https://de.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=62.254.128.6 Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de] 2025-05-06T07:35:11Z Benutzerbeiträge MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.27 https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BLISS_(Programmiersprache)&diff=71442933 BLISS (Programmiersprache) 2005-05-20T19:58:09Z <p>62.254.128.6: typo fix</p> <hr /> <div>[[no:BLISS]]<br /> <br /> '''BLISS''' is a [[system programming language]] developed at [[Carnegie-Mellon]] by [[W. A. Wulf]], [[D. B. Russell]], and [[A. N. Habermann]] around [[1970]]. It was perhaps the best known systems programming language right up until [[C programming language|C]] made its debut a few years later. Since then, C took off and BLISS faded into obscurity. (When C was in its infancy, a few projects within [[Bell Labs]] were debating the merits of BLISS vs. C.)<br /> <br /> BLISS is a typeless block-structured language based on expressions rather than statements, and includes constructs for [[exception handling]], [[coroutine]]s, and [[macro]]s. It does not include a [[goto]] statement.<br /> <br /> The name is variously said to be short for &quot;Basic Language for Implementation of System Software&quot; or &quot;System Software Implementation Language, Backwards&quot;. It was sometimes called &quot;Bill's Language for Implementing System Software&quot;,<br /> after Bill Wulf. <br /> <br /> The original CMU [[compiler]] was notable for its extensive use of [[compiler optimization|optimization]]s, and formed the basis of the classic book ''[[The Design of an Optimizing Compiler]]''.<br /> <br /> [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] developed and maintained BLISS compilers for the [[PDP-10]], [[PDP-11]], and [[VAX]], and used it heavily in-house into the [[1980s]]; most of the utility programs for the [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] [[operating system]] were written in BLISS-32.<br /> <br /> == Versions ==<br /> <br /> * BLISS-10<br /> * BLISS-11 - a [[cross compiler]] for the PDP-11<br /> * BLISS-16<br /> * BLISS-16C - DEC version of BLISS-11<br /> * BLISS-32<br /> * BLISS-36<br /> * Common BLISS - portable subset<br /> <br /> == References ==<br /> <br /> * Wulf, W. A.; Russell, D. B.; Habermann, A. N. (1971). ''BLISS: A Language for Systems Programming''. [[Communications of the ACM|CACM]] 14(12):780-790, Dec 1971<br /> * Wulf, W. A.; Johnson, R. K.; Weinstock, C. B.; Hobbs, S. O.; Geschke, C. M. (1975). ''The Design of an Optimizing Compiler''. New York: Elsevier.<br /> <br /> == External links ==<br /> <br /> * [http://decus.decus.de:8080/htbin/webbook/PUBLIC$ROOT%3a%5bUTIL.BLISS%5d4358pro.p7.#1 BLISS Manual at DECUS]<br /> * [http://63.249.85.132/langs Site with PDFs of manuals]<br /> * [http://compilers.iecc.com/comparch/article/87-07-029 Alan Lehotsky posting about BLISS at DEC]<br /> * [http://avmp01.mppmu.mpg.de/HTBIN/BOOK/4358PRO.DECW$BOOK BLISS Language Reference Manual]<br /> <br /> [[Category:Programming languages]]<br /> [[Category:Historical programming languages]]</div> 62.254.128.6 https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medizin_des_Mittelalters&diff=85704350 Medizin des Mittelalters 2005-03-13T14:51:41Z <p>62.254.128.6: /* Theories of medicine */</p> <hr /> <div>'''Medieval medicine''' was an evolving mixture of [[science|the scientific]] and the spiritual. In the early [[middle ages]], following the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Ideas about the origin and cure of [[disease]] were not, however, purely [[secular]], but were also based on a [[spirituality|spiritual]] world view, in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical cause. <br /> <br /> In this era, there was no clear tradition of scientific medicine, and accurate observations went hand-in-hand with spiritual beliefs as part of the practice of medicine.<br /> <br /> ===Influences===<br /> <br /> In the early period there was no single, organised, strand of medieval medicine. Instead someone struck down by [[injury]] or disease could turn to folk medicine, prayer, astrology, spells, mysticism, or to an established [[physician]] if such were available to him. The boundaries between each profession were loose and movable. Classical medical texts, such as those by [[Galen]], were widely used on the basis of authority rather than experimental confirmation.<br /> <br /> As [[Christianity]] grew in influence, a tension developed between the church and folk-medicine, since much in folk medicine was magical, or [[mysticism|mystical]], and had its basis in sources that were not compatible with Christian faith. [[Spell]]s and incantations were used in conjunction with herbs and other remedies. Such spells had to be separated from the physical remedies, or replaced with Christian prayers or devotions. Similarly, the dependence upon the power of herbs or gems needed to be explained through Christianity and only Christianity.<br /> <br /> The church taught that God often sent illness as a punishment, and that repenting would cure all ills. This led to the practice of penance and pilgrimage as a means of curing illness.<br /> <br /> ===The medieval system===<br /> <br /> Starting in the areas least affected by the disruption of the fall of the western empire, a unified theory of medicine began to develop, based largely on the writings of the [[Greece|Greek]] physicians such as [[Hippocrates]], [[460 BC]] - [[377 BC]], and [[Galen]], born in [[130]]. Hippocrates wrote about [[disease]]s, [[surgery]], and bone fractures as well as [[human anatomy]]. Galen wrote more than 500 treatises on physiology, [[hygiene]], [[dietetics]], [[pathology]], and [[pharmacology]], and is credited with the discovery of how the [[spinal cord]] controls various [[muscle]]s. From his dissections, he described the [[heart]] valves and determined the purpose of the [[urinary bladder | bladder]] and [[kidney]]s.<br /> <br /> [[Anglo-Saxon]] translations of classical works like [[Dioscorides]] ''Herbal'' survive from the 10th Century, showing the persistence of elements of classical medical knowledge. Compendiums like Bald's ''Leechbook'' (circa [[900]]), include citations from a variety of classical works alongside local folk remedies.<br /> <br /> Although in the [[Byzantine Empire]] the organised practice of medicine never ceased, the revival of methodical medical instruction from standard texts in the west can be traced to the church-run college of [[Salerno]] in Southern Italy in the [[Eleventh Century]], where Latin, Greek and Arabic texts translated at the nearby monastic centre of [[Monte Cassino]] were readily available. The Salernitan masters gradually established a canon of writings, known as the [[Ars medica]], which became the basis of European medical education for several centuries, even though by the [[Thirteenth Century]] medical leadership had passed to the newer universities of Paris and Montpelier.<br /> <br /> By the Thirteenth Century many European towns were demanding that physicians have several years of study or training before they could practice. [[Surgery]] had a lower status than pure medicine, beginning as a craft tradition until [[Roger Frugardi]] of [[Parma]] composed his treatise on ''Surgery'' around about [[1180]]. This led to a stream of Italian works of greater scope over the next hundred years, later spreading to the rest of Europe.<br /> <br /> During the [[Crusades]] European medicine began to be influenced by [[Arab medicine]]. Arab commentators often saw European medical practises as barbaric and superstitious; [[Usamah ibn Munqidh]] for example visited sick or injured European pilgrims who eventually died due to their own doctors' practises.<br /> <br /> The great crisis in European medicine came with the [[Black Death]] epidemic in the 14th century. Prevailing medical theories focused on religious rather than scientific explanations - all to no avail since about half the population of Europe was wiped out.<br /> <br /> ===Theories of medicine===<br /> <br /> The underlying principle of medieval medicine was the theory of [[four humours|humours]]. This was derived from the ancient medical works, and dominated all western medicine up until the [[19th century]]. The theory stated that within every individual there were four '''humours''', or principal fluids - black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood, these were produced by various organs in the body, and they had to be in balance for a person to remain healthy. Too much phlegm in the body, for example, caused lung problems; and the body tried to cough up the phlegm to restore a balance. The balance of humours in humans could be achieved by diet, medicines, and by blood-letting, using leeches. <br /> <br /> {| border=1<br /> | HUMOUR<br /> | TEMPER<br /> | ORGAN<br /> | NATURE<br /> | ELEMENT<br /> |-<br /> | Black bile<br /> | Melancholic<br /> | Spleen<br /> | Cold Dry<br /> | Earth<br /> |-<br /> | Phlegm<br /> | Phlegmatic<br /> | Lungs<br /> | Cold Wet<br /> | Water<br /> |-<br /> | Blood<br /> | Sanguine<br /> | Head<br /> | Warm Wet<br /> | Air<br /> |-<br /> | Yellow bile<br /> | Choleric<br /> | Gall Bladder<br /> | Warm Dry<br /> | Fire<br /> |}<br /> <br /> <br /> The [[astrology|astrological]] signs of the [[zodiac]] were also thought to be associated with certain humours. Even now, some still use words &quot;choleric&quot;, &quot;sanguine&quot;, &quot;phlegmatic&quot; and &quot;melancholy&quot; to describe personalities. <br /> <br /> The use of herbs dovetailed naturally with this system, the success of herbal remedies being ascribed to their action upon the humours within the body. The use of herbs also drew upon the medieval Christian doctrine of [[signature]]s which stated that God had provided some form of alleviation for every ill, and that these things, be they animal, vegetable or mineral, carried a mark or a ''signature'' upon them that gave an indication of their usefulness. For example, the seeds of Skullcap (used as a headache remedy) can appear to look like miniature skulls; and the white spotted leaves of Lungwort (used for tuberculosis) bear a similarity to the lungs of a diseased patient. A large number of such resemblances are believed to exist.<br /> <br /> Most [[monastery|monasteries]] developed herb gardens for use in the production of herbal cures, and these remained a part of folk medicine, as well as being used by some professional physicians. Books of herbal remedies were produced, one of the most famous being the Welsh, ''Red Book of Hergest'', dating from around [[1400]].<br /> <br /> ===The healers===<br /> <br /> Healers throughout the medieval period could come in many varieties. <br /> <br /> '''Physicians''' who studied the works of the Greek masters at Universities, were the elite of the medical profession in the middle ages. However few people other than the well-off or the nobility had regular access to these. Physicians diagnosed their patients by close examination of their blood, urine and stools, and determined their ''complexion'' or balance of humours. They could prescribe medicines, or bloodletting from various parts of the body to rectify the balance of humours. Physicians could also attempt surprisingly complex operations like [[trepanation]] of the skull, to relieve pressure on the brain, or the removal of eye cataracts.<br /> <br /> '''Folk Healers''' passed on their knowledge from master to apprentice, and were more accessible to the peasant or labourer than physicians. Unregulated, but knowledgeable on herbs and folk-remedies, they were gradually excluded from the medical system.<br /> <br /> '''Monastic Medicine''' Monasteries played a big part in the provision of medieval medicine. Virtually every monastery had an [[infirmary]] for the monks or nuns, and this led to provision being made for the care of secular patients. Almost a half of the [[hospital]]s in medieval Europe were directly affiliated with monasteries, priories or other religious institutions. Many of the rest imitated religious communities, formulated precise rules of conduct, required a uniform type of dress, and integrated worship services into their daily routine.<br /> <br /> The term ''hospital'' encompassed hostels for travellers, dispensaries for poor relief, clinics and surgeries for the injured, and homes for the blind, lame, elderly, and mentally ill. Monastic hospitals developed many treatments, both therapeutic and spiritual. Patients were supposed to help each other through prayer and calm, perhaps benefiting as much from this as from any physical treatment offered. <br /> <br /> The [[12th century]] saw the establishment of the [[Knights Hospitaller]], a unique mixture of monastic, military, and medical life. The Hospitallers ran hospitals in [[Jerusalem]] and elsewhere in the [[Crusader states]], and their order eventually spread to the rest of Europe as well.<br /> <br /> '''Saints''' Saints were also used to heal the sick. Although healing by saints (miracles) would not be considered medicine today, in medieval times, this method was just as valid as any other form of healing. Approximately 2/3 of the people who went to saints for healing were peasants (as defined by R.C Finucane). Saints were often called upon when other remedies would not be found in time (for instance, accidental death). They were rarely called upon for longtime illnesses, such as birth defects. In these cases, saints were often used when all else had failed. Once [[canonization]] was established, the church would only recognize canonized saints as legitimate miracle makers, however, this did not always stop people from going to non-canonized &quot;saints&quot;.<br /> <br /> '''Women''' During the early Middle Ages, it is probable that there were as many women involved in the practice of medicine as men. However, the professionalisation of medicine in the later medieval period, and the development of university faculties of medicine excluded women from the profession. Women continued to function as [[midwife|midwives]], however, throughout the period. A midwife generally learned her trade apprenticed to a more experienced midwife, or else was taught by a father or husband who was a physician. The only qualification needed was a statement from a parish priest declaring that she was of good character. <br /> <br /> Women also served as nurses in the monastic orders, although there were also some secular nurses, caring for the physical needs of patients.<br /> <br /> ===Later developments===<br /> <br /> During the period of the [[Renaissance]] from the mid [[1450s]] onward, there were many advances in medical practice. The [[Italy|Italian]] [[Girolamo Fracastoro]], [[1478]] - [[1553]], was the first to propose that epidemic diseases might be caused by objects outside the [[body]] that could be transmitted by direct or indirect contact. He also discovered new treatments for diseases such as [[syphilis]]. <br /> <br /> In [[1543]] the Flemish Scholar [[Andreas Vesalius]] wrote the first complete textbook on human [[anatomy]]: &quot;De Humani Corporis Fabrica&quot;, meaning &quot;On the Fabric of the Human Body&quot;. Much later, in [[1628]], [[William Harvey]] explained the [[circulation of blood]] through the body in veins and arteries. It was previously thought that blood was the product of [[food]] and was absorbed by muscle tissue.<br /> <br /> During the [[1500]]'s, [[Paracelsus]], like [[Girolamo Fracastoro|Girolamo]], discovered that illness was caused by agents outside the body such as [[bacterium|bacteria]], not by imbalances within the body.<br /> <br /> [[Leonardo Da Vinci]] also had a large impact on medical advances during the Renaissance. Born on [[April 15]]th, [[1452]], Da Vinci's approach to science was based on detailed observation. He participated in several [[autopsy|autopsies]] and created many detailed anatomical drawings, planning a major work of comparative human anatomy. Until the [[16th century]] human dissection was restricted because the church felt that it was disrespectful to [[God]]. Once these restrictions were lifted [[anatomy]] became an essential part of a doctor&amp;#8217;s training. <br /> <br /> The French army doctor [[Ambroise Pare]], born in [[1510]], revived the ancient Greek method of tying off blood vessels. After amputation the common procedure was to cauterize the open end of the amputated appendage to stop the haemorrhaging. This was done by heating [[oil]], [[water]], or [[metal]] and touching it to the wound to seal off the blood vessels. Pare also believed in dressing wounds with clean bandages and ointments, including on he made himself composed of [[Egg (food)|egg]]s, oil of [[rose]]s, and [[turpentine]]. He was the first to design artificial [[hand]]s and [[limb]]s for amputation patients. On one of the artificial hands, the two pairs of fingers could be moved for simple grabbing and releasing tasks and the hand look perfectly natural underneath a glove.<br /> <br /> Medical catastrophes were more common in the Renaissance than they are today. During the Renaissance, [[trade route]]s were the perfect means of transportation for disease. Before the [[Spain|Spanish]] came to [[United States|America]] and [[Mexico]], the deadly germs of [[smallpox]], [[measles]], and [[influenza]] were unheard of. The [[Native Americans]] did not have the immunities the [[Europeans]] developed through long contact with the diseases. [[Christopher Columbus]] ended the Americas' isolation in [[1492]] while sailing under the flag of [[Castile]], [[Spain]]. Deadly [[epidemic]]s swept across the [[Caribbean]]. Smallpox wiped out [[village]]s in a matter of [[month]]s. The [[island]] of [[Hispaniola]] had a [[population]] of 250,000 Native Americans. 20 [[year]]s later, the population had dramatically dropped to 6,000. 50 years later, it was estimated that approximately 500 Native Americans were left. Smallpox then spread to Mexico where it then helped destroy the [[Aztec Empire]]. In the first century of Spanish rule in Mexico, [[1500]]-[[1600]], Central and [[South America]]ns died by the millions. By [[1650]], 85[[percentage|%]] of Mexico's population had perished. <br /> <br /> Throughout history, civilization has been affected by disease, religious practice, and innovations. Obviously, without medical geniuses and innovations, civilization would not be what it is today.<br /> <br /> <br /> == References: ==<br /> ''The Greatest Benefit to Mankind. A medical history of humanity from antiquity to the present.'' [[Roy Porter]]. ''HaperCollins 1997''<br /> <br /> [[Category:History of medicine]]<br /> <br /> [[Category:Middle Ages]]</div> 62.254.128.6