Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

River Ribble

2006-04-06T08:41:02Z

62.6.139.10:

The '''River Ribble''' is a river that runs through [[North Yorkshire]] and [[Lancashire]], in the North of [[England]]. The Ribble begins at the confluence of the ''Gayle Beck'' and ''Cam Beck'', in the shadow of the [[Yorkshire three peaks]]. It flows through [[Settle]], [[Clitheroe]] and [[Preston]], before emptying into the [[Irish Sea]] near [[Lytham]], a length of 75 miles. The [[Ribble Way]] is a long-distance footpath which follows the river for much of its course. The Ribble marked the ancient northern boundary of [[Mercia]]; and at the time of the [[Domesday Book]] was the northern boundary of [[Cheshire]].

The river is connected to both the [[Leeds and Liverpool Canal]] and the [[Lancaster Canal]] (via the [[Ribble Link]]).

Its estuary forms part of the [[Ribble and Alt Estuaries]] [[Special Protection Area]] for wildlife.

==External links==
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/gdeanict/ribble/ River Ribble - from source to sea]
*[http://save-the-ribble.blogspot.com/ Save The Ribble]
{{NorthYorkshire-geo-stub}}
{{Lancashire-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Rivers in Lancashire]]
[[Category:Rivers in North Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Preston]]
[[no:Ribble (elv)]]

River Ribble

2006-04-06T08:39:01Z

62.6.139.10: added link

The '''River Ribble''' is a river that runs through [[North Yorkshire]] and [[Lancashire]], in the North of [[England]]. The Ribble begins at the confluence of the ''Gayle Beck'' and ''Cam Beck'', in the shadow of the [[Yorkshire three peaks]]. It flows through [[Settle]], [[Clitheroe]] and [[Preston]], before emptying into the [[Irish Sea]] near [[Lytham]], a length of 75 miles. The [[Ribble Way]] is a long-distance footpath which follows the river for much of its course. The Ribble marked the ancient northern boundary of [[Mercia]]; and at the time of the [[Domesday Book]] was the northern boundary of [[Cheshire]].

The river is connected to both the [[Leeds and Liverpool Canal]] and the [[Lancaster Canal]] (via the [[Ribble Link]]).

Its estuary forms part of the [[Ribble and Alt Estuaries]] [[Special Protection Area]] for wildlife.

==External links==
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/gdeanict/ribble/ River Ribble - from source to sea]
*[http://save-the-ribble.blogspot.com/
Save the Ribble]
{{NorthYorkshire-geo-stub}}
{{Lancashire-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Rivers in Lancashire]]
[[Category:Rivers in North Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Preston]]
[[no:Ribble (elv)]]

Antikoagulation

2006-01-27T11:32:43Z

62.6.139.10:

Die Gabe eines Medikamentes zur Hemmung der [[Blutgerinnung]] wird als '''Antikoagulation''' ([[latein|lat.]] ''anti'' „gegen“ und ''coagulatio'' „Zusammenballung“) bezeichnet. Das eingesetzte Medikament nennt man '''Antikoagulans''' (Mehrzahl: '''Antikoagulantien''' oder '''Antikoagulanzien'''), '''Gerinnungshemmer''' oder umgangssprachlich '''Blutverdünner'''. Bei diesen Stoffen unterscheidet direkte Antikoagulantien, die direkt mit den Gerinnungsfaktoren reagieren und indirekte Antikoagulantien, welche die Synthese der Gerinnungsfaktoren hemmen. Nötig wird eine Gerinnungshemmung bei Erkrankungen oder Zuständen, bei denen eine Neigung zur Bildung von Blutgerinnseln ([[Thrombus|Thromben]]) vorliegt, um [[Thrombose]]n oder [[Embolie]]n in den [[Arterie]]n oder in den [[Vene]]n zu vermeiden bzw. zu behandeln.

[[Thrombozytenaggregationshemmer]] wie [[Acetylsalicylsäure]] (u. a. ASS, Aspirin®) und [[Clopidogrel]] (u. a. Plavix®, Iscover®) werden umgangssprachlich auch als Blutverdünner bezeichnet, sind aber im engeren Sinne keine Antikoagulanzien.

==Gründe für eine Antikoagulation==
=== Vorbeugend (''prophylaktische Indikation'') ===
Vor, während und nach [[Operation]]en sowie bei Bettlägerigkeit aus anderer Ursache werden häufig Antikoagulanzien zur Vermeidung von Thrombosen und Lungenembolien eingesetzt. Auch bei Herzkathetereingriffen und der Blutentnahme zur [[Stammzellapherese]] sowie (außerhalb des menschlichen Körpers) in Schlauchsystemen ([[Dialyse]], [[Herz-Lungen-Maschine]]) oder Bluttransportröhrchen ist oft eine Hemmung der Blutgerinnung erforderlich.

=== Als Behandlung (''therapeutische Indikation'') ===
Häufigster Grund für eine therapeutische Antikoagulation ist heutzutage das [[Vorhofflimmern]] oder -flattern. Bei dieser [[Herzrhythmusstörung]] besteht ein erhöhtes Embolierisiko, das bei vielen Patienten durch die Blutverdünnung gesenkt werden muss. Zweithäufigster Grund sind Thrombosen (meist der Beinvenen), hier soll die Antikoagulation in der Akutphase die weitere Ausdehnung der Thrombose und später ein Wiederauftreten (''[[Rezidiv]]'') verhindern. Während die Behandlung bei den meisten Patienten nach einer Thrombose nur für einige Monate erforderlich ist, kann in einzelnen Fällen (z. B. bei wiederholten Thrombosen oder angeborenen Störungen der Blutgerinnung wie [[APC-Resistenz]]) eine lebenslange Antikoagulation sinnvoll sein. Patienten nach Herzklappenoperation benötigen immer eine Antikoagulation, bei biologischen [[Künstliche Herzklappe|Klappenprothesen]] oft nur für einige Wochen oder Monate, bei Kunstklappen aber in der Regel lebenslang.

Seltenere Gründe sind eine fortgeschrittene [[Arteriosklerose]] (z. B. [[Koronare Herzkrankheit|koronare Herzerkrankung]], [[periphere arterielle Verschlusskrankheit]] oder Verengung der [[Arteria carotis|Halsschlagader]]), ein [[Herzwandaneurysma]] oder eine untypische [[Hämodynamik]] (z. B. nach [[Palliation|Palliativ]]-OP bei angeborenem [[Herzfehler]]).

==Medikamente und wesentliche Eigenschaften==
Aus der Wirkung der Medikamente ergibt sich auch die wesentliche Nebenwirkung aller Antikoagulanzien. Vor allem bei Überdosierung besteht die Gefahr von Blutungen (Magen-, Nieren oder Hirnblutung).

=== Cumarine ===
* siehe auch [[Phenprocoumon]] (Marcumar®), [[Cumarine]]
*orale Gabe (Tablette)
*billig
*gut wirksam in [[Arterie|Schlagadern]] und [[Vene]]n
*lang anhaltende Wirkung (nachteilig bei Blutungen oder [[Operation]]en)
* Die Wirkung von [[Phenprocoumon]] wird im Blut anhand der [[INR (Medizin)|INR]] (früher [[Quick]]) überwacht. Dafür sind regelmäßige Blutabnahmen notwendig.
* Bei zuverlässigen chronisch Kranken kann die Überwachung im Wege des [[Gerinnungsselbstmanagement]]s auf den Patienten übertragen werden. Die notwendigen Testgeräte (z. B. INRatio®, CoaguChek®) werden unter bestimmten Voraussetzungen von den Krankenkassen bezahlt und erlauben dem Patienten eine einfache Kontrolle seiner Therapie. Eine eingehende Schulung ist als Voraussetzung für die Kostenerstattung durch die gesetzlichen Krankenkassen erforderlich.

=== Heparinoide ===
* siehe auch [[Heparin]]
**[[parenteral]]e Gabe (Spritze) 2-3x täglich oder als Dauer[[infusion]]
**billig
**gut wirksam in [[Arterie|Schlagadern]] und [[Vene]]n
**Wirkung lässt sehr schnell nach (ist manchmal notwendig!)

*Niedermolekulare Heparine
**[[parenteral]]e Gabe (Spritze) 1-2x täglich
**teuer
**gut wirksam in [[Arterie|Schlagadern]] und [[Vene]]n
**Wirkung lässt schnell nach

=== Andere ===
Neuere und noch selten eingesetzte Präparate sind zum Beispiel
* [[Lepirudin]] (Refludan®)
* [[Ximelagatran]] (Exanta®)
* [[Fondaparinux]] (Arixtra®).
* [[Ca-Komplexbildner]], z. B. [[Citrat]] oder [[EDTA]], die allerdings nur im Reagenzglas und nicht therapeutisch eingesetzt werden können.
* [[Hirudin]], ein [[Thrombin]]-Hemmstoff.

==Weblinks==
* [http://www.Gerinnungsselbstmanagement.de Gerinnungsselbstmanagement.de]

{{Gesundheitshinweis}}
[[Kategorie:Antikoagulans|!]]
[[Kategorie:Hämatologie]]

[[en:Anticoagulant]]

Naim Audio

2006-01-24T16:52:26Z

62.6.139.10: /* History */

'''Naim Audio''' is a company based in the [[United Kingdom]] which manufactures [[high fidelity]] audio products for use in the home, and is also a [[music]] [[recording label]]. It is a UK private limited company (Company No. 01116428), incorporated on [[June 4]], [[1973]]. It resides at Southampton Road, [[Salisbury]], [[Wiltshire]], SP1 2LN, United Kingdom.

== History ==

The Naim legend began when the late [[Julian Vereker]] started '''Naim Audio Visual''' in [[1969]] and created a sound-to-light box which he hired out to film production companies. He became disappointed with the sound of professional recording equipment after recording live performances of friends. This led him to design his own power amplifier and so to create Naim Audio of today. Naim has gained a solid reputation for its products' excellent value, sound quality, reliability, and after-sales service.

The first Naim power [[amplifier]], the NAP160, was sold in 1971; the two-channel NAP 250 amplifier, launched in 1975, is perhaps Naim Audio's most well-known product. Its basic circuit layout was shared by all the company's power amplifiers until the introduction of the flagship NAP500 in 2000. Many of Naim's other products, such as the NAC52 pre-amplifier, the ARO uni-pivot tonearm and the SBL (Separate Box Loudspeaker) have also assumed cult status among devotees.

During much of the 1980s, Naim asserted that [[Compact Disc]] was a far inferior medium to the vinyl record and continued to design their products in this context. However, by 1990 technological advances allowed the production of the Naim CDS, the first CD player considered worthy of the Naim brand. A remaining problem, however, was finding CDs technically and musically good enough to satisfy the vinyl disciples. Early discs often lost something in the transfer, compared to vinyl. So Vereker set about identifying the problems in CD mastering and trying to put them right. He obtained the original two-track masters of one of the company's favourite vinyl demo records: "Electric Glide" by Gary Boyle, remastered it and released it on CD - the first CD to appear on the Naim record label.

The CDS has since seen two major revisions (now in its CDS3 incarnation); while subsequent extentions to the line have gone on to become references at their respective price points. The NACD555, which supplants the CDS3 as the flagship, is heralded as "the ultimate" CD player.

== Milestones ==

*'''1971''', NAP 160, first Power Amplifier, Discontinued 1986
*'''1973''', Naim Audio Limited formed
*'''1974''', NAC 12, first Pre-Amplifier, Discontinued 1980
*'''1975''', NAP 250, Power Amplifier
*'''1975''', NAPS, first pre-amplifier Power Supply, Discontinued 1978
*'''1977''', NAXO, first Electronic Crossovers for active loudspeaker systems
*'''1980''', Moved to current premises at Southampton Road, Salisbury
*'''1981''', Linnk, Moving-Coil Phono Pre-Amplifier (Manufactured for Linn Products)
*'''1981''', NAC A4, Speaker Cable
*'''1983''', NAIT, first Integrated Amplifier, Discontinued 1988
*'''1984''', NAP 135, first mono Power Amplifier, Discontinued 2002
*'''1984''', Hi-Cap, pre-amplifier Power Supply
*'''1984''', NAT 01, first FM Tuner, Discontinued 2002
*'''1985''', Won the Queen's Award for Export Achievement
*'''1986''', SBL, first in-house made Loudspeakers, Discontinued 2002
*'''1989''', ARO, Unipivot Tone-arm
*'''1989''', Range Upgraded and new look (olive casing)
*'''1990''', NAC 52, flagship Pre-Amplifier, Discontinued 2002, Replaced by NAC 252
*'''1991''', CDS, CD Player, Discontinued 1998, Replaced by CDS2
*'''1991''', DBL, Loudspeakers
*'''1992''', CD1, extended range of CD Players
*'''1995''', AV1, first AV Processor, Discontinued 1999
*'''1995''', Armageddon, Power Supply [for Linn Sondek LP12 Turntable]
*'''1995''', Super-Cap, Pre-Amplifier Power Supply
*'''1995''', Prefix, Phono Pre-Amplifier
*'''2000''', '5 series'
*'''2000''', NAP 500, Power Amplifier
*'''2002''', Range Upgraded and new look
*'''2005''', 'n-series' new range of AV products of which nVi integrated DVD/amp combo
*'''2005''', CD555, flagship CD Player

Naim's hi-fi design philosophy is characterised by the incorporation of highly-engineered power supplies to ensure fast and generous current delivery to the audio circuitry. Naim's independent power supplies are sold as an easy and effective upgrade path for their pre-amplifiers and CD players. Their no-nonsense design approach can be seen, for example, by their use of the best materials — the semiconductors, toroidal transformers, iconoclastic solid aluminium black boxes — their obsessive care for earthing, screening and isolation from electronic interference, through to their preference for [[XLR]], [[DIN]] and the [[BNC connector]] (as opposed to the [[RCA connector]] used by almost all other manufacturers). The company's pre- and power- amplifiers, especially, are carefully matched electrically and are designed to be used together. Dire warnings attach to experimentation with other manufacturers components, particularly in the case for some "high-end" loudspeaker cables, whose capacitance characteristics present unstable loads to the high-current devices used inside Naim power amplifiers — these have been documented to cause damage to same (not covered by warranty).

Previous generations of Naim components were renowned for preferring musical attributes such as pace, rhythm and timing, and eschewing the "American" preferences for sonic attributes (tonal accuracy and spatial rendition). While this made for a very dynamic, upfront sound, the company's products were occasionally criticised for harshness or lack of subtlety in reproducing classical music, particularly from a digital source. More recent models have adopted a more balanced and arguably less 'exciting' sound.

During much of the 1970s and 80s, Naim adopted a symbiotic relationship with [[Linn Products]], and their names were often mentioned in the same breath. Linn was the engineering company excelling in mechanical products and Naim shone in the electronics arena. During this time, the Linn/Naim system was a formidable and ubiquitous combination for many a serious [[audiophile]]. The two companies had almost the same sales and marketing strategy, and shared many of the the same retailers/dealers. The company's emphasis was placed on selling products through comparative demonstrations in a single-speaker environment.

The two companies became competitors when Naim began making loudspeakers and Linn began making electronic components.

==References==

* [http://www.naim-audio.com/ Naim Audio official website]
* [http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/jun01/articles/naimlabel.asp/ Sound on Sound Magazine]
* [http://www.hi-fiworld.co.uk/hfw/featureshtml/naimhistory.html Hi-Fi World Magazine]

{{company-stub}}
[[Category:1973 establishments]]
[[Category:Audio companies]]
[[Category:High end audio]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies of the United Kingdom]]

Charlie Brooker

2006-01-23T14:31:16Z

62.6.139.10:

'''Charlie (Charlton) Brooker''' (born [[3 March]] [[1971]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[comedy]] [[writer]] and [[cartoonist]]. His brand of humour tends to be savage and profane, with some surreal elements. Currently however, he is perhaps better known for his slightly more subdued, yet highly acclaimed TV review columns for the ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' newspaper. He is one of four creative directors of the comedy production company [[Zeppotron]].

Raised in [[Brightwell-cum-Sotwell]] and schooled in [[Wallingford]], Brooker's early work was as a writer and cartoonist for ''[[Oink! (comic)|Oink!]]'', a comic produced in the late-1980s. He later resurfaced in ''[[PC Zone]]'' magazine in the mid-[[1990s]]. Aside from games reviews, his output included the comic strip ''Cybertwats'' and a column entitled "Sick Notes", where Brooker would insult anyone who wrote in to the magazine.

In early 1998, one of Brooker's one-shot cartoons caused the magazine to be pulled from the shelves of many British newsagents. The cartoon was entitled "Helmut Werstler's Cruelty Zoo" and professed to be an advert for the aforementioned theme park, which the creator, a comical Teutonic psychologist, had created in order that children can take their violent impulses out on animals rather than humans. This was accompanied by photoshopped pictures of children smashing the skulls of monkeys with hammers, jumping on a badger with a pitchfork, and chainsawing an orang-utan, among other things.

The original joke was supposed to be at the expense of the Tomb Raider games, known at the time for the sheer number of animals you could kill. The original title, "Lara Croft's Cruelty Zoo", was nixed for copyright reasons, and unfortuately this took the point of the joke away. The plan was therefore not to print the cartoon at all, but unfortunately this never happened and the February 1998 issue of PC Zone duly shipped with the cartoon in place. Cue massive controversy.

From [[1999]] to [[2002]] he penned the satirical [[TVGoHome]] website, a regular series of mock TV schedules published in a format similar to that of the ''[[Radio Times]]'', consisting of a combination of savage satire and surreal humour. A print adaptation of the site was published by [[Fourth Estate]] in 2001. A TV sketch show based on the site was broadcast on UK digital station [[e4]] the same year.

In 2001, Brooker was one of several writers on [[Channel 4]]'s controversial [[Brass Eye]] special.

Brooker currently writes an irreverent TV review column entitled "Screen Burn" for ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper's Saturday entertainment supplement ''The Guide''. A compilation of these columns, also called ''Screen Burn'', has also been published. Since the Autumn of 2005, he has also been writing a regular series of columns in G2 on Fridays called "Supposing", in which he free-associates on a set of vague what-if themes.

On [[October 24]], [[2004]], he wrote a column on [[George W. Bush]] and the forthcoming [[2004 US Presidential Election]] which concluded:

:''[[John Wilkes Booth]], [[Lee Harvey Oswald]], [[John Hinckley, Jr.]] - where are you now that we need you?'' [http://www.fridgemagnet.org.uk/brooker.html]

The flippant remark was picked up by the ''[[Drudge Report]]'', which ran it as a headline. The matter was immediately referred to the [[Secret Service]] in [[Washington DC]], who allegedly contacted both [[Matt_Drudge|Drudge]] and Brooker over what was regarded by critics of the comment as an illegal (in the U.S.) incitement to murder the President. ''The Guardian'' quickly withdrew the article from its website and published and endorsed Brooker's apology. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguide/tvradio/story/0,14676,1335307,00.html]

Brooker was the co-writer (along with [[Chris Morris (satirist)| Chris Morris]]) of the sitcom ''[[Nathan Barley]]'', broadcast in [[2005]]. The same year, he was also on the writing team of the [[Channel 4]] [[sketch show]], ''[[Spoons (TV show)|Spoons]]'', produced by Zeppotron.

==External link==
*[http://www.notbbc.com/oink Tribute to ''Oink!'' comic].
*[http://www.tvgohome.com TV Go Home]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguide/brooker Guardian Unlimited "Screen Burn" Archive].
*[http://www.spikemagazine.com/0305charliebrooker.php Review of "Screen Burn" Compliation].
*[http://www.trashbat.co.ck Website for ''Nathan Barley'' TV series].

[[Category:British comedians|Brooker, Charlie]]
[[Category:British satirists|Brooker, Charlie]]

Pacer (Triebwagen)

2005-12-20T14:57:40Z

62.6.139.10:

[[Image:Pacer at Manchester Victoria.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A Mancunian class 142 Pacer ([[:Image:Pacer at Ashton.jpg|Alternative picture]])]]
[[Image:DMU143611-01.jpg|thumb|250px|A Westcountry based Class 143]]
[[Image:144017 at York.JPG|thumb|250px|A Yorkshire based Class 144]]
'''''Pacer''''' is the operational name of the British class [[British Rail Class 140|140]], [[British Rail Class 141|141]], [[British Rail Class 142|142]], [[British Rail Class 143|143]] and [[British Rail Class 144|144]] [[railbus]]es, built between 1984 and 1987.

The Pacer series was the result of an experiment to see whether the possibility of using bus parts to create a train was viable. The original two-car prototype class 140 was built in [[1984]] at the British Rail Engineering ([[BREL]]) [[Derby]] works using a BREL underframe and a [[Leyland Motors]] bus body. The initial prototype was joined by another 18 cars to form the class 141 fleet. The units were used mainly in the North East of [[England]], operating mainly suburban services. They had a capacity of 94 passengers per two-car set and the two Leyland T11 motors gave a total of 410bhp - resulting in a top speed of 75mph (121km/h). The entire class underwent a technical upgrade in 1988 at the Barclay works in [[Kilmarnock]], and were withdrawn from use in the mid-1990's.

The next and largest pacer class was class 142. Again built by Leyland and BREL in [[1985]]. The train chassis was based on that of Leyland's National bus and many fixtures and fittings of the bus could be found on the train. The new improved class had a greater capacity of 106 passengers per two-car set, but the same motors were used as per class 141 so the speed of the train did not increase. The first sets were used initially on the [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] branch lines and on suburban commuter services around the [[Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive|Manchester PTE]] area. The units from Cornwall were eventually moved to Manchester and the class 142 has become a common sight on services around the North West of England. The class was upgraded in the early 1990s to include more powerful motors - 460bhp per two-car set - and a number of trains were modified for use on the [[Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive|Merseyside PTE]] City Lines around [[Liverpool]] which included dot-matrix route indicators, improved seating and Mersey PTE paintwork. The class moved into the control of [[First North Western]] at [[privatisation]] and subsequently [[Northern Rail]]. The majority of the units are still in use.

Around the same time, a Pacer railbus was being developed by the Kilmarnock-based Barclay works, using a [[Walter Alexander Coachbuilders|Walter Alexander]] bus body. The first of the new class, class 143, was first used in 1985. Again with 2x205bhp motors and a top speed of 75mph the class originally had a capacity of 122 passengers. The class was used in the North East of England, before transferring to the Welsh lines and was moved over to Wales & West Trains' control at privatisation. The interior was completely changed in 2000 when the Valley Line service was introduced, with full back, coach-type seating installed throughout along with improved fittings. This reduced capacity down to 106 per set, but improved comfort on the trains. A similar class 144 train, this time a Walter Alexander body on BREL underframe, was introduced in 1987 which as well as the standard two-car sets of 122 seats also saw five three-car sets with a total capacity of 195 passengers and 690bhp of motor force (It could still only do 75mph though!). The 144 class were used in the North East lines, passing over to [[MTL|MTL]] Trains (now [[Arriva]] Northern) at privatisation.

The Pacer railbuses are still in use today and are considered successful by the railway companies. However, there were some limitations to using bus parts for railway use. Instead of the more-usual [[bogie|bogies]], the Pacers used basic four wheel wagon axles which, along with the basic bus bench seating lead to an uncomfortable ride. The drivers cab is a lot smaller on Pacers than other multiple units and they lack an area for guards, who usually end up sharing the cab. The inward-opening doors and the two-step entrance makes loading slower especially for the elderly and those in wheelchairs. No more Pacer railbuses have since been produced.

[[Category: Multiple units]]

Pacer (Triebwagen)

2005-12-20T14:54:23Z

62.6.139.10:

[[Image:Pacer at Manchester Victoria.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A Mancunian class 142 Pacer ([[:Image:Pacer at Ashton.jpg|Alternative picture]])]]
[[Image:DMU143611-01.jpg|thumb|250px|A Westcountry based Class 143]]
[[Image:144017 at York.JPG|thumb|250px|A Yorkshire based Class 144]]
'''''Pacer''''' is the operational name of the British class [[British Rail Class 140|140]], [[British Rail Class 141|141]], [[British Rail Class 142|142]], [[British Rail Class 143|143]] and [[British Rail Class 144|144]] [[railbus]]es, built between 1984 and 1987.

The Pacer series was the result of an experiment to see whether the possibility of using bus parts to create a train was viable. The original two-car prototype class 140 was built in [[1984]] at the British Rail Engineering ([[BREL]]) [[Derby]] works using a BREL underframe and a [[Leyland Motors]] bus body. The initial prototype was joined by another 18 cars to form the class 141 fleet. The units were used mainly in the North East of [[England]], operating mainly suburban services. They had a capacity of 94 passengers per two-car set and the two Leyland T11 motors gave a total of 410bhp - resulting in a top speed of 75mph (121km/h). The entire class underwent a technical upgrade in 1988 at the Barclay works in [[Kilmarnock]], and were withdrawn from use in the mid-1990's.

The next and largest pacer class was class 142. Again built by Leyland and BREL in [[1985]]. The train chassis was based on that of Leyland's National bus and many fixtures and fittings of the bus could be found on the train. The new improved class had a greater capacity of 106 passengers per two-car set, but the same motors were used as per class 141 so the speed of the train did not increase. The first sets were used initially on the [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] branch lines and on suburban commuter services around the [[Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive|Manchester PTE]] area. The units from Cornwall were eventually moved to Manchester and the class 142 has become a common sight on services around the North West of England. The class was upgraded in the early 1990s to include more powerful motors - 460bhp per two-car set - and a number of trains were modified for use on the [[Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive|Merseyside PTE]] City Lines around [[Liverpool]] which included dot-matrix route indicators, improved seating and Mersey PTE paintwork. The class moved into the control of [[First North Western]] at [[privatisation]] and subsequently [[Northern Rail]]. The majority of the units are still in use.

Around the same time, a Pacer railbus was being developed by the Kilmarnock-based Barclay works, using a [[Walter Alexander Coachbuilders|Walter Alexander]] bus body. The first of the new class, class 143, was first used in 1985. Again with 2x205bhp motors and a top speed of 75mph the class originally had a capacity of 122 passengers. The class was used in the North East of England, before transferring to the Welsh lines and was moved over to Wales & West Trains' control at privatisation. The interior was completely changed in 2000 when the Valley Line service was introduced, with full back, coach-type seating installed throughout along with improved fittings. This reduced capacity down to 106 per set, but improved comfort on the trains. A similar class 144 train, this time a Walter Alexander body on BREL underframe, was introduced in 1987 which as well as the standard two-car sets of 122 seats also saw five three-car sets with a total capacity of 195 passengers and 690bhp of motor force (It could still only do 75mph though!). The 144 class were used in the North East lines, passing over to [[MTL|MTL]] Trains (now [[Arriva]] Northern) at privatisation.

The Pacer railbuses are still in use today and are considered successful by the railway companies. However, there were some limitations to using bus parts for railway use. Instead of the more-usual [[bogie|bogies]], the Pacers used basic four wheel wagon axles which, along with the basic bus bench seating lead to an uncomfortable ride. The drivers cab is a lot smaller on Pacers than other multiple units and they lack an area for guards, who usually end up sharing the cab. The two-step entrance makes loading slower especially for the elderly and those in wheelchairs. No more Pacer railbuses have since been produced.

[[Category: Multiple units]]

Naim Audio

2005-12-06T16:52:37Z

62.6.139.10: Naim audio update 2

'''Naim Audio''' is a company based in [[Salisbury]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] who create [[high fidelity]] audio products for use in the home.

Naim began when [[Julian Vereker]] created a sound to light box in 1969 which he hired out to film production companies.

He became disappointed with the sound of professional recording equipment after recording live performances of friends. This lead him to design his own power amplifier and so created Naim Audio of today. The first Naim power amp was sold in 1971.

The [[Nap 250]] [[amplifier]] is perhaps Naim Audio's most famous product. Its basic circuit layout was shared by all the company's power amplifiers until the introduction of the flagship NAP500 in 2002. Many of the Naim's other products, such as the NAC52 pre-amplifier and speakers such as the SBL (Separate Box Loudspeaker) have also assumed cult status. Naim agreed with [[Linn]] during much of the 1980s that [[Compact Disc]] was a far inferior medium to the vinyl record and continued to design their products in this context. However, in 1990 the company relented and produced its first CD Player the Naim CDS. Subsequent models, produced at different price points, have gone on to become market leaders, while the current flagship CDS3 is promoted by the company as possibly the best CD player in existence.

Naim's hi-fi philosophy is more integrated than many other manufacturers, and Naim owners tend to prefer using Naim components together. The company's pre- and power amplifiers, especially, are designed to be used together and dire warnings attach to experimentation with other manufacturers components in this context. Previous generations of Naim components were renowned for eschewing a more American approach which concentrated on imaging and tonal finesse, in favour of 'pace, rythmn, and timing' or 'PRaT' for short. While this made for a very exciting, upfront sound, the company's products were occasionally criticised for harshness or lack of subtlety in reproducing classical music, in particular. More recent models have adopted a more balanced and arguably less 'exciting' sound.

[[Linn]] / Naim fans are sometimes referred to known as [[Flat earthers]] due to their shared philosophy that pace and timing mattered much more than timbral or spatial reproduction. Other manufacturers loosely affiliated with such an approach included [[Rega Research]] and [[Arcam]].During much of the 1980s the combination of a Linn LP12 turntable with Naim amplifiers and Linn speakers was believed by many to be the ultimate in hi-fi. The two companies shared a very close association which became more distant when Naim began making loudspeakers and Linn began making amplifiers.

{{company-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.naim-audio.com/ Naim Audio]

[[Category:Audio companies]]

Naim Audio

2005-12-06T16:25:42Z

62.6.139.10: Naim audio update

'''Naim Audio''' is a company based in [[Salisbury]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] who create [[high fidelity]] audio products for use in the home.

Naim began when [[Julian Vereker]] created a sound to light box in 1969 which he hired out to film production companies.

He became disappointed with the sound of professional recording equipment after recording live performances of friends. This lead him to design his own power amplifier and so created Naim Audio of today. The first Naim power amp was sold in 1971.

The [[Nap 250]] [[amplifier]] is perhaps Naim Audio's most famous product, while their preamplifiers such as the NAC52, speakers such as the SBL (Separate Box Loudspeaker) have also assumed cult status. Naim agreed with Linn during much of the 1980s that [[Compact Disc]] was a far inferior medium to the vinyl record and continued to design their products in this context. However, in 1990 the company relented and produced its first CD Player the Naim CDS. Subsequent models, produced at different price points, have gone on to become market leaders, while the current flagship CDS3 is promoted by the company as possibly the best CD player in existence.

Naim's hi-fi philosophy is more integrated than many other manufacturers, and Naim owners tend to prefer using Naim components together. The company's pre- and power amplifiers, especially, are designed to be used together. Previous generations of Naim components were renowned for eschewing a more American approach which concentrated on imaging and tonal finesse, in favour of 'pace, rythmn, and timing' or 'PRaT' for short. While this made for a very exciting, upfront sound, the company's products were occasionally criticised for harshness or lack of subtlety in reproducing classical music, in particular. More recent models have adopted a more balanced and arguably less 'exciting' sound.

[[Linn]] / Naim fans are sometimes referred to known as [[Flat earthers]] due to their shared philosophy that pace and timing mattered much more than timbral or spatial reproduction. During much of the 1980s the combination of a Linn LP12 turntable with Naim amplifiers and Linn speakers was believed by many to be the ultimate in hi-fi. The two companies shared a very close association which became more distant when Naim began making loudspeakers and Linn began making amplifiers.

{{company-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.naim-audio.com/ Naim Audio]

[[Category:Audio companies]]

Ozeanisches anoxisches Ereignis

2005-11-30T20:41:15Z

62.6.139.10:

An '''anoxic event''' occurs when the [[Earth]]'s [[oceans]] become ''completely depleted'' of [[oxygen|O2]] below the surface levels.

==Occurrence==

Anoxic events occur only during periods of ''very warm [[climate]]'' characterised by high levels of [[carbon dioxide|CO2]], usually above 1800 ppmv, and mean surface temperatures of around 22 ° C ([[Quaternary]] levels are 280 ppmv and 13 ° C). Thus, anoxic events have been concentrated in the [[Paleogene]], [[Cretaceous]] and [[Jurassic]], when numoerous ones have been documented, but earlier ones are known from the late [[Triassic]], [[Devonian]] and [[Ordovician]].

Major anoxic events occurred between 183 and 180 million years ago, and many times in the period from 120 to 55 million years ago. Typically, each anoxic event lasted for about ''three or four million years'' and then oxygenation of the oceans would return - though most likely never to the same level as observed in the [[ice age|"icehouse"]] world today.

==Major anoxic events in the Cretaceous==

Of all anoxic events known to have occurred, only those in the Cretaceous (''Oceanic Anoxic Event'': '''OAE''') have been extensively studied. Some of them are seen as being related not only to changes in climate, but also the opening of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by [[continental drift]].

* '''OAE1'''
** Early Aptian (120 million years ago)
** Aptian/Albian boundary (113 to 109 million years ago)
** Late Albian (99 million years ago)
* '''OAE2'''
** Turonian (93-91 million years ago)
* '''OAE3'''
** Coniacian-Santonian (89 to 84 million years ago; a very long period of permanent anoxia in the oceans but one poorly studied)
* '''OAE4'''
** Late Campanian (74 million years ago; poorly studied)

==Mechanism==

The mechanism by which anoxic events occur is still ''very poorly understood''. It is believed that, with the oceans very warm, and, in the ''complete absence of [[ice sheet|polar ice caps]]'' they covered large areas that are now dry land. Because of the warmth, much less oxygen could be dissolved in the water, and the small amount was largely used up by marine [[animals]] such as [[corals]] at very shallow depths, thus preventing oxygen from penetrating to the sea bottom thousands of metres below.

This absence of oxygen from the ocean bottoms meant that the decomposers currently present in deep-sea environments below the [[Oxygen minimum zone]] could not survive. Also, because warming during anoxic events was concentrated in high latitudes (which were up to 40 ° C warmer than today) winds were generally much less vigourous than today, so that ocean currents were very weak and [[upwelling]] completely absent, especially given the polar water was too warm to sink effectively. Apparently, as far as it did sink, it totally absorbed ''all'' the oxygen from the atmosphere so that any organisms from shallower waters that fell into the deep would be broken down in an anoxic environment.

This helped sustain the anoxic event because productivity around [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] was probably ''very low''. This was because almost no [[mountains]] were being built by [[continental drift]] and hence very little new soil was being weathered to fertilise the oceans: thus absorption of CO2 was much reduced and more remained in the [[atmosphere]]. It is probable that anoxic events ended because the difference in temperature between low and high latitudes became so low that equatorial air would no longer flow poleward.

==Consequences==

Anoxic events have had many important consequences. It is believed that they have been responsible for mass [[extinction events|extinctions]] of marine organisms both in the [[Paleozoic]] and [[Mesozoic]]. This is natural when one considers that most marine organisms ''cannot'' adapt to an ocean where oxygen can - at best - reach only the surface layers.

Another, much more useful, consequence of anoxic events has been the fact that the anoxia of so many Mesozoic oceans has produced most of the world's [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] deposits. During an anoxic event, the conversion of vegetation to oil would be greatly increased in efficiency (the ancient [[Tethys Sea]] was ''always anoxic'') so that even with very low productivity fossil fuel formation would become much more efficient relative to the original biomass. This is why some 70 percent of oil deposits are Mesozoic in age, and another 15 percent date from the warm Paleogene: only rarely in colder periods is such conversion effective enough to produce useful deposits.

==External links==

[http://ethomas.web.wesleyan.edu/ees123/hotstinky.htm Hot and stinky: The oceans without oxygen] 
[http://www.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/2001/Feb/qn020100112.pdf Seawater strontium isotopes, oceanic anoxic events, and seafloor spreading] 
[http://www.usssp-iodp.org/PDFs/Workshop_PDFs/cretaceous_climate_report.pdf Cretaceous climate-ocean dynamics]

==See also==

* [[Oxygen depletion]]
* [[Otoacoustic emission]]

[[Category:Environmental chemistry|Anoxic event]]
[[Category:Oceanography|Anoxic event]]

Monie Love

2005-11-16T10:13:39Z

62.6.139.10: Added category

'''Monie Love''' (born '''Simone Wilson''' on [[July 2]] [[1970]] in [[London]]) is an [[England|English]] [[rap]]per and the [[sister]] of [[techno music|techno]] musician [[Dave Angel]]. Monie Love first appeared on [[Queen Latifah]]'s "Ladies First", and later worked together with many important [[hip hop]] producers like [[Marley Marl]], [[Afrika Baby Bam]] from the [[Jungle Brothers]] and even funk/rock star [[Prince (artist)|Prince]].

==Discography==
===Albums===
*''In a Word Or 2''
*''Down To Earth''

===Singles===
*"It's a Shame (My Sister)"
*"Down To Earth"
*"Monie In the Middle"

==See also==
*[[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart]]
*[http://www.britishhiphop.co.uk A site focussing on the early days of Hip Hop development in the UK]

[[Category:Musician stubs|Love, Monie]]
[[Category:1970 births|Love, Monie]]
[[Category:Female singers|Love, Monie]]
[[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]]
[[Category:British rappers]]
{{musician-stub}}

Sysop

2005-10-27T14:56:52Z

62.6.139.10:

Weltraumhabitat

2005-10-24T09:23:01Z

62.6.139.10: /* Problems */

{{attention}}
[[Image:Spacecolony1.jpeg|thumb|right|A pair of O'Neill cylinders]]

A '''space habitat''', also called '''space colony''' or '''orbital colony''', is a [[space station]] intended as a [[space colonization|permanent settlement]] rather than as a simple waystation or other specialized facility. It would be a "city" in space, where people would live, work and raise families. No space habitats have yet been constructed, but many design proposals have been made with varying degrees of realism by both [[science fiction]] authors and [[engineer]]s.

==History==

About 1970, near the end of the [[Apollo]] project, [[Gerard K. O'Neill]], an experimental phsyicist, was looking for a topic to tempt his freshman physics students, most of whom were freshmen in Engineering. He hit upon the creative idea of assigning them feasibility calculations for large space habitats. To his surprise, the habitats seemed to be feasible even in very large sizes: cylinders five miles (8km) wide and twenty miles (34 km) long, even if made from ordinary materials such as steel and glass. Also, the students solved problems such as radiation protection from cosmic rays (almost free in the larger sizes), getting naturalistic sun angles, provision of power, realistic pest-free farming and orbital attitude control without reaction motors. He published an article about these colony proposals in Physics Today in 1974. (See the above illustration of such a colony, a classic "O'Neill Colony").

The result motivated [[NASA]] to sponsor a couple of summer workshops led by Dr. O'Neill. Several designs were studied, some in depth, with sizes ranging from 1,000 to 10,000,000 people. Attempts were made to make the habitats as self-supporting as possible, but all of the designs relied on regular shipments from Earth or the Moon, notably for raw materials and volatiles. Closed ecologies and aggressive recycling shoulddramatically reduce this reliance. Recent research has found water on the moon's south pole, and found that certain [[asteroid]]s contain significant amounts of volatiles such as water and ammonia. Therefore, space habitats could rely less on Earth than these studies indicate.

At the time, colonization was definitely seen as an end in itself. The basic proposal by O'Neill had an example of a payback scheme: construction of [[solar power satellite]]s from lunar materials. O'Neill's intention was not to build solar power satellites as such, but rather to give an existence proof that orbital manufacturing from lunar materials could generate profits. He, and other participants, presumed that once such manufacturing facilities were on-line, many profitable uses for them would be found, and the colony would become self-supporting, and begin to build other colonies as well.

The proposals and studies generated a notable groundswell of public interest. One of the most interesting public effects was the founding of the [[L5 Society]] in the U.S., a group of enthusiasts that desired to build and live in such colonies. The groups was named after the space-colony orbit which was then believed to be the most profitable, a kidney-shaped orbit around either of Earth's lunar [[Lagrange Point]]s 5 or 4.

In this era, Dr. O'Neill also founded the quieter, and more targeted [[Space Studies Institute]], which initially funded and constructed protoypes of much of the radically new hardware needed for a space colonization effort, as well as number of paper studies of feasibility. One of the early projects, for instance, was a series of functional prototypes of a [[mass driver]], the essential technology to be used to economically move ores from the moon to space colony orbits.

The L5 Society later became the [[National Space Society]], and former members started a number of related efforts, including the [[Moon Society|Artemis Project]], and the [[Mars Society]]. As well, some former L5 Society members seem to be active in radical engineering groups such as the [[Extropianism|Extropian Institute]]. A number of prominent modern space engineers and rocket scientists trace their motivation to this era.

The space habitats have inspired a large number of fictional societies in [[Science Fiction]]. Some of the most popular and recognizable are the Japanese [[Gundam]] universe, and [[Babylon 5]].

==Motivation==

There are several prominent reasons for [[space colonisation]]: security, profits, energy and raw materials.

Space habitats are likely to be less affected by disasters that damage the Earth, such as overpopulation, or ocean strikes by large bolides. Although an individual habitat is probably less secure than Earth, many habitats together add substantially to human survivability. They provide opportunities for migration.

Space has most of the raw materials known, and large amounts of energy. It should be possible to make profits, if mining and manufacturing can just get off the ground.

For example, some proponents estimate that compared to Earth, a family or company might easily triple or quadruple their incomes. Costs might be lower as well. proponents' estimates of the cost of space colony land work out to roughly $30,000 per acre ($75,000/Hectare) in 1995 $US, in large economical space colonies. While expensive for rural land, it is inexpensive for city land.

As there exists a vast amount of material to build with in the solar system, and as a space habitat is out of planetary gravity wells, a vast population could live and work in space permanently. The [[Earth]] can be viewed as quite small, crowded and restrictive compared to [[outer space]]. see: [[overpopulation]].

Habitats outside the shadows of planets can use [[solar power]] 24 hours a day. Zero-G enables the creation of extremely large-yet-flimsy concentrating mirrors to gather this constant and abundant energy. As well, solonies are well outside the [[magnetosphere]] of Earth, and can employ [[Nuclear power]] without fear of pollution.

==Problems==

Space habitats must solve a number of problems in order to maintain healthy normal human populations:
#Air pressure with normal partial pressures of [[Oxygen]], [[Carbon Dioxide]] and [[Nitrogen]]. Basically, most colony designs are large, thin-walled pressure vessels. Oxygen is available from lunar rock. Nitrogen is available from the Earth, an expensive source, but Nitrogen is recycled nearly perfectly. The air can be recycled in a number of ways. The obvious method is to use [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[gardening|garden]]s, possibly using [[hydroponics]] or [[forest gardening]]. However, these do not remove some industrial pollutants, such as volatile oils, and excess simple molecular gases. The standard method used on nuclear submarines is to use a [[catalytic]] burner, which effectively removes most organics. Further protection might be provided by a small cryogenic distillation system to gradually remove impurities such as [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] vapor, and noble gases that cannot be catalytically burned.
#Organics for food. At first, most of these would have to be imported from the moon, asteroids, or the Earth. After that, recycling would reduce the need for imports. One proposed recycling method would start by burning the cryogenic distillate, plants, garbage and sewage with air in an electric arc, and distilling the result. The resulting carbon dioxide and water would be immediately usable in the farms. The nitrates and the salts in the ash would be dissolved in water and separated into pure minerals. Most of the nitrates, Potassium and Sodium salts would effectively recycle as fertilizers. Other minerals containing Iron, Nickle, and Silicon could be chemically purified in batches and reused industrially. The small fraction of remaining materials, well below 0.01% by weight, could be processed into pure elements with zero-gravity mass spectrography, and added in appropriate amounts to the fertilizers and industrial stocks. This method is only existence an proof considered by NASA studies. It's likely that methods would be greatly refined as people began to actually live in space habitats.
#Gravity. Long-term on-orbit studies have proven that zero gravity weakens bones and muscles, and upsets calcium metabolism and immune systems. Most people have a continual stuffy nose or sinus problems, and a few people have dramatic, incurable motion sickness. Most colony designs would rotate in order to use [[centripetal force]]s to simulate gravity. NASA studies with chickens and plants have proven that this is an effective physiological substitute for gravity. Turning one's head rapidly in such an environment causes a "tilt" to be sensed as one's inner ears move at different rotational rates. Centrifuge studies show that people get motion-sick in habitats with a rotational radius of less than 100 metres, or with a rotation rate above 3 rotations per minute. However, the same studies and statistical inference indicate that almost all people should be able live comfortably in habitats with a rotational radius larger than 500 meters and below 1 RPM. Experienced persons were not merely more resistant to motion sickness, but could also use the effect to determine "spinward" and "antispinward" directions in the centrifuges.
#Radiation. Space radiation has two distinct problems. One is that [[cosmic ray]]s expose one to 80 milli[[Sievert]]s per year, well above the maximum safe occupational threshold of 50 mSv, and well above the healthy population maximum of 3 mSv. Another, separate issue is that [[solar flare]]s occasionally emit very large amounts of soft [[x-ray]]s, and energetic particles. When these events occur, they can exceed 4 [[Sievert]]s, the lethal dose for half the population. The most interesting result of the studies was the discovery that large space habitats are effectively [[gamma ray|shielded]] by their structure and air, which easily exceeds the two meters of steel needed. Smaller habitats could be shilded by stationary (nonrotating) bags of rock. Sunlight could be admitted via mirrors in radiation-proof louvres.
#Heat rejection. The colony is in a vacuum, and therefore resembles a giant thermos bottle. Habitats therefore need a radiator to eliminate heat from absorbed sunlight and organisms. Very small habitats might have a vane that rotates with the colony. In this design, [[convection]] would raise hot air "up", and cool air would fall down into the habitat. Some other designs would distribute coolants, such as chilled water from a central radiator. Because radiators would be a major expense, inexpensive habitats would probably be very warm.
#[[Orbital stationkeeping]]. The optimal habitat orbits are still debated, and are probably a commercial issue. The [[Lagrangian point|lunar L4 and L5 orbits]] are now thought to be too far away from the moon and Earth. A more modern proposal is to use a two-to-one resonance orbit that alternately has a close, low-energy (cheap) approach to the moon, and then to the Earth. This provides quick, inexpensive access to both raw materials and the major market. Most colony designs plan to use [[tether propulsion|electromagnetic tether propulsion]], or [[mass driver]]s used as rocket motors. The advantage of these is that they either use no reaction mass at all, or use cheap reaction mass.
#[[Attitude control]]. Most mirror geometries require something on the habitat to be aimed at the sun. The original O'Neill design used the two cylinders as [[momentum wheel]]s to roll the colony, and pushed the sunward pivots together or apart to use [[precession]] to change their angle. Later designs rotated in the plane of their orbit, with their windows pointing at right angles to the sunlight, and used lightweight mirrors that could be steered with small electric motors to follow the sun.

==Designs (solutions)==
Designs proposed in the NASA studies included:
*[[Bernal sphere]] - "Island One", a spherical habitat for about 20,000 people.
*[[Stanford torus]] - A smaller alternative to "Island One."
*[[O'Neill cylinder]] - "Island Three" (pictured), the largest design.
* A "bolo," a spacecraft or habitat connected by a cable to a counterweight or other habitat. This design has been proposed as a mars ship, construction shack and [[transhab|orbital hotel]]. It has a comfortably long and slow rotational radius for a relatively small station mass. Also, if some of the equipment can form the counter-weight, the equipment dedicated to artificial gravity is just a cable, and thus has a much smaller mass-fraction than in other designs. This makes it a tempting design for a deep-space ship. For a long-term habitation, radiation shielding must rotate with the habitat, and is extremely heavy.
* "Beaded habitats"; this speculative design was also considered by the NASA studies, and found to have a roughly equivalent mass fraction of structure and therefore comparable costs. Small habitats would be mass-produced to standards that allow the habitats to interconnect. A single habitat can operate alone as a bolo. However, further habitats can be attached, to grow into a "dumbbell" then a "bow-tie," then a ring, then a cylinder of "beads," and finally a framed array of cylinders. Each stage of growth shares more radiation shielding and capital equipment, increasing redundancy and safety while reducing the cost per person. This design was originally proposed by a professional architect because it can grow much like Earth-bound cities, with incremental individual investments, unlike designs that require large start-up investments. The main disadvantage is that the smaller versions use a large amount of structure to support the radiation shielding, which rotates with them. In large sizes, the shielding becomes economical, because it grows roughly as the square of the colony radius. The number of people, their habitats and the radiators to cool them grow roughly as the cube of the colony radius.

==See also==
*[[Space manufacturing]]
*[[Transhab]]

[[Category:Space stations]]
[[Category:Space colonization]]

Weltraumhabitat

2005-10-24T09:22:34Z

62.6.139.10: /* Problems */

{{attention}}
[[Image:Spacecolony1.jpeg|thumb|right|A pair of O'Neill cylinders]]

A '''space habitat''', also called '''space colony''' or '''orbital colony''', is a [[space station]] intended as a [[space colonization|permanent settlement]] rather than as a simple waystation or other specialized facility. It would be a "city" in space, where people would live, work and raise families. No space habitats have yet been constructed, but many design proposals have been made with varying degrees of realism by both [[science fiction]] authors and [[engineer]]s.

==History==

About 1970, near the end of the [[Apollo]] project, [[Gerard K. O'Neill]], an experimental phsyicist, was looking for a topic to tempt his freshman physics students, most of whom were freshmen in Engineering. He hit upon the creative idea of assigning them feasibility calculations for large space habitats. To his surprise, the habitats seemed to be feasible even in very large sizes: cylinders five miles (8km) wide and twenty miles (34 km) long, even if made from ordinary materials such as steel and glass. Also, the students solved problems such as radiation protection from cosmic rays (almost free in the larger sizes), getting naturalistic sun angles, provision of power, realistic pest-free farming and orbital attitude control without reaction motors. He published an article about these colony proposals in Physics Today in 1974. (See the above illustration of such a colony, a classic "O'Neill Colony").

The result motivated [[NASA]] to sponsor a couple of summer workshops led by Dr. O'Neill. Several designs were studied, some in depth, with sizes ranging from 1,000 to 10,000,000 people. Attempts were made to make the habitats as self-supporting as possible, but all of the designs relied on regular shipments from Earth or the Moon, notably for raw materials and volatiles. Closed ecologies and aggressive recycling shoulddramatically reduce this reliance. Recent research has found water on the moon's south pole, and found that certain [[asteroid]]s contain significant amounts of volatiles such as water and ammonia. Therefore, space habitats could rely less on Earth than these studies indicate.

At the time, colonization was definitely seen as an end in itself. The basic proposal by O'Neill had an example of a payback scheme: construction of [[solar power satellite]]s from lunar materials. O'Neill's intention was not to build solar power satellites as such, but rather to give an existence proof that orbital manufacturing from lunar materials could generate profits. He, and other participants, presumed that once such manufacturing facilities were on-line, many profitable uses for them would be found, and the colony would become self-supporting, and begin to build other colonies as well.

The proposals and studies generated a notable groundswell of public interest. One of the most interesting public effects was the founding of the [[L5 Society]] in the U.S., a group of enthusiasts that desired to build and live in such colonies. The groups was named after the space-colony orbit which was then believed to be the most profitable, a kidney-shaped orbit around either of Earth's lunar [[Lagrange Point]]s 5 or 4.

In this era, Dr. O'Neill also founded the quieter, and more targeted [[Space Studies Institute]], which initially funded and constructed protoypes of much of the radically new hardware needed for a space colonization effort, as well as number of paper studies of feasibility. One of the early projects, for instance, was a series of functional prototypes of a [[mass driver]], the essential technology to be used to economically move ores from the moon to space colony orbits.

The L5 Society later became the [[National Space Society]], and former members started a number of related efforts, including the [[Moon Society|Artemis Project]], and the [[Mars Society]]. As well, some former L5 Society members seem to be active in radical engineering groups such as the [[Extropianism|Extropian Institute]]. A number of prominent modern space engineers and rocket scientists trace their motivation to this era.

The space habitats have inspired a large number of fictional societies in [[Science Fiction]]. Some of the most popular and recognizable are the Japanese [[Gundam]] universe, and [[Babylon 5]].

==Motivation==

There are several prominent reasons for [[space colonisation]]: security, profits, energy and raw materials.

Space habitats are likely to be less affected by disasters that damage the Earth, such as overpopulation, or ocean strikes by large bolides. Although an individual habitat is probably less secure than Earth, many habitats together add substantially to human survivability. They provide opportunities for migration.

Space has most of the raw materials known, and large amounts of energy. It should be possible to make profits, if mining and manufacturing can just get off the ground.

For example, some proponents estimate that compared to Earth, a family or company might easily triple or quadruple their incomes. Costs might be lower as well. proponents' estimates of the cost of space colony land work out to roughly $30,000 per acre ($75,000/Hectare) in 1995 $US, in large economical space colonies. While expensive for rural land, it is inexpensive for city land.

As there exists a vast amount of material to build with in the solar system, and as a space habitat is out of planetary gravity wells, a vast population could live and work in space permanently. The [[Earth]] can be viewed as quite small, crowded and restrictive compared to [[outer space]]. see: [[overpopulation]].

Habitats outside the shadows of planets can use [[solar power]] 24 hours a day. Zero-G enables the creation of extremely large-yet-flimsy concentrating mirrors to gather this constant and abundant energy. As well, solonies are well outside the [[magnetosphere]] of Earth, and can employ [[Nuclear power]] without fear of pollution.

==Problems==

Space habitats must solve a number of problems in order to maintain healthy normal human populations:
#Air pressure with normal partial pressures of [[Oxygen]], [[Carbon Dioxide]] and [[Nitrogen]]. Basically, most colony designs are large, thin-walled pressure vessels. Oxygen is available from lunar rock. Nitrogen is available from the Earth, an expensive source, but Nitrogen is recycled nearly perfectly. The air can be recycled in a number of ways. The obvious method is to use [[photosynthesis|photsynthetic]] [[gardening|garden]]s, possibly using [[hydroponics]] or [[forest gardening]]. However, these do not remove some industrial pollutants, such as volatile oils, and excess simple molecular gases. The standard method used on nuclear submarines is to use a [[catalytic]] burner, which effectively removes most organics. Further protection might be provided by a small cryogenic distillation system to gradually remove impurities such as [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] vapor, and noble gases that cannot be catalytically burned.
#Organics for food. At first, most of these would have to be imported from the moon, asteroids, or the Earth. After that, recycling would reduce the need for imports. One proposed recycling method would start by burning the cryogenic distillate, plants, garbage and sewage with air in an electric arc, and distilling the result. The resulting carbon dioxide and water would be immediately usable in the farms. The nitrates and the salts in the ash would be dissolved in water and separated into pure minerals. Most of the nitrates, Potassium and Sodium salts would effectively recycle as fertilizers. Other minerals containing Iron, Nickle, and Silicon could be chemically purified in batches and reused industrially. The small fraction of remaining materials, well below 0.01% by weight, could be processed into pure elements with zero-gravity mass spectrography, and added in appropriate amounts to the fertilizers and industrial stocks. This method is only existence an proof considered by NASA studies. It's likely that methods would be greatly refined as people began to actually live in space habitats.
#Gravity. Long-term on-orbit studies have proven that zero gravity weakens bones and muscles, and upsets calcium metabolism and immune systems. Most people have a continual stuffy nose or sinus problems, and a few people have dramatic, incurable motion sickness. Most colony designs would rotate in order to use [[centripetal force]]s to simulate gravity. NASA studies with chickens and plants have proven that this is an effective physiological substitute for gravity. Turning one's head rapidly in such an environment causes a "tilt" to be sensed as one's inner ears move at different rotational rates. Centrifuge studies show that people get motion-sick in habitats with a rotational radius of less than 100 metres, or with a rotation rate above 3 rotations per minute. However, the same studies and statistical inference indicate that almost all people should be able live comfortably in habitats with a rotational radius larger than 500 meters and below 1 RPM. Experienced persons were not merely more resistant to motion sickness, but could also use the effect to determine "spinward" and "antispinward" directions in the centrifuges.
#Radiation. Space radiation has two distinct problems. One is that [[cosmic ray]]s expose one to 80 milli[[Sievert]]s per year, well above the maximum safe occupational threshold of 50 mSv, and well above the healthy population maximum of 3 mSv. Another, separate issue is that [[solar flare]]s occasionally emit very large amounts of soft [[x-ray]]s, and energetic particles. When these events occur, they can exceed 4 [[Sievert]]s, the lethal dose for half the population. The most interesting result of the studies was the discovery that large space habitats are effectively [[gamma ray|shielded]] by their structure and air, which easily exceeds the two meters of steel needed. Smaller habitats could be shilded by stationary (nonrotating) bags of rock. Sunlight could be admitted via mirrors in radiation-proof louvres.
#Heat rejection. The colony is in a vacuum, and therefore resembles a giant thermos bottle. Habitats therefore need a radiator to eliminate heat from absorbed sunlight and organisms. Very small habitats might have a vane that rotates with the colony. In this design, [[convection]] would raise hot air "up", and cool air would fall down into the habitat. Some other designs would distribute coolants, such as chilled water from a central radiator. Because radiators would be a major expense, inexpensive habitats would probably be very warm.
#[[Orbital stationkeeping]]. The optimal habitat orbits are still debated, and are probably a commercial issue. The [[Lagrangian point|lunar L4 and L5 orbits]] are now thought to be too far away from the moon and Earth. A more modern proposal is to use a two-to-one resonance orbit that alternately has a close, low-energy (cheap) approach to the moon, and then to the Earth. This provides quick, inexpensive access to both raw materials and the major market. Most colony designs plan to use [[tether propulsion|electromagnetic tether propulsion]], or [[mass driver]]s used as rocket motors. The advantage of these is that they either use no reaction mass at all, or use cheap reaction mass.
#[[Attitude control]]. Most mirror geometries require something on the habitat to be aimed at the sun. The original O'Neill design used the two cylinders as [[momentum wheel]]s to roll the colony, and pushed the sunward pivots together or apart to use [[precession]] to change their angle. Later designs rotated in the plane of their orbit, with their windows pointing at right angles to the sunlight, and used lightweight mirrors that could be steered with small electric motors to follow the sun.

==Designs (solutions)==
Designs proposed in the NASA studies included:
*[[Bernal sphere]] - "Island One", a spherical habitat for about 20,000 people.
*[[Stanford torus]] - A smaller alternative to "Island One."
*[[O'Neill cylinder]] - "Island Three" (pictured), the largest design.
* A "bolo," a spacecraft or habitat connected by a cable to a counterweight or other habitat. This design has been proposed as a mars ship, construction shack and [[transhab|orbital hotel]]. It has a comfortably long and slow rotational radius for a relatively small station mass. Also, if some of the equipment can form the counter-weight, the equipment dedicated to artificial gravity is just a cable, and thus has a much smaller mass-fraction than in other designs. This makes it a tempting design for a deep-space ship. For a long-term habitation, radiation shielding must rotate with the habitat, and is extremely heavy.
* "Beaded habitats"; this speculative design was also considered by the NASA studies, and found to have a roughly equivalent mass fraction of structure and therefore comparable costs. Small habitats would be mass-produced to standards that allow the habitats to interconnect. A single habitat can operate alone as a bolo. However, further habitats can be attached, to grow into a "dumbbell" then a "bow-tie," then a ring, then a cylinder of "beads," and finally a framed array of cylinders. Each stage of growth shares more radiation shielding and capital equipment, increasing redundancy and safety while reducing the cost per person. This design was originally proposed by a professional architect because it can grow much like Earth-bound cities, with incremental individual investments, unlike designs that require large start-up investments. The main disadvantage is that the smaller versions use a large amount of structure to support the radiation shielding, which rotates with them. In large sizes, the shielding becomes economical, because it grows roughly as the square of the colony radius. The number of people, their habitats and the radiators to cool them grow roughly as the cube of the colony radius.

==See also==
*[[Space manufacturing]]
*[[Transhab]]

[[Category:Space stations]]
[[Category:Space colonization]]

Rattenfänger von Hameln

2005-08-08T10:42:25Z

62.6.139.10: /* Interpretation */

[[Bild:Hameln_Rattenfaengerhaus_um_1900.jpg|300px|thumb|Das Rattenfängerhaus in Hameln um 1900]]
Der '''Rattenfänger von Hameln''' ist die bekannteste deutsche [[Sage]]. Sie wurde in mehr als 30 Sprachen übersetzt. Man schätzt, dass mehr als eine Milliarde Menschen sie kennen. Selbst in fernen Ländern gehört sie häufig zum Schulunterrichtsstoff; besonders in [[Japan]] und in den [[USA]] ist sie sehr beliebt.

== Sage ==

Der Sage nach ließ sich im Jahre [[1284]] zu [[Hameln]] ein wunderlicher Mann sehen. Er hatte einen Rock von vielfarbigem, buntem Tuch an und gab sich für einen Rattenfänger aus, indem er versprach, gegen ein gewisses Geld die Stadt von allen [[Maus|Mäusen]] und [[Ratten]] zu befreien.

Die Bürger sagten ihm diesen Lohn zu, und der Rattenfänger zog sein Pfeifchen/Flöte heraus und pfiff. Da kamen alsbald die Ratten und Mäuse aus allen Häusern hervorgekrochen und sammelten sich um ihn herum. Als er nun meinte, es wäre keine zurückgeblieben, ging er aus der Stadt hinaus in die [[Weser]]; der ganze Haufen folgte ihm nach, stürzte ins Wasser und ertrank. Als aber die Bürger sich von ihrer Plage befreit sahen, reute sie der versprochene Lohn, und sie verweigerten ihn dem Mann, so dass dieser verbittert wegging.

Am [[26. Juni]] kehrte er jedoch zurück in Gestalt eines Jägers, erschrecklichen Angesichts, mit einem roten, wunderlichen Hut und ließ, während alle Welt in der Kirche versammelt war, seine Pfeife/Flöte abermals in den Gassen ertönen. Alsbald kamen diesmal nicht Ratten und Mäuse, sondern Kinder, Knaben und Mägdlein vom vierten Jahre an in großer Anzahl gelaufen. Diese führte er, immer spielend, zum Ostertore hinaus in einen Berg, wo er mit ihnen verschwand. Nur zwei Kinder kehrten zurück, weil sie sich verspätet hatten; von ihnen war aber das eine blind, so dass es den Ort nicht zeigen konnte, das andere stumm, so dass es nicht erzählen konnte. Ein Knäblein war umgekehrt, seinen Rock zu holen und so dem Unglück entgangen. Einige sagten, die Kinder seien in eine Höhle geführt worden und in [[Siebenbürgen]] wieder herausgekommen. Es waren ganze 130 Kinder verloren.

''(Nach [[Gebrüder Grimm|Brüder Grimm]]: ''Deutsche Sagen'')''

== Interpretation ==

Der historische Kern der Rattenfängersage konnte bis heute nicht mit letzter Sicherheit festgestellt werden.

Als gesichert kann gelten, dass die ursprüngliche ''Kinderauszugs-Sage'' erst Ende des 16. Jahrhunderts sekundär mit einer ''Rattenvertreibungs-Sage'' verknüpft wurde. Letztere bezieht sich auf die in der Mühlenstadt [[Hameln]] im [[Mittelalter]] besonders bedrohlichen Rattenplagen und ihre mehr oder minder erfolgreiche Bekämpfung durch professionelle Rattenfänger.

Unter den vielen Interpretationen des Kinderauszugs hat der Hinweis auf die von Niederdeutschland ausgehende [[Ostkolonisation]] den größten Wahrscheinlichkeitsgrad: Die "Kinder von Hameln" sollen auswanderungswillige Hamelner Jung-Bürger gewesen sein, die von adligen Territorialherren zur Siedlung in [[Siebenbürgen]], [[Mähren]], [[Ostpreußen]], [[Pommern]] oder im [[Deutschordensland]] angeworben wurden. Die Auswanderungsregion der Hamelner Kinder konnte jüngst von dem Onomastikprofessor [[Jürgen Udolph]] präzisiert werden (''Zogen die Hamelner Aussiedler nach Mähren? Die Rattenfängersage aus namenkundlicher Sicht''; in: Niedersächsisches Jahrbuch für Landesgeschichte 69 (1997) S. 125-183): Auswanderer hatten nämlich die Angewohnheit, neugegründete Orte in ihren Zielgebieten nach Orten aus ihrer alten Heimat zu benennen. Untersucht man nun, in welchen Gebieten der mittelalterlichen Ostkolonisation Ortsnamen aus der Hamelner Region vorkommen, so lassen sich diese vor allem im heutigen Bundesland [[Brandenburg]] feststellen, und zwar dort in den Regionen [[Prignitz (Region)|Prignitz]] und [[Uckermark]]. Siebenbürgen und Mähren scheiden demgegenüber entgegen früheren Annahmen als Zielgebiete der Hamelner Auswanderer aus. So ist beispielsweise der Name des in der Nähe von Hameln gelegenen Ortes ''Hamelspringe'' (dieser Name bedeutet: "Ort, wo der Fluß Hamel entspringt") als ''Hammelspring'' in den Landkreis Uckermark, Brandenburg, übertragen worden, obwohl dort überhaupt kein Fluß "Ham(m)el" entspringt.

Solche und ähnliche Belege machen die Auswanderungstheorie sehr wahrscheinlich: Der Rattenfänger mag in Wirklichkeit ein Werber für deutsche Siedler in Ost-Europa gewesen sein, und die Legende (Rattenfänger-Sage) will nur den Verlust fast einer ganzen Generation, die wegen Perspektivlosigkeit ihre Heimat verlassen hat, lyrisch umschreiben. Vielleicht wollte man sich auch nicht die Blöße geben, dass eine gesamte Generation auswanderte, weil sie in dem damaligen Zunftwesen keine Zukunft sah und lieber gen Osten zog mit der Aussicht, dort einen eigenen Hausstand oder Betrieb aufzubauen.

Mehrere Historiker behaupten, die Sage vom Rattenfänger von Hameln soll vom [[Kinderkreuzzug]] inspiriert worden sein.

Eine andere, weniger stark vertretene Theorie besagt, dass die Hamelner Kinder einem [[Heidentum|heidnischen]] [[Sekte]]nführer aufgesessen sein können, der diese zu einem [[Religion|religiösen]] [[Ritus]] in die Wälder bei [[Coppenbrügge]] geführt hat, wo sie heidnische Tänze aufführten. Dabei habe es einen Bergrutsch gegeben, wodurch die meisten umgekommen seien. Noch heute lässt sich eine große Kuhle finden, die durch einen solchen Erdrutsch entstanden sein könnte.

== Weiteres ==

Die Motive der Sage werden insbesondere in der Fantasy-Literatur immer wieder gerne aufgegriffen, so wie u.a. in [[Terry Pratchett]]s [[Scheibenwelt-Romane|Scheibenwelt-Roman]] ''Maurice der Kater'' oder ganz explizit in [[China Miéville]]s Erstroman ''König Ratte'', der die Sage aus Sicht der Ratten fortführt und ins zeitgenössische London verlegt.

== Literatur ==
* Dobbertin, Hans: ''Quellensammlung zur Hamelner Rattenfängersage''. Göttingen (Schwartz) 1970.

[[Kategorie:Literarisches Werk]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (13. Jh.)]]
[[Kategorie:Literatur (Deutsch)]]
[[Kategorie:Sage, Legende]]

[[en:The Pied Piper of Hamelin]]
[[es:El flautista de Hamelín]]
[[fr:Le joueur de flûte de Hamelin]]
[[he:החלילן מהמלין]]
[[ja:ハーメルンの笛吹き男]]
[[nl:Rattenvanger van Hamelen]]

Penge (London)

2005-06-10T04:30:12Z

62.6.139.10: /* Cultural references */

{| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width=300 style=margin-left:10px
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|Penge
|-
|width="50%"|[[British national grid reference system|OS Grid Reference]]:||{{gbmappingsmall|TQ345705}}
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Administration
|-
|width="50%"|[[Borough]]:||[[London Borough of Bromley|Bromley]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Administrative counties of England|County]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Regions of England|Region]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Home Nations|Nation]]:||[[England]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Other
|-
|width="50%"|[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial County]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Traditional counties of England|Traditional County]]:||[[Kent]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Post Office and Telephone
|-
|width="50%"|[[Post town]]:||LONDON
|-
|width="50%"|[[Postcode]]:||[[London SE20|SE20]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[UK telephone numbering plan|Dialling Code]]:||020
|-
|}
'''Penge''' is a place in [[London]] in the [[London Borough of Bromley|Borough of Bromley]]. Penge is 7.1 miles (11.4 km) south east of [[Charing Cross]].

It was once a small town, which was recorded under the name Penceat in a [[Saxon]] deed dating from [[957]].

Most historians believe the name of the town is derived from the [[ancient]] [[Celtic]] word "Penceat" which means "edge of wood" and refers to the fact that the surrounding area was once covered in a dense forest. The original Celtic words of which the name was composed referred to "pen", "head", as in the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] "pen" (used in [[Penarth]]) and "ceat", "wood", similar to the Welsh "coed" (used in [[Llangoedmor]]).

In the Victorian era this area was a fashionable place to live as it was right on the doorstep of [[the Crystal Palace]].

==Historical Buildings==
* The Royal Watermen's Almshouses http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge/royal-watermans.htm
* London's oldest working police station http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge/police-station.htm

==Cultural references==
Playing on the idea that the word ''penge'' seems to be an [[inherently funny word]], and its apparent shabby-genteel image, the place has been lightly parodied by:
* [[Terry Wogan]] as ''Penge-sur-mer'' or ''Penge-les-trois-auberges'', pronouncing Penge as the French might
* [[Rumpole of the Bailey]] as the location of his greatest triumph, the "Penge Bungalow Murders"

Penge is also the [[Danish language|Danish]] word for [[money]].

Penge was also the childhood home of [[Bill Wyman]] (b. 1936 William George Perks) [[bassist]] from [[The Rolling Stones]].

==Nearest places==
* [[Sydenham, London, England|Sydenham]]
* [[Crystal Palace, London, England|Crystal Palace]]
* [[Anerley, London, England|Anerley]]
* [[Upper Norwood, London, England|Upper Norwood]]
* [[Beckenham, London, England|Beckenham]]
* [[South Norwood, London|South Norwood]]

==Nearest railway stations==
* [[Penge East railway station]]
* [[Penge West railway station]]
* [[Clock House railway station]]
* [[Anerley railway station]]
* [[Birkbeck railway station]]

==External Links==
* [http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge.htm The history of Penge]

[[Category:Districts of London]]
[[Category:Bromley]]

Penge (London)

2005-06-10T04:27:48Z

62.6.139.10: /* Cultural references */

{| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width=300 style=margin-left:10px
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|Penge
|-
|width="50%"|[[British national grid reference system|OS Grid Reference]]:||{{gbmappingsmall|TQ345705}}
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Administration
|-
|width="50%"|[[Borough]]:||[[London Borough of Bromley|Bromley]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Administrative counties of England|County]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Regions of England|Region]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Home Nations|Nation]]:||[[England]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Other
|-
|width="50%"|[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial County]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Traditional counties of England|Traditional County]]:||[[Kent]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Post Office and Telephone
|-
|width="50%"|[[Post town]]:||LONDON
|-
|width="50%"|[[Postcode]]:||[[London SE20|SE20]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[UK telephone numbering plan|Dialling Code]]:||020
|-
|}
'''Penge''' is a place in [[London]] in the [[London Borough of Bromley|Borough of Bromley]]. Penge is 7.1 miles (11.4 km) south east of [[Charing Cross]].

It was once a small town, which was recorded under the name Penceat in a [[Saxon]] deed dating from [[957]].

Most historians believe the name of the town is derived from the [[ancient]] [[Celtic]] word "Penceat" which means "edge of wood" and refers to the fact that the surrounding area was once covered in a dense forest. The original Celtic words of which the name was composed referred to "pen", "head", as in the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] "pen" (used in [[Penarth]]) and "ceat", "wood", similar to the Welsh "coed" (used in [[Llangoedmor]]).

In the Victorian era this area was a fashionable place to live as it was right on the doorstep of [[the Crystal Palace]].

==Historical Buildings==
* The Royal Watermen's Almshouses http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge/royal-watermans.htm
* London's oldest working police station http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge/police-station.htm

==Cultural references==
Playing on the idea that the word ''penge'' seems to be an [[inherently funny word]], and its apparent shabby-genteel image, the place has been lightly parodied by:
* [[Terry Wogan]] as ''Penge-sur-mer'' or ''Penge-les-trois-auberges'', pronouncing Penge as the French might
* [[Rumpole of the Bailey]] as the location of his greatest triumph, the "Penge Bungalow Murders"

Penge is also the [[Danish language|Danish]] word for [[money]].

Penge was also the childhood home of [[Bill Wyman]] (b. 1936 William George Perks) bassist from the [[Rolling Stones]].

==Nearest places==
* [[Sydenham, London, England|Sydenham]]
* [[Crystal Palace, London, England|Crystal Palace]]
* [[Anerley, London, England|Anerley]]
* [[Upper Norwood, London, England|Upper Norwood]]
* [[Beckenham, London, England|Beckenham]]
* [[South Norwood, London|South Norwood]]

==Nearest railway stations==
* [[Penge East railway station]]
* [[Penge West railway station]]
* [[Clock House railway station]]
* [[Anerley railway station]]
* [[Birkbeck railway station]]

==External Links==
* [http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge.htm The history of Penge]

[[Category:Districts of London]]
[[Category:Bromley]]

Penge (London)

2005-06-10T04:25:14Z

62.6.139.10:

{| border=1 cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" align="right" width=300 style=margin-left:10px
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor="#ff9999"|Penge
|-
|width="50%"|[[British national grid reference system|OS Grid Reference]]:||{{gbmappingsmall|TQ345705}}
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Administration
|-
|width="50%"|[[Borough]]:||[[London Borough of Bromley|Bromley]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Administrative counties of England|County]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Regions of England|Region]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Home Nations|Nation]]:||[[England]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Other
|-
|width="50%"|[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial County]]:||[[Greater London]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[Traditional counties of England|Traditional County]]:||[[Kent]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor="#ff9999"|Post Office and Telephone
|-
|width="50%"|[[Post town]]:||LONDON
|-
|width="50%"|[[Postcode]]:||[[London SE20|SE20]]
|-
|width="50%"|[[UK telephone numbering plan|Dialling Code]]:||020
|-
|}
'''Penge''' is a place in [[London]] in the [[London Borough of Bromley|Borough of Bromley]]. Penge is 7.1 miles (11.4 km) south east of [[Charing Cross]].

It was once a small town, which was recorded under the name Penceat in a [[Saxon]] deed dating from [[957]].

Most historians believe the name of the town is derived from the [[ancient]] [[Celtic]] word "Penceat" which means "edge of wood" and refers to the fact that the surrounding area was once covered in a dense forest. The original Celtic words of which the name was composed referred to "pen", "head", as in the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] "pen" (used in [[Penarth]]) and "ceat", "wood", similar to the Welsh "coed" (used in [[Llangoedmor]]).

In the Victorian era this area was a fashionable place to live as it was right on the doorstep of [[the Crystal Palace]].

==Historical Buildings==
* The Royal Watermen's Almshouses http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge/royal-watermans.htm
* London's oldest working police station http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge/police-station.htm

==Cultural references==
Playing on the idea that the word ''penge'' seems to be an [[inherently funny word]], and its apparent shabby-genteel image, the place has been lightly parodied by:
* [[Terry Wogan]] as ''Penge-sur-mer'' or ''Penge-les-trois-auberges'', pronouncing Penge as the French might
* [[Rumpole of the Bailey]] as the location of his greatest triumph, the "Penge Bungalow Murders"

Penge is also the [[Danish language|Danish]] word for [[money]].

Penge was also the childhood home of Bill Wyman (b. 1936 William George Perks)

==Nearest places==
* [[Sydenham, London, England|Sydenham]]
* [[Crystal Palace, London, England|Crystal Palace]]
* [[Anerley, London, England|Anerley]]
* [[Upper Norwood, London, England|Upper Norwood]]
* [[Beckenham, London, England|Beckenham]]
* [[South Norwood, London|South Norwood]]

==Nearest railway stations==
* [[Penge East railway station]]
* [[Penge West railway station]]
* [[Clock House railway station]]
* [[Anerley railway station]]
* [[Birkbeck railway station]]

==External Links==
* [http://www.ideal-homes.org.uk/bromley/penge.htm The history of Penge]

[[Category:Districts of London]]
[[Category:Bromley]]

Max Aub

2005-05-19T08:39:58Z

62.6.139.10: /* Leben */

'''Max Aub''' (* [[2. Juni]] [[1903]] in [[Paris]]; † [[23. Juli]] [[1972]] in [[Mexiko-Stadt]]) war ein spanischer Schriftsteller.

== Leben ==

Trotz seiner Deutschstämmigkeit gilt Aub als spanischer Schriftsteller. Die ursprüngliche Herkunft der Familie väterlicherseits und Namensgeberin ist die fränkische Kleinstadt [[Aub]], in deren jüdischer Gemeinde sich die Vorfahren von Max Aub bis ins frühe 18. Jahrhundert zurückverfolgen lassen. Sein Vater ist der deutsche Handelsvertreter [[Friedrich Aub]] aus München und seine Mutter [[Susanne Mohrenwitz]] aus Paris. Hier verlebt Aub auch eine bürgerliche Kindheit und seine Schulzeit am [[Collège Rollin]].

Zu Beginn des ersten Weltkriegs wird der Vater zur ''persona non grata'' erklärt und die Familie flieht deshalb nach Spanien. Aub beendet seine Schulzeit in [[Valencia]] und wird Handelsvertreter gleich seinem Vater.

Schon in seiner Schulzeit abonniert Aub mehrere literarische Zeitschriften und beginnt auch selbst zu schreiben. Im Lauf seiner spanischen Jahre schließt er Freundschaft mit [[Jorge Guillén]], [[Gerardo Diego]], [[Federico Garcia Lorca]], [[Enrique Diez-Canedo]] und [[Luis Buñuel]].

1926 heiratet Aub in Valencia [[Perpetua Barjau Martin]]. Mit ihr hat er drei Töchter. Ein Jahr später übernimmt er das Geschäft seines Vaters und tritt auch in die sozialistische Partei ein. In dieser Zeit macht er sich auch am Theater einen Namen.

1936 bereitet er in Spanien einen internationalen Schriftstellerkongress vor und wird als Kulturattaché an die spanische Botschaft in Paris entsandt. Als solcher erteilt Aub ganz offiziell [[Pablo Picasso]] den Auftrag für das Bild ''Guernica''. Dieses Gemälde präsentiert Aub 1937 auf der Weltausstellung im spanischen Pavillon der Öffentlichkeit.

1938/39 wird Aub in Frankreich immer wieder interniert. In diesen Jahren wird ihm die Freundschaft mit [[Henri Matisse]] [[André Malraux]] und [[André Gide]] deshalb sehr wichtig. Im November 1941 wird Aub nach Algerien deportiert und kann erst durch Intervention von [[John Dos Passos]] nach Mexiko ausreisen.

In Mexiko-Stadt lehrt Aub an der Akademie Film- und Thewaterwissenschaft. Auch leitet er einige Jahre einen Radiosender. Einige Jahre sitzt Aub auch in der Jury der Filmfestspiele von [[Cannes]]. Hier in Mexiko schließt er mit der Zeit Freundschaft mit [[Alfonso Reyes]], [[Octavio Paz]] und [[Carlos Fuentes]].

Im Auftrag der [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] gründet er in Israel ein Institut für lateinamerikanische Literatur. Seit 1949 publiziert Aub im Selbstverlag die Zeitschrift ''Sala de espera'' (Wartesaal). Dieser Titel gibt Aubs Hoffnung wieder, eines Tages nach Spanien zurück zu können. Erst drei Jahre vor seinem Tod ergab sich diese Gelegenheit, aber Francos Spanien war nicht mehr Aubs Spanien.

Max Aub stirbt am 23. Juli 1972 in Mexiko-Stadt.

== Werke ==

*Jusep Torres Campalans (1997)
*Das magische Labyrinth (Mehrere Werke: 1943-1968)

== Literatur ==

*Max Aub / hrsg. von Ignacio Soldevila Durante. - Madrid : Ed. Complutense, 1999
*Wright, Lucinda W.: Max Aub and tragedy. - New York : Univ., 1986

[[Kategorie:Mann|Aub, Max]]
[[Kategorie:Spanier|Aub, Max]]
[[Kategorie:Autor|Aub, Max]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1903|Aub, Max]]
[[Kategorie:Gestorben 1972|Aub, Max]]

[[es:Max Aub]]

{{Personendaten|
NAME=Aub, Max
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=spanischer Schriftsteller
|GEBURTSDATUM=[[2. Juni]] [[1903]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[Paris]]
|STERBEDATUM=[[23. Juli]] [[1972]]
|STERBEORT=[[Mexiko-Stadt]]
}}

Betanzos

2005-04-25T12:31:18Z

62.6.139.10:

'''Betanzos''' ist eine Stadt in der zur spanischen Autonomen Region [[Galicien]] gehörenden Provinz [[A Coruña (Provinz)|A Coruña]]. Die Stadt liegt etwa 25 Kilometer entfernt von der Provinzhauptstadt [[A Coruña]]. Sie befindet sich auf einem Hügel nahe der Mündung des Flusses Mandeo in den Atlantik. Betanzos hat 12900 Einwohner (2004).

Während der römischen Besetzung der [[iberische Halbinsel|iberischen Halbinsel]] wurde die Stadt unter dem Namen ''Brigantium'' gegründet.

[[Kategorie:Ort in Galicien]]

Abadín

2005-04-25T12:11:19Z

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{| border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" align="right" style="margin-left:1em; background:#e3e3e3;"
| align="center" style="background:#e3e3e3;" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;" | '''Abadín'''
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| align="center" | [[Bild:Wappen_fehlt.jpg|100px|Wappen fehlt]]
| align="center" | [[Bild:Spanien_Abadin.PNG|150px|Abadín (Galicien)]]
|-----
! colspan="2" bgcolor="#e3e3e3" | Basisdaten
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Staat]]: || [[Spanien]]
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Autonome Region (Spanien)|Region]]: || [[Galicien]]
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Provinz (Spanien)|Provinz]]: || [[Lugo (Provinz)|Lugo]]
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Einwohner]]: || 3.250
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Fläche]]: || 196,1 [[Quadratkilometer|km²]]
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Höhe]]: || ? m ü. [[Normalnull|NN]]
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Postleitzahl]]: || 27730
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Internationale Telefonvorwahl|Telefonvorwahl]]:
| (+34) 982
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| valign="top" | [[Geografische Lage]]:
| 43° 22' nördl. Breite 7° 29' östl. Länge
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| [[Kfz-Kennzeichen (Spanien)|KFZ-Kennzeichen]]: || <code>LU</code>
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| Nächster [[Flughafen]]: || [[Flughafen A Coruña]]
|----- bgcolor="#FFFFFF"
| align="center" style="background:#e3e3e3;" colspan="2" style="border-bottom:3px solid gray;" | Homepage der Stadt Abadín
|}
'''Abadín''' ist eine [[Spanien|spanische]] Kleinstadt in der Provinz [[Lugo (Provinz)|Lugo]] der [[Autonome Region (Spanien)|autonomen Region]] [[Galicien]].

== Geographie ==

Die Gemeinde befindet sich im Land von [[Terra Chá]], sie wird durch die gebirgigen Sektoren [[Xistral]] und [[Neda]] und die Flüsse von Labrador und von Abadín gekreuzt. Die durchschnittliche Höhe ist ungefähr 500 m, aber der Punkt der größten Höhe ist Lombo Pequeno an 1.015 m.

[[Kategorie:Ort in Galicien]]

[[en:Abadín, Lugo]]
[[fr:Abadín]]
[[gl:Abadín]]
[[it:Abadín]]
[[nl:Abadín]]