Feas_Study_PMP.pdf Project Management Plan]</ref>

In September 2008, areas of [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake]] and [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter County]], Indiana, were declared national disaster areas. The Little Calumet River breached its [[levee]] and flooded portions of the towns of [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]] and [[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland]], Indiana.

==Segments of the Calumet River system==
[[File:ChicagoRiver.svg|thumb|Map of area rivers]]

===Calumet River===
The Calumet River, on the [[South Side, Chicago|south side]] of [[Chicago]], originally simply drained [[Lake Calumet]] to Lake Michigan. A canal extending it, legendarily claimed to have been created by [[voyageurs]] at the site of a frequent portage, was dug connecting the two Calumet Rivers at the point where the name now changes from Grand to Little.

===Grand Calumet River===
{{main|Grand Calumet River}}

The Grand Calumet River, originating in [[Miller Beach]], flows {{convert|16.0|mi}}<ref name=NHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map], accessed May 19, 2011</ref> through the cities of Gary, [[East Chicago, Indiana|East Chicago]] and [[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]], as well as [[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]] and [[Burnham, Illinois|Burnham]] on the [[Illinois]] side. The majority of the river's flow drains into [[Lake Michigan]] via the [[Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal]], sending about {{convert|1500|cuft|m3}} per second of water into the lake. Today, a large portion of the river's flow originates as municipal and industrial [[effluent]], cooling and process water and storm water overflows. Although discharges have been reduced, a number of contaminants continue to impair the area.

===Little Calumet River===
[[File:Residents boat down a main street in Munster, IN.jpg|thumb|Residents boat through floodwaters of the Little Calumet in [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]] in 2008]]
The [[Little Calumet River]] originally flowed in [[New Durham Township, LaPorte County, Indiana]], to its junction with the Grand Calumet and Calumet rivers, but construction of the [[Port of Indiana|Burns Waterway]] in 1926 effectively cut the Little Calumet River into a west and an east arm. The west arm is now known as the Little Calumet River proper, and it flows through or borders the towns of [[Portage, Indiana|Portage]], [[Lake Station, Indiana|Lake Station]], [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], [[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland]], [[Griffith, Indiana|Griffith]], [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]], and [[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]], then through [[South Holland, Illinois|South Holland]], [[Dolton, Illinois|Dolton]], [[Lansing, Illinois|Lansing]], [[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]], [[Harvey, Illinois|Harvey]], [[Riverdale, Illinois|Riverdale]], [[Phoenix, Illinois|Phoenix]], [[Dixmoor, Illinois|Dixmoor]], Burnham, and [[Blue Island, Illinois|Blue Island]] in Illinois, connecting at the junction of the Grand Calumet River and Calumet River. This arm of the river is {{convert|41|mi}} long.<ref name=NHD/> Its flow has been divided by the Burns Waterway since 1926 with the portion east of Hart Ditch in Munster flowing east to the Burns Waterway and out to Lake Michigan, and the portion west of Hart Ditch in Munster flowing west to the Calumet River and Cal-Sag Channel.<ref name=NOAA>{{cite report |title=State of Indiana Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program Environmental Assessment |publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |page=13 |date=2007-09 |url=http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/assessments/docs/IndianaFinalCNPEA.pdf |accessdate=2011-05-02 }}</ref><ref>{{gnis|424126|Little Calumet River}}</ref> The Little Calumet has {{convert|109|mi|km}} of river and tributaries and drains {{convert|213|sqmi|km2}}.<ref>[http://www.mwrd.org/Engineering/OurCommunityFlooding/OCFDiagram0103.htm Our Community & Flooding - Federal Programs]</ref>

The [[East Arm Little Calumet River]], also known as the [[Little Calumet River East Branch]] begins just east of [[Holmesville, Indiana|Holmesville]] in [[New Durham Township, LaPorte County, Indiana]], and also flows through [[Chesterton, Indiana|Chesterton]], [[Porter, Indiana|Porter]], and [[Burns Harbor, Indiana|Burns Harbor]] where it connects to the [[Port of Indiana|Port of Indiana-Burns Waterway]].<ref>{{gnis|450501|East Arm Little Calumet River}}</ref> It has a total length of {{convert|22|mi}}.<ref name=NHD/> It used to continue westward to Illinois as the Little Calumet River, but construction of the Burns Waterway in 1926 diverted its flow into Lake Michigan.<ref name=NOAA/>

Until sometime in the late 1940s or early 1950s, the Little Calumet River was heavily polluted with sewage, and the only fish living in the river were carp. During heavy spring rains, the river would often flood areas adjacent to the river.

The Little Calumet River has been undergoing construction of a $200 million flood control and recreation project by the Chicago District of the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]] since 1990. The project was expected to be complete in 2013. The project includes construction of {{convert|22|mi|km}} of [[levees]] and [[floodwall]]s, a control structure at Hart Ditch, and almost {{convert|17|mi|km}} of hiking trails. Additionally, seven miles (11 km) of the river channel is being relocated to allow better water flow, and highway bridges are being modified to permit unobstructed flow of water. A flood warning system is also being implemented. When complete, the project will protect over 9,500 homes and businesses in the towns of Gary, Griffith, Hammond, and Munster in Indiana, and prevent nearly $11 million in flood damage annually. On September 15, 2008, the remnants of [[Hurricane Ike]] released heavy rain which flooded the banks of the Little Calumet River. Houses and strip malls in northern Munster and southern Hammond were evacuated. Hundreds of homes were damaged due to flooding. Recently, a new levee, along Northcote Avenue in Munster, is being built to protect residents from future floods.<ref>[http://www.lrc.usace.army.mil/projects/current/little_cal/main.htm USACE Chicago Dist - Little Calumet River Home]</ref>

===Cal-Sag Channel===
The Cal-Sag Channel (short for "Calumet-Saganashkee Channel") is a navigation [[canal]] in southern [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]], [[Illinois]]. It serves as a channel between the [[Little Calumet River]] and the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]]. It is 16 miles (26 km) long and was dug over an 11-year period, from 1911 until 1922.

The Cal-Sag Channel serves barge traffic in what was an active zone of [[heavy industry]] in the far southern neighborhoods of the city of [[Chicago]] and adjacent suburbs. As of 2006 it was also used more as a conduit for wastewater from southern Cook County, including the Chicago-area [[Tunnel and Reservoir Plan|Deep Tunnel Project]], into the [[Illinois Waterway]]. It is also used by pleasure crafts in the summer time.

The western 4.5 miles (7.3 km) of the channel flow through the Palos Hills Forest Preserves, a large area of parkland operated by the [[Forest Preserve District of Cook County]].

The Cal-Sag Channel served as the [[rowing (sport)|rowing]] venue for the [[1959 Pan American Games]].<ref>{{cite news| last = Lyke| first = Bill| title = Drive Out to the Pan-Am Gamnes!| pages = B1| publisher = Chicago Tribune| date = 29 August 1959| url = http://www.nileslibrary.org:2065/pqdweb?index=122&did=576576152&SrchMode=1&sid=2&Fmt=10&VInst=PROD&VType=PQD&RQT=309&VName=HNP&TS=1250221424&clientId=68442| accessdate = 14 August 2009}}</ref>

The ''Calumet-Sag Trail'', a 26-miles-long (41 km) [[Greenway (landscape)|greenway]], will border the channel and will stretch from the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal to the ''Burnham Greenway'' when it is completed.

==See also==
*[[Indiana Harbor and Ship Canal]]
*[[Lake Calumet]]
*[[List of Illinois rivers]]
*[[List of Indiana rivers]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/aoc/grandcal.html US EPA Area of Concern]
*[http://www.prairierivers.org/ Prairie Rivers Network]
*[http://www.topoquest.com/map.asp?z=16&n=4611370&e=442368&s=100&size=l&datum=nad83&layer=DRG25 TopoQuest, Cal Sag and Little Calumet]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/203.html Encyclopedia of Chicago - Calumet River System]

{{Chicagoland}}

[[Category:Rivers and streams of Indiana]]
[[Category:Transportation in Gary, Indiana]]
[[Category:Rivers of Illinois]]
[[Category:Canals in Indiana]]
[[Category:Canals in Illinois]]
[[Category:Pollution in the United States]]
[[Category:Tributaries of Lake Michigan]]
[[Category:Geography of Chicago, Illinois]]
[[Category:Landforms of Lake County, Indiana]]

Austin Tappan Wright

2016-01-13T15:45:17Z

68.228.230.203: ,

{{no footnotes|date=September 2011}}
{{Infobox writer 
| name = Austin Tappan Wright
| image = Austin_Tappan_Wright.jpg
| imagesize = 200px |
| caption =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1883|8|20|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], [[New Hampshire]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1931|9|18|1883|8|20|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]], [[New Mexico]]
| occupation = legal scholar, author
| nationality = United States
| period = 1915–1931
| movement =
| notableworks = ''[[Islandia (book)|Islandia]]'' (1942)
| influences =
| influenced = [[Mark Saxton]]
}}

'''Austin Tappan Wright''' (August 20, 1883 – September 18, 1931) was an American [[legal scholar]] and [[author]], best remembered for his major work of [[Utopia]]n fiction, ''[[Islandia (book)|Islandia]]''. He was the son of classical scholar [[John Henry Wright]] and novelist [[Mary Tappan Wright]], the brother of geographer [[John Kirtland Wright]], and the grandfather of editor [[Tappan Wright King]].

==Life and family==
Wright was born in [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], [[New Hampshire]]. He married, November 14, 1912, Margaret Garrad Stone. They had four children, William Austin, Sylvia, Phyllis, and Benjamin Tappan. The family lived successively in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]], and [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]. Wright died as a result of an automobile accident near [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]], [[New Mexico]], on September 18, 1931. He was survived by his wife, children and brother.

==Education==
Wright entered [[Harvard College]] in 1901, graduating with an A.B. degree in 1905. He enrolled in the [[Harvard Law School]] in 1906, interrupting his course of study there to attend [[Oxford University]] for a year in 1906–1907 before returning and graduating ''cum laude'' with an LL.B. degree in 1908. He was on the editorial staff of the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' during his last year at Harvard.

==Professional career==
From 1908–1916 Wright worked for the law firm of [[Louis Brandeis|Brandeis]], Dunbar and Nutter in Boston, after which he taught at the School of Jurisprudence at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] from 1916–1924. His teaching work was interrupted by a period in which he worked as assistant counsel to the U.S. Shipping Board and U.S. Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation in San Francisco in World War I. He also practiced law with the San Francisco law firm of Thatcher and Wright after the war, from 1919–1924. From 1924 until his death in 1931 Wright taught at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. He also taught at [[Stanford University]] in 1922, the [[University of Michigan]] in 1924, and the [[University of Southern California]] in 1931 as a visiting or acting professor. The subjects he taught included Agency, Common Law Procedure, Partnership, Corporations, Damages, Persons, Admiralty, Mortgages, Municipal Corporation, Military Law, and Torts, his own main interests being in Corporation Law and Admiralty. He published extensively in various legal journals, particularly the ''[[California Law Review]]'' and the ''[[University of Pennsylvania Law Review]]''.

==Literary career==
Although Wright’s professional colleagues were aware he had literary interests outside his field and some anticipated he might eventually branch out into other areas of literature, these possibilities appeared precluded by his early death. During his lifetime he published just one work of fiction, the short story "1915?" in the ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]'' for April, 1915.

Few people outside Wright’s own family knew he had long been working on an extensive Utopian fantasy about an imaginary country he called Islandia, with an elaborately worked-out history, culture and geography, comparable in scope to [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]’s life-long writings of [[Middle-earth]]. In his papers he left a 2300-page manuscript of a novel exploring the country, with appendices including a glossary of the Islandian language, population tables, a historic peerage, and a gazetteer and history of each of its provinces. Another book-length manuscript purported to be a general history of the country.

After Wright’s death his widow typed and edited the manuscript for publication, and following her own death in 1937 their daughter Sylvia further edited and cut the text; the novel ''[[Islandia (book)|Islandia]]'', shorn of Wright’s appendices, was finally published in 1942, along with a promotional pamphlet by [[Basil Davenport]], ''An introduction to Islandia; its history, customs, laws, language, and geography'', based on the original supplementary material.

''Islandia'' became a cult classic and ultimately spawned three sequels by [[Mark Saxton]].

==Papers==
Wright’s papers, including carbon typescripts of the uncut version of ''Islandia'' and the unpublished ''Islandia: History and Description'', ''Dreams and Other Verses'', college writings, and letters to family members, are in the Houghton Library at Harvard University. Some of his wife’s correspondence is in the Fay family papers at Radcliffe College.

==Bibliography==

===Fiction===
*"1915?" (1915) ([http://books.google.com/books?id=X1UCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA453&dq=%22Austin+Tappan+Wright%22&lr=&as_brr=1 Google e-text]) ([http://www.stanford.edu/~bkunde/fb-press/classics/dlaop/dlaop-1915.html another e-text])
*''[[Islandia (book)|Islandia]]'' (1942)
*''Islandia: History and Description'' (unpublished)
*''An introduction to Islandia; its history, customs, laws, language, and geography'' (1942) (with Basil Davenport)
*"The Story of Alwina" (2003)

===Drama===
*''The Gossipers, a Play in Five Acts'' (unpublished)

===Poetry===
*"The Voyagers" (1906) ([http://books.google.com/books?id=IlMpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA202&dq=%22Austin+Tappan+Wright%22&lr=&as_brr=1 Google e-text]) ([http://www.stanford.edu/~bkunde/fb-press/classics/ut/ut-voya.html another e-text])
*''Dreams and Other Verses'' (unpublished)

===Nonfiction===

====Legal articles====
*"Undisclosed Principal in California" (1917)
*"Government Ownership and the Maritime Lien" (1919)
*"California Partnership Law and the Uniform Partnership Act" (1921)
*"Supervening Impossibility of Performing Conditions in Admiralty" (1923)
*"Uniformity of Maritime Law in the United States" (1925)
*"Opposition of the Law to Business Usages" (1926)
*"Private Carriers and the Harter Act" (1926)
*"The New Ohio General Corporation Act" (1927)

====Book reviews====
*"''Government Liability in Tort'' by [[Edwin M. Borchard]]" (1925)
*"''Profit’s Dividends and the Law'' by [[Prosper Reiter, Jr.]]" (1927)
*"''Law of Territorial Water and Maritime Jurisdiction'' by [[Phillip C. Jessup]]" (1928)

====Geographical articles====
*"An Islandian on the Islands: a Field Report" (1963)

==References==
*Lloyd, William H. "Austin Tappan Wright." ''University of Pennsylvania Law Review'', v. 80, no. 1 (Nov. 1931), pp. 1–4.
*McMurray, Orrin K. "Austin Tappan Wright (1883–1931)." ''California Law Review'', v. 20, no. 1 (Nov. 1931): pp. [60]-61.
* [[Verlyn Flieger|Flieger, Verlyn]]. "Wright's "Islandia": Utopia with Problems" . in ''Women and Utopia'', edited by [[Marleen Barr]]. New York: Lanham, 1983. pp. 96–107.
*[[Michael Saler|Saler,Michael]]. ""Islandia" by Austin Tappan Wright (1942)" ,: in ''The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders'' edited by [[Gary Westfahl]]. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2005. p. 1106-1108.
*Wood, Andrew. "[http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/wooda/wright.html Austin Tappan Wright: The Man Who Envisioned Islandia]"

{{Authority control}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Wright, Austin Tappan
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American legal scholar
| DATE OF BIRTH = August 20, 1883
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], [[New Hampshire]]
| DATE OF DEATH = September 18, 1931
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]], [[New Mexico]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wright, Austin Tappan}}
[[Category:1883 births]]
[[Category:1931 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers]]
[[Category:Harvard Law School alumni]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley faculty]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania faculty]]
[[Category:University of Southern California faculty]]
[[Category:Stanford University faculty]]
[[Category:University of Michigan faculty]]
[[Category:Road accident deaths in New Mexico]]

Basilika der sechsundzwanzig heiligen Märtyrer Japans

2016-01-01T19:00:35Z

68.228.230.203: to correct capitalization per MoS

[[Image:Oura Church.jpg|thumb|Ōura Church]]
[[File:Oura Tenshudo Temple.jpg|thumb|Oura Tenshudo Temple, Hand-tinted Postcard (Meiji)]]
[[File:Oura Church Nagasaki.JPG|thumb|Inside of Ōura Church]]

{{nihongo|'''Ōura Church'''|大浦天主堂|''Ōura Tenshudō''}} is a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] church in [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]], [[Japan]], built soon after the end of the Japanese government's [[Sakoku|Seclusion Policy]] in 1853. It is also known as the Church of the [[Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan|26 Japanese Martyrs]]. It was for many years the only Western-style building declared a [[National Treasures of Japan|national treasure]], and is said to be the oldest church in Japan.

==History==
In 1863, two French priests from the [[Society of Foreign Missions of Paris|Sociéte des Missions Étrangères]], Fathers [[Louis Furet]] and [[Bernard Petitjean]], landed in Nagasaki with the intention of building a church honoring the [[Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan|Twenty-Six Martyrs of Japan]], nine European priests and seventeen Japanese Christians who were crucified in 1597 by order of [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]. The church was finished in 1864. Constructed by the master carpenter of the [[Glover Garden|Glover Residence]], [[Koyama Hidenoshin]], it was originally a small wooden church with three aisles and three octagonal towers.<ref>Dallas Finn, ''Meiji Revisited: The Sites of Victorian Japan,'' (New York: Weatherhill, 1995), 12-13.</ref> The present structure is a much larger [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] basilica that dates from around 1879. This version was built of white stuccoed brick with five aisles, vaulted ceilings, and one octagonal tower. The design most likely came from a Belgian plan used by Catholic missionaries in an earlier church built in [[Osaka]].<ref>Finn 13.</ref> The stained glass windows were imported from France.

On March 17, 1865, shortly after the completion of the original cathedral, Father Petitjean saw a group of people standing in front of the cathedral. They indicated to the priest that they wanted him to open the doors. As the priest knelt at the altar, an old woman from the group approached him and said "We have the same feeling in our hearts as you do. Where is the statue of the Virgin Mary?"<ref>Francisque Marnas, ''La Religion de Jesus Ressuscitée au Japon dans la seconde moitie de XIX siècle''., 2 vols. (Paris: Delhomme et Briguet, 1897), 487-490.</ref> Petitjean discovered that these people were from the nearby village of [[Urakami]] and were [[Kakure Kirishitan]]s, descendants of early Japanese Christians who went into hiding after the [[Shimabara Rebellion]] in the 1630s. A white marble statue of the [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Virgin Mary]] was imported from France and erected in the church to commemorate this event. The [[bronze]] relief in the courtyard below the church shows the memorable scene of the discovery. Before long, tens of thousands of underground Christians came out of hiding in the Nagasaki area. News of this reached [[Pope Pius IX]], who declared this "the miracle of the Orient."

Ōura Cathedral was designated as a [[National Treasures of Japan|National Treasure]] in 1933 and again on March 31, 1953 under the 1951 Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties. It was the first Western-style building in Japan to be given this honor and had been the only one until 2009 when the neo-Baroque [[Akasaka Palace]] was designated a National Treasure.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat-inline|Oura Church}}
*[http://www.at-nagasaki.jp/foreign/english/spot/010.html Nagasaki City Tourism Guide - Ōura Cathedral]
{{Coord|32.734106|129.870236|format=dms|display=title|type:landmark_region:JP_scale:10000}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oura Church}}
[[Category:Churches in Japan]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic churches in Japan]]
[[Category:Churches completed in 1879]]
[[Category:19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings]]
[[Category:National Treasures of Japan]]
[[Category:Places of worship in Nagasaki Prefecture]]

Schafsmord in Skull Valley

2016-01-01T18:22:55Z

68.228.230.203: ,

[[Image:A0112shee.jpg|frame|Dead sheep owned by Ray Peck in Skull Valley, 1968<ref>{{cite news| title=Toxic Utah: A land littered with poisons|author=Lee Davidson and Joe Bauman|publisher= ''[[Deseret News]]''|date=2001-02-12|url=http://www.deseretnews.com/dn/sview/1,3329,250010322,00.html|accessdate=2008-03-18}}</ref>]]

The '''Dugway sheep incident''', also known as the '''Skull Valley sheep kill''', was a 1968 sheep kill that has been connected to [[United States Army]] chemical and biological warfare programs at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] in [[Utah]]. Six thousand [[sheep]] were killed on ranches near the base, and the popular explanation blamed Army testing of [[chemical weapon]]s for the incident, though alternative explanations have been offered. A report, commissioned by Air Force Press Officer Jesse Stay and first made public in 1998, was called the "first documented admission" from the Army that a [[nerve agent]] killed the sheep at [[Skull Valley Indian Reservation|Skull Valley]].

==Background==
Since its founding in 1941, much of the activity at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] is a closely guarded secret. Activities at Dugway included aerial [[nerve agent]] testing.<ref name=norrell/> According to reports from ''[[New Scientist]]'', Dugway was still producing small quantities of [[anthrax]] as late as 1998, 30 years after the United States renounced biological weapons.<ref name= hambling>Hambling, David. "[http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn8044.html US army plans to bulk-buy anthrax]", ''Newἠ Scientist'',September 24, 2005. Retrieved November 27, 2007.</ref> There were at least 1,100 other chemical tests at Dugway during the time period of the Dugway sheep incident. In total, almost {{convert|500000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} of nerve agent were dispersed during open-air tests.<ref name=norrell/> There were also tests at Dugway with other [[weapons of mass destruction]], including 332 open-air tests of biological weapons, 74 [[dirty bomb]] tests, and eight furnace heatings of nuclear material under open air conditions to simulate the dispersal of fallout in the case of [[Nuclear meltdown|meltdown]] of aeronautic [[nuclear reactor]]s.<ref name=norrell/>

==Incident==
In the days preceding the Dugway sheep incident the [[United States Army]] at [[Dugway Proving Ground]] conducted at least three separate operations involving nerve agents.<ref name=woolf/> All three operations occurred on March 13, 1968. One involved the test firing of a chemical [[artillery shell]], another the burning of 160 U.S. [[gallon]]s (600 L) of nerve agent in an open air pit and in the third a jet aircraft sprayed nerve agent in a target area about {{convert|27|mi|km|abbr=on}} west of Skull Valley. It is the third event that is usually connected to the Skull Valley sheep kill.<ref name=woolf/>

The incident log at Dugway Proving Ground indicated that the sheep incident began with a phone call on March 17, 1968, at 12:30 a.m. The director of the [[University of Utah|University of Utah's]] ecological and epidemiological contract with Dugway, a Dr. Bode, phoned Keith Smart, the chief of the [[ecology]] and [[epidemiology]] branch at Dugway to report that 3,000 [[sheep]] were dead in the [[Skull Valley (Utah)|Skull Valley]] area. The initial report of the incident came to Bode from the manager of a Skull Valley livestock company.<ref name=regis/> The sheep were grazing in an area about {{convert|27|mi|km|abbr=on}} from the proving ground; total sheep deaths of 6,000-6,400 were reported over the next several days as a result of the incident.<ref name=hoeber>Hoeber, Amoretta M. and Douglass, Jr. Joseph D. "The Neglected Threat of Chemical Warfare", ([http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0162-2889%28197822%293%3A1%3C55%3ATNTOCW%3E2.0.CO%3B2-1 JSTOR]), ''International Security'', Vol. 3, No. 1. (Summer, 1978), pp. 55-82. Retrieved November 26, 2007.</ref> The Dugway Safety Office's attempt to count the dead sheep compiled a total of 3,843.<ref name= mauroni>Mauroni, Albert J. ''America's Struggle with Chemical-Biological Warfare'', ([http://books.google.com/books?id=TiSL-7ghCWwC&pg=PA40&dq=Sheep+kill+dugway&ie=ISO-8859-1&sig=GWiDZgfd4IPlO7JF2mrkmt7Oc0M Google Books]), Praeger, [[Westport, Connecticut]]: 2000, p. 40, (ISBN 0275967565). Retrieved November 26, 2007.</ref>

==Possible causes==
Previously obtained documents said one such demonstration also occurred the day before the sheep deaths.<ref>"LETHAL BREEZE" By Lee Davidson, Correspondent Deseret News Sunday, June 5, 1994 Retrieved July 2, 2012: http://www.project-112shad-fdn.com/Background_Lethal%20Breeze.htm</ref>
On 13 March 1968, an [[McDonnell_Douglas_F-4_Phantom_II|F-4 Phantom]] strike aircraft flew a test mission over the Dugway Proving Ground with chemical dispensers containing VX. One of the dispensers was not completely emptied during the test, and as the F-4 gained altitude after its bombing run, VX trickled out in a trail behind the aircraft, drifted into Skull Valley, north of the proving ground, and settled over a huge flock of sheep.<ref>A History Of Chemical Warfare”, Greg goebel at http://www.vectorsite.net/twgas_2.html (Accessed on January 31, 2010</ref>

One explanation in the aftermath of the incident was that a [[Chemical weapon|chemical]] or [[Biological weapon|biological agent]] had escaped from the Dugway Proving Ground. Circumstantial evidence seemed to support this assertion; the [[United States Army]] admitted to conducting open-air tests with the [[nerve agent]] [[VX (nerve agent)|VX]] in the days preceding the sheep kill.<ref name=regis>[[Ed Regis (author)|Regis, Edward]]. ''The Biology of Doom: The History of America's Secret Germ Warfare Project'', ([http://books.google.com/books?id=8HWQ1uzybFwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Biology+of+Doom:+The+History+of+America%27s+Secret+Germ+Warfare+Project&client=firefox-a&sig=ACfU3U0nG9FNBk6G7e9-XBGOKnumrCCrEQ Google Books]), Owl Books, 2000, p. 209, (ISBN 080505765X). Retrieved October 10, 2008.</ref> The Army intimated that a spray nozzle had malfunctioned during the test causing an aircraft to continue spraying VX as it climbed to higher altitudes.<ref name=regis/><ref name=hoeber/> It was reported that a small amount of VX was found in the tissue of the dead sheep.<ref name=hoeber/>

Other information contradicted the initial assumptions. One contradiction to nerve agent exposure as a cause came in the symptoms of some of the sheep following the incident.<ref name=mauroni/> Several sheep, still alive, sat unmoving on the ground. The sheep refused to eat, but exhibited normal breathing patterns and showed signs of [[Internal hemorrhage|internal hemorrhaging]].<ref name=mauroni/> Regular breathing and internal hemorrhaging are inconsistent with nerve agent exposure,<ref name=mauroni/> "no other animals of any type, including cows, horses, dogs, rabbits, or birds, appeared to have suffered any ill effects, a circumstance that was hard to explain if VX had in fact caused the sheep deaths."<ref name=regis/>

==Aftermath==
The incident had an impact on the Army, and U.S. military policy within a year. The international infamy of the incident contributed to President Richard Nixon's decision to ban all open-air chemical weapon testing in 1969.<ref name=norrell/> The sheep incident was one of the events which helped contribute to a rise in public sentiment against the [[Chemical Corps|U.S. Army Chemical Corps]] during and after the [[Vietnam War]].<ref name=mauroni2>Mauroni, Al. "[http://www.armyhistory.org/ahf2.aspx?pgID=877&id=133&exCompID=56 The US Army Chemical Corps: Past, Present, and Future]", ''Army Historical Foundation''. Retrieved October 10, 2008.</ref> Ultimately, the Chemical Corps was almost disbanded as a result.<ref name=mauroni2/>

Following the incident, the Army and other state and federal agencies compiled reports, some of which were later characterized as "studies".<ref name=woolf/> A report which remained classified until 1978 and unreleased to the public until nearly 30 years after the incident was called the "first documented admission" by the Army that VX killed the sheep. In 1998, Jim Woolf, reporting for ''[[The Salt Lake Tribune]]'', made the content of the report public for the first time.<ref name=norrell>Norrell, Brenda. "[http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/285387/skull_valleys_nerve_gas_neighbors/ Skull Valley's Nerve Gas Neighbors]", ([http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?risb=21_T2578521527&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T2578521532&cisb=22_T2578521531&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=227171&docNo=1 LexisNexis]), ''Indian Country Today'' ([[Rapid City, South Dakota]]), October 26, 2005. Retrieved November 26, 2007.</ref> The report described the evidence that nerve agent was the cause of the sheep kill as "incontrovertible."<ref name=woolf/> The 1970 report, compiled by researchers at the U.S. Army's [[Edgewood Arsenal]] in [[Maryland]], stated that VX was found in both snow and grass samples recovered from the area three weeks after the sheep incident.

The report concluded that the "quantity of VX originally present was sufficient to account for the death of the sheep."<ref name=woolf>Woolf, Jim. "[http://lists.jammed.com/IWAR/1998/01/0004.html Army: Nerve Agent Near Dead Utah Sheep in '68; Feds Admit Nerve Agent Near Sheep]", ([http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?risb=21_T2578689702&format=GNBFI&sort=&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T2578689757&cisb=22_T2578689756&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&csi=144579&docNo=1 LexisNexis]),''The Salt Lake Tribune'', January 1, 1998. Retrieved November 26, 2007.</ref> Even after the report surfaced, the Army maintained that it did not accept responsibility for the incident and did not admit negligence.<ref name=norrell/> As late as 1997, one year before the report went public, [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]] officials stated that "the reason it (the report) was never published is because it wasn't particularly revealing."<ref name=bacon>"DoD news briefing - Mr. [[Kenneth Bacon]], ASD (PA)," ([http://www.lexisnexis.com/us/lnacademic/results/docview/docview.do?risb=21_T2578521527&format=GNBFI&sort=RELEVANCE&startDocNo=1&resultsUrlKey=29_T2578521532&cisb=22_T2578521531&treeMax=true&treeWidth=0&selRCNodeID=9&nodeStateId=411en_US,1,4&docsInCategory=4&csi=162367&docNo=4 Lexis Nexis], [http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/current_press/NB3apr97.htm relevant excerpt]), ''M2 Presswire'', April 8, 1997. Retrieved November 26, 2007.</ref> Deseret News reported in June 1994 that Ray Peck, who owned the sheep that were killed, was outside working during the May 13, 1968, incident; members of his family developed nervous-system illnesses that were similar to those reported by people exposed to low levels of VX in lab experiments. Also, the probe showed that medical tests the Army had used to claim humans were not affected are now considered inconclusive, and the Pecks had shown other signs of low-level VX exposure.<ref>"LETHAL BREEZE" By Lee Davidson, Correspondent Deseret News Sunday, June 5, 1994 Retrieved July 2, 2012: http://www.project-112shad-fdn.com/Background_Lethal%20Breeze.htm</ref>

==See also==
*[[Deseret Chemical Depot]]
*[[Deseret Test Center]]
*[[Dugway Proving Ground]]
*[[Granite Peak Installation]]
*[[Operation CHASE]]
*[[Project 112]]
*[[Project SHAD]]
*[[Unethical human experimentation in the United States]]
*[[United States and weapons of mass destruction]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*Boffey, Philip M. "Nerve Gas: Dugway Accident Linked to Utah Sheep Kill", ([http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/citation/162/3861/1460 Citation], log-in required to view article) ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' December 27, 1968, Vol. 162, No. 3861, pp. 1460 – 1464. Retrieved November 26, 2007.
*[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900098,00.html Sheep & the Army], ''[[Time Magazine]]'', April 5, 1968, accessed October 10, 2008.
*"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900363-1,00.html Toward the Doomsday Bug]", ''Time Magazine'', September 6, 1968, accessed October 12, 2008.
*Van Kampen, K.R., et al. "Effects of nerve gas poisoning in sheep in Skull Valley, Utah", ''[[Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association]]'', ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/5440658 Abstract]), April 15, 1970; Vol. 156 Issue:8 pp. 1032–5, accessed October 10, 2008.
*Wright, Burton. "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0IUN/is_2001_Feb/ai_80321718 America's Struggle With Chemical-Biological Warfare]", ([[Book review]]), ''Army Chemical Review'', February, 2001, accessed via [[FindArticles.com]] on October 12, 2008.

==External links==
*Biewin, John. [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1007831 Sheep Kill], ([[radio broadcast]]), ''[[NPR]]'', February 8, 1998, accessed October 10, 2008.
*Cianciosi, Scott. "[http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=945 The Sheep Incident]", ''DamnInteresting.com'', March 17, 2008, accessed October 12, 2008.

{{U.S. chemical weapons}}

{{good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dugway Sheep Incident}}
[[Category:Chemical warfare]]
[[Category:Non-combat military accidents]]
[[Category:Military in Utah]]
[[Category:Sheep]]
[[Category:1968 in the United States]]
[[Category:1968 in Utah]]
[[Category:1968 in military history]]
[[Category:Military scandals]]
[[Category:1968 animal deaths]]

Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)

2015-12-30T13:41:10Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

{{Infobox song 
| Name = Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)
| Type = Protest song
| Artist = [[Woody Guthrie]]
| alt Artist =
| Album =
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| Released = 
| Published =
| Genre =
| Language =
| Length = 
| Writer = Woody Guthrie
| Composer = Martin Hoffman
| Label =
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| prev =
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}}
"'''Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)'''" is a [[protest song]] with [[lyrics]] by [[Woody Guthrie]] detailing the [[1948 Los Gatos DC-3 crash|January 28, 1948 crash]] of a plane near Los Gatos Canyon,<ref name="klein">{{cite book |author=Klein, Joe. |year=1999 |title=Woody Guthrie: A Life |publisher=Delta |isbn=0-385-33385-4}}</ref> {{convert|20|mi}} west of [[Coalinga]] in [[Fresno County, California]], [[United States]].<ref name="indybay">{{cite web |title=60th anniversary of "Plane Wreck at Los Gatos (Deportee)" |publisher=[[Indybay]] |url=https://www.indybay.org/newsitems/2008/01/30/18475895.php |accessdate=2009-10-16}}</ref><ref name="DC3">{{cite web |title=DC3 Aircraft Crash Site in Los Gatos Canyon |publisher=Three Rocks Research |url=http://www.picacho.org/interest/dc3-site.html |accessdate=2009-10-16}}</ref> The crash occurred in [[Los Gatos Creek (Fresno County, California)|Los Gatos Canyon]] and not in the town of [[Los Gatos, California|Los Gatos]] itself, which is in [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]], approximately 150 miles away. Guthrie was inspired to write the song by what he considered the [[racism|racist]] mistreatment of the passengers before and after the accident.<ref name="klein"/> The crash resulted in the deaths of 32 people, 4 Americans and 28 [[Migrant worker|migrant farm workers]] who were being [[Deportation|deported]] from [[California]] back to [[Mexico]].<ref name="DC3"/>

== History ==
The genesis of the song reportedly occurred when Guthrie was struck by the fact that [[Radio broadcasting|radio]] and [[newspaper]] coverage of the Los Gatos plane crash did not give the victims' names, but instead referred to them merely as "deportees."<ref name="indybay"/> For example, none of the deportees' names were printed in the January 29, 1948, ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' report, only those of the flight crew and the security guard.<ref name="DC3"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Los Gatos Canyon Plane Crash, Fresno County, California|publisher=Eastern Mojave Vegetation|url=http://www.schweich.com/geoCAFreLosGatosCynCrash.html|accessdate=2009-10-16}}</ref> However, ''[[The Fresno Bee]]'' covered the tragedy extensively and listed all of the known names of the deportees.<ref name="death2">{{cite book|last=Kulczyk|first=David|title=Death in California – The Bizarre, Freakish, and Just Curious Ways People Die in the Golden State|year=2009|publisher=Craven Street Books|location=Fresno, CA|isbn=978-1-884995-57-6|page=80}}</ref> Guthrie, whose image was that of a train-hopping folk singer, actually lived in New York City at the time.<ref name="death2"/> Not knowing about the extensive local coverage of the disaster,<ref name="death2"/> Guthrie responded with a poem, which, when it was first written, featured only rudimentary musical accompaniment, with Guthrie chanting the song rather than singing it.<ref name="klein"/> In the poem, Guthrie assigned symbolic names to the dead: "Goodbye to my Juan, goodbye Rosalita; adiós, mis amigos, Jesús y María..."<ref name="lyrics">{{cite web|title=Deeportee (Plane Wreck at Los gatos) lyrics|publisher=The Official Woody Guthrie Website|url=http://www.woodyguthrie.org/Lyrics/Deportee.htm|accessdate=2009-09-27}}</ref> A decade later, Guthrie's poem was set to music and given a haunting melody by a [[Teacher|schoolteacher]] named Martin Hoffman.<ref name="indybay"/> Shortly after, [[folk singer]] and friend of Woody Guthrie, [[Pete Seeger]], began performing the song at [[concert]]s and it was Seeger's rendition that popularized the song during this time.<ref name="indybay"/>

[[File:Woody Guthrie 2.jpg|right|thumb|Woody Guthrie.]]

It has been suggested by the Three Rocks Research website that, in fact, "Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)" betrays Woody Guthrie's lack of understanding regarding the [[Bracero Program]].<ref name="DC3"/> (Though arguably this is addressed in the lines "Some of us are illegal, and some are not wanted, Our work contract's out and we have to move on.") The program was a series of laws and diplomatic agreements created by the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] in 1942, that permitted Mexican farm laborers (or braceros) to work in the United States due to the severe labor shortages caused by [[World War II]]. Under the terms of the program, the labor contractors were expected to provide transportation to and from the Mexican border, with the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|U.S. Immigration Service]] being required to repatriate the Mexican citizens if the contractor defaulted.<ref name="DC3"/> As such, the "deportation" of braceros in this fashion was simply a way of meeting the obligations of the program—although some newspapers, e.g., the New York Times, did refer to the braceros as "deportees".<ref name="DC3"/> However, it could be argued that Guthrie's song is less about the Bracero Program itself and more a comment on the attitude of [[Society of the United States|American society]] and the [[News media (United States)|media]] towards the Mexican farm laborers.

In addition to being a [[lament]] for the braceros killed in the crash, the opening lines of "Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)":

:"The crops are all in and the peaches are rott'ning,
:The oranges piled in their [[creosote]] dumps."<ref name="lyrics"/>

are another protest by Guthrie. At the time, government policies paid farmers to destroy their crops in order to keep farm production and prices high.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mark Hammond: Chapel Talk |publisher=The Irene DuPont Library |url=http://library.standrews-de.org/lists/ChapelTalks/CTFaculty/HammondCT-01-7-2004.pdf |accessdate=2009-10-16}} {{Dead link |date=October 2010 |bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Guthrie felt that it was wrong to render food inedible by poisoning it in a world where hungry people lived.

"Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)" has been described by [[journalist]] [[Joe Klein]] as "the last great song he [Guthrie] would write, a memorial to the nameless migrants "all scattered like dry leaves" in Los Gatos Canyon."<ref name="klein"/> The song has been [[Cover version|covered]] many times, often under a variety of alternate titles, including "Deportees", "Ballad of the Deportees", "Deportee Song", "Plane Crash at Los Gatos" and "Plane Wreck at Los Gatos (Deportee)".

== Recordings ==

The song has been covered by many artists, including:

* [[Dave Guard]] and the Whiskey Hill Singers (featuring [[Judy Henske]]) on ''Dave Guard and the Whiskey Hill Singers'' (1962).
* [[The Kingston Trio]] on ''Time To Think'' (1963).
* [[Cisco Houston]] on ''Cisco Sings the Songs of Woody Guthrie'' (1963).
* [[Judy Collins]] on ''[[Judy Collins 3 (Judy Collins album)|Judy Collins #3]]'' (1964).
* [[Odetta]] on album ''Odetta Sings of Many Things'' (1964).
* [[Julie Felix]] on her first album ''Julie Felix'' (1964).
* [[ The Brothers Four]] on ''Sing of Our Times'' (1964)
* [[The Byrds]] on the ''[[Ballad of Easy Rider (album)|Ballad of Easy Rider]]'' (1969).
* [[Joan Baez]] on ''[[Blessed Are...]]'' (1971) and live on ''Bowery Songs'' (2004).
* The Bergerfolk on ''The Bergerfolk Sing For Joy'', Smithsonian Folkways Recordings (1973).
* [[Barbara Dane]] on ''I Hate the Capitalist System'' (1973).
* [[Arlo Guthrie]] on ''[[Arlo Guthrie (album)|Arlo Guthrie]]'' (1974) and with [[Pete Seeger]] on ''Arlo Guthrie and Pete Seeger: Together in Concert'' (1975).
* [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Joan Baez]] during the 2nd Part of the [[Rolling Thunder Revue]] (1976).
* [[David Carradine]] on ''[[Bound for Glory (film)|Bound for Glory]]'' (motion picture soundtrack) (1976).
* [[Max Boyce]] on ''The Road and the Miles'' (1977).
* [[Dolly Parton]] on ''[[9 to 5 and Odd Jobs]]'' (1980).
* [[Sweet Honey in the Rock]] on ''The Other Side'' (1985).
* [[Christy Moore]] on, ''[[Spirit of Freedom]]'' (1985).
* [[The Highwaymen (country supergroup)|The Highwaymen]], with [[Johnny Rodriguez]], on ''[[Highwayman (The Highwaymen album)|Highwayman]]'' (1985).
* [[Christina Lindberg (singer)|Christina Lindberg]] on ''[[Stanna stanna]]'' (1985), in as "Flyktingarna" ("The Refugees") with lyrics by [[Martin Hoffman]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://smdb.kb.se/catalog/id/001890954 |title=Svensk mediedatabas |accessdate=16 June 2011}}</ref>
* [[Hoyt Axton]] on ''Hard Travelin''' (1986).
* [[Gene Clark]] on ''So Rebellious a Lover'' (1987), with Carla Olson.
* [[Peter, Paul and Mary]] on ''Lifelines'' (1995) and ''Lifelines Live'' (1996).
* [[Concrete Blonde]] on ''[[Concrete Blonde y Los Illegals]]'' (1997).
* [[Nanci Griffith]] with an ensemble including [[Lucinda Williams]], [[Tish Hinojosa]], [[Odetta]], [[Steve Earle]], and [[John Stewart (folk musician)|John Stewart]] on ''[[Other Voices, Too (A Trip Back to Bountiful)]]'' (1998).
* [[Los Super Seven]] on ''Los Super Seven'' (1998).
* Svante Karlsson on ''American Songs'' as "Deportees (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos/Goodbye Juan)" (1999).
* [[Bruce Springsteen]] on ''<nowiki>'</nowiki>Til We Outnumber 'Em'' (2000).
* [[Ox (band)|Ox]] on ''Dust Bowl Revival'' (2003).
* [[Paddy Reilly]] on ''The Very Best Of Paddy Reilly: 30 of His Finest Performances'' (2003).
* [[Derek Warfield|Derek Warfield and the Wolfe Tones]] on ''50 Great Irish Rebel Songs and Ballads'' (2005).
* Joe Jencks ''Rise As One'' (2005)
* [[The Battlefield Band]] on ''The Road of Tears'' (2006).
* [[Billy Bragg]] on ''[[Talking with the Taxman about Poetry]]'' extended edition (2006).
* [[Roy Brown (Puerto Rican musician)|Roy Brown Ramírez]], [[Tito Auger]], and [[Tao Rodríguez-Seeger]] on ''Que Vaya Bien'' (2006; in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]).
* [[Richard Shindell]] on, ''[[South of Delia]]'' (2007).
* [[Old Crow Medicine Show]] on ''[[Song of America (album)|Song of America]]'' (2007).
* [[John Stewart (folk musician)|John Stewart]] "Illegals/Deportee Medley" on ''Secret Tapes 1984-87'' (2009).
* [[Tim Broadbent]] on "Crisis" (2011)
* [[Dan Bern]] on ''Live in New York'' (2011).
* [[Outernational]] and [[Tom Morello: The Nightwatchman]] on ''Todos Somos Ilegales'' (2011)
* [[KT Tunstall]] as part of [[ONE campaign|ONE]]'s agit8 campaign (2013).
* [[Tim Z. Hernandez]] with Lance Canales & the Flood as a single (2013).
* [[The Last Internationale]] on "This Bootleg Kills... Vol. 1" (2015)
* [[Lance Canales]] on ''The Blessing And The Curse'' (2015)<ref>from an interview on [http://americanamusicshow.com/episode273 Americana Music Show #273], published November 17, 2015</ref>

== Notes ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.woodyguthrie.org/Lyrics/Plane_Wreck_At_Los_Gatos.htm Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos) song lyrics] at woodyguthrie.org
*[http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/Deportee_1948_crash.htm Check-Six.com - The "Plane Wreck at Los Gatos" Canyon] (includes full passenger and crew list)
*[http://www.picacho.org/interest/dc3-site.html A description of the DC3 aircraft crash site] at picacho.org

{{DEFAULTSORT:Deportee (Plane Wreck at Los Gatos)}}
[[Category:1948 songs]]
[[Category:Deportation]]
[[Category:Woody Guthrie songs]]
[[Category:Joan Baez songs]]
[[Category:Protest songs]]
[[Category:Songs about California]]
[[Category:Songs based on actual events]]
[[Category:Songs written by Woody Guthrie]]
[[Category:Songs about aircraft]]

Dictabelt

2015-12-04T14:19:44Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

The '''Dictabelt''',<ref>{{cite book|last=Morton|first=David|title=Off the Record: The Technology and Culture of Sound Recording in America|year=2000|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=0-8135-2747-3}}</ref> in early years and much less commonly also called a '''Memobelt''', is an [[Analog recording|analog audio recording]] medium commercially introduced by the [[United States|American]] [[Dictaphone]] company in 1947. Having been intended for [[Dictation machine|recording dictation]] and other speech for later transcription, it is a [[write once read many|write-once-read-many]] medium consisting of a {{convert|5|mil|adj=on}} thick transparent [[polyvinyl chloride|vinyl]] plastic belt {{convert|3.5|in}} wide and {{convert|12|in}} around.<ref name="audio_history">http://www.videointerchange.com/audio_history.htm</ref> The belt is loaded onto a pair of metal cylinders, put under tension, then rotated like a [[tank tread]]. It is inscribed with an audio-signal-modulated [[helix|helical]] groove by a [[stylus]] which is slowly moved across the rotating belt. Unlike the stylus of a record cutter, the Dictabelt stylus is blunt and in recording mode it simply impresses a groove into the plastic rather than engraving it and throwing off a thread of waste material.<ref name="audio_history"/>

Dictabelts were more convenient and provide better audio quality than the reusable [[Phonograph cylinder|wax cylinders]] they replaced. The belts can be folded for storage and will fit into an ordinary letter-size envelope. However, the plastic loses flexibility as it ages. If a belt is stored sharply folded for a long time, it will become permanently creased and unplayable without special treatment.<ref name="audio_history"/><ref>http://www.poppyrecords.co.uk/other/Dictabelts/dictabelts.htm</ref> Dictabelts were red until 1964, blue from 1964 to 1975, then purple until they were discontinued around 1980.<ref name="audio_history"/> Each has a capacity of about 15 minutes at the standard speed. At least one Dictaphone model featured a half-speed, low-fidelity 30-minute option.<ref name="audio_history"/>

In the 1960s, [[Virginia]] required that all of [[Virginia Circuit Court|its circuit courts]] be outfitted with Dictabelt machines.<ref>http://www.dictabeltrerecord.com/about.htm</ref>

Along with a [[Gray Audograph]] sound recorder, a Dictabelt recorded the police department radio channels in Dallas, Texas, during the [[John F. Kennedy assassination]].
These recordings were reviewed by the [[United States House Select Committee on Assassinations]].

==See also==
*[[John F. Kennedy assassination Dictabelt recording]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.videointerchange.com/audio_history.htm Audio Recording History]
*[http://www.recording-history.org/HTML/dicta_biz5.php History of the Dictation Equipment Industry]

{{Audio format}}

[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:1947 introductions]]

{{Product-stub}}

Weltforum für die Harmonisierung von Fahrzeugvorschriften

2015-09-24T16:05:08Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

{{Infobox United Nations
| name = World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations (WP.29)
| type = Working Party
| acronyms = WP.29
| head = {{flagicon|Russia}}[[Boris Kisulenko]] (2004 - present)
| status = Active
| established = 1952
| website = [http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/meeting_docs_wp29.html UNECE Transport - WP29]
| parent = [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]] Inland Transport Committee
}}

The '''World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations''' is a working party ('''WP.29''')<ref>http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/WP29-FAQ-2005.pdf</ref> of the Inland Transport Division of the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE). It is tasked with creating a uniform system of regulations, called '''UN Regulations''', for vehicle design to facilitate international trade.

WP.29 was established on June 1952 as "Working party of experts on technical requirement of vehicles"; the current name was adopted in 2000.

The forum works on regulations covering [[vehicle safety]], [[environmental protection]], [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] and [[theft]]-resistance.

==1958 Agreement==
The core of the Forum's work is based around the "1958 Agreement", formally titled "Agreement concerning the adoption of uniform technical prescriptions for wheeled vehicles, equipment and parts which can be fitted and/or be used on wheeled vehicles and the conditions for reciprocal recognition of approvals granted on the basis of these prescriptions" (E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2, amended on 16 October 1995). This forms a legal framework wherein participating countries (contracting parties) agree a common set of technical prescriptions and protocols for [[type approval]] of vehicles and components. These were formerly called "UNECE Regulations" or, less formally, "ECE Regulations" in reference to the Economic Commission for Europe. However, since many non-European countries are now contracting parties to the 1958 Agreement, the regulations are officially entitled "UN Regulations".<ref name="WP29">[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/introduction.html WP.29: Nomenclature]</ref><ref>[http://www.drivingvisionnews.com/news/lighting/78-regulations/3290-the-end-of-the-ece-era- The End of the 'ECE' Era], ''Driving Vision News'', 29 August 2011</ref> Each contracting party's type approvals are recognised by all other contracting parties.

===Participating countries===
[[File:World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations.png|thumb|350px]]

The first signatories to the 1958 Agreement include Italy (March 28), Netherlands (March 30), Germany (June 19), France (June 26), Hungary (June 30), Sweden and Belgium. Originally, the agreement allowed participation of [[UNECE|ECE]] member countries only, but in 1995 the agreement was revised to allow non-ECE members to participate. Current participants include European Union and its member countries, as well non-EU UNECE members such as Norway, Russia, Ukraine, Croatia, Serbia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Tunisia, and even remote territories such as South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, Thailand and Malaysia.

{{As of|2012}}, the participants to the 1958 Agreement, with their UN country code, were:

{| class ="wikitable sortable"
!UN Code || Country || Effective date || Notes
|-
| 1 ||{{flag| Germany }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1965-01-28}} ||
|-
| 2 ||{{flag| France }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1959-06-20}} ||
|-
| 3 ||{{flag| Italy }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1963-04-26}} ||
|-
| 4 ||{{flag| Netherlands }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1960-08-29}} ||
|-
| 5 ||{{flag| Sweden }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1959-06-20}} ||
|-
| 6 ||{{flag| Belgium }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1959-09-05}} ||
|-
| 7 ||{{flag| Hungary }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1960-07-02}} ||
|-
| 8 ||{{flag| Czech Republic }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1993-01-01}} ||(formerly [[Czechoslovakia]])
|-
| 9 ||{{flag| Spain }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1961-10-10}} ||
|-
| 10 ||{{flag| Serbia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2001-03-12}} || (formerly [[Yugoslavia]])
|-
| 11 ||{{flag| United Kingdom }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1963-03-16}} ||
|-
| 12 ||{{flag| Austria }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1971-05-11}} ||
|-
| 13 ||{{flag| Luxembourg }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1971-12-12}} ||
|-
| 14 ||{{flag| Switzerland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1973-08-28}} ||
|-
| 15 ||{{flag| DDR }} || {{dts|format=dmy| }} || (expired in 1999)
|-
| 16 ||{{flag| Norway }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1975-04-04}} ||
|-
| 17 ||{{flag| Finland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1976-09-17}} ||
|-
| 18 ||{{flag| Denmark }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1976-12-20}} ||
|-
| 19 ||{{flag| Romania }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1977-02-21}} ||
|-
| 20 ||{{flag| Poland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1979-03-13}} ||
|-
| 21 ||{{flag| Portugal }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1980-03-28}} ||
|-
| 22 ||{{flag| Russian Federation }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1987-02-17}} ||
|-
| 23 ||{{flag| Greece }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1992-12-05}} ||
|-
| 24 ||{{flag| Ireland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1998-03-24}} ||
|-
| 25 ||{{flag| Croatia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1991-10-08}} ||
|-
| 26 ||{{flag| Slovenia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1991-06-25}} ||
|-
| 27 ||{{flag| Slovakia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1993-01-01}} ||
|-
| 28 ||{{flag| Belarus }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1995-07-02}} ||
|-
| 29 ||{{flag| Estonia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1995-05-01}} ||
|-
| 31 ||{{flag| Bosnia and Herzegovina }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1992-03-06}} ||
|-
| 32 ||{{flag| Latvia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1999-01-18}} ||
|-
| 34 ||{{flag| Bulgaria }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2000-01-21}} ||
|-
| 35 ||{{flag| Kazakhstan }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2011-01-08}} ||
|-
| 36 ||{{flag| Lithuania }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2002-03-29}} ||
|-
| 37 ||{{flag| Turkey }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1996-02-27}} ||
|-
| 39 ||{{flag| Azerbaijan }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2002-06-14}} ||
|-
| 40 ||{{flag| Republic of Macedonia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1991-11-17}} ||
|-
| 42 ||{{flag| European Union }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1998-03-24}} ||
|-
| 43 ||{{flag| Japan }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1998-11-24}} ||
|-
| 45 ||{{flag| Australia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2000-04-25}} ||
|-
| 46 ||{{flag| Ukraine }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2000-06-30}} ||
|-
| 47 ||{{flag| South Africa }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2001-06-17}} ||
|-
| 48 ||{{flag| New Zealand }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2002-01-26}} ||
|-
| 49 ||{{flag| Cyprus }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2004-05-01}} ||
|-
| 50 ||{{flag| Malta }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2004-05-01}} ||
|-
| 51 ||{{flag| South Korea }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2004-12-31}} ||
|-
| 52 ||{{flag| Malaysia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2006-04-04}} ||
|-
| 53 ||{{flag| Thailand }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2006-05-01}} ||
|-
| 54 ||{{flag| Albania }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2011-11-05}} ||
|-
| 56 ||{{flag| Montenegro }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2006-06-03}} ||
|-
| 58 ||{{flag| Tunisia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2008-01-01}} ||
|}

Most countries, even if not formally participating in the 1958 agreement, recognise the UN Regulations and either mirror the UN Regulations' content in their own national requirements, or permit the import, registration, and use of UN type-approved vehicles, or both. The [[United States]] and [[Canada]] are the two significant exceptions; their UN regulations are generally not recognised and UN-compliant vehicles and equipment are not authorised for import, sale, or use in the US, unless they are tested to be compliant with US car safety laws, or for limited non driving use (E.G. car show displays).<ref>http://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/grey-market-cars-everything-you-need-to-know/</ref>

===Type approval===
[[File:E-Pruefzeichen.svg|thumb|150 px|Two types of EU markings: top - according to UN regulations, bottom - according to EC directives]]

The 1958 Agreement operates on the principles of [[type approval]] and [[reciprocal recognition]]. Any country that accedes to the 1958 Agreement has authority to test and approve any manufacturer's design of a regulated product, regardless of the country in which that component was produced. Each individual design from each individual manufacturer is counted as one individual type. Once any acceding country grants a type approval, every other acceding country is obliged to honor that type approval and regard that vehicle or item of motor vehicle equipment as legal for import, sale and use.
Items type-approved according to a UN Regulation are marked with an ''E'' and a number, within a circle. The number indicates which country approved the item, and other surrounding letters and digits indicate the precise version of the regulation met and the type approval number, respectively.

Although all countries' type approvals are legally equivalent, there are real and perceived differences in the rigour with which the regulations and protocols are applied by different national type approval authorities. Some countries have their own national standards for granting type approvals, which may be more stringent than called for by the UN regulations themselves. Within the auto parts industry, a German (E1) type approval, for example, is regarded as a measure of insurance against suspicion of poor quality or an undeserved type approval.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://candlepowerinc.com/pdfs/Metal_Signal.pdf |title=Marketing emphasis on German E1 type approval |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-11-13}}</ref>

===UN Regulations===
{{anchor|List of UN Regulations}}
{{As of|2015}}, there are 135 UN Regulations appended to the 1958 Agreement; most regulations cover a single vehicle component or technology. A partial list of current regulations applying to passenger cars follows (different regulations may apply to heavy vehicles, motorcycles, etc.)

====General lighting====
* R3 — Retroreflecting devices
* R4 — Illumination of rear registration plates
* R6 — Direction indicators
* R7 — Front and rear position lamps, stop lamps and end-outline marker lamps
* R19 — Front fog lamps
* R23 — Reversing lights
* R37 — Filament lamps (bulbs) (''See: [[Automotive lamp types]]'')
* R38 — Rear fog lamps
* R48 — Installation of lighting and light-signalling devices
* R77 — Parking lamps
* R87 — [[Daytime running lamp]]s
* R91 — Side marker lamps
* R119 — Cornering lamps
* R123 — AFS lamps
* R128 — LED light sources

==== Headlamps ====
* R1 - [[Headlamps]] emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam, equipped with R2 or HS1 bulbs (superseded by R112, but still valid for existing approvals)
* R5 - Sealed Beam headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam
* R8 - Headlamps equipped with replaceable single-filament tungsten-halogen bulbs (superseded by R112, but still valid for existing approvals)
* R20 - Headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam and equipped with halogen double-filament H4 bulbs (superseded by R112, but still valid for existing approvals)
* R31 — Halogen sealed beam headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam
* R45 — Headlamp cleaners
* R98 — Headlamps equipped with gas-discharge light sources
* R99 — Gas-discharge light sources for use in approved gas-discharge lamp units of power-driven vehicles (''See: [[Automotive lamp types]]'')
* R112 — Headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam and equipped with filament bulbs
* R113 — Headlamps emitting a symmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam and equipped with filament bulbs

==== Instrumentation/controls ====
* R35 — arrangement of foot controls
* R39 — speedometer equipment
* R46 — rear-view mirrors
* R79 — steering equipment

==== Crashworthiness ====
* R11 — door latches and door retention components
* R13-H — [[Brake|braking]] (passenger cars)
* R13 — braking (trucks and busses)
* R14 — [[Seat belt|safety belt]] anchorages
* R16 — [[Seat belt|safety belts]] and restraint systems
* R17 — seats, seat anchorages, head restraints
* R27 — advance-warning triangles
* R42 — front and rear protective devices ([[Bumper (automobile)|bumpers]], etc.)
* R43 — safety glazing materials and their installation on vehicles
* R94 — protection of the occupants in the event of a frontal collision
* R95 — protection of the occupants in the event of a lateral collision
* R116 — protection of motor vehicles against unauthorized use
* R129 — enhanced child restraint systems (ECRS)

==== Environmental compatibility ====
* R10 — electromagnetic compatibility
* R15 — emissions and fuel consumption (superseded by R83, R84 and R101)
* R24 — engine power measurement, smoke emissions, engine type approval
* R51 — noise emissions
* R68 — measurement of the maximum speed
* R83 — emission of pollutants according to engine fuel requirements
* R84 — measurement of [[Fuel economy in automobiles#Europe|fuel consumption]]
* R85 — electric drive trains — measurement of the net power and the maximum 30 minutes power of electric drive trains
* R100 — approval of [[battery electric vehicle]]s with regard to specific requeriments for the [[vehicle construction|construction]], [[Functional Safety]] and [[hydrogen emission]].<ref>http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/r100a1e.pdf</ref>
* R101 — measurement of the emission of carbon dioxide and [[Fuel economy in automobiles#Europe|fuel consumption]]
* R117 — rolling sound emissions of tyres

==North America==
The most notable non-signatory to the 1958 Agreement is the [[United States]], which has its own [[Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards]] and does not recognise UN type approvals. However, both the United States and Canada are parties to the 1998 Agreement. UN-specification vehicles and components which do not also comply with the US regulations therefore cannot be imported to the US without extensive modifications. [[Canada]] has its own [[Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standards]], broadly similar to the US FMVSS, but Canada does also accept UN-compliant headlamps and bumpers. It should be noted, however, that the impending [[Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement]] between Canada and the European Union (likely to be ratified in 2015) could see Canada recognise more UN Regulations as acceptable alternatives to the Canadian regulations.<ref>{{cite news|title=CETA Means Big Changes For Canadian Automotive Industry |url=http://www.autos.ca/general-news/ceta-means-big-changes-for-canadian-automotive-industry/|accessdate=20 March 2014|date=18 October 2013}}</ref> Canada currently applies 14 of the 17 ECE main standards as allowable alternatives{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}} - the exceptions at this point relate to motorcycle controls and displays, motorcycle mirrors, and electronic stability control for passenger cars.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}} These three remaining groups will be allowed in Canada by the time the ratification of the trade deal occurs.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}

===Self-certification===
Rather than a UN-style system of type approvals, the US and Canadian auto safety regulations operate on the principle of self-certification, wherein the manufacturer or importer of a vehicle or item of motor vehicle equipment certifies—i.e., asserts and promises—that the vehicle or equipment complies with all applicable federal or Canada Motor Vehicle Safety, bumper and antitheft standards.<ref name="hsdl.org">https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=751039</ref> No prior verification is required by a governmental agency or authorised testing entity before the vehicle or equipment can be imported, sold, or used. If reason develops to believe the certification was
false or improper — i.e., that the vehicle or equipment does not in fact comply — then authorities may conduct tests and, if a noncompliance is found, order a recall and/or other corrective and/or punitive measures. Vehicle and equipment makers are permitted to appeal such penalties by filing petitions for finding of ''noncompliance inconsequential to safety''.

==Regulatory differences==
[[Image:Citroen Headlamps - Euro vs US.jpg|thumb|left|A comparison of European (top) and US (bottom) headlamp configuration on similar-year [[Citroën DS]] cars]]
Historically, one of the most conspicuous differences between UN and US regulations was the design and performance of [[headlamp]]s. The [[Citroën DS]] shown here illustrates the large differences in headlamps during the 1940-1983 era when US regulations required [[sealed beam]] headlamps.<ref>http://www.motivemag.com/pub/feature/tech/Motive_Tech_The_Difference_Between_US_and_European_Lights.shtml</ref>
<ref>http://www.nbc.com/jay-lenos-garage/video/1971-citroen-ds/2839548?onid=159436#vc159436=1</ref>
It is not currently possible to produce a single car design that fully meets both UN and US requirements simultaneously,<ref name="jalopnik.com">http://jalopnik.com/a-simple-explanation-why-america-doesnt-get-european-h-1493377285</ref> but it is growing easier as technology and both sets of regulations evolve. Given the size of the US vehicle market, and differing [[marketing]] strategies in North America vs. the rest of the world, many manufacturers produce vehicles in three versions: North American, rest-of-world [[Driving on the left or right|right-hand drive]] (RHD) and rest-of-world [[left-hand-drive]] (LHD).<ref name="jalopnik.com"/>

==1998 Agreement==
The "Agreement concerning the Establishing of Global Technical Regulations for Wheeled Vehicles, Equipment and Parts which can be fitted and/or be used on Wheeled Vehicles", or 1998 Agreement, is a subsequent agreement. Following its mission to harmonize vehicle regulations, the UNECE solved the main issues (Administrative Provisions for Type approval opposed to self-certification and mutual recognition of Type Approvals) preventing non-signatory Countries to the 1958 Agreement to fully participate to its activities.

The 1998 Agreement is born to produce meta regulations called Global Technical Regulations without administrative procedures for type approval and so, without the principle of mutual recognition of Type Approvals. The 1998 Agreement stipulates that Contracting Parties will establish, by consensus vote, United Nations Global Technical Regulations (UN GTRs) in a UN Global Registry. The UN GTRs contain globally harmonized performance requirements and test procedures. Each UN GTR contains extensive notes on its development. The text includes a record of the technical rationale, the research sources used, cost and benefit considerations, and references to data consulted. The Contracting Parties use their nationally established rulemaking processes when transposing UN GTRs into their national legislation. The 1998 Agreement currently has 33 Contracting Parties and 14 UN GTRs that have been established into the UN Global Registry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29wgs/wp29gen/wp29glob_registry.html |title=Global Technical Regulations(GTRs)of UNECE |date= |accessdate=2014-02-05}}</ref>

==2013 Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (proposed)==
As part of the [[Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership]] (TTIP) negotiations, the issues of divergent standards in automobile regulatory structure are being investigated. TTIP negotiators are seeking to identify ways to narrow the regulatory differences, potentially reducing costs and spurring additional trade in vehicles.<ref name="hsdl.org"/>

==OICA==
[[Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles]] (OICA) hosts on its web site the working documents from various United Nations expert groups including World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oica.net/category/worldwide-harmonization/un-expert-group-documents |title=OICA un-expert-group-documents |publisher=Oica.net |date= |accessdate=2011-11-13}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Vehicle regulation]]
*[[Car safety]]
*[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]
*[[Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards]]
*[[Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108]]
*[[Automotive lighting]]
*[[Headlamps]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://ib-lenhardt.com/en/services.php IB-Lenhardt - Your Partner for Worldwide Testing, Type Approval, Homologation, Certification Services, Radar (24GHz, 77GHz, 79GHz), WLAN (2,4GHz, 3GHz, 5 GHz, 10GHz)]
*[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/welcwp29.htm UN Regulations]
*[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29wgs/wp29gen/wp29pub.html World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations (WP.29) – How It Works, How to Join It]
*[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/WP29-FAQ-2005.pdf World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations FAQ]

{{DEFAULTSORT:World Forum For Harmonization Of Vehicle Regulations}}
[[Category:Automotive standards]]
[[Category:Car safety]]
[[Category:United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]]

Weltforum für die Harmonisierung von Fahrzeugvorschriften

2015-09-24T16:03:34Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

{{Infobox United Nations
| name = World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations (WP.29)
| type = Working Party
| acronyms = WP.29
| head = {{flagicon|Russia}}[[Boris Kisulenko]] (2004 - present)
| status = Active
| established = 1952
| website = [http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/meeting_docs_wp29.html UNECE Transport - WP29]
| parent = [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|UNECE]] Inland Transport Committee
}}

The '''World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations''' is a working party ('''WP.29''')<ref>http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/WP29-FAQ-2005.pdf</ref> of the Inland Transport Division of the [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE). It is tasked with creating a uniform system of regulations, called '''UN Regulations''', for vehicle design to facilitate international trade.

WP.29 was established on June 1952 as "Working party of experts on technical requirement of vehicles"; the current name was adopted in 2000.

The forum works on regulations covering [[vehicle safety]], [[environmental protection]], [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] and [[theft]]-resistance.

==1958 Agreement==
The core of the Forum's work is based around the "1958 Agreement", formally titled "Agreement concerning the adoption of uniform technical prescriptions for wheeled vehicles, equipment and parts which can be fitted and/or be used on wheeled vehicles and the conditions for reciprocal recognition of approvals granted on the basis of these prescriptions" (E/ECE/TRANS/505/Rev.2, amended on 16 October 1995). This forms a legal framework wherein participating countries (contracting parties) agree a common set of technical prescriptions and protocols for [[type approval]] of vehicles and components. These were formerly called "UNECE Regulations" or, less formally, "ECE Regulations" in reference to the Economic Commission for Europe. However, since many non-European countries are now contracting parties to the 1958 Agreement, the regulations are officially entitled "UN Regulations".<ref name="WP29">[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/introduction.html WP.29: Nomenclature]</ref><ref>[http://www.drivingvisionnews.com/news/lighting/78-regulations/3290-the-end-of-the-ece-era- The End of the 'ECE' Era], ''Driving Vision News'', 29 August 2011</ref> Each contracting party's type approvals are recognised by all other contracting parties.

===Participating countries===
[[File:World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations.png|thumb|350px]]

The first signatories to the 1958 Agreement include Italy (March 28), Netherlands (March 30), Germany (June 19), France (June 26), Hungary (June 30), Sweden and Belgium. Originally, the agreement allowed participation of [[UNECE|ECE]] member countries only, but in 1995 the agreement was revised to allow non-ECE members to participate. Current participants include European Union and its member countries, as well non-EU UNECE members such as Norway, Russia, Ukraine, Croatia, Serbia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Turkey, Azerbaijan and Tunisia, and even remote territories such as South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, Thailand and Malaysia.

{{As of|2012}}, the participants to the 1958 Agreement, with their UN country code, were:

{| class ="wikitable sortable"
!UN Code || Country || Effective date || Notes
|-
| 1 ||{{flag| Germany }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1965-01-28}} ||
|-
| 2 ||{{flag| France }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1959-06-20}} ||
|-
| 3 ||{{flag| Italy }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1963-04-26}} ||
|-
| 4 ||{{flag| Netherlands }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1960-08-29}} ||
|-
| 5 ||{{flag| Sweden }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1959-06-20}} ||
|-
| 6 ||{{flag| Belgium }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1959-09-05}} ||
|-
| 7 ||{{flag| Hungary }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1960-07-02}} ||
|-
| 8 ||{{flag| Czech Republic }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1993-01-01}} ||(formerly [[Czechoslovakia]])
|-
| 9 ||{{flag| Spain }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1961-10-10}} ||
|-
| 10 ||{{flag| Serbia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2001-03-12}} || (formerly [[Yugoslavia]])
|-
| 11 ||{{flag| United Kingdom }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1963-03-16}} ||
|-
| 12 ||{{flag| Austria }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1971-05-11}} ||
|-
| 13 ||{{flag| Luxembourg }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1971-12-12}} ||
|-
| 14 ||{{flag| Switzerland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1973-08-28}} ||
|-
| 15 ||{{flag| DDR }} || {{dts|format=dmy| }} || (expired in 1999)
|-
| 16 ||{{flag| Norway }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1975-04-04}} ||
|-
| 17 ||{{flag| Finland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1976-09-17}} ||
|-
| 18 ||{{flag| Denmark }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1976-12-20}} ||
|-
| 19 ||{{flag| Romania }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1977-02-21}} ||
|-
| 20 ||{{flag| Poland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1979-03-13}} ||
|-
| 21 ||{{flag| Portugal }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1980-03-28}} ||
|-
| 22 ||{{flag| Russian Federation }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1987-02-17}} ||
|-
| 23 ||{{flag| Greece }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1992-12-05}} ||
|-
| 24 ||{{flag| Ireland }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1998-03-24}} ||
|-
| 25 ||{{flag| Croatia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1991-10-08}} ||
|-
| 26 ||{{flag| Slovenia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1991-06-25}} ||
|-
| 27 ||{{flag| Slovakia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1993-01-01}} ||
|-
| 28 ||{{flag| Belarus }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1995-07-02}} ||
|-
| 29 ||{{flag| Estonia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1995-05-01}} ||
|-
| 31 ||{{flag| Bosnia and Herzegovina }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1992-03-06}} ||
|-
| 32 ||{{flag| Latvia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1999-01-18}} ||
|-
| 34 ||{{flag| Bulgaria }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2000-01-21}} ||
|-
| 35 ||{{flag| Kazakhstan }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2011-01-08}} ||
|-
| 36 ||{{flag| Lithuania }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2002-03-29}} ||
|-
| 37 ||{{flag| Turkey }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1996-02-27}} ||
|-
| 39 ||{{flag| Azerbaijan }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2002-06-14}} ||
|-
| 40 ||{{flag| Republic of Macedonia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1991-11-17}} ||
|-
| 42 ||{{flag| European Union }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1998-03-24}} ||
|-
| 43 ||{{flag| Japan }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 1998-11-24}} ||
|-
| 45 ||{{flag| Australia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2000-04-25}} ||
|-
| 46 ||{{flag| Ukraine }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2000-06-30}} ||
|-
| 47 ||{{flag| South Africa }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2001-06-17}} ||
|-
| 48 ||{{flag| New Zealand }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2002-01-26}} ||
|-
| 49 ||{{flag| Cyprus }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2004-05-01}} ||
|-
| 50 ||{{flag| Malta }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2004-05-01}} ||
|-
| 51 ||{{flag| South Korea }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2004-12-31}} ||
|-
| 52 ||{{flag| Malaysia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2006-04-04}} ||
|-
| 53 ||{{flag| Thailand }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2006-05-01}} ||
|-
| 54 ||{{flag| Albania }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2011-11-05}} ||
|-
| 56 ||{{flag| Montenegro }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2006-06-03}} ||
|-
| 58 ||{{flag| Tunisia }} || {{dts|format=dmy| 2008-01-01}} ||
|}

Most countries, even if not formally participating in the 1958 agreement, recognise the UN Regulations and either mirror the UN Regulations' content in their own national requirements, or permit the import, registration, and use of UN type-approved vehicles, or both. The [[United States]] and [[Canada]] are the two significant exceptions; their UN regulations are generally not recognised and UN-compliant vehicles and equipment are not authorised for import, sale, or use in the US, unless they are tested to be compliant with US car safety laws, or for limited non driving use (E.G. car show displays).<ref>http://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/grey-market-cars-everything-you-need-to-know/</ref>

===Type approval===
[[File:E-Pruefzeichen.svg|thumb|150 px|Two types of EU markings: top - according to UN regulations, bottom - according to EC directives]]

The 1958 Agreement operates on the principles of [[type approval]] and [[reciprocal recognition]]. Any country that accedes to the 1958 Agreement has authority to test and approve any manufacturer's design of a regulated product, regardless of the country in which that component was produced. Each individual design from each individual manufacturer is counted as one individual type. Once any acceding country grants a type approval, every other acceding country is obliged to honor that type approval and regard that vehicle or item of motor vehicle equipment as legal for import, sale and use.
Items type-approved according to a UN Regulation are marked with an ''E'' and a number, within a circle. The number indicates which country approved the item, and other surrounding letters and digits indicate the precise version of the regulation met and the type approval number, respectively.

Although all countries' type approvals are legally equivalent, there are real and perceived differences in the rigour with which the regulations and protocols are applied by different national type approval authorities. Some countries have their own national standards for granting type approvals, which may be more stringent than called for by the UN regulations themselves. Within the auto parts industry, a German (E1) type approval, for example, is regarded as a measure of insurance against suspicion of poor quality or an undeserved type approval.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://candlepowerinc.com/pdfs/Metal_Signal.pdf |title=Marketing emphasis on German E1 type approval |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-11-13}}</ref>

===UN Regulations===
{{anchor|List of UN Regulations}}
{{As of|2015}}, there are 135 UN Regulations appended to the 1958 Agreement; most regulations cover a single vehicle component or technology. A partial list of current regulations applying to passenger cars follows (different regulations may apply to heavy vehicles, motorcycles, etc.)

====General lighting====
* R3 — Retroreflecting devices
* R4 — Illumination of rear registration plates
* R6 — Direction indicators
* R7 — Front and rear position lamps, stop lamps and end-outline marker lamps
* R19 — Front fog lamps
* R23 — Reversing lights
* R37 — Filament lamps (bulbs) (''See: [[Automotive lamp types]]'')
* R38 — Rear fog lamps
* R48 — Installation of lighting and light-signalling devices
* R77 — Parking lamps
* R87 — [[Daytime running lamp]]s
* R91 — Side marker lamps
* R119 — Cornering lamps
* R123 — AFS lamps
* R128 — LED light sources

==== Headlamps ====
* R1 - [[Headlamps]] emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam, equipped with R2 or HS1 bulbs (superseded by R112, but still valid for existing approvals)
* R5 - Sealed Beam headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam
* R8 - Headlamps equipped with replaceable single-filament tungsten-halogen bulbs (superseded by R112, but still valid for existing approvals)
* R20 - Headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam and equipped with halogen double-filament H4 bulbs (superseded by R112, but still valid for existing approvals)
* R31 — Halogen sealed beam headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam
* R45 — Headlamp cleaners
* R98 — Headlamps equipped with gas-discharge light sources
* R99 — Gas-discharge light sources for use in approved gas-discharge lamp units of power-driven vehicles (''See: [[Automotive lamp types]]'')
* R112 — Headlamps emitting an asymmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam and equipped with filament bulbs
* R113 — Headlamps emitting a symmetrical passing beam and/or a driving beam and equipped with filament bulbs

==== Instrumentation/controls ====
* R35 — arrangement of foot controls
* R39 — speedometer equipment
* R46 — rear-view mirrors
* R79 — steering equipment

==== Crashworthiness ====
* R11 — door latches and door retention components
* R13-H — [[Brake|braking]] (passenger cars)
* R13 — braking (trucks and busses)
* R14 — [[Seat belt|safety belt]] anchorages
* R16 — [[Seat belt|safety belts]] and restraint systems
* R17 — seats, seat anchorages, head restraints
* R27 — advance-warning triangles
* R42 — front and rear protective devices ([[Bumper (automobile)|bumpers]], etc.)
* R43 — safety glazing materials and their installation on vehicles
* R94 — protection of the occupants in the event of a frontal collision
* R95 — protection of the occupants in the event of a lateral collision
* R116 — protection of motor vehicles against unauthorized use
* R129 — enhanced child restraint systems (ECRS)

==== Environmental compatibility ====
* R10 — electromagnetic compatibility
* R15 — emissions and fuel consumption (superseded by R83, R84 and R101)
* R24 — engine power measurement, smoke emissions, engine type approval
* R51 — noise emissions
* R68 — measurement of the maximum speed
* R83 — emission of pollutants according to engine fuel requirements
* R84 — measurement of [[Fuel economy in automobiles#Europe|fuel consumption]]
* R85 — electric drive trains — measurement of the net power and the maximum 30 minutes power of electric drive trains
* R100 — approval of [[battery electric vehicle]]s with regard to specific requeriments for the [[vehicle construction|construction]], [[Functional Safety]] and [[hydrogen emission]].<ref>http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/r100a1e.pdf</ref>
* R101 — measurement of the emission of carbon dioxide and [[Fuel economy in automobiles#Europe|fuel consumption]]
* R117 — rolling sound emissions of tyres

==North America==
The most notable non-signatory to the 1958 Agreement is the [[United States]], which has its own [[Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards]] and does not recognise UN type approvals. However, both the United States and Canada are parties to the 1998 Agreement. UN-specification vehicles and components which do not also comply with the US regulations therefore cannot be imported to the US without extensive modifications. [[Canada]] has its own [[Canada Motor Vehicle Safety Standards]], broadly similar to the US FMVSS, but Canada does also accept UN-compliant headlamps and bumpers. It should be noted, however, that the impending [[Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement]] between Canada and the European Union (likely to be ratified in 2015) could see Canada recognise more UN Regulations as acceptable alternatives to the Canadian regulations.<ref>{{cite news|title=CETA Means Big Changes For Canadian Automotive Industry |url=http://www.autos.ca/general-news/ceta-means-big-changes-for-canadian-automotive-industry/|accessdate=20 March 2014|date=18 October 2013}}</ref> Canada currently applies 14 of the 17 ECE main standards as allowable alternatives{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}} - the exceptions at this point relate to motorcycle controls and displays, motorcycle mirrors, and electronic stability control for passenger cars.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}} These three remaining groups will be allowed in Canada by the time the ratification of the trade deal occurs.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}

===Self-certification===
Rather than a UN-style system of type approvals, the US and Canadian auto safety regulations operate on the principle of self-certification, wherein the manufacturer or importer of a vehicle or item of motor vehicle equipment certifies — i.e., asserts and promises — that the vehicle or equipment complies with all applicable Federal or Canada Motor Vehicle Safety, bumper and antitheft standards.<ref name="hsdl.org">https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=751039</ref> No prior verification is required by a governmental agency or authorised testing entity before the vehicle or equipment can be imported, sold, or used. If reason develops to believe the certification was
false or improper — i.e., that the vehicle or equipment does not in fact comply — then authorities may conduct tests and, if a noncompliance is found, order a recall and/or other corrective and/or punitive measures. Vehicle and equipment makers are permitted to appeal such penalties by filing petitions for finding of ''noncompliance inconsequential to safety''.

==Regulatory differences==
[[Image:Citroen Headlamps - Euro vs US.jpg|thumb|left|A comparison of European (top) and US (bottom) headlamp configuration on similar-year [[Citroën DS]] cars]]
Historically, one of the most conspicuous differences between UN and US regulations was the design and performance of [[headlamp]]s. The [[Citroën DS]] shown here illustrates the large differences in headlamps during the 1940-1983 era when US regulations required [[sealed beam]] headlamps.<ref>http://www.motivemag.com/pub/feature/tech/Motive_Tech_The_Difference_Between_US_and_European_Lights.shtml</ref>
<ref>http://www.nbc.com/jay-lenos-garage/video/1971-citroen-ds/2839548?onid=159436#vc159436=1</ref>
It is not currently possible to produce a single car design that fully meets both UN and US requirements simultaneously,<ref name="jalopnik.com">http://jalopnik.com/a-simple-explanation-why-america-doesnt-get-european-h-1493377285</ref> but it is growing easier as technology and both sets of regulations evolve. Given the size of the US vehicle market, and differing [[marketing]] strategies in North America vs. the rest of the world, many manufacturers produce vehicles in three versions: North American, rest-of-world [[Driving on the left or right|right-hand drive]] (RHD) and rest-of-world [[left-hand-drive]] (LHD).<ref name="jalopnik.com"/>

==1998 Agreement==
The "Agreement concerning the Establishing of Global Technical Regulations for Wheeled Vehicles, Equipment and Parts which can be fitted and/or be used on Wheeled Vehicles", or 1998 Agreement, is a subsequent agreement. Following its mission to harmonize vehicle regulations, the UNECE solved the main issues (Administrative Provisions for Type approval opposed to self-certification and mutual recognition of Type Approvals) preventing non-signatory Countries to the 1958 Agreement to fully participate to its activities.

The 1998 Agreement is born to produce meta regulations called Global Technical Regulations without administrative procedures for type approval and so, without the principle of mutual recognition of Type Approvals. The 1998 Agreement stipulates that Contracting Parties will establish, by consensus vote, United Nations Global Technical Regulations (UN GTRs) in a UN Global Registry. The UN GTRs contain globally harmonized performance requirements and test procedures. Each UN GTR contains extensive notes on its development. The text includes a record of the technical rationale, the research sources used, cost and benefit considerations, and references to data consulted. The Contracting Parties use their nationally established rulemaking processes when transposing UN GTRs into their national legislation. The 1998 Agreement currently has 33 Contracting Parties and 14 UN GTRs that have been established into the UN Global Registry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29wgs/wp29gen/wp29glob_registry.html |title=Global Technical Regulations(GTRs)of UNECE |date= |accessdate=2014-02-05}}</ref>

==2013 Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (proposed)==
As part of the [[Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership]] (TTIP) negotiations, the issues of divergent standards in automobile regulatory structure are being investigated. TTIP negotiators are seeking to identify ways to narrow the regulatory differences, potentially reducing costs and spurring additional trade in vehicles.<ref name="hsdl.org"/>

==OICA==
[[Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles]] (OICA) hosts on its web site the working documents from various United Nations expert groups including World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oica.net/category/worldwide-harmonization/un-expert-group-documents |title=OICA un-expert-group-documents |publisher=Oica.net |date= |accessdate=2011-11-13}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Vehicle regulation]]
*[[Car safety]]
*[[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]]
*[[Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards]]
*[[Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 108]]
*[[Automotive lighting]]
*[[Headlamps]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://ib-lenhardt.com/en/services.php IB-Lenhardt - Your Partner for Worldwide Testing, Type Approval, Homologation, Certification Services, Radar (24GHz, 77GHz, 79GHz), WLAN (2,4GHz, 3GHz, 5 GHz, 10GHz)]
*[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/welcwp29.htm UN Regulations]
*[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/wp29wgs/wp29gen/wp29pub.html World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations (WP.29) – How It Works, How to Join It]
*[http://www.unece.org/trans/main/wp29/WP29-FAQ-2005.pdf World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations FAQ]

{{DEFAULTSORT:World Forum For Harmonization Of Vehicle Regulations}}
[[Category:Automotive standards]]
[[Category:Car safety]]
[[Category:United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]]

Schagan (See)

2015-08-31T05:57:06Z

68.228.230.203: really?

{{For|the lake in Jilin, China|Chagan Lake (China)}}
{{Infobox lake
| lake_name = Lake Chagan
| image_lake =
| caption_lake =
| location =
| coords = {{coord|49.935278|79.008889|type:waterbody_region:KZ|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| inflow =
| outflow =
| catchment =
| basin_countries = [[Kazakhstan]]
| length =
| width =
| area =
| depth =
| max-depth =
| volume = {{convert|100000|m3|acre.ft|abbr=on}}{{cn|date=March 2015}}
| residence_time =
| shore =
| elevation =
| frozen =
| islands =
| cities =
| reference =
}}

'''Lake Chagan''' (or '''Lake Balapan'''), [[Kazakhstan]], is a [[lake]] created by the [[Chagan (nuclear test)|Chagan nuclear test]] fired on January 15, 1965, part of the [[Nuclear Explosions for the National Economy]]. Its water comes from the [[Chagan River]]. Often referred to as "Atomic Lake," the crater lake's volume is approximately {{convert|100000|m3|acre.ft|abbr=on}} and the lake is still [[radioactive]]. To the south, the rim of the crater holds back the waters of a second reservoir.

==See also==
* [[Sedan (nuclear test)]] – An American cratering detonation
* [[Pechora–Kama Canal]]
* [[Crater lake]]s usually formed by volcanic events.

==References==
*[http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/408695-xwEMy7/webviewable/408695.pdf On the Soviet program for peaceful uses of nuclear weapons]
*[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Russia/Sovwpnprog.html#Chagan On the Soviet nuclear program]

==External links==
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XEqYroQEtA8 Russia Today documentary that visits the lake at around the 1 minute mark.]
*[https://www.google.lv/maps/@49.90934,79.001141,13067m/data=!3m1!1e3 Lake Chagan on Google Maps]
{{Lakes of Kazakhstan}}

[[Category:Crater lakes]]
[[Category:Lakes of Kazakhstan|Chagan]]
[[Category:Peaceful nuclear explosions]]
[[Category:Explosion craters]]

Camp Lemonnier

2015-08-28T05:39:26Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

{{Use American English|date=July 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox Military Structure
|name=Camp Lemonnier 
|location=[[Djibouti]]
|coordinates={{coord|11|32|37|N|43|08|55|E|display=inline,title}}
|image=[[File:Marineswithm16.jpg|300px]]
|caption=[[United States Marine Corps|Marines]] train with [[M16 rifle|M16-A2]] rifles in March 2003 at Camp Lemonnier
|type=[[USN]] Expeditionary Base
|built=Refurbished in 2001
|materials=
|used=2001 – present
|controlledby=United States
|garrison=[[CJTF-HOA|Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa]]
|past_commanders=[[U.S. Navy]] [[Captain (United States)|Captain]] Peter Van Stee<ref>{{cite web |url=http://auth.cnic.navy.mil/CLDJ/About/Command/Biographies/CommandingOfficer/index.htm |title=Commanding Officer |author= |work=Camp Lemonnier |publisher=United States Navy |accessdate=2 May 2013}}{{dead link|date=October 2013}}</ref>
|battles=
}}

'''Camp Lemonnier''' is a United States Naval Expeditionary Base,<ref name=MARCENT-2006>{{cite web |title=Introduction to MARCENT
|url=http://hqinet001.hqmc.usmc.mil/i&l/v2/LP/LPD/LPD-2%20Personal%20Property/Conferences/9th%20Annual%20SMO%20Conference/MARCENT%20Brief.ppt |date=May 2006 |publisher=[[United States Marine Corps]] |accessdate=9 February 2007}} Microsoft Powerpoint format{{dead link|date=October 2013}}</ref> situated at [[Djibouti]]'s [[Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport]] and home to the [[Combined Joint Task Force - Horn of Africa]] (CJTF-HOA) of the [[U.S. Africa Command]] (USAFRICOM).<ref name=africom-stands-up>{{cite news |title=Africans Fear Hidden U.S. Agenda in New Approach to Africom |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,430564,00.html |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |date=30 September 2008 |accessdate=30 September 2008}}</ref> It is the only permanent [[List of United States military bases|US military base]] in Africa.<ref>{{cite news |last=Contorno |first=Steve |date=12 June 2014 |title=Hillary Clinton says in memoir that there's very little U.S. military presence in Africa |url=http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2014/jun/12/hillary-clinton/hillary-clinton-says-memoir-theres-very-little-us-/ |publisher=[[PolitiFact.com]] |accessdate=3 July 2014}}</ref><ref name="Uesioia">{{cite news|title=U.S. expands secret intelligence operations in Africa|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/us-expands-secret-intelligence-operations-in-africa/2012/06/13/gJQAHyvAbV_story.html|accessdate=5 April 2015|agency=Washington Post|date=13 June 2012}}</ref> The camp is operated by U.S. Navy Region Europe, Africa, Southwest Asia; CJTF-HOA is the most notable tenant command located at the facility as of 2008. It was established as the primary base in the region for the support of [[Operation Enduring Freedom - Horn of Africa]] (OEF-HOA). After negotiations between March and May 2001, the Djiboutian government allowed for the base's use by the U.S., providing for [[demining]], [[Humanitarian aid|humanitarian]], and [[counter-terrorism]] efforts, and it now serves as the location from which U.S. and Coalition forces are operating in the [[Horn of Africa]]. The access agreement made by officials from the U.S. Embassy in Djibouti with the Djiboutian government allows for use of the camp, as well as a nearby airport and port facilities.

According to a former senior U.S. military commander, Camp Lemonnier is the centerpiece of a network of around six U.S. drone and surveillance bases stretching across the continent.<ref name="Uesioia"/><ref name="Rubacoso">{{cite news|title=Remote U.S. base at core of secret operations|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/remote-us-base-at-core-of-secret-operations/2012/10/25/a26a9392-197a-11e2-bd10-5ff056538b7c_print.html|accessdate=5 April 2015|agency=Washington Post|date=26 October 2012}}</ref> The latter air bases are smaller and operate from remote hangars situated within local military bases or civilian airports. Due to its strategic location, Camp Lemonnier also serves as a hub for aerial operations in the Gulf region.<ref name="Uesioia"/>

==History==
Camp Lemonnier is located in the town of [[Ambouli]] on the southern side of the [[Djibouti-Ambouli International Airport]], between the runway overflow areas and a French military munitions storage facility. After use by the [[French Foreign Legion]], the facility was operated by the [[Djibouti Armed Forces]]. Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the U.S. decided to start anti-terrorism efforts. At first, this was limited to focused attacks, but in 2002 the U.S. government realized that to reduce extremism would require long term engagement with the local governments and populations. As a result, it established the [[CJTF-HOA|Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa]] to conduct stability operations in the area. In November 2002, the CJTF-HOA staff, a Marine-based organization, arrived off the coast of Djibouti aboard {{USS|Mount Whitney|LCC-20|6}}, a naval command ship.
[[File:EOD Memorial Run, Camp Lemmonier, Djibouti, April 2011 (5664237474).jpg|thumb|right|[[Combined Joint Task Force – Horn of Africa|CJTF-HOA]] soldiers taking part in the 2011 Explosive Ordnance Disposal 5-K Run at Camp Lemonnier.]]
While the intent was to move ashore, the Camp Lemonnier facilities which had not been in use for several years were in a state of disrepair. Some buildings were concrete shells and had been stripped of interior fixtures, pipes and wiring, while the roofs of several structures had collapsed. Goats roamed the property and birds had taken roost in several of the abandoned structures. The former swimming pool had been used as a trash dump and was a borderline hazardous material site. Some buildings that were closer to the Djiboutian Air Force controlled side of the airport were in better shape and required minimal renovation. As a result, the CJTF-HOA staff remained aboard the USS ''Mount Whitney'' as the U.S. Army (Bravo Company, [[46th Engineer Battalion (United States)|46th Engineer Battalion (CBT)(HVY)]]) began renovations. This involved building new concrete pads, maintenance facilities and living areas. In May 2003, Camp Lemonnier was livable and CJTF-HOA transitioned from the ''Mount Whitney'' to the camp. The pool was cleaned, refurbished, and opened in spring of 2003.

In January 2007, it was announced Camp Lemonnier would be expanded from {{convert|97|acre|m2}} to nearly 500 acres (2 km²).<ref name=CAMP-LEMONIER-DJIBOUTI-EXPANDS>{{cite news |title=Camp Lemonier, Djibouti, expands both in size and job opportunities |url=http://www.hoa.centcom.mil/Stories/Jan07/20070123-001.html |publisher=[[CJTF-HOA]] |date=23 January 2007 |accessdate=7 February 2007 }}{{dead link|date=October 2013}}</ref> As part of the process of moving Lemonnier from an "expeditionary" base to a long term facility, the camp built a living area, known as "CLUville". CLUville consists of long rows of [[containerized housing unit|Containerized Living Units (CLUs)]] with concrete sidewalks and gravel roads.<ref>[http://www.cnic.navy.mil/cldj/OperatingForcesSupport/LifeatCamp/LivingQuarters/index.htm Welcome to Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti]</ref> As CLUville expanded, the camp population moved from tents into the more durable berthing facilities.<ref>[http://www.hoa.centcom.mil/Stories/Aug06/20060824-001.html Camp Expansion Moves Ahead], [[United States Central Command]]{{dead link|date=October 2013}}</ref>

Lemonnier originally belonged to the French military, and was named after General [[Emile-René Lemonnier]]. In 2009, after years of misspelling, the U.S. Navy officially changed the camp's name to properly reflect the spelling of General Lemonnier's name.{{citation needed|date=February 2012}}

On 25 January 2012, US officials confirmed that [[US Navy SEALs]] had rescued two [[foreign hostages in Somalia]], an American woman and Danish man, taking them to Camp Lemonnier.<ref>{{cite news| title=Somalia: Western hostages freed in US military raid| author=| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-16714344| newspaper=BBC News| date=25 January 2012| accessdate=25 January 2012| quote=Two foreign aid workers kidnapped in Somalia three months ago have been freed in a rare US military raid.}}</ref> [[Demining]] workers, the captives had been abducted on 25 October 2011 in the north-central [[Galkayo]] area, allegedly by gunmen operating on behalf of a private source who threatened to sell them to [[Al-Shabaab Islamist group|Al-Shabaab]] if their demands were not met.<ref>Impossible Odds: The Kidnapping of Jessica Buchanan and her Dramatic Rescue by SEAL Team Six</ref>{{page number|date=April 2015}}<ref name>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/world/2011-11/16/c_131250686.htm Somali elders stand up against kidnapping of aid workers]</ref><ref>[http://articles.cnn.com/2011-10-30/africa/world_africa_somalia-aid-workers_1_galkayo-somalia-aid-workers?_s=PM:AFRICA Aid workers kidnapped in Somalia are alive and well]</ref>

As of May 2013, the US had prepared plans for a $1.4 billion expansion of the base and to increase its special forces there to more than 1,000.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21577112-strategic-port-booming-yet-politically-vulnerable-containersand-containing Containers—and containing dissent]</ref>

In May 2014, Presidents Obama and Guelleh agreed on a long term extension of the American lease, but offered no other details.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140505/DEFREG04/305050015 |title=Obama: US Secures Long Term Lease on Djibouti Base |date=5 May 2014 |website=www.defensenews.com |publisher=DefenseNews.com|agency= Agence France-Press |accessdate=5 May 2014}}</ref>

==Base of operations==
[[File:CampLemonier ThunderDome.jpg|thumb|300px|"Thunder Dome" at Camp Lemonnier]]
Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) began moving all headquarters personnel and equipment from its flagship, [[USS Mount Whitney (LCC-20)|USS ''Mount Whitney'']], in the [[Gulf of Aden]], into facilities at Camp Lemonnier on 6 May 2003.

Djiboutian workers were instrumental in preparing the newly renovated {{convert|88|acre|m2|sing=on}} camp for movement of the CJTF headquarters ashore. More than 1,200 local and third-country national construction and support personnel currently work at the camp. KBR administers the contract for facilities and support operations for the camp.

On 1 July 2006, the [[U.S. Marine Corps]] turned over responsibility for Camp Lemonnier to the [[U.S. Navy]] in a brief change of command ceremony. U.S. Navy [[Captain (United States)|Captain]] Robert Fahey assumed command of Camp Lemonnier from U.S. Marine Corps [[Colonel]] Gerard Fischer.<ref name=US-NAVY-ASSUMES-COMMAND-OF-CAMP-LEMONIER>{{cite news |title=Release #121: U.S. Navy Assumes Command of Camp Lemonier |url=http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/articles/2006/121.html |publisher=[[United States Navy]] |date=3 July 2006 |accessdate=7 February 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20061128225216/http://www.cusnc.navy.mil/articles/2006/121.html  |archivedate =28 November 2006}}</ref>

In early July 2006, the U.S. and Djiboutian governments also announced that a lease agreement had been signed to expand Camp Lemonnier from {{convert|88|acre|m2}} to nearly 500 acres (2 km²). The term of the lease was for five years, with options to renew. As part of the lease and expansion, physical improvements to the camp included fencing, additional billeting to replace existing tents, and compliance with various U.S. force protection standoff requirements.

By 2009, the base began expansion again. According to OSGEOINT, the base received a parallel taxi-way and a new auxiliary support apron. In the following year (2011), open source satellite imagery showed Camp Lemmonier with a new drone apron supporting the RQ/MQ-1 PREDATOR.<ref name=Predator>{{cite web| title= Djibouti: RQ/MQ-1 PREDATOR Deployment Imagery Confirmation |url=http://osgeoint.blogspot.com/2012/02/djibouti-rqmq-1-predator-deployment.html |publisher=OSGEOINT |date=23 February 2012 |accessdate=23 February 2012}} # REGISTRATION NEEDED #</ref> Furthermore, Camp Lemmonier has been described by ''[[The Economist]]'' as "the most important base for drone operations outside the war zone of Afghanistan", with drones conducting missions in adjacent [[Yemen]] and Somalia.<ref name="Uavdfa">{{cite news|title=Unmanned aerial vehicles: Death from afar|url=http://www.economist.com/news/international/21565614-america-uses-drones-lot-secret-and-largely-unencumbered-declared-rules-worries|accessdate=30 December 2012|newspaper=The Economist|date=3 November 2012}}</ref>

The ''[[Washington Post]]'' reported that [[General Atomics MQ-1 Predator|Predators]] and [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle|F-15s]] operate from the base, as well as 3,200 U.S. troops, civilians, contractors, of which 300 are [[United States Special Operations Command|special operations]] personnel; moreover, with new expansions the base can host an additional thousand personnel.<ref name="Rubacoso"/>

==Transfer to USAFRICOM==
On 1 October 2008, responsibility for the task force was transferred from the [[United States Central Command]] (USCENTCOM) to [[United States Africa Command]] (USAFRICOM) as the latter assumed authority over the African theater of operations.<ref name="africom-stands-up"/>

==Tenant commands==
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2012}}
Camp Lemonnier is operated by Commander, Navy Region Europe, Africa, Southwest Asia, which is responsible for its expansion, upkeep, and logistics support. Tenant units include the U.S. Marine Security Forces which provides the camp's external security, the CJTF-HOA commander and staff, a U.S. Navy [[Seabee (US Navy)|Seabee]] battalion which conducts water-well drilling operations, [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] units which provide additional security, military training, and [[Civil-military operations]] support, and several aircraft detachments. The [[449th Air Expeditionary Group]] is U.S. Air Force component to CJTF-HOA and is assigned to Camp Lemonnier. The 449th AEG is currently composed of [[HC-130P Hercules]] aircraft assigned to the 81st Expeditionary Rescue Squadron and [[United States Air Force Pararescue|pararescuemen]] assigned to the 82nd Expeditionary Rescue Squadron.<ref>USAFE/AFRICA Public Affairs Office, [http://www.usafe.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=19865 USAFE Factsheet, U.S. Forces Africa] 8/27/2002 (retrieved 26 May 2013)</ref> While deployed the group performed both combat and civil search and rescue missions.<ref>Drake, Corey [http://www.africom.mil/Newsroom/Article/6510/449th-air-expeditionary-group-changes-hands-in-dji 449th Air Expeditionary Group Changes Hands in Djibouti] 2 Mar 2009 (retrieved 26 May 2013)</ref>

Aircraft detachments include a U.S. Marine heavy-lift helicopter ([[CH-53 Sea Stallion|CH-53]]) detachment, a U.S. Navy [[P-3 Orion|P-3]] detachment (technically a part of the US Navy's 6th Fleet - Commander Task Force 67<ref>[http://www.cnic.navy.mil/regions/cnreurafswa/installations/nas_sigonella/about/tenant_commands/commander_task_force_67.html Commander Task Force 67]</ref>), USAF aircraft include [[HC-130P Hercules]], and, at times, a [[C-17 Globemaster III]] detachment.

Past tenant units have included the U.S. Marine 9th Provisional Security Force; [[2nd Battalion, 18th Field Artillery Regiment]]; and [[65th Infantry Regiment (United States)|1–65th Infantry Regiment]], Puerto Rico Army National Guard as well as the USAF's First Red Horse Group. 2nd 137th CAB from Kansas, had duties in Force Protection. While the 2-137 IN was there, the unit received a MUC for duties. The dates of deployment was from June 2010 to April 2011. The 3-124 CAV (R&S), a Texas Army National Guard unit, provided force protection for Camp Lemonnier and other support for the CJTF-HOA until being relieved by the 2-138th FAR from the Kentucky National Guard.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Djibouti|United States Marine Corps|United States Air Force}}
{{commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://www.cnic.navy.mil/cldj/index.htm}}
* [http://www.hoa.africom.mil/ Combined Joint Task Force Horn of Africa]
* [http://stripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=37590&archive=true U.S. Military plans to expand Camp Lemonier in Djibouti], ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]'', 14 August 2006. Retrieved 14 August 2006.
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/camp-lemonier.htm globalsecurity.org – Camp Le Monier / Lemonier]
* [http://mondediplo.com/2003/02/06djibouti Djibouti: a new army behind the wire], ''[[Le Monde diplomatique]]'', February 2003 {{en icon}} (+ {{fr icon}}/{{pt icon}})

[[Category:United States Navy bases]]
[[Category:Djibouti–United States relations]]

Benutzer:Shi Annan/Camp Lemonnier

2015-08-28T05:39:26Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

American-Airlines-Flug 96

2015-08-12T05:29:49Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
|occurrence_type = Incident
|name = American Airlines Flight 96
|image = American dc-10.jpg
|caption = An American Airlines DC-10 identical to the one involved in the incident.
|date = June 12, 1972
|type = Failure of aft [[cargo]] [[door]] due to design flaws, leading to [[uncontrolled decompression|rapid decompression]].
|outcome = Emergency landing
|cause1 = Decompression
|cause2 = Structural
|cause2_note = aft cargo door
|cause3 = Design
|site = [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport]]
|passengers = 56
|crew = 11
|injuries = 11 {{small|(2 crew, 9 passengers)}} <ref name="NTSB"/>
|fatalities = 0
|survivors = 67 (all)
|aircraft_type = [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10]]
|tail_number = [http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19720612-0 N103AA]
|operator = [[American Airlines]]
|origin = [[Los Angeles International Airport|Los Angeles Int'l Airport]]
|destination = [[LaGuardia Airport]]
|stopover = [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport]]
|last_stopover = [[Buffalo Niagara International Airport]]
}}

'''American Airlines Flight 96''' was a regular [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[DC-10-10]] flight operated by [[American Airlines]]. On June 12, 1972, the aircraft's rear cargo door blew off while flying over [[Windsor, Ontario]], en route from [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport]] to [[Buffalo Niagara International Airport]]; it is thus sometimes referred to as the '''Windsor incident'''.<ref name="Black Box">Nicholas Faith (1996, 1998). ''Black Box'': pp.157-158</ref>

The [[Uncontrolled decompression|rapid decompression]] in the cargo hold caused a partial collapse of the passenger compartment floor, which in turn jammed or restricted some of the control cables which led to various flight control hydraulic actuators. The jamming of the rudder control cable caused the rudder to deflect to its maximum right position. The cable controls to the number two (tail) engine were severed, causing that engine to shut down.<ref name="NTSB">{{Cite web
| title = Aircraft Accident Report: American Airlines, Inc. McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10, N103AA. Near Windsor, Ontario, Canada. 12 June 1972.
| publisher = [[National Transportation Safety Board]]
| date = 28 February 1973
| url = http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-reports/AAR73-02.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 22 March 2009 }}
</ref> Fortunately, there was no rupture of any hydraulic system, so the pilots still had control of the ailerons, the right elevator and the horizontal stabilizer. However, because the right elevator cable was partially restricted, both pilots had to apply back pressure on the [[Yoke (aircraft)|yoke]] for the landing flare. Additionally, the approach and landing had to be made at high speed, to prevent the sink rate from becoming too high. The tendency to turn right was offset by using 45 degrees of left aileron, combined with asymmetrical thrust of the two wing engines. In spite of the partial restriction of the controls, the pilots were able to make a safe landing at [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport]] with no major injuries.

The cause was later traced to the door latching system, which had failed to close completely. A separate locking system was supposed to ensure this could not happen, but proved to be inadequate. McDonnell Douglas instituted a number of minor changes to the system in an attempt to avoid a repeat, but two years later, on March 3rd, 1974, [[Turkish Airlines Flight 981]]'s rear cargo door blew off for exactly the same reason, causing the aircraft to lose all control and slam into a forest outside [[Paris]], killing all 346 people on board, which was the deadliest plane crash in aviation history until the [[Tenerife disaster]], and is currently the deadliest single-aircraft accident with no survivors.

==Incident details==
Flight 96 was a regularly scheduled flight from Los Angeles to [[LaGuardia Airport]] with intermediate stops at [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport]] and [[Buffalo Niagara International Airport]]. On 12 June, it was being flown by DC-10-10 N103AA, with a flight crew consisting of Captain Bryce McCormick, age 52, First Officer Peter Whitney, age 34, and Flight Engineer Clayton Burke, age 50. McCormick was a highly experienced pilot, having amassed more than 24,000 flight hours throughout his flying career. Whitney and Burke were also seasoned airmen with approximately 7,900 flight hours and 13,900 flight hours, respectively, under their belts. Between them, the crew had accumulated 176 hours of flight time in the DC-10.<ref>http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-reports/AAR73-02.pdf</ref>

The flight left Los Angeles 46 minutes after its scheduled 1:30 pm departure due to passenger loading and traffic, arriving in Detroit at 6:36 pm. At Detroit, the majority of the passengers disembarked, and the plane took on new passengers and cargo. Leaving Detroit the aircraft had 56 passengers and 11 crew. The flight departed at 7:20 pm, climbing to 6,000 for a hold before capturing V-554 (a [[victor airway]]), then climb to flight level 210 (21,000 ft).<ref name="NTSB"/>

At 7:25 pm, while climbing through 11,750 ft at 260 [[Knot (unit)|knots]], the crew heard a distinct "thud" and dirt in the cockpit flew up into their faces. The "thud" was the sound of the rearmost cargo door breaking off, causing a sudden decompression that also caused part of the floor at the rear of the cabin to partially give way. Captain McCormick momentarily believed they had suffered a mid-air collision and the cockpit windows had been smashed. At the same time, the rudder pedals moved to their full-left position and the engine controls moved to idle. McCormick immediately took manual control of the aircraft, and attempted to re-apply power, finding that engines 1 and 3 would respond normally, but engine 2, in the tail, would not allow its controls to be moved, as control cables had been severed when the floor gave way. McCormick was able to level off and stabilize the speed at 250 knots, although at this speed control was very sluggish. They declared an emergency and requested routing back to Detroit.<ref>Air Disaster Volume 1, Chapter 15, pg.137 & 138. Macarthur Job - Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd 1994 ISBN 1-875671-11-0</ref>

In the cabin, the flight attendants saw a "fog" form within the cabin and immediately recognized it as a depressurization. Two crew were in the rear lounge area, and the floor under their feet partially collapsed into the cargo hold, giving them both minor injuries. In spite of this, the cabin crew immediately attempted to ensure the oxygen masks had deployed properly, but having occurred below the 14,000 ft limit, the masks had not deployed. One of the attendants obtained a walk-around oxygen bottle and called the cockpit on the intercom to inform them that the damage was in the rear of the aircraft. On instructions from the cockpit, the attendants instructed the passengers on emergency landing procedures. A number of passengers later reported that the aircraft safety cards proved useful in locating the nearest exit.

The flight returned to Detroit, but when the crew set the flaps to 35 degrees for landing, the aircraft stabilized in a 1,900 ft/min descent that was far too fast for landing. By applying power to the 1 and 3 engines, McCormick was able to level off the nose and reduce the descent to 700 ft/min. The aircraft touched down at 7:44 pm 1,900 ft down Runway 03R, immediately veering to the right and eventually leaving the runway surface. First Officer Whitney applied full reverse thrust to the left engine and idled the right, straightening the aircraft's path, and eventually starting to bring the aircraft back to the runway. The aircraft stopped 880 ft from the runway threshold, with the nose and left gear on the runway and the right on the grass beside it.<ref>Air Disaster Volume 1, Chapter 15, pg.139. Macarthur Job - Aerospace Publications Pty Ltd 1994 ISBN 1-875671-11-0</ref> It happened that while training to convert his expertise to flying the DC-10, McCormick had practiced, in a simulator, controlling the plane with the throttles in this fashion, in the worst-case scenario of a hydraulic failure.<ref name="Black Box"/> A similar technique was used on another DC-10 in 1989 following a complete loss of hydraulic pressure on [[United Airlines Flight 232]].

==Investigation==
The problem that caused the accident was immediately obvious, as the rear cargo door was missing and had caused severe damage to the left horizontal stabilizer as it blew off. Investigators immediately studied the maintenance history and found that on March 3rd, 1972, three months before the accident, the handlers reported that the door had not latched electrically and had to be closed manually. On May 30th, McDonnell Douglas issued Service Bulletin 52-27, DC-10 SC 612, which called for the upgrading of the electrical wiring that drove the latches because "Three operators have reported failure of the electrical latch actuators to latch/unlatch the cargo doors. Latch actuator failure is attributed to an excessive voltage drop reducing the output torque to the actuator. This condition may prevent electrical latching/unlatching of the hooks."<ref name="NTSB"/> The modification was not compulsory, however, and had not been carried out on N103AA, the plane involved in the incident.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

Investigators interviewed the ground crew at Detroit and learned that the cargo loader who operated the rear door had found it extremely difficult to close. He stated that he closed the door electrically, and waited for the sound of the actuator motors to stop. When they did, he attempted to operate the locking handle, but found it very difficult to close. Only by applying force with his knee was he able to get the latch to lock, but he noticed that the vent plug (see below) was not entirely closed. He brought this to the attention of a mechanic, who cleared the flight. The flight engineer reported that the "door ajar" warning light on his panel was not lit at any time during the taxi out or flight.<ref name="NTSB"/>

Examination of the aircraft and the cargo door, which was recovered largely intact in Windsor, demonstrated that the latches had never rotated to their locked position. In their locked position, pressure on the door presses the latches further shut, and no force is transmitted into the actuator system that closes and opens them. With the latches only partially closed, forces on the door were transmitted back into the actuator, eventually overwhelming it at about 6,600 [[Pound_(force)|lbf]]. The rapid depressurization when the door broke off caused the floor above it to partially cave in, which pulled the rudder cable to its extension limit and severed several other operating cables.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

==Cause of door failure==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2010}}
Passenger doors on the DC-10 are of the [[plug door|plug variety]], which prevents the doors from opening while the aircraft is pressurized. The cargo door, however, is not. Due to its large area, the cargo door on the DC-10 could not be swung inside the fuselage without taking up a considerable amount of valuable cargo space. Instead, the door swung outward, allowing cargo to be stored directly behind it. The outward-opening door, in theory, allowed it to be "blown open" by the pressure inside the cargo area.

To prevent this, the DC-10 used a "[[fail safe]]" latching system held in place by "over top dead center latches", five C-shaped latches mounted on a common torque shaft that are rotated over fixed latching pins ("spools") fixed to the fuselage. Because of their shape, when the latches are in the proper position, pressure on the door does not place torque on the latches that could cause them to open, and actually further seats them on the pins. Normally the latches are opened and closed by a screw jack powered by an electric actuator motor.

Because of the under-designed cabling powering the actuator motor, it was possible for the voltage delivered to the motor to be too small to drive it under high loads. In these cases, the motor would stop turning even if the latches had not rotated over the pins. Since the operators listened for the motors to stop as an indication of their complete rotation, a failure in the drive system during operation would erroneously indicate that the door was properly latched.

To ensure this rotation had completed and the latches were in the proper position, the DC-10 cargo door also included a separate locking mechanism. The locks consisting of small pins that were slid horizontally through holes on the back of the latches, between the latch and the frame of the aircraft. When the pins were in place, they mechanically prevented movement back into the open position, so even the actuator motor could no longer open them. If the latches were not in their correct positions, the pins could not enter the holes, and the operating handle on the outside of the door would remain open and visually indicate that there was a problem. Additionally, the handle moved a metal plug into a vent cut in the outer door panel; if the vent was not plugged the door would not retain pressure, eliminating any force on the door. Lastly, there was an indicator light in the cockpit that would remain on if the door was not correctly latched.

In theory, the motor failure on the plane could not present a problem because the locking lever would not be able to close. However, during the investigation a McDonnell Douglas test rig demonstrated that the entire locking pin operating system was too weak, allowing the handle to be forced closed even with the pins out of the locking holes. This occurred on Flight 96, when the handler forced the handle closed with his knee. In spite of the vent not closing completely, neither the handler nor the engineer considered this to be serious. Although the vent door remained partially open, it closed enough to cause it to "blow shut", and thereby allow pressurization of the cargo hold. Although the handle did not seat the pins entirely, the small amount of motion it managed to cause was enough to press on the warning indicator switch, deactivating the cockpit warning light. It was only the combination of all of these failures that allowed the accident to happen. Yet all of these indicators had a single common point of failure: the mechanical weakness of the locking system that allowed the handle to be moved.

The cabin floor failure was also a matter of poor design. All of the other portions of the cargo holds had holes cut into the cabin floor above the cargo areas. In the case of a pressure loss on either side of the floor, the air would flow through the vents and equalize the pressure, thereby eliminating any force on the floor. Only the rearmost portion of the cabin lacked these holes, and it was that portion that failed. However, because the control cables ran through the floor for the entire length of the aircraft, a failure at any point on the floor would cut controls to the tail section.

==Aftermath==
The [[NTSB]] suggested several changes to the system to ensure that the Windsor accident would not recur. These included changes to the locking mechanism to ensure it could not be forced closed, as well as venting cut into the rear cabin floor.

In response, the [[FAA]], in charge of actually implementing these recommendations, agreed with McDonnell Douglas that the additional venting would be difficult to install. Instead, they proceeded with the modification of the locking system, and additionally added a small clear window set into the bottom of the cargo door that allowed operators to directly inspect whether or not the latches were in place. Combined with the upgrades to the wiring that had already been on the books, this should prevent a repeat of the accident.

Shortly after the event, [[Dan Applegate]], Director of Product Engineering at [[Convair]], wrote a memo to [[Convair]] management pointing out several problems with the door design. McDonnell Douglas had subcontracted design and construction of the DC-10 fuselage to Convair, and Applegate had overseen its development in ways that he felt were reducing the safety of the system. In particular, he noted that the actuator system had been switched from a hydraulic system to an electrical one, which he felt was less safe. He also noted that the floor would be prone to failure if the door was lost, and this would likely sever the control cables, leading to a loss of the aircraft. Finally, he pointed out that this precise failure had already occurred in ground testing in 1970, and he concluded that such an accident was almost certain to occur again in the future.<ref name = Fielder>John Fielder, Douglas Birsch, [http://books.google.com/books?id=gBHGmwmMj30C&pg=PA4&lpg=PA4&dq=%22Applegate+memorandum%22&source=web&ots=v1rP3bvPYn&sig=V9duWkuQlS7_6CV40EDsLn6t0_E&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result "The DC-10 Case"], SUNY Press, 1992, ISBN 0-7914-1087-0</ref>

In spite of these recommendations, on March 3, 1974, less than two years after the near-loss of Flight 96, [[Turkish Airlines Flight 981]] crashed outside [[Paris]], killing all 346 passengers and crew on board for an identical rear cargo door failure. Unlike Flight 96, where the crew still managed to keep enough flight controls to safely return to Detroit, the pilots of Flight 981 lost complete control of the tail surfaces and all hydraulics. Investigators discovered that the upgrades had never been carried out on this airframe, although the construction logs claimed they had been. One modification had been carried out, the installation of the inspection window, along with a placard beside the door controls printed in English and Turkish that informed the operators how to inspect the latches. The operator in Paris was Algerian and could not read either language, and had been instructed that as long as the locking handle closed, the door was safe. He also noted that he did not have to force the handle, and investigators concluded that it had already been bent on a prior flight.

In the aftermath of Flight 981, the Applegate memorandum was discovered and introduced into evidence during the massive civil lawsuit that followed. Many commentators subsequently blamed the aircraft manufacturer, [[McDonnell Douglas]], and other aviation authorities, for failing to learn lessons from the Flight 96 accident. Although there had been some redesign of the DC-10 cargo door system, it had only been implemented voluntarily and haphazardly by various airlines. If the warning signs of Flight 96 had been heeded, it is likely that the crash of Flight 981 would have been prevented.<ref name = Fielder/><ref name="Air Disaster">[[Macarthur Job]] (1994). ''Air Disaster Volume 1'': pp.136-144</ref> A complete redesign of the entire door system followed, and no DC-10 or [[MD-11]] ever suffered a similar accident again.

N103AA's airframe was broken up at [[Phoenix Goodyear Airport]] in 2002, after having been assigned to the [[FedEx]] [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] program.

==Dramatization==
The story of this disaster was featured on the fifth season of Canadian [[National Geographic Channel]] show ''[[Mayday (TV series)|Mayday]]'' (known as ''Air Emergency'' in the US, ''Mayday'' in Ireland and ''Air Crash Investigation'' in the UK and the rest of world). The episode is entitled "''Behind Closed Doors''", as a double feature that also covered the crash of [[Turkish Airlines Flight 981]].

The episode "Crash Detectives" of [[Survival in the Sky]] featured the accident.

==See also==
{{Portal|Ontario|United States|Aviation|1970s}}
* [[Flight with disabled controls]]
* [[List of notable accidents and incidents on commercial aircraft]]
* [[Uncontrolled decompression#Notable decompression accidents and incidents|List of notable decompression accidents and incidents]]
* [[List of airliner crashes involving loss of control]]
* [[Turkish Airlines Flight 981]]
* [[United Airlines Flight 811]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-reports/AAR73-02.pdf NTSB Report]

{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 1972}}

[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by design or manufacturing errors]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by in-flight structural failure]]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the McDonnell Douglas DC-10]]
[[Category:History of Buffalo, New York]]
[[Category:1972 in New York]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents in Canada]]
[[Category:American Airlines accidents and incidents|96]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1972]]
[[Category:History of Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:History of Windsor, Ontario]]
[[Category:History of Los Angeles, California]]
[[Category:History of Los Angeles County, California]]

Clyde Cessna

2015-08-09T00:24:13Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Clyde Cessna
| residence =
| other_names =
| image = Clyde Vernon Cessna.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Cessna circa 1920
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1879|12|5}}
| birth_place = [[Montgomery County, Iowa|Hawthorne, Iowa]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1954|11|20|1879|12|5}}
| death_place = [[Kingman County, Kansas|Wichita, Kansas]]
| occupation = Aircraft Designer, Aviation Entrepreneur
| known for = [[Cessna Aircraft]] founder
}}

'''Clyde Vernon Cessna''' (December 5, 1879 – November 20, 1954) was an [[United States|American]] [[aircraft]] [[designer]], [[aviator]], and founder of the [[Cessna|Cessna Aircraft Corporation]].

==Biography==
Clyde Vernon Cessna was born in [[Montgomery County, Iowa|Hawthorne, Iowa]], on December 5, 1879. When he was 2, he and his family moved to rural [[Rago, Kansas|Rago]] in [[Kingman County, Kansas]], along the [[Chikaskia River]]. During his boyhood he used his self-taught innovation and mechanical skills to improve farm machinery and to develop new farming methods.<ref name="wok">{{cite web|url=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/profiles/article.asp?id=70|title=Aviation Pioneers - Clyde Vernon Cessna|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=Wings Over Kansas}}</ref> He later became a successful car dealer in [[Enid, Oklahoma]].<ref name="wok1">{{cite web|url=http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/photos/prof_3-00_pic1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/profiles/article.asp%3Fid%3D66&h=160&w=250&sz=8&hl=en&start=13&sig2=vZf2x-9cfa0BcCHhWjExhQ&tbnid=q8-x6zmbCJwoIM:&tbnh=71&tbnw=111&ei=Y1Q3RvnnPIG2hAT_reSjAw&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dclyde%2Bcessna%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Dactive|title=Clyde Cessna - Pioneer Aviator|accessdate=May 1, 2007|publisher=Wings Over Kansas|last=Phillips|first=Edward H.}}</ref>

Clyde's interest in aviation began in 1910 after witnessing an aerial exhibition in his home state of [[Kansas]].<ref name="aerofiles">{{cite web|url=http://www.aerofiles.com/bio_c.html|title=Capsule Biographies: Clyde Cessna|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=aerofiles.com}}</ref> It was this exhibition that led him in future years to pursue his career in aviation.<ref name="cessna">{{cite web|url=http://www.cessna.com/story/milestones/index.chtml#1911|title=Cessna Story-Milestones|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=Cessna.com}}</ref> After realizing his interest in aviation, Clyde left Oklahoma and moved to [[New York]] where he worked for a short period at the Queen Aeroplane Company where he first learned about the construction of aircraft.<ref name="wok1"/>

===First flight===
In 1911, he set out to build his first airplane, an airplane he named "silverwing".<ref name="wok1"/> His first design was a [[monoplane]], constructed of spruce and linen and which took the form of an American version of the [[Bleriot XI]]. The engine was a modified Elbridge motorboat motor, dubbed the "aero special", which was a 2-stroke, 4-cylinder engine with a maximum of {{convert|40|hp|abbr=on}} and 1,050 rpm.<ref name="wok1"/> Upon completion, he sought to test the aircraft at the Great Salt Plains (adjacent to the [[Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge]]) in [[Alfalfa County, Oklahoma]]. His first attempt at flight ended in a [[Ground loop (aviation)|ground loop]], which required $100 to repair. After repairs, Cessna attempted flight 13 more times, each time ending in some sort of failure. Finally on his 13th attempt, Cessna got a glimpse of hope as his aircraft bounced up into the air for a short time before crashing into the trees as he attempted to turn it. After his crash, Cessna exclaimed in frustration, "I'm going to fly this thing, then I'm going to set it afire and never have another thing to do with aeroplanes!". Finally, in June 1911 Cessna had his first successful flight. The crowds that had scoffed at his failures changed their tone and began calling him a "daring hero" and nicknamed him the "Birdman of Enid".<ref name="NAHF">{{cite web|url=http://nationalaviation.blade6.donet.com/components/content_manager_v02/view_nahf/htdocs/menu_ps.asp?NodeID=364503629&group_ID=1134656385&Parent_ID=-1|title=Clyde Cessna|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=National Aviation Hall of Fame}}</ref> Cessna continued to teach himself how to fly over the next several months until December 1911, when he made a successful {{convert|5|mi|km|sing=on}} flight and a successful landing at the point of departure.<ref name="wok1"/>

===The middle years===
[[Image:Clyde cessna building 1917.jpg|thumb|left|The factory from 1916]]
After the success of the Silverwing, Cessna permanently quit his work with the automobile industry to pursue his interests in aviation. Between 1912 and 1915, Cessna developed several new monoplanes, all powered by a [[Anzani 6-cylinder]] with 40–60 hp. During this time, Clyde often flew his aircraft at holiday events and county fairs, an endeavour that at the time proved to be lucrative.<ref name="wok1"/>

It was in 1916 that Clyde acquired a vacant building to begin building a new aircraft for the 1917 aviation exhibition season. His factory served a dual purpose, as he also opened a flight school in which he had five enrolled student pilots. However, in April 1917 when the United States declared war, the exhibition flying market ground to a halt. With his primary source of income grounded, Clyde returned to his old home near [[Kingman County, Kansas|Rago, Kansas]], where he resumed his duties on the family farm.<ref name="wok1"/>

===Travel Air Manufacturing Company ===
In the years following [[World War I]] public interest in private flying increased, leading Cessna in 1925, along with [[Walter Herschel Beech|Walter Beech]] and [[Lloyd Carlton Stearman|Lloyd Stearman]], to found the [[Travel Air Manufacturing Company]] in [[Wichita, Kansas]]. While Cessna was president, the company soon became one of the leading US aircraft manufacturers. This success may be attributed to Cessna's advanced design concepts and aircraft that attained international recognition in the course of establishing numerous speed and distance records.<ref name="aerofiles"/><ref name="kahs">{{cite web|url=http://www.kshs.org/portraits/cessna_clyde.htm|title=Clyde Cessna - A Kansas Portrait|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=Kansas State Historical Society}}</ref> After two years, Cessna left the company with plans to start his own firm,<ref name="kahs"/> due to design disputes with his partners over the [[monoplane]] versus the [[biplane]].

===Cessna Aircraft Corporation===
On September 7, 1927, the Cessna Aircraft Corporation incorporated.<ref name="cessna"/> In the later part of 1927, Cessna struggled to design and build an efficient [[monoplane]]. The "AW" was completed near the end of 1927, a single-wing aircraft with top speeds of up to {{convert|145|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} and a maximum cruise time upwards of 7 hours.<ref name="kahs"/> The first plane flew on August 13, 1927. In the following decade, the company produced many racing and sports aircraft generally known for their tradition of safety, performance and economy.<ref name="aerofiles"/>

Despite the success of new models, the [[Great Depression]] led to a catastrophic drop in aircraft sales, a bankruptcy filing for the corporation, and the complete closure of the company in 1931. In 1934, Cessna reopened his Wichita plant, which he soon sold to his nephews, Dwane and Dwight Wallace, in 1936.<ref name="kahs"/><ref name="WingsOverKansas">{{cite web|url=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/phillips/a79/|title= DWANE L. WALLACE — KANSAS VISIONARY|accessdate=2014-10-19|last=Edward Phillips|authorlink= |date=April 2007}}</ref>

===Later years===
After selling the Cessna Aircraft Corporation to his nephews, Cessna returned to a life of farming.<ref name="kahs"/> Clyde operated an early diesel three-track tractor building ponds for local farmers.<ref>{{cite journal|magazine=AOPA Pilot|date=May 2014|page=32|title=Wichita recalls Clyde Cessna}}</ref> Upon [[Dwane Wallace]]'s request, he agreed to participate in the company but served mostly in a ceremonial capacity and stayed out of the company's day-to-day business.<ref name="wok1"/>

He died on November 20, 1954, at the age of 74 in [[Wichita, Kansas]].<ref name="kahs"/><ref>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |coauthors= |title=Clyde Cessna, Airplane Builder, Pioneer Manufacturer, and Aviator Dies. His Concern Made Many War Craft |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0C15F63E59177B93C0AB178AD95F408585F9 |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=November 22, 1954 |accessdate=September 24, 2012 }}</ref>

==Legacy==
He was inducted into the [[National Aviation Hall of Fame]] in 1978, and was ranked number 27 on ''Flying'' magazine's list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation.<ref>Flying - 51 Heroes of Aviation http://www.flyingmag.com/photo-gallery/photos/51-heroes-aviation?pnid=41827</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{commonscat|Clyde Vernon Cessna}}

{{Cessna}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Cessna, Clyde Vernon
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American aircraft designer
| DATE OF BIRTH = December 5, 1879
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Montgomery County, Iowa|Hawthorne, Iowa]]
| DATE OF DEATH = November 20, 1954
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Kingman County, Kansas|Rago, Kansas]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cessna, Clyde Vernon}}
[[Category:1879 births]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Montgomery County, Iowa]]
[[Category:American aviators]]
[[Category:People from Kingman County, Kansas]]
[[Category:People from Enid, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Aviation pioneers]]
[[Category:Cessna]]

Clyde Cessna

2015-08-09T00:22:17Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2012}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Clyde Cessna
| residence =
| other_names =
| image = Clyde Vernon Cessna.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Cessna circa 1920
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1879|12|5}}
| birth_place = [[Montgomery County, Iowa|Hawthorne, Iowa]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1954|11|20|1879|12|5}}
| death_place = [[Kingman County, Kansas|Wichita, Kansas]]
| occupation = Aircraft Designer, Aviation Entrepreneur
| known for = [[Cessna Aircraft]] founder
}}

'''Clyde Vernon Cessna''' (December 5, 1879 – November 20, 1954) was an [[United States|American]] [[aircraft]] [[designer]], [[aviator]], and founder of the [[Cessna|Cessna Aircraft Corporation]].

==Biography==
Clyde Vernon Cessna was born in [[Montgomery County, Iowa|Hawthorne, Iowa]], on December 5, 1879. When he was 2, he and his family moved to rural [[Rago, Kansas|Rago]] in [[Kingman County, Kansas]] along the [[Chikaskia River]]. During his boyhood he used his self-taught innovation and mechanical skills to improve farm machinery and to develop new farming methods.<ref name="wok">{{cite web|url=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/profiles/article.asp?id=70|title=Aviation Pioneers - Clyde Vernon Cessna|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=Wings Over Kansas}}</ref> He later became a successful car dealer in [[Enid, Oklahoma]].<ref name="wok1">{{cite web|url=http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/photos/prof_3-00_pic1.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/profiles/article.asp%3Fid%3D66&h=160&w=250&sz=8&hl=en&start=13&sig2=vZf2x-9cfa0BcCHhWjExhQ&tbnid=q8-x6zmbCJwoIM:&tbnh=71&tbnw=111&ei=Y1Q3RvnnPIG2hAT_reSjAw&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dclyde%2Bcessna%26gbv%3D2%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Dactive|title=Clyde Cessna - Pioneer Aviator|accessdate=May 1, 2007|publisher=Wings Over Kansas|last=Phillips|first=Edward H.}}</ref>

Clyde's interest in aviation began in 1910 after witnessing an aerial exhibition in his home state of [[Kansas]].<ref name="aerofiles">{{cite web|url=http://www.aerofiles.com/bio_c.html|title=Capsule Biographies: Clyde Cessna|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=aerofiles.com}}</ref> It was this exhibition that led him in future years to pursue his career in aviation.<ref name="cessna">{{cite web|url=http://www.cessna.com/story/milestones/index.chtml#1911|title=Cessna Story-Milestones|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=Cessna.com}}</ref> After realizing his interest in aviation, Clyde left Oklahoma and moved to [[New York]] where he worked for a short period at the Queen Aeroplane Company where he first learned about the construction of aircraft.<ref name="wok1"/>

===First flight===
In 1911, he set out to build his first airplane, an airplane he named "silverwing".<ref name="wok1"/> His first design was a [[monoplane]], constructed of spruce and linen and which took the form of an American version of the [[Bleriot XI]]. The engine was a modified Elbridge motorboat motor, dubbed the "aero special", which was a 2-stroke, 4-cylinder engine with a maximum of {{convert|40|hp|abbr=on}} and 1,050 rpm.<ref name="wok1"/> Upon completion, he sought to test the aircraft at the Great Salt Plains (adjacent to the [[Salt Plains National Wildlife Refuge]]) in [[Alfalfa County, Oklahoma]]. His first attempt at flight ended in a [[Ground loop (aviation)|ground loop]], which required $100 to repair. After repairs, Cessna attempted flight 13 more times, each time ending in some sort of failure. Finally on his 13th attempt, Cessna got a glimpse of hope as his aircraft bounced up into the air for a short time before crashing into the trees as he attempted to turn it. After his crash, Cessna exclaimed in frustration, "I'm going to fly this thing, then I'm going to set it afire and never have another thing to do with aeroplanes!". Finally, in June 1911 Cessna had his first successful flight. The crowds that had scoffed at his failures changed their tone and began calling him a "daring hero" and nicknamed him the "Birdman of Enid".<ref name="NAHF">{{cite web|url=http://nationalaviation.blade6.donet.com/components/content_manager_v02/view_nahf/htdocs/menu_ps.asp?NodeID=364503629&group_ID=1134656385&Parent_ID=-1|title=Clyde Cessna|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=National Aviation Hall of Fame}}</ref> Cessna continued to teach himself how to fly over the next several months until December 1911, when he made a successful {{convert|5|mi|km|sing=on}} flight and a successful landing at the point of departure.<ref name="wok1"/>

===The middle years===
[[Image:Clyde cessna building 1917.jpg|thumb|left|The factory from 1916]]
After the success of the Silverwing, Cessna permanently quit his work with the automobile industry to pursue his interests in aviation. Between 1912 and 1915, Cessna developed several new monoplanes, all powered by a [[Anzani 6-cylinder]] with 40–60 hp. During this time, Clyde often flew his aircraft at holiday events and county fairs, an endeavour that at the time proved to be lucrative.<ref name="wok1"/>

It was in 1916 that Clyde acquired a vacant building to begin building a new aircraft for the 1917 aviation exhibition season. His factory served a dual purpose, as he also opened a flight school in which he had five enrolled student pilots. However, in April 1917 when the United States declared war, the exhibition flying market ground to a halt. With his primary source of income grounded, Clyde returned to his old home near [[Kingman County, Kansas|Rago, Kansas]], where he resumed his duties on the family farm.<ref name="wok1"/>

===Travel Air Manufacturing Company ===
In the years following [[World War I]] public interest in private flying increased, leading Cessna in 1925, along with [[Walter Herschel Beech|Walter Beech]] and [[Lloyd Carlton Stearman|Lloyd Stearman]], to found the [[Travel Air Manufacturing Company]] in [[Wichita, Kansas]]. While Cessna was president, the company soon became one of the leading US aircraft manufacturers. This success may be attributed to Cessna's advanced design concepts and aircraft that attained international recognition in the course of establishing numerous speed and distance records.<ref name="aerofiles"/><ref name="kahs">{{cite web|url=http://www.kshs.org/portraits/cessna_clyde.htm|title=Clyde Cessna - A Kansas Portrait|accessdate=April 28, 2007|publisher=Kansas State Historical Society}}</ref> After two years, Cessna left the company with plans to start his own firm,<ref name="kahs"/> due to design disputes with his partners over the [[monoplane]] versus the [[biplane]].

===Cessna Aircraft Corporation===
On September 7, 1927, the Cessna Aircraft Corporation incorporated.<ref name="cessna"/> In the later part of 1927, Cessna struggled to design and build an efficient [[monoplane]]. The "AW" was completed near the end of 1927, a single-wing aircraft with top speeds of up to {{convert|145|mi/h|km/h|abbr=on}} and a maximum cruise time upwards of 7 hours.<ref name="kahs"/> The first plane flew on August 13, 1927. In the following decade, the company produced many racing and sports aircraft generally known for their tradition of safety, performance and economy.<ref name="aerofiles"/>

Despite the success of new models, the [[Great Depression]] led to a catastrophic drop in aircraft sales, a bankruptcy filing for the corporation, and the complete closure of the company in 1931. In 1934, Cessna reopened his Wichita plant, which he soon sold to his nephews, Dwane and Dwight Wallace, in 1936.<ref name="kahs"/><ref name="WingsOverKansas">{{cite web|url=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/phillips/a79/|title= DWANE L. WALLACE — KANSAS VISIONARY|accessdate=2014-10-19|last=Edward Phillips|authorlink= |date=April 2007}}</ref>

===Later years===
After selling the Cessna Aircraft Corporation to his nephews, Cessna returned to a life of farming.<ref name="kahs"/> Clyde operated an early diesel three-track tractor building ponds for local farmers.<ref>{{cite journal|magazine=AOPA Pilot|date=May 2014|page=32|title=Wichita recalls Clyde Cessna}}</ref> Upon [[Dwane Wallace]]'s request, he agreed to participate in the company but served mostly in a ceremonial capacity and stayed out of the company's day-to-day business.<ref name="wok1"/>

He died on November 20, 1954 at the age of 74 in [[Wichita, Kansas]].<ref name="kahs"/><ref>{{cite news |author=[[Associated Press]] |coauthors= |title=Clyde Cessna, Airplane Builder, Pioneer Manufacturer, and Aviator Dies. His Concern Made Many War Craft |url=http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0C15F63E59177B93C0AB178AD95F408585F9 |quote= |newspaper=[[New York Times]] |date=November 22, 1954 |accessdate=September 24, 2012 }}</ref>

==Legacy==
He was inducted into the [[National Aviation Hall of Fame]] in 1978, and was ranked number 27 on ''Flying'' magazine's list of the 51 Heroes of Aviation.<ref>Flying - 51 Heroes of Aviation http://www.flyingmag.com/photo-gallery/photos/51-heroes-aviation?pnid=41827</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{commonscat|Clyde Vernon Cessna}}

{{Cessna}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Cessna, Clyde Vernon
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American aircraft designer
| DATE OF BIRTH = December 5, 1879
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Montgomery County, Iowa|Hawthorne, Iowa]]
| DATE OF DEATH = November 20, 1954
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Kingman County, Kansas|Rago, Kansas]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cessna, Clyde Vernon}}
[[Category:1879 births]]
[[Category:1954 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Montgomery County, Iowa]]
[[Category:American aviators]]
[[Category:People from Kingman County, Kansas]]
[[Category:People from Enid, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Aviation pioneers]]
[[Category:Cessna]]

Turnbewegung in den Vereinigten Staaten

2015-08-06T23:09:45Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

{{about||the medical condition|Turner syndrome|the location in Missouri|Turners, Missouri}}

[[File:Milwaukee Bundesturnhalle.jpg|thumb|275px|Gymnastics room in [[Turner Hall (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)|Turner Hall, Milwaukee]], ca. 1900]]
[[File:Bundesturnfest Milwaukee 1893.jpg|thumb|275px|3,000 Turners performed at the Federal Gymnastics Festival in Milwaukee, 1893.]]

'''Turners''' ({{lang-de|Turner}}), are members of [[German-American]] gymnastic clubs.

A [[Germany|German]] gymnastic movement was started by ''Turnvater'' ("father of gymnastics") [[Friedrich Ludwig Jahn]] in the early 19th century when Germany was occupied by [[Napoleon]]. The ''Turnvereine'' ("gymnastic unions") were not only athletic, but also political, reflecting their origin in similar "nationalistic gymnastic" organizations in Europe. The '''Turner movement''' in Germany was generally [[Liberalism|liberal]] in nature, and many Turners took part in the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|Revolution of 1848]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/turnvere.htm| author=Claire E. Nolte| title=The German Turnverein| publisher=Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref>

After its defeat, the movement was suppressed and many Turners left Germany, some emigrating to the [[United States]]. Several of these [[Forty-Eighters]] went on to become Civil War soldiers, the great majority in the [[Union Army]], and American politicians.<ref>Gruen, Mardee. "Milwaukee Turners, local Jews go back 141 years." ''Wisconsin Jewish Chronicle'' April 29, 1994; p. 6, col. 1</ref> Besides serving as physical education, social, political and cultural organizations for German immigrants, Turners were also active in the American public education and the labor movements.<ref name=Hofmann>{{cite web| url=http://www.iupui.edu/~hoyt/Hofmann.htm| author=Annette R. Hofmann| title=150 years of Turnerism in the United States| publisher=Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis Max Kade Center| date=August 3, 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=John B. Jentz| title=Turnvereins| publisher=Encyclopedia of Chicago| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref><ref name=LeCompte>{{cite web| url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/vnt02| author=Mary Lou LeCompte| title=TURNVEREIN MOVEMENT| publisher=Texas State Historical Association| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref> Eventually the German Turner movement became involved in the process leading to [[German Empire|German unification]].

== History in the USA ==
[[File:American Turners stamp, Scott 979.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Postage stamp commemorating the hundredth anniversary of the American Turners]]

The ''Turnvereine'' made a contribution to the integration of German-Americans into their new home. The organizations continue to exist in areas of heavy German immigration, such as [[Iowa]], [[Texas]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Indiana]], [[Ohio]], [[Minnesota]], [[Missouri]], [[Syracuse, NY]], [[Kentucky]], [[New York City]], and [[Los Angeles]].

Together with [[Carl Schurz]], the American Turners helped support the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] as [[President of the United States of America|president of the United States]]. They provided the bodyguard at his inauguration on March 4, 1861, and at his funeral in April, 1865. In the [[Camp Jackson Affair]], a large force of German volunteers helped prevent Confederate forces from seizing the government arsenal in [[St. Louis]] just prior to the beginning of the war.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.mcwm.org/history_germans.html| author=Scott Williams| title=THE ROLE OF GERMAN IMMIGRANTS IN CIVIL WAR - MISSOURI| publisher=The Missouri Civil War Museum| accessdate=January 10, 2011}}</ref>

Like other [[German-American]] groups, the American Turners experienced discrimination during World War I. The German language was banned in schools and universities, and German language journals and newspapers were shut down, but the Turner societies continued to function.<ref name=Hofmann />

In 1948, the [[United States Post Office|U.S. Post Office]] issued a 3-cent [[commemorative stamp]] marking the 100th anniversary of the movement in the United States.

[[Cultural assimilation]] and the two World Wars with Germany took a gradual toll on membership, with some halls closing and others becoming regular dance halls, bars or bowling alleys.<ref name=LeCompte /> Fifty-four Turner societies still existed around the U.S. as of 2011. The current headquarters of the American Turners is in [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.americanturners.com/Home/tabid/36/Default.aspx| title=Welcome to American Turners| publisher=American Turners| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref>

The Turnverein Verewoerts of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana]], owned the [[Hugh McCulloch House]] from 1906 until 1966.<ref name="SHAARD">{{cite web| url = https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/welcome.html| title = Indiana State Historic Architectural and Archaeological Research Database (SHAARD) | publisher = Department of Natural Resources, Division of Historic Preservation and Archaeology | format = Searchable database| accessdate = 2015-07-01}} ''Note:'' This includes {{cite web| url = https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/1d859/N/Hugh_McCulloch_Home_Allen_CO_Nom.pdf | title = National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Hugh McCulloch House| accessdate = 2015-07-01| author = Karen Anderson| format = PDF| date=November 1979}} and Accompanying photographs.</ref>{{rp|2}} It was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1980.<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>

== Gallery==
=== Vintage photos of the Milwaukee ''Turnverein'' ===
<gallery perrow=5>
File:Milwaukee Turnverein 1866.jpg|1866
File:Milwaukee Gymnasium 1869.jpg|1869
File:Milwaukee Turners 1875.jpg|1875
File:Milwaukee Turners 1879.jpg|1879
File:Milwaukee Turnverein.jpg|1915
</gallery>

=== Other Wisconsin Turners in 1915 ===
<gallery perrow=5>
File:Kenosha Turners.jpg|Kenosha
File:Madison Turners 1915.jpg|Madison
File:Madison Turners 1915 - Bears.jpg|Madison Bears (seniors)
File:New Holstein Turners.jpg|New Holstein
File:Sheboygan Turners.jpg|Sheboygan
</gallery>

=== Jahn Monument in Berlin with memorial plaques from American ''Turnvereine'' ===
<gallery perrow=5>
File:Gedenktafel aus Chicago.jpg|Chicago, 1861
File:Gedenktafel aus Cincinnati.jpg|Cincinnati, 1865
File:Jahn-Denkmal in der Hasenheide.jpg|Jahn Monument
File:Gedenktafel aus Philadelphia.jpg|Philadelphia, 1861
File:Gedenktafel aus Washington.jpg|Washington, D.C., 1911
</gallery>

=== Turner Halls ===

Turn Verein, Syracuse Turners, Inc., 619 N Salina St, [[Syracuse, NY]] (May 15th, 1854)

<gallery perrow=5>
File:LYRIC THEATER, BOONVILLE, COOPER COUNTY, MO.JPG|Turner Hall, [[Boonville, Missouri]]
File:Chicago Pilsen Turner Hall.jpg|Pilsen Turner Hall, [[Chicago, Illinois]]
File:Turner Hall (Cincinnati).jpg|Central Turner Hall (1848), [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]
File:Germania Singing and Sport Society.jpg|Germania Singing and Sport Society, [[Columbus, Ohio]]
File:Central Turner Hall Davenport, Iowa.jpg|Central Turner Hall (1888), [[Davenport, Iowa]]
File:East Turner Hall Davenport, Iowa.JPG|East Turner Hall (1891), Davenport, Iowa
File:Nw turner hall davenport iowa.jpg|[[Northwest Davenport Turner Society Hall|Northwest Turner Hall]] (1882), Davenport, Iowa
File:Turner Hall Duluth.jpg|Turner Hall (1888), [[Duluth, Minnesota]]
File:Eldridge Turn-Halle.jpg|[[Eldridge Turn-Halle]], [[Eldridge, Iowa]]
File:Elgin Turners, Elgin, IL.png|Elgin Turners, [[Elgin, Illinois]]
File:Galena Il Galena Historic District Turner Hall and FD1.JPG|Turner Hall, [[Galena, Illinois]]
File:Independent Turnverein.jpg|Independent Turnverein, [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]
File:Indianapolis Turner Hall.jpg|South Side Turner Hall, Indianapolis, Indiana
File:(Southside Turnverein) by Rudolf Schwarz (1899) Control IAS IN000118.jpg|Detail, South Side Turner Hall, Indianapolis, Indiana
File:Germania Turnverein Lancaster.JPG|Germania Turnverein, [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]
File:Turner Hall Madison.jpg|Turner Hall (1868), [[Madison, Wisconsin]]
File:Turner Hall Milwaukee 2014.jpg|[[Turner Hall (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)|Turner Hall (1882), Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]
File:Milwaukee Turnverein gymnasium.jpg|Interior ca. 1910, Turner Hall, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
File:Turners Hall New Orleans.jpg|Turners Hall (1868), [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
File:New Ulm Turner Hall.jpg|Turner Hall, [[New Ulm, Minnesota]]
File:La MaMa Annex 66 East 4th Street.jpg|Turn-Verein, East 4th Street, [[New York, New York]]
File:(King1893NYC) pg572 CENTRAL TURN-VEREIN, 211 EAST 67TH STREET.jpg|Central Turn-Verein, East 67th Street, [[New York, New York]]
File:TurnerHallOpenDoor.jpg|Turner Hall, [[Postville, Iowa]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{commons category|Turner Halls| Turner Halls}}
{{Portal|Gymnastics}}
* [[German-Americans in the Civil War]]
* [[George Brosius]]
* [[Forty-Eighters]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Gertrud Pfister. "The Role of German Turners in American Physical Education," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 26 (no. 13, 2009) 1893-925

==External links==
*[http://www.americanturners.com/ Website of the American Turners]
*[http://www.americanturners.com/History/History.htm History of the American Turners By Henry Metzner]
*[http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/special/collections/german-american/mss030 Archives of the American Turners]
*[http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/special/collections/german-american/mss030?show=supplement American Turner Topics newsletter]
*[http://www.LATurners.com/ Website of the Los Angeles Turners with history, photos, newsletters, and links to other Turners Organizations]
* The [http://www.hsp.org/files/findingaidmss172amturners.pdf American Turners, Wilmington Records] and the [http://www.hsp.org/files/findingaid3056roxborough.pdf Roxborough Turners Records], including by-laws, correspondence, minutes and photographs, are available for research use at the [[Historical Society of Pennsylvania]].

[[Category:Organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:German-American history]]
[[Category:German-American culture]]
[[Category:American Civil War political groups]]
[[Category:Gymnastics organizations]]
[[Category:Gymnastics in the United States]]
[[Category:Politics and sports]]

Turnbewegung in den Vereinigten Staaten

2015-08-06T23:08:58Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

{{about||the medical condition|Turner syndrome|the location in Missouri|Turners, Missouri}}

[[File:Milwaukee Bundesturnhalle.jpg|thumb|275px|Gymnastics room in [[Turner Hall (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)|Turner Hall, Milwaukee]], ca. 1900]]
[[File:Bundesturnfest Milwaukee 1893.jpg|thumb|275px|3,000 Turners performed at the Federal Gymnastics Festival in Milwaukee, 1893.]]

'''Turners''' ({{lang-de|Turner}}), are members of [[German-American]] gymnastic clubs.

A [[Germany|German]] gymnastic movement was started by ''Turnvater'' ("father of gymnastics") [[Friedrich Ludwig Jahn]] in the early 19th century when Germany was occupied by [[Napoleon]]. The ''Turnvereine'' ("gymnastic unions") were not only athletic, but also political, reflecting their origin in similar "nationalistic gymnastic" organizations in Europe. The '''Turner movement''' in Germany was generally [[Liberalism|liberal]] in nature, and many Turners took part in the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|Revolution of 1848]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ohio.edu/chastain/rz/turnvere.htm| author=Claire E. Nolte| title=The German Turnverein| publisher=Encyclopedia of 1848 Revolutions| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref>

After its defeat, the movement was suppressed and many Turners left Germany, some emigrating to the [[United States]]. Several of these [[Forty-Eighters]] went on to become Civil War soldiers, the great majority in the [[Union Army]], and American politicians.<ref>Gruen, Mardee. "Milwaukee Turners, local Jews go back 141 years." ''Wisconsin Jewish Chronicle'' April 29, 1994; p. 6, col. 1</ref> Besides serving as physical education, social, political and cultural organizations for German immigrants, Turners were also active in the American public education and the labor movements.<ref name=Hofmann>{{cite web| url=http://www.iupui.edu/~hoyt/Hofmann.htm| author=Annette R. Hofmann| title=150 years of Turnerism in the United States| publisher=Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis Max Kade Center| date=August 3, 1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| author=John B. Jentz| title=Turnvereins| publisher=Encyclopedia of Chicago| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref><ref name=LeCompte>{{cite web| url=http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/vnt02| author=Mary Lou LeCompte| title=TURNVEREIN MOVEMENT| publisher=Texas State Historical Association| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref> Eventually the German Turner movement became involved in the process leading to [[German Empire|German unification]].

== History in the USA ==
[[File:American Turners stamp, Scott 979.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Postage stamp commemorating the hundredth anniversary of the American Turners]]

The ''Turnvereine'' made a contribution to the integration of German-Americans into their new home. The organizations continue to exist in areas of heavy German immigration, such as [[Iowa]], [[Texas]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Indiana]], [[Ohio]], [[Minnesota]], [[Missouri]], [[Syracuse, NY]], [[Kentucky]], [[New York City]], and [[Los Angeles]].

Together with [[Carl Schurz]], the American Turners helped support the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] as [[President of the United States of America|president of the United States]]. They provided the bodyguard at his inauguration on March 4, 1861, and at his funeral in April, 1865. In the [[Camp Jackson Affair]], a large force of German volunteers helped prevent Confederate forces from seizing the government arsenal in [[St. Louis]] just prior to the beginning of the war.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.mcwm.org/history_germans.html| author=Scott Williams| title=THE ROLE OF GERMAN IMMIGRANTS IN CIVIL WAR - MISSOURI| publisher=The Missouri Civil War Museum| accessdate=January 10, 2011}}</ref>

Like other [[German-American]] groups, the American Turners experienced discrimination during World War I. The German language was banned in schools and universities, and German language journals and newspapers were shut down, but the Turner societies continued to function.<ref name=Hofmann />

In 1948, the [[United States Post Office|U.S. Post Office]] issued a 3-cent [[commemorative stamp]] marking the 100th anniversary of the movement in the United States.

[[Cultural assimilation]] and the two World Wars with Germany took a gradual toll on membership, with some halls closing and others becoming regular dance halls, bars or bowling alleys.<ref name=LeCompte /> Fifty-four Turner societies still exist around the U.S. as of 2011. The current headquarters of the American Turners is in [[Louisville, Kentucky]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.americanturners.com/Home/tabid/36/Default.aspx| title=Welcome to American Turners| publisher=American Turners| accessdate=January 9, 2011}}</ref>

The Turnverein Verewoerts of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana]], owned the [[Hugh McCulloch House]] from 1906 until 1966.<ref name="SHAARD">{{cite web| url = https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/welcome.html| title = Indiana State Historic Architectural and Archaeological Research Database (SHAARD) | publisher = Department of Natural Resources, Division of Historic Preservation and Archaeology | format = Searchable database| accessdate = 2015-07-01}} ''Note:'' This includes {{cite web| url = https://secure.in.gov/apps/dnr/shaard/r/1d859/N/Hugh_McCulloch_Home_Allen_CO_Nom.pdf | title = National Register of Historic Places Inventory Nomination Form: Hugh McCulloch House| accessdate = 2015-07-01| author = Karen Anderson| format = PDF| date=November 1979}} and Accompanying photographs.</ref>{{rp|2}} It was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1980.<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>

== Gallery==
=== Vintage photos of the Milwaukee ''Turnverein'' ===
<gallery perrow=5>
File:Milwaukee Turnverein 1866.jpg|1866
File:Milwaukee Gymnasium 1869.jpg|1869
File:Milwaukee Turners 1875.jpg|1875
File:Milwaukee Turners 1879.jpg|1879
File:Milwaukee Turnverein.jpg|1915
</gallery>

=== Other Wisconsin Turners in 1915 ===
<gallery perrow=5>
File:Kenosha Turners.jpg|Kenosha
File:Madison Turners 1915.jpg|Madison
File:Madison Turners 1915 - Bears.jpg|Madison Bears (seniors)
File:New Holstein Turners.jpg|New Holstein
File:Sheboygan Turners.jpg|Sheboygan
</gallery>

=== Jahn Monument in Berlin with memorial plaques from American ''Turnvereine'' ===
<gallery perrow=5>
File:Gedenktafel aus Chicago.jpg|Chicago, 1861
File:Gedenktafel aus Cincinnati.jpg|Cincinnati, 1865
File:Jahn-Denkmal in der Hasenheide.jpg|Jahn Monument
File:Gedenktafel aus Philadelphia.jpg|Philadelphia, 1861
File:Gedenktafel aus Washington.jpg|Washington, D.C., 1911
</gallery>

=== Turner Halls ===

Turn Verein, Syracuse Turners, Inc., 619 N Salina St, [[Syracuse, NY]] (May 15th, 1854)

<gallery perrow=5>
File:LYRIC THEATER, BOONVILLE, COOPER COUNTY, MO.JPG|Turner Hall, [[Boonville, Missouri]]
File:Chicago Pilsen Turner Hall.jpg|Pilsen Turner Hall, [[Chicago, Illinois]]
File:Turner Hall (Cincinnati).jpg|Central Turner Hall (1848), [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]
File:Germania Singing and Sport Society.jpg|Germania Singing and Sport Society, [[Columbus, Ohio]]
File:Central Turner Hall Davenport, Iowa.jpg|Central Turner Hall (1888), [[Davenport, Iowa]]
File:East Turner Hall Davenport, Iowa.JPG|East Turner Hall (1891), Davenport, Iowa
File:Nw turner hall davenport iowa.jpg|[[Northwest Davenport Turner Society Hall|Northwest Turner Hall]] (1882), Davenport, Iowa
File:Turner Hall Duluth.jpg|Turner Hall (1888), [[Duluth, Minnesota]]
File:Eldridge Turn-Halle.jpg|[[Eldridge Turn-Halle]], [[Eldridge, Iowa]]
File:Elgin Turners, Elgin, IL.png|Elgin Turners, [[Elgin, Illinois]]
File:Galena Il Galena Historic District Turner Hall and FD1.JPG|Turner Hall, [[Galena, Illinois]]
File:Independent Turnverein.jpg|Independent Turnverein, [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]
File:Indianapolis Turner Hall.jpg|South Side Turner Hall, Indianapolis, Indiana
File:(Southside Turnverein) by Rudolf Schwarz (1899) Control IAS IN000118.jpg|Detail, South Side Turner Hall, Indianapolis, Indiana
File:Germania Turnverein Lancaster.JPG|Germania Turnverein, [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]]
File:Turner Hall Madison.jpg|Turner Hall (1868), [[Madison, Wisconsin]]
File:Turner Hall Milwaukee 2014.jpg|[[Turner Hall (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)|Turner Hall (1882), Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]
File:Milwaukee Turnverein gymnasium.jpg|Interior ca. 1910, Turner Hall, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
File:Turners Hall New Orleans.jpg|Turners Hall (1868), [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
File:New Ulm Turner Hall.jpg|Turner Hall, [[New Ulm, Minnesota]]
File:La MaMa Annex 66 East 4th Street.jpg|Turn-Verein, East 4th Street, [[New York, New York]]
File:(King1893NYC) pg572 CENTRAL TURN-VEREIN, 211 EAST 67TH STREET.jpg|Central Turn-Verein, East 67th Street, [[New York, New York]]
File:TurnerHallOpenDoor.jpg|Turner Hall, [[Postville, Iowa]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{commons category|Turner Halls| Turner Halls}}
{{Portal|Gymnastics}}
* [[German-Americans in the Civil War]]
* [[George Brosius]]
* [[Forty-Eighters]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Gertrud Pfister. "The Role of German Turners in American Physical Education," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 26 (no. 13, 2009) 1893-925

==External links==
*[http://www.americanturners.com/ Website of the American Turners]
*[http://www.americanturners.com/History/History.htm History of the American Turners By Henry Metzner]
*[http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/special/collections/german-american/mss030 Archives of the American Turners]
*[http://www.ulib.iupui.edu/special/collections/german-american/mss030?show=supplement American Turner Topics newsletter]
*[http://www.LATurners.com/ Website of the Los Angeles Turners with history, photos, newsletters, and links to other Turners Organizations]
* The [http://www.hsp.org/files/findingaidmss172amturners.pdf American Turners, Wilmington Records] and the [http://www.hsp.org/files/findingaid3056roxborough.pdf Roxborough Turners Records], including by-laws, correspondence, minutes and photographs, are available for research use at the [[Historical Society of Pennsylvania]].

[[Category:Organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:German-American history]]
[[Category:German-American culture]]
[[Category:American Civil War political groups]]
[[Category:Gymnastics organizations]]
[[Category:Gymnastics in the United States]]
[[Category:Politics and sports]]

Sprachen in der Sowjetunion

2015-07-10T15:53:27Z

68.228.230.203: tidying up

The '''languages of the Soviet Union''' are hundreds of different languages and dialects from several different language groups.

In 1918, it was decreed that all nationalities in the Soviet Union had the right to education in their own language. The new orthography used the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], or [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] alphabet, depending on geography and culture. After 1937, all languages that had received new alphabets after 1917 began using the Cyrillic alphabet. This way, it would be easier for linguistic minorities to learn to write both Russian and their native language. In 1960, the school educational laws were changed and teaching became more dominated by Russian.{{fact|date=February 2014}}

In 1975, [[Leonid Brezhnev|Brezhnev]] said "under developed socialism, when the economies in our country have melted together in a coherent economic complex; when there is a new historical concept—the [[Soviet people]]—it is an objective growth in the Russian language's role as the language of international communications when one builds Communism, in the education of the new man! Together with one's own mother tongue one will speak fluent Russian, which the Soviet people have voluntarily accepted as a common historical heritage and contributes to a further stabilization of the political, economic and spiritual unity of the Soviet people."

==Distribution and status==
[[File:1 Rouble 1947 Front.jpg|thumb|A 1947 (1957 issue) one-[[Soviet ruble|rouble]] bill, with the denomination marked in 15 languages: Один рубль ([[Russian language|Russian]]), Один карбованець ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]), Адзін рубель ([[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]), Бир сўм ([[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]), Бiр сом ([[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]), ერთი მანეთი /''Erti maneti''/ ([[Georgian language|Georgian]]), Бир Манат ([[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]]), Vienas rublis ([[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]), О рублэ ([[Moldovan language|Moldovan]]), Viens rublis ([[Latvian language|Latvian]]), Бир Сом ([[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]), Як сўм ([[Tajik language|Tajik]]), ''Mek rrubli'' ([[Armenian language|Armenian]]), Бир Манат ([[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]), Üks rubla ([[Estonian language|Estonian]])]]

[[East Slavic languages]] ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]) dominated in the European part of the Soviet Union, while the [[Baltic languages]] [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and the [[Finnic language]] [[Estonian language|Estonian]] were used next to Russian in the Baltic region. In the Caucasus alongside Russian there were [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]] and [[Georgian language|Georgian]]. In the Russian far north, there were several minority groups who spoke different [[Uralic languages]]; most of the languages in Central Asia were Turkic with the exception of [[Tajik language|Tajik]], which is an [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]].

The USSR was a multilingual state, with over 120 languages spoken natively.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} Although discrimination on the basis of language was illegal under the [[Soviet Constitution]], the ''de facto'' status of these languages differed.

Although the USSR did not have ''de jure'' an official language over most of its history, until 1990,<ref>In early 20th century, there had been a discussion over the need to introduce Russian as the official language of [[Russian Empire]]. The dominant view among [[Bolshevik]]s at that time was that there is no need for state language. See: [[:s:ru:Нужен ли обязательный государственный язык? (Ленин)|"Нужен ли обязательный государственный язык?"]] by [[Lenin]] (1914). Staying with the Lenin's view, not state language was declared in the Soviet state. In 1990 the Russian language was declared as the official language of [[USSR]] and the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. See Article 4 of the [http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm Law on Languages of Nations of USSR.] {{ru icon}}</ref> and [[Russian language|Russian]] was merely defined as the ''language of interethnic communication'' ({{lang-ru|язык межнационального общения}}), it assumed ''de facto'' the role of official language.<ref name = "lang">Bernard Comrie, ''The Languages of the Soviet Union'', page 31, the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9</ref> For its role and influence in the USSR, see [[Russification]].

On a second level were the languages of the other 14 [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Union Republics]]. In line with their ''de jure'' status in a federal state, they had a small formal role at the Union level (being e.g. present in the [[Coat of arms of the USSR]] and its [[Soviet ruble|banknotes]]) and as the main language of its republic. Their effective weight, however, varied with the republic (from strong in places like the [[Armenian SSR]] to weak in places like the [[Byelorussian SSR]]), or even inside it.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}

Of these fourteen languages, two are often considered varieties of other languages: [[Tajik language|Tajik]] of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]] [[Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova|is nearly identical]] to [[Romanian language|Romanian]]). Strongly promoted use of [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] in many republics however, combined with lack of contact, led to the separate development of the literary languages. Some of the former Soviet republics, now independent states, continue to use the Cyrillic alphabet at present (such as [[Kyrgyzstan]]), while others have opted to use the [[Latin alphabet]] instead (such as [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Moldova]] – although the unrecognized [[Transnistria]] officially uses the Cyrillic alphabet).

The [[Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union]] and other subdivision of the USSR lacked even this ''de jure'' autonomy, and their languages had virtually no presence at the national level (and often, not even in the urban areas of the republic itself). They were, however, present in education (although often only at lower grades).{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}

Some smaller languages with very dwindling small communities, like [[Livonian language|Livonian]], were neglected, and weren't present either in education or in publishing.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}

Several languages of non-[[titular nation]]s, like [[German language|German]], [[Korean language|Korean]] or [[Polish language|Polish]], although having sizable communities in the USSR, and in some cases being present in education and in publishing, were not considered to be Soviet languages. On the other hand, [[Finnish language|Finnish]], although not generally considered a language of the USSR, was an official language of the [[Karelian ASSR]] and its predecessor, the [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} Also [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Romany language|Romany]] were considered Soviet languages.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}

==See also==
*[[Index of Soviet Union-related articles]]
*[[Education in the Soviet Union]]
*[[Korenizatsiya]]
*[[Russification]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{more footnotes|date=October 2008}}
* [[Bernard Comrie]]. ''The Languages of the Soviet Union.'' [[Cambridge University Press|CUP]] 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9 (hb), ISBN 0-521-29877-6 (pb)
* E. Glyn Lewis. ''Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and Its Implementation''. [[The Hague]]: [[Walter de Gruyter|Mouton Publishers]], 1971.
* [[Yazyki narodov SSSR|Языки народов СССР]]. 1967. [[Moscow|Москва]]: [[Nauka (publisher)|Наука]] 5т.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Languages Of The Soviet Union}}
[[Category:Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Language policy]]

Sprachen in der Sowjetunion

2015-07-10T15:52:37Z

68.228.230.203: to correct capitalization

The '''languages of the Soviet Union''' are hundreds of different languages and dialects from several different language groups.

In 1918, it was decreed that all nationalities in the Soviet Union had the right to education in their own language. The new orthography used the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], or [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] alphabet, depending on geography and culture. After 1937, all languages that had received new alphabets after 1917 began using the Cyrillic alphabet. This way, it would be easier for linguistic minorities to learn to write both Russian and their native language. In 1960, the school educational laws were changed and teaching became more dominated by Russian.{{fact|date=February 2014}}

In 1975, [[Leonid Brezhnev|Brezhnev]] said "under developed socialism, when the economies in our country have melted together in a coherent economic complex; when there is a new historical concept — the [[Soviet people]] — it is an objective growth in the Russian language's role as the language of international communications when one builds Communism, in the education of the new man! Together with one's own mother tongue one will speak fluent Russian, which the Soviet people have voluntarily accepted as a common historical heritage and contributes to a further stabilization of the political, economic and spiritual unity of the Soviet people."

==Distribution and status==
[[File:1 Rouble 1947 Front.jpg|thumb|A 1947 (1957 issue) one-[[Soviet ruble|rouble]] bill, with the denomination marked in 15 languages: Один рубль ([[Russian language|Russian]]), Один карбованець ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]), Адзін рубель ([[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]), Бир сўм ([[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]), Бiр сом ([[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]), ერთი მანეთი /''Erti maneti''/ ([[Georgian language|Georgian]]), Бир Манат ([[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]]), Vienas rublis ([[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]), О рублэ ([[Moldovan language|Moldovan]]), Viens rublis ([[Latvian language|Latvian]]), Бир Сом ([[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]), Як сўм ([[Tajik language|Tajik]]), ''Mek rrubli'' ([[Armenian language|Armenian]]), Бир Манат ([[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]), Üks rubla ([[Estonian language|Estonian]])]]

[[East Slavic languages]] ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]) dominated in the European part of the Soviet Union, while the [[Baltic languages]] [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvian language|Latvian]], and the [[Finnic language]] [[Estonian language|Estonian]] were used next to Russian in the Baltic region. In the Caucasus alongside Russian there were [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]] and [[Georgian language|Georgian]]. In the Russian far north, there were several minority groups who spoke different [[Uralic languages]]; most of the languages in Central Asia were Turkic with the exception of [[Tajik language|Tajik]], which is an [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]].

The USSR was a multilingual state, with over 120 languages spoken natively.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} Although discrimination on the basis of language was illegal under the [[Soviet Constitution]], the ''de facto'' status of these languages differed.

Although the USSR did not have ''de jure'' an official language over most of its history, until 1990,<ref>In early 20th century, there had been a discussion over the need to introduce Russian as the official language of [[Russian Empire]]. The dominant view among [[Bolshevik]]s at that time was that there is no need for state language. See: [[:s:ru:Нужен ли обязательный государственный язык? (Ленин)|"Нужен ли обязательный государственный язык?"]] by [[Lenin]] (1914). Staying with the Lenin's view, not state language was declared in the Soviet state. In 1990 the Russian language was declared as the official language of [[USSR]] and the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. See Article 4 of the [http://legal-ussr.narod.ru/data01/tex10935.htm Law on Languages of Nations of USSR.] {{ru icon}}</ref> and [[Russian language|Russian]] was merely defined as the ''language of interethnic communication'' ({{lang-ru|язык межнационального общения}}), it assumed ''de facto'' the role of official language.<ref name = "lang">Bernard Comrie, ''The Languages of the Soviet Union'', page 31, the Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9</ref> For its role and influence in the USSR, see [[Russification]].

On a second level were the languages of the other 14 [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Union Republics]]. In line with their ''de jure'' status in a federal state, they had a small formal role at the Union level (being e.g. present in the [[Coat of arms of the USSR]] and its [[Soviet ruble|banknotes]]) and as the main language of its republic. Their effective weight, however, varied with the republic (from strong in places like the [[Armenian SSR]] to weak in places like the [[Byelorussian SSR]]), or even inside it.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}

Of these fourteen languages, two are often considered varieties of other languages: [[Tajik language|Tajik]] of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]] [[Controversy over linguistic and ethnic identity in Moldova|is nearly identical]] to [[Romanian language|Romanian]]). Strongly promoted use of [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] in many republics however, combined with lack of contact, led to the separate development of the literary languages. Some of the former Soviet republics, now independent states, continue to use the Cyrillic alphabet at present (such as [[Kyrgyzstan]]), while others have opted to use the [[Latin alphabet]] instead (such as [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Moldova]] – although the unrecognized [[Transnistria]] officially uses the Cyrillic alphabet).

The [[Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union]] and other subdivision of the USSR lacked even this ''de jure'' autonomy, and their languages had virtually no presence at the national level (and often, not even in the urban areas of the republic itself). They were, however, present in education (although often only at lower grades).{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}

Some smaller languages with very dwindling small communities, like [[Livonian language|Livonian]], were neglected, and weren't present either in education or in publishing.{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}}

Several languages of non-[[titular nation]]s, like [[German language|German]], [[Korean language|Korean]] or [[Polish language|Polish]], although having sizable communities in the USSR, and in some cases being present in education and in publishing, were not considered to be Soviet languages. On the other hand, [[Finnish language|Finnish]], although not generally considered a language of the USSR, was an official language of the [[Karelian ASSR]] and its predecessor, the [[Karelo-Finnish SSR]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} Also [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Romany language|Romany]] were considered Soviet languages.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}

==See also==
*[[Index of Soviet Union-related articles]]
*[[Education in the Soviet Union]]
*[[Korenizatsiya]]
*[[Russification]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{more footnotes|date=October 2008}}
* [[Bernard Comrie]]. ''The Languages of the Soviet Union.'' [[Cambridge University Press|CUP]] 1981. ISBN 0-521-23230-9 (hb), ISBN 0-521-29877-6 (pb)
* E. Glyn Lewis. ''Multilingualism in the Soviet Union: Aspects of Language Policy and Its Implementation''. [[The Hague]]: [[Walter de Gruyter|Mouton Publishers]], 1971.
* [[Yazyki narodov SSSR|Языки народов СССР]]. 1967. [[Moscow|Москва]]: [[Nauka (publisher)|Наука]] 5т.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Languages Of The Soviet Union}}
[[Category:Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Language policy]]

A. H. Davenport and Company

2015-07-10T14:15:49Z

68.228.230.203: add comma per MoS

[[File:StateDiningTRmmw2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[State Dining Room]] in 1904. Davenport & Co. made the twin dining tables, 50 side chairs, 6 armchairs and 3 serving tables for the room. Many of the side chairs, now upholstered in ivory, are still in use.]]
'''A. H. Davenport and Company''' was a late-19th-century–early-20th-century American furniture manufacturer, cabinetmaker, and interior decoration firm. Based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it sold luxury items at its showrooms in Boston and New York City, and produced furniture and interiors for many notable buildings, including [[The White House]]. The word "[[Davenport (sofa)|davenport]]," meaning a boxy sofa or sleeper-sofa, comes from the company.

==History==
It was founded by Alfred H. Davenport (1845-1905), who began as a bookkeeper at the Boston Furniture Company in 1866, and bought the business about 1880 following the death of its owner.<ref>Farnam, ''Upholstery'', p. 231.</ref> He changed the company's name, and expanded it, opening a showroom in New York City. It produced high-end and custom-made furniture, which it retailed alongside fabrics, wallpaper, hardware, decorative items, and quality goods from a variety of makers. One of Davenport's first big commissions was for 225 pieces of furniture and decorative items for the [[Iolani Palace]] in Honolulu, Hawaii.<ref>''In Pursuit of Beauty'', p. 418.</ref>

===H. H. Richardson===
[[File:Thomas Crane Library, Fireplace in Richardson Room.jpg|thumb|200px|Davenport & Co. executed the interiors for [[H. H. Richardson]]'s [[Thomas Crane Public Library]] (1881), in Quincy, Massachusetts.]]
The company formed a close relationship with architect [[H. H. Richardson]]. Boston Furniture Company–Davenport & Co. likely executed the furniture for his [[Winn Memorial Library]] (1879) in Woburn, Massachusetts.<ref>[http://exploringvenustas.wordpress.com/tag/woburn-public-library/ ''In Harmony with the Architecture: The Furniture of H. H. Richardson''] from Woburn Public Library.</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/armchair-for-the-woburn-pubilc-library-44250 Armchair for the Woburn Public Library] from Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.</ref><ref>[http://www.mfa.org/collections/object/side-chair-for-the-woburn-public-library-44251 Side chair for the Woburn Public Library] from Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.</ref> Davenport & Co. executed the furniture and interiors for his [[Thomas Crane Public Library]] (1881) in Quincy, Massachusetts; his [[Billings Library]] (1883) in Burlington, Vermont; and his [[Converse Memorial Library]] (1885) in Malden, Massachusetts.<ref>Farnam, ''Antiques'', p. 1055.</ref><ref>[http://www.davidrumsey.com/amica/amico8107339-11037.html Armchair for the Malden Public Library] from David Rumsey.</ref>

Richardson designed the [[New York Court of Appeals|New York Court of Appeals Room]] (1883-84), on the third floor of the [[New York State Capitol]] in Albany. Davenport & Co. executed its highly-carved, [[Byzantine art|Byzantine-Romanesque-style]] cabinetwork and furniture.<ref>Mary Jean Madigan, ''Nineteenth Century Furniture: Innovation, Revival and Reform'' (Art & Antiques, 1982), p. 9.</ref> [[John Coleridge, 1st Baron Coleridge|Lord Coleridge]], [[Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales]], described it as "the finest courtroom in the world."<ref name="1959 rededication program">{{cite web|last=Froessel|first=Charles|title=The Restoration of the Historic Court of Appeals Hall|url=http://www.courts.state.ny.us/history/legal-history-new-york/documents/Courthouse_COA-Rededication-1959.pdf|date=October 5, 1959|accessdate=July 14, 2013}}</ref> In 1916, Richardson's courtroom was disassembled and relocated to the [[New York Court of Appeals Building]].<ref name="Albany Architecture">{{cite book|last=Opalka|first=Anthony|title=Albany Architecture: A Guide to the City|year=1993|publisher=Mount Ida Press|location=Albany, NY|isbn=9780962536816|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=B_M7vlQPa8kC&pg=PA73|editor=Diana Waite|accessdate=July 14, 2013|pages=73–74}}</ref>

In 1885, Davenport hired an architect from Richardson's office, Francis H. Bacon, to be his chief designer. Bacon soon was promoted to vice-president of Davenport & Co.

Richardson died in 1886. The dining room furniture for his [[John J. Glessner House]] (1885-87) in Chicago, Illinois, was designed by an associate, [[Charles Allerton Coolidge|Charles Coolidge]], and executed by Davenport & Co.<ref>[http://glessnerhouse.blogspot.com/2013/01/glessner-house-dining-room-chairs.html Glessner House dining room chairs] from Glessner House Museum.</ref> Coolidge also designed the desk in the study.<ref>[http://fannyglessner.wordpress.com/the-collections/charles-coolidge-2/ Charles Coolidge] from Glessner House Museum.</ref> The custom-designed case for the [[Steinway & Sons|Steinway grand piano]] was made by the company, and is attributed to Bacon.<ref>[http://glessnerhouse.blogspot.com/2011/04/music-in-mansion-part-1-glessners-piano.html Music in the Mansion, the Glessner's Piano] from Glessner House Museum.</ref><ref>[http://fannyglessner.wordpress.com/the-collections/francis-bacon/ Francis Bacon] from Glessner House Museum.</ref>

The [[Warder Mansion]] (1885-88) in Washington, D.C., was one of Richardson's final buildings. Davenport & Co. made the furniture, but it is unclear whether design is partially attributable to Richardson, or wholly attributable to Bacon.<ref>The Metropolitan Museum of Art attributes its Warder chair to Bacon: [http://www.metmuseum.org/works_of_art/collection_database/american_decorative_arts/armchair_francis_h_bacon/objectview.aspx?collID=1&OID=10013847 Warder dining chair] from Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Brooklyn Museum attributes its Warder chair to Richardson: [http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/objects/1876/Side_Chair Warder side chair] from Brooklyn Museum.</ref>

===Other architects===
Davenport & Co. did work on the [[James J. Hill House]] (1891) in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The architects, [[Peabody and Stearns]], were fired before the building's completion and its interiors were completed by [[Irving and Casson|Irving & Casson]].

The company produced furniture and interiors for architect [[Charles Brigham]]'s 1895 annex to the [[Massachusetts State House]] in Boston.<ref>[https://malegislature.gov/VirtualTour/Artifact/93 Armchair] from Massachusetts Legislature.</ref>

To the designs of architect [[Stanford White]], the company executed cabinetwork and furnishings for the [[Villard Houses]] (1882-84) in New York City; [[Harbor Hill]] (1899-1902) in Roslyn, New York;<ref>[http://www.vintagedesigns.com/id/mkm/mackay/index.htm Interior of the MacKay house] from Vintage Designs.</ref> and the [[Payne Whitney House]] (1902-06) in New York City.<ref>Wayne Craven, ''Stanford White: Decorator in Opulence and Dealer in Antiquities'' (Columbia University Press, 2005).[http://books.google.com/books?id=ebuungLwl4oC&printsec=frontcover&dq=wayne+craven+stanford+white&hl=en&sa=X&ei=v6PhUYKRMYWz4APXroEY&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA]</ref>

Architect [[Charles Follen McKim]] assembled the team of [[Herter Brothers]] (floors, walls and ceilings), Davenport & Co. (furniture), and [[Edward F. Caldwell & Co.]] (lighting fixtures) to execute his interior designs for the [[Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site|Frederick William Vanderbilt Mansion]] (1896-99), in [[Hyde Park, New York]]. McKim would reunite the team a couple years later to renovate The White House.

[[McKim, Mead and White]] designed the interiors for the [[George Eastman House]] (1905) in Rochester, New York. Davenport & Co. executed the work, including a dining room similar to McKim's State Dining Room.<ref name="NYT1">{{cite news | first=Kathleen | last=Quigley | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Splendor Restored At Eastman House | date=1990-03-18 | publisher=The New York Times | url =http://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/18/travel/splendor-restored-at-eastman-house.html | work =The New York Times | pages = | accessdate =July 14, 2013 | language = }}</ref>

The company did work on the [[Henry Clay Frick House]] (1912-14) in New York City, [[Thomas Hastings (architect)|Thomas Hastings]], architect. The Frick Papers include receipts for "furniture and interior woodwork, fabrics and wall coverings, decorative painting."<ref>[http://www.frick.org/sites/default/files/FindingAids/HenryClayFrickReceipts.html Henry Clay Frick Papers, Series IV: Receipts, File 1.18] from The Frick Collection.</ref>

===The White House===
[[File:Theodore Roosevelt seated cph.3b19306.jpg|thumb|left|President Theodore Roosevelt seated in a State Dining Room armchair, on the South Porch of the White House, 1903.]]
Davenport & Co. made a set of sofas and chairs for the [[Cross Hall]] during the second [[Grover Cleveland]] Administration.<ref>Monkman, p. 175.</ref>

McKim, Mead and White renovated the public rooms of The White House during the [[Theodore Roosevelt]] Administration, removing the grand staircase and nearly doubling the size of the [[State Dining Room]]. McKim's goal was "to make changes so that the house would not have to be altered again."<ref>Monkman, p. 186.</ref> [[Herter Brothers]] executed plasterwork, paneling and cabinetwork for several of the public rooms, helping to turn a stylistic hodge-podge of interiors into a unified [[Neo-Classical architecture|Neo-Classical]] whole. Edward F. Caldwell & Co. made the lighting fixtures, and Leon Marcotte & Co. and Davenport & Co. made the furniture.

Davenport & Co. executed Stanford White's furniture designs for the State Dining Room. These consisted of two neo-Georgian-style dining tables, six William-and-Mary-style armchairs, fifty [[Queen Anne style furniture|Queen-Anne-style]] side chairs, a long serving table supported by carved-eagle pedestals,<ref>[http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ckZ2r3Hy5Fg/UQMK3J3ajLI/AAAAAAAABU4/IzBm7RL653Q/s1600/State+Dining+room+2.jpg Serving table, State Dining Room] from Star Bunny Studios.</ref> and two matching console tables.<ref>The serving table and consoles were based on an Italian table in White's own collection. Monkman, p. 297.</ref> The company executed McKim's [[Federal furniture|Federal]]-style furniture designs for the [[Family Dining Room]], which consisted of an oval table, armchairs and side chairs, a [[sideboard]], server, mirror, and china cabinet.<ref>Monkman, p. 196.</ref> For the [[Green Room]], the company made a rolled-back sofa, a set of six matching armchairs, and two sets of cane-back side chairs, all painted white.<ref>Monkman, pp. 123, 188.</ref> Davenport & Co. also provided furniture for four of the bedrooms, and a bookcase for the President's Study.<ref>Monkman, p. 188.</ref>

First Lady [[Helen Herron Taft]] removed the [[Lincoln Bedroom|Lincoln Bed]] from the [[President's Bedroom]], replacing it with Colonial-Revival pieces made by Davenport & Co.<ref>Monkman, p. 198.</ref>

====Oval Office====
[[File:The President's office by Detroit Photographic Company.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Theodore Roosevelt desk]] in the Executive Office, 1904.]]
Davenport & Co. executed McKim's furniture designs for the Executive Office and Cabinet Room. The pieces included the [[Theodore Roosevelt desk]], the Cabinet Room's table and chairs, dark-green leather sofas with oversized brass tacks, and matching leather armchairs and sidechairs.<ref>William Allman, White House Curator, "Oval Office Tour, December 1, 2008," CSPAN documentary.</ref>

President [[William Howard Taft]] moved the desk, sofas and chairs into the first [[Oval Office#Taft Oval Office: 1909–29|Oval Office]], which was completed in 1909. The furniture remained there for more than twenty years and was used by five presidents, until a December 24, 1929, fire. President [[Herbert Hoover]] rebuilt the Taft Oval Office, but accepted the donation of a new desk from a [[Michigan]] trade association.<ref>William Seale, p. 918.</ref>

The White House bought a set of diminutive, cane-back mahogany armchairs from Davenport & Co. in 1902. Nearly-identical chairs, but with leather backs, had been made by the company for the Massachusetts State House. President Hoover installed six of the cane-back chairs his rebuilt Oval Office in 1930.<ref>Allman, CSPAN documentary.</ref> President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] moved them into the modern Oval Office, completed 1934, where they have been used by every president since. The chairs are currently in use in the Obama Oval Office, including a pair flanking the [[Resolute Desk]].<ref>[http://www.gensleron.com/cities/2013/4/25/recreating-the-oval-office-at-the-george-w-bush-presidential.html ''Recreating the Oval Office''] from George W. Bush Presidential Center.</ref>

The [[Theodore Roosevelt desk]] survived the 1929 fire, and was used in the modern Oval Office by Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]. Recently, the desk was used by [[Richard Cheney|Vice-President Richard Cheney]] in his ceremonial office in the [[Eisenhower Executive Office Building]].

==Personal==
Alfred Henry Davenport (December 5, 1845, Malden, Massachusetts – June 22, 1905, Squirrel Island, Maine) married Ella Louise Stetson (1851-1925), and they had two children: Fred Albert Davenport (1873-1928) and Alice May Davenport (1878-1944). Neither child married or had children.<ref>[http://www.davenporthome.org/history2.htm The Davenport Family] from The Davenport Memorial Home.</ref>

Davenport built a mansion for his family in [[Malden, Massachusetts]] in 1892. His daughter occupied it until her death, and bequeathed it to a non-profit organization to operate it as a residence for the elderly. The Davenport Memorial Home retains most of its original furniture and fixtures.<ref>[http://www.davenporthome.org/history.html The Davenport Memorial Home]</ref>

==Legacy==
Davenport and his family vacationed on [[Squirrel Island, Maine]]. He donated the island's public library and its first 4,000 books.<ref>[http://www.mainememory.net/artifact/9489 Squirrel Island Library Dedication, 1904] From Maine Memory Network.</ref>

Following Alfred H. Davenport's 1905 death, Francis H. Bacon attempted to buy Davenport & Co., but was unsuccessful. Bacon established his own furniture and interior design business in 1908.<ref>''In Pursuit of Beauty'', p. 418.</ref>

Irving & Casson merged with Davenport & Co. about 1914, and continued in business until 1974. A collection of the joint-company's designs is at [[Winterthur Museum|The Winterthur Library]].<ref>[http://findingaid.winterthur.org/html/HTML_Finding_Aids/COL0752.htm Irving & Casson Collection] from The Winterthur Library.</ref>

Interiors by A. H. Davenport and Company survive in most of the buildings named above. Furniture by A. H. Davenport and Company is in the collection of the White House, the [[Smithsonian Institution]], [[Historic New England]],<ref>[http://www.historicnewengland.org/events-programs/four-centuries-of-massachusetts-furniture/massachusetts-furniture-gallery/Armchair.jpg/view Armchair] from Historic New England.</ref> the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]], the [[Art Institute of Chicago]],<ref>[http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/artwork/122135?search_no=1&index=7 Armchair] from Art Institute of Chicago.</ref> the [[Carnegie Museum of Art]],<ref>[http://www.cmoa.org/CollectionDetail.aspx?item=1030183&retPrompt=Back+to+Results&retUrl=CollectionSearch.aspx%3fsrch%3ddesk%26page%3d2 H. H. Richardson desk] from Carnegie Museum of Art.</ref> the [[Brooklyn Museum]], the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], and [[St. Patrick's Cathedral (New York)|St. Patrick's Cathedral]] in New York City.<ref>Farnum, ''Antiques'', p. 1048.</ref>

<gallery>
File:1890 WoburnPublicLibrary Massachusetts2.png|Interior of [[Winn Memorial Library]] (1879), Woburn, Massachusetts.
File:Billings Library ca1895 Univ of Vermont 2.jpg|Interior of [[Billings Library]] (1883), Burlington, Vermont.
File:Iolani palace throne room.jpg|Throne Room of the [[Iolani Palace]], c. 1887.
File:New York Court of Appeals hearing oral arguments.jpg|New York Court of Appeals Room in 2009.
File:New York Court of Appeals courtroom fireplace.jpg|Fireplace, New York Court of Appeals Room, before its 1916 relocation.
File:Desk, Henry Hobson Richardson, c. 1884 - IMG 1651.JPG|Pedestal desk (c. 1884), from New York Court of Appeals Room.
File:Converse Memorial Library (Malden, MA) - American Architect & Building News.JPG|[[Converse Memorial Library]] (1885), Malden, Massachusetts.
File:Warder Diningroom WashingtonDC 1885-88.jpg|[[Warder Mansion]] dining room, c. 1890. Francis H. Bacon designed the Colonial-Revival furniture.
File:Vanderbilt Mansion P1160040.JPG|Three sofas (c. 1899), [[Vanderbilt Mansion National Historic Site]], Hyde Park, New York.
File:1908 House ReadingRoom Massachusetts StateHouse Boston.png|Reading Room, Massachusetts State House Annex, c. 1908.
File:George Eastman House.jpg|Interior of [[George Eastman House]] (1905), Rochester, New York.
File:North wall of State Dining Room after 1902 expansion (cropped).jpg|North wall of the State Dining Room, c. 1903.
File:GreenRoomTR2.jpg|The [[Green Room]] in 1904.
File:White House Family Dining Room 1907.jpg|The [[Family Dining Room]] in 1907.
File:TaftOval1909.jpg|[[Theodore Roosevelt desk]] in the [[Oval Office|Taft Oval Office]], 1909.
File:Sidewall - Google Art Project (6844405).jpg|Wallpaper sold by Davenport & Co.
File:Davenport (PSF).png|"Davenport" sofa.
File:Barack Obama working at his desk in the Oval Office.jpg|The cane-back armchairs in the Oval Office were made by Davenport & Co. in 1902.
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==Sources==
*"A. H. Davenport and Company, 1880-1908," in ''In Pursuit of Beauty: Americans and the Aesthetic Movement'' (Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1986), p. 418.[http://books.google.com/books?id=56F8Qv96FzwC&pg=PA418&lpg=PA418&dq=a.+h.+davenport+and+company&source=bl&ots=Xc_dpCChb_&sig=DYp41LxaSJ8DcVcptLIrmq8cSLc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=5JXlUbGiEtT_4APxtoGYDA&ved=0CFoQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=a.%20h.%20davenport%20and%20company&f=false]
*Keith Bakker, "H. H. Richardson’s Furnishings," in ''The Makers of Trinity Church in the City of Boston'' (University of Massachusetts Press, 2004), pp. 83-103.
*Anne Farnum, "A. H. Davenport and Company, Boston Furniture Makers," in ''The Magazine Antiques'', v. 109 (May, 1976), pp. 1048-55.
*Anne Farnam, "H. H. Richardson and A. H. Davenport: Architecture and Furniture as Big Business in America’s Gilded Age," in ''Tools and Technologies: America’s Wooden Age'', (Robert Hull Fleming Museum, University of Vermont, 1979), pp. 80-92.
*Anne Farnam, "The A. H. Davenport Company of Boston." in ''Upholstery in America and Europe: from the Seventeenth Century to World War I'' (W. W. Norton & Company, 1987), pp. 231-38.[http://books.google.com/books?id=rSIgw7ZRSgsC&pg=PA231&lpg=PA231&dq=A.+H.+Davenport+Company&source=bl&ots=t2HTaWTK-E&sig=QS_LwKE_0k1-ApoQ4Em22rBr5o0&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cfvhUYmrNeGXyAHi2oCwAw&ved=0CFUQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=A.%20H.%20Davenport%20Company&f=false]
*Betty C. Monkman, ''The White House: Its Historic Furnishings and First Families'' (Abbeville Press, 2000). ISBN 0-7892-0624-2.
*Richard H. Randall, Jr., ''The Furniture of H. H. Richardson'' (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1962).
*William Seale, ''The President's House: A History'' (White House Historical Association, 1986).

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.aaa.si.edu/collections/irving--cassonah-davenport-co-records-9283 Irving & Cassom-A. H. Davenport Company records] from Archives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution.
*[http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/LotDetailsPrintable.aspx?intObjectID=5014317 White House. An archive of drawings and blueprints from Davenport Co.] from Christie's Auctions, December 3, 2007.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Davenport and Company, A. H.}}
[[Category:American cabinetmakers]]
[[Category:American furniture designers]]
[[Category:American woodworkers]]
[[Category:Interior design firms]]
[[Category:Defunct furniture manufacturers]]
[[Category:Defunct companies based in Massachusetts]]