Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2005-11-17T14:06:04Z

66.155.200.129: /* External links */

The '''role of women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], [[Talmud]] (oral law), tradition and by non-religious cultural factors. The Bible and Talmud mention various female role models, but religious law treats women differently in various circumstances. [[Feminism]] has led to a reappraisal of the role of women in Jewish religion.

==Classical Judaism==
''See also [[Old Testament views on women]].''

The role of women in the Bible is contradictory: few women are mentioned by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are, however, numerous exceptions to this rule (the Matriarchs, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Hulda]] the Prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Esther]]), who in the Biblical account did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

=== Views within classical rabbinic literatrure ===
The classical Jewish literature contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that the women of their time more than they should "Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine" (Kiddushin 49b) and that women are "light-minded" (Shabbat 33b). "The sages say that four traits apply to women: They are greedy, eavesdroppers, lazy and jealous...Rabbi Yehoshua bar Nahmani adds: they are querulous and garrulous. Rabbi Levy adds: they are thieves and gadabouts" (Bereshit Rabbah 45:5).

"Women were feared as a source of temptation. In Babylon, possibly because of the greater laxity in sexual matters among the general population, it was said that a woman's voice is a sexual enticement as is her hair and her leg (Ber. 24a) and that one should under no circumstances be served at a table by a woman (Kid. 70a)."

On the other hand it is said that a man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good, and that a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself (Yev. 62b). When R. Joseph heard his mother's footsteps he would say: 'let me arise before the approach of the Shekhinah' (Kid. 31b). Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its righteous women (Sot. 11b) man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong (BM 59a). Women have greater faith than men (Sif. Num. 133) and greater powers of discernment (Nid. 45b) and they are especially tenderhearted (Meg. 14b)"

The Talmud continues this pattern: while few women are mentioned, those who are mentioned specifically are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands, and occasionally having a public persona. Examples are Bruria, the wife of the [[Mishna]]ic Rabbi Meir, and Yalta, the wife of Rabbi Nachman ([[Talmud]]). Rabbi Eliezer's wife (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]].

==Present day==
===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] views men and women as having different but complementary roles, and thus different obligations. This is similar to the traditional interpretation of some other religions, for instance [[Islam]]. In the area of education, women were traditionally exempted - and often banned - from any study beyond a basic understanding of the [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household. Women were discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. Women are exempt from having to follow most of the set daily [[prayer]] services, and most other positive time bound ''[[mitzvot]]'' (commandments), such as wearing ''[[tefillin]]''. (There are a number of notable exceptions). As such, the ''[[halakha]]'' (traditional law codes) specify that women are not eligible to be counted in a ''[[minyan]]'', as a ''minyan'' is a quorum of those who are obligated.

In practice, most of Orthodox Judaism has come to see women as ''forbidden'' from performing mitzvot from which they are obligated to perform. As such, many Orthodox rabbis forbid women from wearing a tallit or tefillin.

Many Orthodox rabbis, based on their reading of rabbinic literature, hold that men are lacking a spiritual element that women possess, which accounts for why men have more obligations. This is expressed by Rabbi [[Aharon Soloveitchik]] in his ''Logic of the Heart, Logic of the Mind''. He states that in the beginning og Creation, God's creations became superior over time. Since woman was created after man, woman has some spiritual superiority to man. For a woman to participate in a man's obligations would be to deny her nature as a more spiritual being. This view is echosed by the Maharal, who writes that men were given mitzvot in order to overcome their innate aggression and become more spiritual. Since women had less aggression, women had more spiritual potential, and thus needed les mitzvot, and thus women should not perform most of the time bound mitzvot. (Hidushei Aggadot I, Kol Kitvei Maharal.) Similar views are expressed by Rabbi [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]] in his commentary on Genesis 17:14. In the English edition of this commentary he writes "The pure feminine sex, if it descends from Sarah, does not require the external sign of the covenant with Sha-kai, the God who "sets the measure". It itself bears this warning of "Dai" ["enough"] within itself, in the pure feeling of the limits set by its tzniyus with which the true Jewish women are filled. She has the tendency by itself to submit herself to all the laws of purity and godliness, and demands such submission from all that come into contact with her."

There have been a growing number of voices within Judaism which hold that such views are indefensible apologetics. Orthodox Rabbi [[Saul Berman]] writes "It is one thing to recognise the problems and attempt to understand the...factors which produced them....It is a completely different matter, both dishonest and disfunctional, to attempt through homoletics and scholasticism to transform problems into solutions and reinterpret discrimination to be beneficial. To suggest that women don't really ''need'' positive symbolic ''mitzvot'' because their souls are already more atuned to the Divine, would be an unbearable insult to men; unless it were understood, as it indeed is, that the suggestion is not to be taken seriously, but is intended solely to placate women." Views such as rabbi Berman's were on the fringe of Orthodox though back when he first stated this position in the early 1970s, but the in subsequent generation they have been acepted by significanly larger numbers of people within Orthodoxy. Today an entier genre of Orthodox feminist literature exists, and has caused changes within some Orthodox synagogues and communities.
:''The Status of Women in Halakhic Judaism,'' Berman, Tradition, 14:2, 1973.

Women, however, have a substancial role of "passing down" Judaism to their offspring. Judaism is traditionally inherited by matrilineal descent.

Many Orthodox synagogues do not allow a woman to become the president of a congregation, or to discuss the Bible in public (d'var Torah.) Orthodox supporters of these positions hold that they are essential to preservign modesty, and are based on halakha. Orthodox opponents of these positions have been growing more numerous and vociferous over the last thirty years, and reject the idea that these positions are based on modesty and halakha. Rather, they claim that this is discrimination against women whose source can only be found in sociology, and not in Torah.

Orthodoxy is divided on whether or not it is appropriate for women to be involved in public roles. Many Orthodox rabbis hold that it inappropriate for women to be involved in any form of politics or leadership. For instance, former Chief Rabbi of Israel Mordechai Eliyahu stated that "A woman's place is not in politics." Much of Haredi Judaism views the idea of women in such public roles as unacceptable, or forbidden by Jewish law. On the other hand, many within Modern Orthodoxy hold that such roles are acceptable.

====Rules of modesty====
''See main article: [[Tzeniut]]''

Orthodox Jewish men generally do not touch, gaze at, or sit next to women other than their wives or relatives, for reasons of modesty. They also do not touch their wife while she is [[niddah|menstruating]], for a short period after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. This also includes indirect contact; for instance a plate would not be passed on directly, but first put down on a table so that both do not hold on to the object at the same time. They also include additional restrictions against, for example, [[flirting]].

====Changes in the Orthodox position====
One of the first major breaks with the traditional role of women came from within the Orthodox movement, by the [[Chofetz Chaim]], Rabbi [[Yisroel Meir HaKohen]] ([[1838]]-[[1933]]). He overruled the traditional prohibitions against advanced training of women on the basis that times have changed, and that in the modern world it is now important for women to have an advanced Jewish education. In 1917 the Bais Yaakov (House of Jacob) network of Orthodox Torah schools for women was founded by Sarah Schenirer in [[Krakow]].

Recently, a few leaders in the Modern Orthodox community have set up schools that bring advanced Jewish studies to women, including Stern College at [[Yeshiva University]], and the [[Drisha Institute]] (both in [[New York City]]). At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a small number of Orthodox Jews have proposed that it may be acceptable for the Orthodox movement to ordain women as rabbis, or that some form of rabbinical-like ordination for women is possible. A few rabbi-like positions for Orthodox women have been created, but none grant the title "rabbi". However, most Orthodox Jews reject the idea of ordaining women as rabbis, as they feel that this contradicts [[halakha|Jewish law]].

====Women's prayer groups====
Since women are not allowed to lead services or read from the Torah in Orthodox Jewish synagogues, a small number of Orthodox women have begun holding women's tefila (prayer) groups. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a [[minyan|prayer quorum]] for the purpose of regular services, women in these groups read the prayers, and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of [[Orthodox Judaism]] have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:

* The first rules the while women do not constitute a [[minyan]], they may still carry out full prayer services. The sole [[halakha|halakhic]] authority who has ruled this way was Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi, Shlomo Goren, in 1974. However, Rabbi Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, and stated that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, and not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual halakha was in accord with the third school of thought, listed below.
* The second includes leading faculty of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]]'s Yeshiva University, and almost all [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbis, and rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by Jewish law.
* The third maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatiable with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e. do not include certain parts of the service known as "devarim she-bi-kdusha"), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against halakha. People in this group include Rabbis [[Moshe Feinstein]], [[Joseph Soloveitchik]], Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Goren, among others[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm].

===Conservative Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Conservative Judaism]] views women. Although its original position differed little from the Orthodox position, it has slowly developed a body of [[Conservative responsa]] which minimize the legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of responsa on this topic. These justify women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:

*Matrilineal descent. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.

*Serving as witnesses. Women do not usually serve as legal witnesses in those cases where Jewish law requires two witnesses. One opinion of the CJLS affirms that women may serve as witnesses. However, most Conservative rabbis currently affirm this only as a theoretical option, because of concern for Jewish unity. A change could result in many Orthodox Jews refusing to recognize the legitimacy of many marriages and divorces. A current Conservative solution is in the area of weddings: A new custom is to use Ketubot (wedding document) with spaces for four witnesses to sign; two men, and two women.

*Pidyon Habat, the ceremony based on the Biblical redemption of a newborn son. Conservative Judaism prohibits performing Pidyon Ha-Bat on a newborn daughter. Pidyon Ha-Bat is a newly proposed ceremony that would mark the redemption of a newborn daughter; the CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (Welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

===Reform Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Reform Judaism]] views women as well. Reform Judaism now believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that Jews are bound by [[halakha]] (Jewish law and tradition), and holds that all of its members and clergy have total personal autonomy in deciding how to practice their faith. As such, Reform Judaism ignores traditional prohibitions on women's role in Jewish life, and holds that women, if they decide to do so, may perform any ritual done by a man, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

American Reform Judaism has rejected the traditional Jewish view of matrilineal descent. Instead, they hold that if any one parent is Jewish, then the child is automatically Jewish if that child is raised as a Jew. The movement has never formally defined what it means to raise a child as a Jew; as such, Reform rabbis note that the ''de facto'' standard is that anyone with a single Jewish parent or grandparent is considered Jewish within the Reform community, even if they have not been raised as a Jew.

==External links==
*[http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.
*[http://www.academicinfo.net/religwomjudaism.html List of academic links on women in Judaism], primarily from a liberal perspective.
*[http://www.lilithmag.com/ Lilith Magazine], a Jewish feminist journal
*[http://www.aish.com/societywork/women/Feminism_and_Judaism.asp Feminism & Judaism], from an orthodox, anti-feminist perpsective
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library
* [http://www.ou.org/publications/ja/5759winter/sense.htm Sense and Sensibilities: Women and Torah Study, from Bryna Levy, on the OU website]

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' Blu Greenberg, Jewish Publication Society
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' Berman, Saul J. Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.

* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.

* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' Tamar Ross, ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.

* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47

* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' Ross, Tamar

* ''In Case There Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.

* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.

* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.

* ''Feminism and Orthodox Judaism,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Judaism , 188, 47:4, 1998, 499-507.

{{JewishLifeCycle}}

[[Category:Judaism and women]]

[[Category:Judaism and women|*]]

[[he:מעמד האישה ביהדות]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2005-11-16T19:35:30Z

66.155.200.129: /* References */

The '''role of women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], [[Talmud]] (oral law), tradition and by non-religious cultural factors. The Bible and Talmud mention various female role models, but religious law treats women differently in various circumstances. [[Feminism]] has led to a reappraisal of the role of women in Jewish religion.

==Classical Judaism==
''See also [[Old Testament views on women]].''

The role of women in the Bible is contradictory: few women are mentioned by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are, however, numerous exceptions to this rule (the Matriarchs, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Hulda]] the Prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Esther]]), who in the Biblical account did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

=== Views within classical rabbinic literatrure ===
The classical Jewish literature contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that the women of their time more than they should "Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine" (Kiddushin 49b) and that women are "light-minded" (Shabbat 33b). "The sages say that four traits apply to women: They are greedy, eavesdroppers, lazy and jealous...Rabbi Yehoshua bar Nahmani adds: they are querulous and garrulous. Rabbi Levy adds: they are thieves and gadabouts" (Bereshit Rabbah 45:5).

"Women were feared as a source of temptation. In Babylon, possibly because of the greater laxity in sexual matters among the general population, it was said that a woman's voice is a sexual enticement as is her hair and her leg (Ber. 24a) and that one should under no circumstances be served at a table by a woman (Kid. 70a)."

On the other hand it is said that a man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good, and that a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself (Yev. 62b). When R. Joseph heard his mother's footsteps he would say: 'let me arise before the approach of the Shekhinah' (Kid. 31b). Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its righteous women (Sot. 11b) man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong (BM 59a). Women have greater faith than men (Sif. Num. 133) and greater powers of discernment (Nid. 45b) and they are especially tenderhearted (Meg. 14b)"

The Talmud continues this pattern: while few women are mentioned, those who are mentioned specifically are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands, and occasionally having a public persona. Examples are Bruria, the wife of the [[Mishna]]ic Rabbi Meir, and Yalta, the wife of Rabbi Nachman ([[Talmud]]). Rabbi Eliezer's wife (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]].

==Present day==
===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] views men and women as having different but complementary roles, and thus different obligations. This is similar to the traditional interpretation of some other religions, for instance [[Islam]]. In the area of education, women were traditionally exempted - and often banned - from any study beyond a basic understanding of the [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household. Women were discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. Women are exempt from having to follow most of the set daily [[prayer]] services, and most other positive time bound ''[[mitzvot]]'' (commandments), such as wearing ''[[tefillin]]''. (There are a number of notable exceptions). As such, the ''[[halakha]]'' (traditional law codes) specify that women are not eligible to be counted in a ''[[minyan]]'', as a ''minyan'' is a quorum of those who are obligated.

In practice, most of Orthodox Judaism has come to see women as ''forbidden'' from performing mitzvot from which they are obligated to perform. As such, many Orthodox rabbis forbid women from wearing a tallit or tefillin.

Some Orthodox rabbis, based on their reading of rabbinic literature, hold that men are lacking a spiritual element that women possess, which accounts for why men have more obligations. For a woman to participate in a man's obligations would be to deny her nature as a more spiritual being. Women, however, have a substancial role of "passing down" Judaism to their offspring. Judaism is traditionally inherited by matrilineal descent. However, critics of this position hold that it is based on a selective reading of texts about women in classical rabbinic literaure. There are many statements in classical rabbinic literature which indicate that women don't have the same sense or intelligence as men. These statements have been used as reasons to prevent women from studying advanced Jewish law or from becoming poseks (decisors of Jewish law.)

Many Orthodox synagogues do not allow a woman to become the president of a congregation, or to discuss the Bible in public (d'var Torah.) Orthodox supporters of these positions hold that they are essential to preservign modesty, and are based on halakha. Orthodox opponents of these positions have been growing more numerous and vociferous over the last thirty years, and reject the idea that these positions are based on modesty and halakha. Rather, they claim that this is discrimination against women whose source can only be found in sociology, and not in Torah.

Orthodoxy is divided on whether or not it is appropriate for women to be involved in public roles. Many Orthodox rabbis hold that it inappropriate for women to be involved in any form of politics or leadership. For instance, former Chief Rabbi of Israel Mordechai Eliyahu stated that "A woman's place is not in politics." Much of Haredi Judaism views the idea of women in such public roles as unacceptable, or forbidden by Jewish law. On the other hand, many within Modern Orthodoxy hold that such roles are acceptable.

====Rules of modesty====
''See main article: [[Tzeniut]]''

Orthodox Jewish men generally do not touch, gaze at, or sit next to women other than their wives or relatives, for reasons of modesty. They also do not touch their wife while she is [[niddah|menstruating]], for a short period after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. This also includes indirect contact; for instance a plate would not be passed on directly, but first put down on a table so that both do not hold on to the object at the same time. They also include additional restrictions against, for example, [[flirting]].

====Changes in the Orthodox position====
One of the first major breaks with the traditional role of women came from within the Orthodox movement, by the [[Chofetz Chaim]], Rabbi [[Yisroel Meir HaKohen]] ([[1838]]-[[1933]]). He overruled the traditional prohibitions against advanced training of women on the basis that times have changed, and that in the modern world it is now important for women to have an advanced Jewish education. In 1917 the Bais Yaakov (House of Jacob) network of Orthodox Torah schools for women was founded by Sarah Schenirer in [[Krakow]].

Recently, a few leaders in the Modern Orthodox community have set up schools that bring advanced Jewish studies to women, including Stern College at [[Yeshiva University]], and the [[Drisha Institute]] (both in [[New York City]]). At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a small number of Orthodox Jews have proposed that it may be acceptable for the Orthodox movement to ordain women as rabbis, or that some form of rabbinical-like ordination for women is possible. A few rabbi-like positions for Orthodox women have been created, but none grant the title "rabbi". However, most Orthodox Jews reject the idea of ordaining women as rabbis, as they feel that this contradicts [[halakha|Jewish law]].

====Women's prayer groups====
Since women are not allowed to lead services or read from the Torah in Orthodox Jewish synagogues, a small number of Orthodox women have begun holding women's tefila (prayer) groups. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a [[minyan|prayer quorum]] for the purpose of regular services, women in these groups read the prayers, and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of [[Orthodox Judaism]] have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:
* The first rules the while women do not constitute a [[minyan]], they may still carry out full prayer services. The sole [[halakha|halakhic]] authority who has ruled this way was Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi, Shlomo Goren, in 1974. However, Rabbi Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, and stated that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, and not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual halakha was in accord with the third school of thought, listed below.
* The second includes leading faculty of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]]'s Yeshiva University, and almost all [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbis, and rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by Jewish law.
* The third maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatiable with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e. do not include certain parts of the service known as "devarim she-bi-kdusha"), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against halakha. People in this group include Rabbis [[Moshe Feinstein]], [[Joseph Soloveitchik]], Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Goren, among others[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm].

===Conservative Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Conservative Judaism]] views women. Although its original position differed little from the Orthodox position, it has slowly developed a body of [[Conservative responsa]] which minimize the legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of responsa on this topic. These justify women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:

*Matrilineal descent. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.

*Serving as witnesses. Women do not usually serve as legal witnesses in those cases where Jewish law requires two witnesses. One opinion of the CJLS affirms that women may serve as witnesses. However, most Conservative rabbis currently affirm this only as a theoretical option, because of concern for Jewish unity. A change could result in many Orthodox Jews refusing to recognize the legitimacy of many marriages and divorces. A current Conservative solution is in the area of weddings: A new custom is to use Ketubot (wedding document) with spaces for four witnesses to sign; two men, and two women.

*Pidyon Habat, the ceremony based on the Biblical redemption of a newborn son. Conservative Judaism prohibits performing Pidyon Ha-Bat on a newborn daughter. Pidyon Ha-Bat is a newly proposed ceremony that would mark the redemption of a newborn daughter; the CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (Welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

===Reform Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Reform Judaism]] views women as well. Reform Judaism now believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that Jews are bound by [[halakha]] (Jewish law and tradition), and holds that all of its members and clergy have total personal autonomy in deciding how to practice their faith. As such, Reform Judaism ignores traditional prohibitions on women's role in Jewish life, and holds that women, if they decide to do so, may perform any ritual done by a man, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

American Reform Judaism has rejected the traditional Jewish view of matrilineal descent. Instead, they hold that if any one parent is Jewish, then the child is automatically Jewish if that child is raised as a Jew. The movement has never formally defined what it means to raise a child as a Jew; as such, Reform rabbis note that the ''de facto'' standard is that anyone with a single Jewish parent or grandparent is considered Jewish within the Reform community, even if they have not been raised as a Jew.

==External links==
*[http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.
*[http://www.academicinfo.net/religwomjudaism.html List of academic links on women in Judaism], primarily from a liberal perspective.
*[http://www.lilithmag.com/ Lilith Magazine], a Jewish feminist journal
*[http://www.aish.com/societywork/women/Feminism_and_Judaism.asp Feminism & Judaism], from an orthodox, anti-feminist perpsective
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' Blu Greenberg, Jewish Publication Society
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press

=== Orthodox Judaism and women ===
* ''Orthodoxy Responds to Feminist Ferment,'' Berman, Saul J. Response, 40, 1981, 5:17.

* ''Gender, Halakhaha and Women's Suffrage: Responsa of the First Three Chief Rabbis on the Public Role of Women in the Jewish State,'' Ellenson, David Harry. In: Gender Issues in Jewish Law (58-81) 2001.

* ''Can the Demand for Change In the Status of Women Be Halakhically Legitimated?'' Tamar Ross, ''Judaism'', 42:4, 1993, 478-491.

* ''Feminism - A Force That Will Split Orthodoxy?,'' Reisman, Levi M. The Jewish Observer, 31:5, 1998, 37-47

* ''Halakha and its Relationship to Human and Social Reality, Case Study: Women's Roles in the Modern Period,'' Ross, Tamar

* ''In Case There Are No Sinful Thoughts: The Role and Status of Women in Jewish Law As Expressed in the Aruch Hashulhan,'' Fishbane, Simcha. Judaism, 42:4, 1993, 492-503.

* ''Human Rights, Jewish Women and Jewish Law,'' Shenhav, Sharon. Justice, 21, 1999, 28-31.

* ''On Egalitarianism & Halakha,'' Stern, Marc D. Tradition, 36:2, 2002, 1-30.

* ''Feminism and Orthodox Judaism,'' Wolowelsky, Joel B. Judaism , 188, 47:4, 1998, 499-507.

{{JewishLifeCycle}}

[[Category:Judaism and women]]

[[Category:Judaism and women|*]]

[[he:מעמד האישה ביהדות]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2005-11-16T18:59:37Z

66.155.200.129: /* Orthodox Judaism */ Orthodoxy is divided on whether or not it is appropriate for women to be involved in public roles.

The '''role of women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], [[Talmud]] (oral law), tradition and by non-religious cultural factors. The Bible and Talmud mention various female role models, but religious law treats women differently in various circumstances. [[Feminism]] has led to a reappraisal of the role of women in Jewish religion.

==Classical Judaism==
''See also [[Old Testament views on women]].''

The role of women in the Bible is contradictory: few women are mentioned by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are, however, numerous exceptions to this rule (the Matriarchs, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Hulda]] the Prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Esther]]), who in the Biblical account did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

=== Views within classical rabbinic literatrure ===
The classical Jewish literature contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that the women of their time more than they should "Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine" (Kiddushin 49b) and that women are "light-minded" (Shabbat 33b). "The sages say that four traits apply to women: They are greedy, eavesdroppers, lazy and jealous...Rabbi Yehoshua bar Nahmani adds: they are querulous and garrulous. Rabbi Levy adds: they are thieves and gadabouts" (Bereshit Rabbah 45:5).

"Women were feared as a source of temptation. In Babylon, possibly because of the greater laxity in sexual matters among the general population, it was said that a woman's voice is a sexual enticement as is her hair and her leg (Ber. 24a) and that one should under no circumstances be served at a table by a woman (Kid. 70a)."

On the other hand it is said that a man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good, and that a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself (Yev. 62b). When R. Joseph heard his mother's footsteps he would say: 'let me arise before the approach of the Shekhinah' (Kid. 31b). Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its righteous women (Sot. 11b) man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong (BM 59a). Women have greater faith than men (Sif. Num. 133) and greater powers of discernment (Nid. 45b) and they are especially tenderhearted (Meg. 14b)"

The Talmud continues this pattern: while few women are mentioned, those who are mentioned specifically are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands, and occasionally having a public persona. Examples are Bruria, the wife of the [[Mishna]]ic Rabbi Meir, and Yalta, the wife of Rabbi Nachman ([[Talmud]]). Rabbi Eliezer's wife (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]].

==Present day==
===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] views men and women as having different but complementary roles, and thus different obligations. This is similar to the traditional interpretation of some other religions, for instance [[Islam]]. In the area of education, women were traditionally exempted - and often banned - from any study beyond a basic understanding of the [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household. Women were discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. Women are exempt from having to follow most of the set daily [[prayer]] services, and most other positive time bound ''[[mitzvot]]'' (commandments), such as wearing ''[[tefillin]]''. (There are a number of notable exceptions). As such, the ''[[halakha]]'' (traditional law codes) specify that women are not eligible to be counted in a ''[[minyan]]'', as a ''minyan'' is a quorum of those who are obligated.

In practice, most of Orthodox Judaism has come to see women as ''forbidden'' from performing mitzvot from which they are obligated to perform. As such, many Orthodox rabbis forbid women from wearing a tallit or tefillin.

Some Orthodox rabbis, based on their reading of rabbinic literature, hold that men are lacking a spiritual element that women possess, which accounts for why men have more obligations. For a woman to participate in a man's obligations would be to deny her nature as a more spiritual being. Women, however, have a substancial role of "passing down" Judaism to their offspring. Judaism is traditionally inherited by matrilineal descent. However, critics of this position hold that it is based on a selective reading of texts about women in classical rabbinic literaure. There are many statements in classical rabbinic literature which indicate that women don't have the same sense or intelligence as men. These statements have been used as reasons to prevent women from studying advanced Jewish law or from becoming poseks (decisors of Jewish law.)

Many Orthodox synagogues do not allow a woman to become the president of a congregation, or to discuss the Bible in public (d'var Torah.) Orthodox supporters of these positions hold that they are essential to preservign modesty, and are based on halakha. Orthodox opponents of these positions have been growing more numerous and vociferous over the last thirty years, and reject the idea that these positions are based on modesty and halakha. Rather, they claim that this is discrimination against women whose source can only be found in sociology, and not in Torah.

Orthodoxy is divided on whether or not it is appropriate for women to be involved in public roles. Many Orthodox rabbis hold that it inappropriate for women to be involved in any form of politics or leadership. For instance, former Chief Rabbi of Israel Mordechai Eliyahu stated that "A woman's place is not in politics." Much of Haredi Judaism views the idea of women in such public roles as unacceptable, or forbidden by Jewish law. On the other hand, many within Modern Orthodoxy hold that such roles are acceptable.

====Rules of modesty====
''See main article: [[Tzeniut]]''

Orthodox Jewish men generally do not touch, gaze at, or sit next to women other than their wives or relatives, for reasons of modesty. They also do not touch their wife while she is [[niddah|menstruating]], for a short period after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. This also includes indirect contact; for instance a plate would not be passed on directly, but first put down on a table so that both do not hold on to the object at the same time. They also include additional restrictions against, for example, [[flirting]].

====Changes in the Orthodox position====
One of the first major breaks with the traditional role of women came from within the Orthodox movement, by the [[Chofetz Chaim]], Rabbi [[Yisroel Meir HaKohen]] ([[1838]]-[[1933]]). He overruled the traditional prohibitions against advanced training of women on the basis that times have changed, and that in the modern world it is now important for women to have an advanced Jewish education. In 1917 the Bais Yaakov (House of Jacob) network of Orthodox Torah schools for women was founded by Sarah Schenirer in [[Krakow]].

Recently, a few leaders in the Modern Orthodox community have set up schools that bring advanced Jewish studies to women, including Stern College at [[Yeshiva University]], and the [[Drisha Institute]] (both in [[New York City]]). At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a small number of Orthodox Jews have proposed that it may be acceptable for the Orthodox movement to ordain women as rabbis, or that some form of rabbinical-like ordination for women is possible. A few rabbi-like positions for Orthodox women have been created, but none grant the title "rabbi". However, most Orthodox Jews reject the idea of ordaining women as rabbis, as they feel that this contradicts [[halakha|Jewish law]].

====Women's prayer groups====
Since women are not allowed to lead services or read from the Torah in Orthodox Jewish synagogues, a small number of Orthodox women have begun holding women's tefila (prayer) groups. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a [[minyan|prayer quorum]] for the purpose of regular services, women in these groups read the prayers, and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of [[Orthodox Judaism]] have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:
* The first rules the while women do not constitute a [[minyan]], they may still carry out full prayer services. The sole [[halakha|halakhic]] authority who has ruled this way was Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi, Shlomo Goren, in 1974. However, Rabbi Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, and stated that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, and not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual halakha was in accord with the third school of thought, listed below.
* The second includes leading faculty of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]]'s Yeshiva University, and almost all [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbis, and rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by Jewish law.
* The third maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatiable with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e. do not include certain parts of the service known as "devarim she-bi-kdusha"), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against halakha. People in this group include Rabbis [[Moshe Feinstein]], [[Joseph Soloveitchik]], Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Goren, among others[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm].

===Conservative Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Conservative Judaism]] views women. Although its original position differed little from the Orthodox position, it has slowly developed a body of [[Conservative responsa]] which minimize the legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of responsa on this topic. These justify women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:

*Matrilineal descent. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.

*Serving as witnesses. Women do not usually serve as legal witnesses in those cases where Jewish law requires two witnesses. One opinion of the CJLS affirms that women may serve as witnesses. However, most Conservative rabbis currently affirm this only as a theoretical option, because of concern for Jewish unity. A change could result in many Orthodox Jews refusing to recognize the legitimacy of many marriages and divorces. A current Conservative solution is in the area of weddings: A new custom is to use Ketubot (wedding document) with spaces for four witnesses to sign; two men, and two women.

*Pidyon Habat, the ceremony based on the Biblical redemption of a newborn son. Conservative Judaism prohibits performing Pidyon Ha-Bat on a newborn daughter. Pidyon Ha-Bat is a newly proposed ceremony that would mark the redemption of a newborn daughter; the CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (Welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

===Reform Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Reform Judaism]] views women as well. Reform Judaism now believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that Jews are bound by [[halakha]] (Jewish law and tradition), and holds that all of its members and clergy have total personal autonomy in deciding how to practice their faith. As such, Reform Judaism ignores traditional prohibitions on women's role in Jewish life, and holds that women, if they decide to do so, may perform any ritual done by a man, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

American Reform Judaism has rejected the traditional Jewish view of matrilineal descent. Instead, they hold that if any one parent is Jewish, then the child is automatically Jewish if that child is raised as a Jew. The movement has never formally defined what it means to raise a child as a Jew; as such, Reform rabbis note that the ''de facto'' standard is that anyone with a single Jewish parent or grandparent is considered Jewish within the Reform community, even if they have not been raised as a Jew.

==External links==
*[http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.
*[http://www.academicinfo.net/religwomjudaism.html List of academic links on women in Judaism], primarily from a liberal perspective.
*[http://www.lilithmag.com/ Lilith Magazine], a Jewish feminist journal
*[http://www.aish.com/societywork/women/Feminism_and_Judaism.asp Feminism & Judaism], from an orthodox, anti-feminist perpsective
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' Blu Greenberg, Jewish Publication Society
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press

{{JewishLifeCycle}}

[[Category:Judaism and women]]

[[Category:Judaism and women|*]]

[[he:מעמד האישה ביהדות]]

Die Rolle der Frau im Judentum

2005-11-16T18:47:39Z

66.155.200.129: /* Views within classical rabbinic literatrure */ Umm, I think the dumb "Hitler" quote can safely be removed.

The '''role of women in Judaism''' is determined by the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], [[Talmud]] (oral law), tradition and by non-religious cultural factors. The Bible and Talmud mention various female role models, but religious law treats women differently in various circumstances. [[Feminism]] has led to a reappraisal of the role of women in Jewish religion.

==Classical Judaism==
''See also [[Old Testament views on women]].''

The role of women in the Bible is contradictory: few women are mentioned by name and role, suggesting that they were rarely in the forefront of public life. There are, however, numerous exceptions to this rule (the Matriarchs, [[Deborah]] the Judge, [[Hulda]] the Prophetess, [[Abigail]] who married [[David]], [[Esther]]), who in the Biblical account did not meet with opposition for the relatively public presence they had.

=== Views within classical rabbinic literatrure ===
The classical Jewish literature contains quotes that may be seen as both laudatory and derogatory of women. The Talmud states that the women of their time more than they should "Ten measures of speech descended to the world; women took nine" (Kiddushin 49b) and that women are "light-minded" (Shabbat 33b). "The sages say that four traits apply to women: They are greedy, eavesdroppers, lazy and jealous...Rabbi Yehoshua bar Nahmani adds: they are querulous and garrulous. Rabbi Levy adds: they are thieves and gadabouts" (Bereshit Rabbah 45:5).

"Women were feared as a source of temptation. In Babylon, possibly because of the greater laxity in sexual matters among the general population, it was said that a woman's voice is a sexual enticement as is her hair and her leg (Ber. 24a) and that one should under no circumstances be served at a table by a woman (Kid. 70a)."

On the other hand it is said that a man without a wife lives without joy, blessing, and good, and that a man should love his wife as himself and respect her more than himself (Yev. 62b). When R. Joseph heard his mother's footsteps he would say: 'let me arise before the approach of the Shekhinah' (Kid. 31b). Israel was redeemed from Egypt by virtue of its righteous women (Sot. 11b) man must be careful never to speak slightingly to his wife because women are prone to tears and sensitive to wrong (BM 59a). Women have greater faith than men (Sif. Num. 133) and greater powers of discernment (Nid. 45b) and they are especially tenderhearted (Meg. 14b)"

The Talmud continues this pattern: while few women are mentioned, those who are mentioned specifically are portrayed as having a strong influence on their husbands, and occasionally having a public persona. Examples are Bruria, the wife of the [[Mishna]]ic Rabbi Meir, and Yalta, the wife of Rabbi Nachman ([[Talmud]]). Rabbi Eliezer's wife (of Mishnaic times) counselled her husband in assuming leadership over the [[Sanhedrin]].

==Present day==
===Orthodox Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] views men and women as having different but complementary roles, and thus different obligations. This is similar to the traditional interpretation of some other religions, for instance [[Islam]]. In the area of education, women were traditionally exempted - and often banned - from any study beyond a basic understanding of the [[Torah]], and the rules necessary in running a Jewish household. Women were discouraged from learning [[Talmud]] and other advanced Jewish texts. Women are exempt from having to follow most of the set daily [[prayer]] services, and most other positive time bound ''[[mitzvot]]'' (commandments), such as wearing ''[[tefillin]]''. (There are a number of notable exceptions). As such, the ''[[halakha]]'' (traditional law codes) specify that women are not eligible to be counted in a ''[[minyan]]'', as a ''minyan'' is a quorum of those who are obligated.

In practice, most of Orthodox Judaism has come to see women as ''forbidden'' from performing mitzvot from which they are obligated to perform. As such, many Orthodox rabbis forbid women from wearing a tallit or tefillin.

Some Orthodox rabbis, based on their reading of rabbinic literature, hold that men are lacking a spiritual element that women possess, which accounts for why men have more obligations. For a woman to participate in a man's obligations would be to deny her nature as a more spiritual being. Women, however, have a substancial role of "passing down" Judaism to their offspring. Judaism is traditionally inherited by matrilineal descent. However, critics of this position hold that it is based on a selective reading of texts about women in classical rabbinic literaure. There are many statements in classical rabbinic literature which indicate that women don't have the same sense or intelligence as men. These statements have been used as reasons to prevent women from studying advanced Jewish law or from becoming poseks (decisors of Jewish law.)

Many Orthodox synagogues do not allow a woman to become the president of a congregation, or to discuss the Bible in public (d'var Torah.) Orthodox supporters of these positions hold that they are essential to preservign modesty, and are based on halakha. Orthodox opponents of these positions have been growing more numerous and vociferous over the last thirty years, and reject the idea that these positions are based on modesty and halakha. Rather, they claim that this is discrimination against women whose source can only be found in sociology, and not in Torah.

====Rules of modesty====
''See main article: [[Tzeniut]]''

Orthodox Jewish men generally do not touch, gaze at, or sit next to women other than their wives or relatives, for reasons of modesty. They also do not touch their wife while she is [[niddah|menstruating]], for a short period after menstruating, and after the birth of a child. This also includes indirect contact; for instance a plate would not be passed on directly, but first put down on a table so that both do not hold on to the object at the same time. They also include additional restrictions against, for example, [[flirting]].

====Changes in the Orthodox position====
One of the first major breaks with the traditional role of women came from within the Orthodox movement, by the [[Chofetz Chaim]], Rabbi [[Yisroel Meir HaKohen]] ([[1838]]-[[1933]]). He overruled the traditional prohibitions against advanced training of women on the basis that times have changed, and that in the modern world it is now important for women to have an advanced Jewish education. In 1917 the Bais Yaakov (House of Jacob) network of Orthodox Torah schools for women was founded by Sarah Schenirer in [[Krakow]].

Recently, a few leaders in the Modern Orthodox community have set up schools that bring advanced Jewish studies to women, including Stern College at [[Yeshiva University]], and the [[Drisha Institute]] (both in [[New York City]]). At recent conferences on Feminism and Orthodox Judaism, a small number of Orthodox Jews have proposed that it may be acceptable for the Orthodox movement to ordain women as rabbis, or that some form of rabbinical-like ordination for women is possible. A few rabbi-like positions for Orthodox women have been created, but none grant the title "rabbi". However, most Orthodox Jews reject the idea of ordaining women as rabbis, as they feel that this contradicts [[halakha|Jewish law]].

====Women's prayer groups====
Since women are not allowed to lead services or read from the Torah in Orthodox Jewish synagogues, a small number of Orthodox women have begun holding women's tefila (prayer) groups. While no Orthodox legal authorities agree that women can form a [[minyan|prayer quorum]] for the purpose of regular services, women in these groups read the prayers, and study Torah. A number of leaders from all segments of [[Orthodox Judaism]] have commented on this issue, but it has had little impact on [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] and [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi Judaism]]. However, the emergence of this phenomenon has enmeshed [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] in a debate which still continues today. There are three schools of thought on this issue:
* The first rules the while women do not constitute a [[minyan]], they may still carry out full prayer services. The sole [[halakha|halakhic]] authority who has ruled this way was Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi, Shlomo Goren, in 1974. However, Rabbi Goren later either clarified or retracted his view, and stated that his writing was purely a speculative work published against his wishes, and not intended as a practical responsum, and that in his view the actual halakha was in accord with the third school of thought, listed below.
* The second includes leading faculty of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]]'s Yeshiva University, and almost all [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Rabbis, and rules that all women's prayer groups are absolutely forbidden by Jewish law.
* The third maintains that women's prayer groups can be compatiable with halakha, but only if they do not carry out a full prayer service (i.e. do not include certain parts of the service known as "devarim she-bi-kdusha"), and only if services are spiritually and sincerely motivated; they cannot be sanctioned if they are inspired by a desire to rebel against halakha. People in this group include Rabbis [[Moshe Feinstein]], [[Joseph Soloveitchik]], Avraham Elkana Shapiro, former British Chief Rabbi [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], and Israel's late Ashkenazic Chief Rabbi Shlomo Goren, among others[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/tfila/frimmer1.htm].

===Conservative Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Conservative Judaism]] views women. Although its original position differed little from the Orthodox position, it has slowly developed a body of [[Conservative responsa]] which minimize the legal and ritual differences between men and women. The [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] (CJLS) of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has approved a number of responsa on this topic. These justify women's active participation in areas such as:

*Publicly reading the [[Torah]] (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''[[tefillin]]''

A rabbi may or may not decide to adopt particular rulings for the congregation; thus, some Conservative congregations will be more or less egalitarian than others. However, there are other areas where legal differences remain between men and women, including:

*Matrilineal descent. The child of a Jewish mother is born Jewish; the child of a Jewish father is born Jewish if and only if the mother is Jewish.

*Serving as witnesses. Women do not usually serve as legal witnesses in those cases where Jewish law requires two witnesses. One opinion of the CJLS affirms that women may serve as witnesses. However, most Conservative rabbis currently affirm this only as a theoretical option, because of concern for Jewish unity. A change could result in many Orthodox Jews refusing to recognize the legitimacy of many marriages and divorces. A current Conservative solution is in the area of weddings: A new custom is to use Ketubot (wedding document) with spaces for four witnesses to sign; two men, and two women.

*Pidyon Habat, the ceremony based on the Biblical redemption of a newborn son. Conservative Judaism prohibits performing Pidyon Ha-Bat on a newborn daughter. Pidyon Ha-Bat is a newly proposed ceremony that would mark the redemption of a newborn daughter; the CJLS has stated that this particular ceremony should not be performed. Other ceremonies, such as a ''[[Zeved habat|Simchat Bat]]'' (Welcoming a newborn daughter), should instead be used to mark the special status of a new born daughter. [CJLS teshuvah by Rabbi Gerald C. Skolnik, 1993]

===Reform Judaism===
The past 30 years have seen a revolution in how [[Reform Judaism]] views women as well. Reform Judaism now believes in the equality of men and women. The Reform movement rejects the idea that Jews are bound by [[halakha]] (Jewish law and tradition), and holds that all of its members and clergy have total personal autonomy in deciding how to practice their faith. As such, Reform Judaism ignores traditional prohibitions on women's role in Jewish life, and holds that women, if they decide to do so, may perform any ritual done by a man, such as:

*Publicly reading the Torah (''ba'al kriah'')
*Being part of the ''minyan''
*Being called for an ''aliyah'' to read the Torah
*Serving as a Cantor (''shalich tzibbur'')
*Serving as [[rabbi]] and halakhic decisor (''posek'')
*Wearing a ''[[tallit]]'' and ''tefillin''

American Reform Judaism has rejected the traditional Jewish view of matrilineal descent. Instead, they hold that if any one parent is Jewish, then the child is automatically Jewish if that child is raised as a Jew. The movement has never formally defined what it means to raise a child as a Jew; as such, Reform rabbis note that the ''de facto'' standard is that anyone with a single Jewish parent or grandparent is considered Jewish within the Reform community, even if they have not been raised as a Jew.

==External links==
*[http://www.utoronto.ca/wjudaism/ ''Women in Judaism''] on online peer-reviewed journal covering women in Judaism, with a special emphasis on history, but also including book reviews and fiction.
*[http://www.academicinfo.net/religwomjudaism.html List of academic links on women in Judaism], primarily from a liberal perspective.
*[http://www.lilithmag.com/ Lilith Magazine], a Jewish feminist journal
*[http://www.aish.com/societywork/women/Feminism_and_Judaism.asp Feminism & Judaism], from an orthodox, anti-feminist perpsective
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/femalerabbi.html History of Women as Rabbis] from the Jewish Virtual Library

== References ==
* ''Women and Jewish Law: An Exploration of Women's Issue's in Halakhic Sources'', Rachel Biale, Shocken Books, 1984
* ''On Women and Judaism: A View from Tradition'' Blu Greenberg, Jewish Publication Society
* ''Rereading the Rabbis: A Woman's Voice'' Judith Hauptman, Westview Press, 1998
* ''Women Who Would Be Rabbis'' Pamela S. Nadell, 1999 Beacon Press

{{JewishLifeCycle}}

[[Category:Judaism and women]]

[[Category:Judaism and women|*]]

[[he:מעמד האישה ביהדות]]

Komplexe Plastiden

2005-11-16T16:41:48Z

66.155.200.129: /* See also */

[[Image:Chloroplastsfigure1.jpg|thumb|right|The inside of a chloroplast]]
'''Chloroplasts''' are [[organelle]]s found in [[plant]] [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[alga]]e which conduct [[photosynthesis]].
Chloroplasts are similar to [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], but are found only in [[plant]]s and [[protist]]a. Both organelles are surrounded by a double membrane with an intermembrane space; both have their own [[DNA]] and are involved in energy metabolism; and both have reticulations, or many infoldings, filling their inner spaces.
Chloroplasts capture [[light]] [[energy]] from the [[sun]] to produce the [[free energy]] stored in [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] and [[NADPH]] through a process called [[photosynthesis]].

Chloroplasts are one of the forms a [[plastid]] may take, and are generally considered to have originated as [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] [[cyanobacteria]].
In green plants chloroplasts are surrounded by two [[cell membrane|lipid-bilayer membrane]]s. The inner membrane is now thought to correspond to the outer membrane of the ancestral cyanobacterium.
Since they live in a highly-structured milieu, their genome is considerably [[genome reduction|reduced]] compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria, but the parts that are still present show clear similarities.

It is interesting to note that in some algae (such as the [[heterokont]]s and other [[protist]]s such as [[Euglenozoa]] and [[Cercozoa]]), chloroplasts seem to have arisen through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary endosymbionts have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, forming tertiary endosymbionts.

The fluid within the chloroplast is called the [[stroma]], corresponding to the [[cytoplasm]] of the bacterium, and contains tiny circular DNA and [[ribosome]]s, though most of their proteins are encoded by genes contained in the cell nucleus, with the protein products trafficked to the chloroplast.
Within the stroma are stacks of [[thylakoid]]s, the sub-organelles where photosynthesis actually takes place. A stack of thylakoids is called a [[granum]]. A thylakoid looks like a flattened disk, and inside is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen. The photosynthesis reaction takes place on the membrane of the thylakoid, and, as is also the case with mitochondria, involves the coupling of cross-membrane [[flux]]es with [[biochemistry|biosynthesis]].

The photosynthetic proteins in the membrane bind [[chlorophyll]], which is present with various accessory [[pigment]]s. These give chloroplasts their green color. During autumn, the removal of chlorophyll from plant leaves exposes red and yellow pigments (such as [[xanthophyll]]) which were previously masked.
Algal chloroplasts may be golden, brown, or red and show variation in the number of membranes and the presence of thylakoids.

Pigments undergo electronic excitations driven by the absorption of sunlight — red and blue for chlorophyll. The green we see is the color ''not'' absorbed. The energy released by the electronically-excited pigments as they return to their [[ground state]] is the basis for the energy captured by photosynthesis to produce ATP and NADPH and the ultimate formation of [[sugar]]s. Energy of the absorbed photons not used to produce chemical energy is eventually given off to the surroundings. Thus, chloroplasts are small [[heat engine]]s operating between the hot light from the sun and the lower ambient molecular [[temperature]]. ([[Solar cell|Photovoltaic]] cells do likewise.)

==See also==
*[[Chloroplast membrane]]
*[[Calvin Fucksalot]]

==References==
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

==External links==
*[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chloroplasts.html Chloroplasts] and [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/L/LightReactions.html Photosynthesis: The Role of Light] from [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball's Biology Pages]
*[http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/C/chloropl.html Chloroplast, Botany]
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=8041699 Use of chloroplast DNA in studying plant phylogeny and evolution]

{{organelles}}

[[Category:Organelles]]
[[Category:Photosynthesis]]

[[bg:Хлоропласт]]
[[da:Grønkorn]]
[[de:Chloroplast]]
[[es:Cloroplasto]]
[[fa:سبزدیسه]]
[[fr:Chloroplaste]]
[[it:Cloroplasto]]
[[he:כלורופלסט]]
[[lt:Chloroplastas]]
[[nl:Bladgroenkorrel]]
[[nds:Chloroplast]]
[[ja:葉緑体]]
[[ko:엽록체]]
[[pl:Chloroplast]]
[[pt:Cloroplasto]]

Konversion (Judentum)

2005-10-24T18:54:04Z

66.155.200.129: /* Variations and controversy */ Progressive and Reform Judaism in Israel and a few other countries reject this approach;

'''Ger tzedek''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: "righteous proselyte" or "proselyte [of] righteousness") or '''Ger''' ("stranger" or "proselyte") is a [[gentile]] (i.e. a non-[[Jew]] by birth) who has undergone [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Judaism|religious conversion to Judaism]] (Aramaic: ''giur'') by fulfilling the ritual requirements for such conversion accepting the obligations of Jewish religious observance.

==History==

In [[Tanakh|Biblical]] [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the word ''ger'' denotes a [[proselyte]] (and גר הגר - "sojourning stranger" - is interpreted as ''ger tzedek'' by the [[Talmud]]) or a half-convert - a non-Jewish inhabitant of the [[Land of Israel]] who observes the seven [[Noahide Laws]] and has repudiated all links with idolatry. The word ''ger tzedek'' was used to denote a full convert. In post-Talmudic times, the word ''ger'' has become synonymous with ''ger tzedek'', likewise its English counterpart (proselyte), has come to mean a convert to Judaism.

===Motivations for conversion===

A mystical interpretation of conversions to [[Judaism]] is that a convert is someone with a [[Jew]]ish ''neshama'' (soul) who is simply trying to find his/her way home.

In general terms, anyone who commits to living a religiously observant life is an acceptable candidate for conversion. For a variety of reasons, [[rabbi|rabbis]] have traditionally discouraged people from converting to Judaism, and most will insist that the candidate for conversion demonstrate his/her commitment in word and deed before the conversion is undertaken.

A number of reasons for converting exist: some have theological convictions consistent with Judaism; others are attracted to elements of Jewish religious life; some wish to belong to a particular Jewish community. A significant portion wish to convert because they want to marry someone who is Jewish. This latter reason (see [[secondary conversion]]) is considered to be insufficient by most [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] rabbis.

===Traditional requirements===
The requirements under ''[[halakha]]'' for [[religious conversion|conversion]] to [[Judaism]] are that a ''[[beth din]]'' witnesses and approves:
*[[Circumcision]] (''[[Brit milah]] or a [[Brit-dam]]'') for men
*Immersion (''t'vilah'') in a ''[[mikveh]]'' (ritual bath)
*Understanding and acceptance of the obligations of being a religiously observant [[Jew]].

After confirming that all these criteria have been met, the ''beth din'' issues a ''Shtar Giur'' ("Certificate of Conversion"), certifying that the former [[gentile]] is now a Jew.

===Variations and controversy===

The requirements for conversion to Judaism are intended to avoid any uncertainty about a convert's true status. The certification by a ''[[beth din]]'' was based on events the completeness of which were carefully defined.

Both the [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] movements require that all ''[[halakha|halakhic]]'' requirements be met, but they differ on what constitutes a competent ''beth din''. Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept the authority of non-Orthodox rabbis. Moreover, in Orthodoxy, a person who converts under the guidance of a non-Orthodox rabbi is presumed to have an incomplete or erroneous understanding of the law he or she is taking upon him or herself; therefore, Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept conversions under Conservative (or Reform, or [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]]) auspices.

Since the Orthodox movement is not unified, Orthodox rabbis often will not automatically accept each other's authority. This has led to a general reluctance in the Orthodox communities to prepare and perform conversions.

In America, Reform Judaism rejects the concept that any rules or rituals should be considered necessary for conversion to Judaism. In the late 1800s, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]], the official body of American Reform rabbis, formally resolved to permit the admission of converts "without any initiatory rite, ceremony, or observance whatever." (CCAR Yearbook 3 (1893), 73-95; ''American Reform Responsa'' (ARR), no. 68, at 236-237.)

Although this resolution has often been examined critically by many Reform rabbis, the resolution still remains the official policy of American Reform Judaism (CCAR Responsa "Circumcision for an Eight-Year-Old Convert" 5756.13 and [[Solomon Freehof]], ''Reform Responsa for Our Time'', no. 15.) Thus, American Reform Judaism does not require ritual immersion in a mikveh, circumcision, or acceptance of mitzvot as normative. Appearance before a Bet Din is reccomended, but is not considered necessary. Converts are asked to commit to religious standards set by the local Reform community. As such, all Reform conversions are rejected as not being conversions by Orthodox Judaism.

Progressive and Reform Judaism in Israel and a few other countries reject this approach; many Reform rabbis in these countries hold that it is absolutely necessary for a man to have a ''brit milah'' or ''brit dam'', that both men and women require immersion in a mikveh, and that the conversion must only be allowed at the end of a formal course of study, before a Bet Din. This is a common view of many Reform rabbis in [[Canada]], as well as a small but growing number of Reform rabbis in the USA.

In response to the tremendous variations that exist within the Reform community, the Conservative Jewish movement has attempted to set a nuanced approach. Their [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] has issues a [[responsa]] (legal opinion) stating that Reform conversions may be accepted as valid when they include the minimal halachic requirements of milah and t'vilah, appearance before a Bet Din, and a course of study. (''Proceedings of Committee on Jewish Law and Standards: 1980-1985'', p.77-101.)

===Consequences of conversion===
Once undergone, a religious conversion to Judaism is irreversible, unless there are grounds to believe that the convert was insincere during the conversion process. In such cases - which are rare - a ''[[beth din]]'' may annul the conversion.

===Place in religious life===
Halakha forbids reminding a convert that he/she was once not a [[Jew]] and hence little distinction is made in Judaism between "Jews by birth" and "Jews by choice".

According to ''halakha'', converts face a limited number of restrictions, e.g. female converts cannot marry Kohanim. These restrictions apply only to the converts themselves; children of a female convert born after conversion are not affected by them in any way. Converts can become rabbis (and some have).

One obvious and public distinction is the fact that a male convert will be called to Torah under the name "[Name] ben Avraham" or "ben Avraham Avinu" (son of Abraham) to indicate that the convert has no Jewish father according to ''halakha''; the latter form is specific for ''gerim'', while the former could still mean the convert's father was called Abraham.

==See also==
*[[Abraham ben Abraham]]
*[[List of converts to Judaism]]
*[[Religious conversion]]
*[[Ger toshav]]

==External links==
*[http://www.convert.org/ Conversion to Judaism homepage] - information on conversion within all branches of Judaism in North America
*[http://www.itim.org.il/bin/en.jsp?enDispWho=CeremonySuperTopic%5El6&enPage=BlankPage_E&enDisplay=view&enDispWhat=object&enZone=CeremonySuperTopic&enInfolet=viewObject_E.jsp Conversion to Judaism] on the Itim site (practical information on Orthodox conversion through the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and conversion in the diaspora).
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/int-intro.html Intermarriage and Conversion Reading List Introduction]
*[http://hcs.harvard.edu/~jerosenb/giur.html Practical Tips] on how to convert Orthodox reasonably quickly
*Frequently asked questions:
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-07.html How does one convert?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-13.html Why is the conversion process so complicated?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-08.html What about adults who are not circumcised?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-14.html What is the status of a child when the mother converts to Judaism during pregnancy?]

[[Category:Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]

[[he:גיור]]

Konversion (Judentum)

2005-10-24T18:47:40Z

66.155.200.129: /* Variations and controversy */ Reform Judaism rejects the concept that any rules or rituals should be considered necessary for conversion to Judaism.

'''Ger tzedek''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: "righteous proselyte" or "proselyte [of] righteousness") or '''Ger''' ("stranger" or "proselyte") is a [[gentile]] (i.e. a non-[[Jew]] by birth) who has undergone [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Judaism|religious conversion to Judaism]] (Aramaic: ''giur'') by fulfilling the ritual requirements for such conversion accepting the obligations of Jewish religious observance.

==History==

In [[Tanakh|Biblical]] [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the word ''ger'' denotes a [[proselyte]] (and גר הגר - "sojourning stranger" - is interpreted as ''ger tzedek'' by the [[Talmud]]) or a half-convert - a non-Jewish inhabitant of the [[Land of Israel]] who observes the seven [[Noahide Laws]] and has repudiated all links with idolatry. The word ''ger tzedek'' was used to denote a full convert. In post-Talmudic times, the word ''ger'' has become synonymous with ''ger tzedek'', likewise its English counterpart (proselyte), has come to mean a convert to Judaism.

===Motivations for conversion===

A mystical interpretation of conversions to [[Judaism]] is that a convert is someone with a [[Jew]]ish ''neshama'' (soul) who is simply trying to find his/her way home.

In general terms, anyone who commits to living a religiously observant life is an acceptable candidate for conversion. For a variety of reasons, [[rabbi|rabbis]] have traditionally discouraged people from converting to Judaism, and most will insist that the candidate for conversion demonstrate his/her commitment in word and deed before the conversion is undertaken.

A number of reasons for converting exist: some have theological convictions consistent with Judaism; others are attracted to elements of Jewish religious life; some wish to belong to a particular Jewish community. A significant portion wish to convert because they want to marry someone who is Jewish. This latter reason (see [[secondary conversion]]) is considered to be insufficient by most [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] rabbis.

===Traditional requirements===
The requirements under ''[[halakha]]'' for [[religious conversion|conversion]] to [[Judaism]] are that a ''[[beth din]]'' witnesses and approves:
*[[Circumcision]] (''[[Brit milah]] or a [[Brit-dam]]'') for men
*Immersion (''t'vilah'') in a ''[[mikveh]]'' (ritual bath)
*Understanding and acceptance of the obligations of being a religiously observant [[Jew]].

After confirming that all these criteria have been met, the ''beth din'' issues a ''Shtar Giur'' ("Certificate of Conversion"), certifying that the former [[gentile]] is now a Jew.

===Variations and controversy===

The requirements for conversion to Judaism are intended to avoid any uncertainty about a convert's true status. The certification by a ''[[beth din]]'' was based on events the completeness of which were carefully defined.

Both the [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] movements require that all ''[[halakha|halakhic]]'' requirements be met, but they differ on what constitutes a competent ''beth din''. Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept the authority of non-Orthodox rabbis. Moreover, in Orthodoxy, a person who converts under the guidance of a non-Orthodox rabbi is presumed to have an incomplete or erroneous understanding of the law he or she is taking upon him or herself; therefore, Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept conversions under Conservative (or Reform, or [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]]) auspices.

Since the Orthodox movement is not unified, Orthodox rabbis often will not automatically accept each other's authority. This has led to a general reluctance in the Orthodox communities to prepare and perform conversions.

In America, Reform Judaism rejects the concept that any rules or rituals should be considered necessary for conversion to Judaism. In the late 1800s, the [[Central Conference of American Rabbis]], the official body of American Reform rabbis, formally resolved to permit the admission of converts "without any initiatory rite, ceremony, or observance whatever." (CCAR Yearbook 3 (1893), 73-95; ''American Reform Responsa'' (ARR), no. 68, at 236-237.)

Although this resolution has often been examined critically by many Reform rabbis, the resolution still remains the official policy of American Reform Judaism (CCAR Responsa "Circumcision for an Eight-Year-Old Convert" 5756.13 and [[Solomon B. Freehof]], ''Reform Responsa for Our Time'', no. 15.) Thus, American Reform Judaism does not require ritual immersion in a mikveh, circumcision, or acceptance of mitzvot as normative. Appearance before a Bet Din is reccomended, but is not considered necessary. Converts are asked to commit to religious standards set by the local Reform community.

===Consequences of conversion===
Once undergone, a religious conversion to Judaism is irreversible, unless there are grounds to believe that the convert was insincere during the conversion process. In such cases - which are rare - a ''[[beth din]]'' may annul the conversion.

===Place in religious life===
Halakha forbids reminding a convert that he/she was once not a [[Jew]] and hence little distinction is made in Judaism between "Jews by birth" and "Jews by choice".

According to ''halakha'', converts face a limited number of restrictions, e.g. female converts cannot marry Kohanim. These restrictions apply only to the converts themselves; children of a female convert born after conversion are not affected by them in any way. Converts can become rabbis (and some have).

One obvious and public distinction is the fact that a male convert will be called to Torah under the name "[Name] ben Avraham" or "ben Avraham Avinu" (son of Abraham) to indicate that the convert has no Jewish father according to ''halakha''; the latter form is specific for ''gerim'', while the former could still mean the convert's father was called Abraham.

==See also==
*[[Abraham ben Abraham]]
*[[List of converts to Judaism]]
*[[Religious conversion]]
*[[Ger toshav]]

==External links==
*[http://www.convert.org/ Conversion to Judaism homepage] - information on conversion within all branches of Judaism in North America
*[http://www.itim.org.il/bin/en.jsp?enDispWho=CeremonySuperTopic%5El6&enPage=BlankPage_E&enDisplay=view&enDispWhat=object&enZone=CeremonySuperTopic&enInfolet=viewObject_E.jsp Conversion to Judaism] on the Itim site (practical information on Orthodox conversion through the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and conversion in the diaspora).
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/int-intro.html Intermarriage and Conversion Reading List Introduction]
*[http://hcs.harvard.edu/~jerosenb/giur.html Practical Tips] on how to convert Orthodox reasonably quickly
*Frequently asked questions:
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-07.html How does one convert?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-13.html Why is the conversion process so complicated?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-08.html What about adults who are not circumcised?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-14.html What is the status of a child when the mother converts to Judaism during pregnancy?]

[[Category:Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]

[[he:גיור]]

Konversion (Judentum)

2005-10-24T18:39:22Z

66.155.200.129: /* Variations and controversy */

'''Ger tzedek''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: "righteous proselyte" or "proselyte [of] righteousness") or '''Ger''' ("stranger" or "proselyte") is a [[gentile]] (i.e. a non-[[Jew]] by birth) who has undergone [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Judaism|religious conversion to Judaism]] (Aramaic: ''giur'') by fulfilling the ritual requirements for such conversion accepting the obligations of Jewish religious observance.

==History==

In [[Tanakh|Biblical]] [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the word ''ger'' denotes a [[proselyte]] (and גר הגר - "sojourning stranger" - is interpreted as ''ger tzedek'' by the [[Talmud]]) or a half-convert - a non-Jewish inhabitant of the [[Land of Israel]] who observes the seven [[Noahide Laws]] and has repudiated all links with idolatry. The word ''ger tzedek'' was used to denote a full convert. In post-Talmudic times, the word ''ger'' has become synonymous with ''ger tzedek'', likewise its English counterpart (proselyte), has come to mean a convert to Judaism.

===Motivations for conversion===

A mystical interpretation of conversions to [[Judaism]] is that a convert is someone with a [[Jew]]ish ''neshama'' (soul) who is simply trying to find his/her way home.

In general terms, anyone who commits to living a religiously observant life is an acceptable candidate for conversion. For a variety of reasons, [[rabbi|rabbis]] have traditionally discouraged people from converting to Judaism, and most will insist that the candidate for conversion demonstrate his/her commitment in word and deed before the conversion is undertaken.

A number of reasons for converting exist: some have theological convictions consistent with Judaism; others are attracted to elements of Jewish religious life; some wish to belong to a particular Jewish community. A significant portion wish to convert because they want to marry someone who is Jewish. This latter reason (see [[secondary conversion]]) is considered to be insufficient by most [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] rabbis.

===Traditional requirements===
The requirements under ''[[halakha]]'' for [[religious conversion|conversion]] to [[Judaism]] are that a ''[[beth din]]'' witnesses and approves:
*[[Circumcision]] (''[[Brit milah]] or a [[Brit-dam]]'') for men
*Immersion (''t'vilah'') in a ''[[mikveh]]'' (ritual bath)
*Understanding and acceptance of the obligations of being a religiously observant [[Jew]].

After confirming that all these criteria have been met, the ''beth din'' issues a ''Shtar Giur'' ("Certificate of Conversion"), certifying that the former [[gentile]] is now a Jew.

===Variations and controversy===

The requirements for conversion to Judaism are intended to avoid any uncertainty about a convert's true status. The certification by a ''[[beth din]]'' was based on events the completeness of which were carefully defined.

[[Reform Judaism|Reform]] movement has rejected all Jewish legal requirements for conversion. Viweing one's personal autonomy as overiding Jewish law, there are no rituals or rules that are absolutely binding on any Reform rabbis overseeing conversions, or on converts to Reform Judaism. As such, ''[[brit milah]]'' and ''t'vilah'' (immersion) are optional. Converts are asked to commit to religious standards set by the Reform movement.

Both the [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] movements require that all ''[[halakha|halakhic]]'' requirements be met, but they differ on what constitutes a competent ''beth din''. Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept the authority of non-Orthodox rabbis. Moreover, in Orthodoxy, a person who converts under the guidance of a non-Orthodox rabbi is presumed to have an incomplete or erroneous understanding of the law he or she is taking upon him or herself; therefore, Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept conversions under Conservative (or Reform, or [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]]) auspices.

Since the Orthodox movement is not organized in a unified way, Orthodox rabbis will not automatically accept each other's authority. This has led to a general reluctance in the Orthodox communities to prepare and perform conversions.

===Consequences of conversion===
Once undergone, a religious conversion to Judaism is irreversible, unless there are grounds to believe that the convert was insincere during the conversion process. In such cases - which are rare - a ''[[beth din]]'' may annul the conversion.

===Place in religious life===
Halakha forbids reminding a convert that he/she was once not a [[Jew]] and hence little distinction is made in Judaism between "Jews by birth" and "Jews by choice".

According to ''halakha'', converts face a limited number of restrictions, e.g. female converts cannot marry Kohanim. These restrictions apply only to the converts themselves; children of a female convert born after conversion are not affected by them in any way. Converts can become rabbis (and some have).

One obvious and public distinction is the fact that a male convert will be called to Torah under the name "[Name] ben Avraham" or "ben Avraham Avinu" (son of Abraham) to indicate that the convert has no Jewish father according to ''halakha''; the latter form is specific for ''gerim'', while the former could still mean the convert's father was called Abraham.

==See also==
*[[Abraham ben Abraham]]
*[[List of converts to Judaism]]
*[[Religious conversion]]
*[[Ger toshav]]

==External links==
*[http://www.convert.org/ Conversion to Judaism homepage] - information on conversion within all branches of Judaism in North America
*[http://www.itim.org.il/bin/en.jsp?enDispWho=CeremonySuperTopic%5El6&enPage=BlankPage_E&enDisplay=view&enDispWhat=object&enZone=CeremonySuperTopic&enInfolet=viewObject_E.jsp Conversion to Judaism] on the Itim site (practical information on Orthodox conversion through the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and conversion in the diaspora).
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/int-intro.html Intermarriage and Conversion Reading List Introduction]
*[http://hcs.harvard.edu/~jerosenb/giur.html Practical Tips] on how to convert Orthodox reasonably quickly
*Frequently asked questions:
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-07.html How does one convert?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-13.html Why is the conversion process so complicated?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-08.html What about adults who are not circumcised?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-14.html What is the status of a child when the mother converts to Judaism during pregnancy?]

[[Category:Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]

[[he:גיור]]

Kingdom of Loathing

2005-06-01T12:30:13Z

66.155.200.129:

[[Image:Rightswordguy.gif|frame|The KoL [[logo]]. "An Adventurer is You!"]]
The '''''Kingdom of Loathing''''' is a humorous and satirical [[free as in beer|freeware]] [[MMORPG]] created by [[Asymmetric Publications]] (Zack "Jick" Johnson and Josh "Mr. Skullhead" Nite). It is notable for the usage of simple [[stick figure]] graphics and surreal gameplay.

Players in the game choose from a number of [[character class|classes]]: Seal Clubbers ("Seal Clubbers hail from the frigid Northlands, because one character class always hails from the frigid Northlands"), Turtle Tamers, Pastamancers, Saucerors, Disco Bandits, and Accordion Thieves. Each player has three major attributes: Muscle, which determines strength; Mysticality, which determines magical powers; and Moxie, which corresponds to [[Agility]] and [[Charisma]] in the mainstream [[Computer role-playing game|role-playing game]]s. Each class specializes in one of the attributes(Seal Clubbers/Trutle Tamers-Muscle, Pastamancers/Saucerors-Mysticality, and Disco Bandits/Accordion Thieves-Moxie); training that attribute results in gaining a [[level (computer and video games)|level]].

The aim of the game is to [[adventure]] in different areas, encountering monsters, hobos, bums, and other such things and collecting items and [[meat]] (which is the in-game [[currency]]) until one has the prowess to take on the Naughty Sorceress. A player is supplied with several adventures per day, which he or she can spend on numerous things. Adventures can be increased with [[food]] and [[Alcoholic beverage|booze]], and by a few other means.

In addition to items found while adventuring, players can combine items to get something new. Players can cook food, make [[cocktail]]s, [[smith]] [[weapon]]s, and make other various types of [[equipment]]. Some items can only be made by members of a specific class, which makes them more rare and more valuable.

The game includes a chat system, available after completing a test to prove one's knowledge of the [[English language]]. In addition players can communicate with each other using in-game messages and [[forum]]s. One may also join a [[Clan (computer gaming)|clan]], which is a group of players that work together. All of this has helped to create a community around the game; other forms of communication are also encouraged, such as meeting outside of the game and creating a fan-based [[radio station]], Radio KoL.

The game is still in [[Development stage|beta-testing]] phase and new features are added regularly. Unfortunately, serious [[computer bug|bugs]] were found and [[exploit (computer security)|exploited]] resulting in an influx of duplicate items and meat into the [[economy]] on a day now known to players as "Black Sunday"; it remained a problem how to get the economy back in healthy state without upsetting the player base. There were a number of "meat sinks" in place to slowly leech meat from the economy. Despite massive amounts of currency leaving the game (according to Jick in [[November]] [[2004]] the total meat in the game economy was reduced by around one-fifth to one-tenth per day) the richest players were reluctant to part with their meat and some still hoard billions. The economy has been mostly fixed, and remains at a status-quo.

Maintenance and development of the game is supported by sale of associated [[Product (business)|merchandise]], and by [[donation]]s. Donations to the game result in a 'gift' of an in-game stat-boosting item being sent to the donating player, known as a Mr. Accessory. These items can also be traded in for meat, better items, or customization of one's account (such as customizing an [[Avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]]).

There have been several player-based projects that revolve around the game. A satirical magazine called ''Syphilis'' was developed recently (By the players: I Stab People, Ultimationismist, ADeadHeart, and Crapstorm.), featuring gossip, stories, and other such things. The KoL community highly approves of these player-based projects.

==Radio KoL==
A [[World Wide Web|Web]]-based [[SHOUTcast]] radio station, Radio KoL, is the official radio station of Kingdom of Loathing. It is a [[24/7]] [[DJ]]-hosted station, with DJs drawn from the KoL user base.

Radio KoL was founded in [[June]] [[2004]] by Kingdom of Loathing players SeveredToe and Artsychick (all DJs are known by their KoL character names). By August 2004 there were enough DJs to take the station live 24/7. During the 2004 holiday season, Radio KoL climbed to the top of the station rankings of its host, [http://www.fast-serv.com Fast-Serv].

Radio KoL does not have a fixed musical style; it is entirely DJ-dependent. The unifying theme of the station is rather its connection to Kingdom of Loathing. There is a high degree of interaction between DJs and players within the KoL chat system, from which the station frequently takes requests, and for which the DJs regularly hold contests. The prizes for these contests are typically items or currency within the game, including unique game items created for Radio KoL.

Radio KoL exists solely on donations, with profit going directly back into the station (for reasons such as the increase in listener slots from 110 to 200 in October 2004).

In March 2005 the founders SeveredToe and Artsychick hosted the first official Radio KoL party, Arkanstock 2005, at their home in [[Arkadelphia, Arkansas|Arkadelphia]], [[Arkansas]]. The weekend-long event involved approximately two dozen tents pitched on their property, [[karaoke]], a [[tattoo]] artist for KoL- and Radio-KoL-themed tattoos, and many party attendees trying their hand at DJing for the station (often more than one at a time). The success of the party, originally planned as a one-time event, has spawned plans for more Radio KoL parties and meetups across the globe, as well as Arkanstock 2006.

==External links==
*[http://www.kingdomofloathing.com Official website]
*[http://forums.kingdomofloathing.com/ Forums of Loathing]
*[http://asymmetric.net/ Asymmetric Publications]
*[http://kol.coldfront.net/ Chillin' and Loathin' at Coldfront] — "Official Unofficial" KoL fansite
*[http://www.radio-kol.com Radio KoL] — DJ list and schedule, Radio forums, FAQ
*[http://www.yqmonline.com/kol Player Made Music Archive] — Music Made by players of KoL, often relating to the game
*[http://kol.thraeryn.org/wiki/index.php/Main_Page Visual Kol Wiki page] — KoL Specific Wiki
[[Category:Massively multiplayer online role-playing games]]
[[Category:Browser-based games]]