Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Swraj Paul, Baron Paul

2008-10-07T11:00:47Z

59.145.136.1: Unnecessary mention of 'caste'.

{{references|date=September 2008}}

'''Swraj Paul, Baron Paul''' (born [[1931]]) is an [[India]]n-born, [[Great Britain|British]]-based business magnate and [[philanthropist]]. He was knighted by the Queen in [[1978]]. In [[1996]] he became a [[life peer]], i.e. a member of the [[House of Lords]], taking the title '''Baron Paul''' of [[Marylebone]] in the City of [[Westminster]].

==Background==

Swraj Paul was born in [[Jalandhar]], [[Punjab (India)]] in 1931. His father ran a small [[foundry]], making steel buckets and farming equipment. Swraj Paul was educated at the [[Punjab University]] and later obtained a Master's degree in [[mechanical engineering]] from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) in the [[United States|US]].

On his return to India, Swraj joined the [[Apeejay]] Group, which his father had founded. It was a twist of fate that he had to visit [[London]] to get his daughter treated for [[leukemia]]. He took over the operations of Apeejay Overseas and relocated permanently to London in [[1966]]. After the Apeejay family partition, Lord Swraj Paul renamed the company Caparo. From acquiring one steel unit, he went on to acquire more and founded the [[Caparo|Caparo group]] in [[1978]], which developed into one of the leading producers of welded steel tube and spiral welded pipe in the [[United Kingdom]]. He stepped down from the management of the Caparo group in 1996, handing over his empire to his three sons.

Despite being one of the richest people in the UK, Lord Paul lives a simple life.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} In his memoirs, 'Beyond Boundaries', Lord Paul reflects on the main events of his life. It contains the details of his business career, including his attempted takeover of the DCM and Escorts group, and his association with the famous and the mighty, including the Indian political dynasty of [[Indira Gandhi]] (whose biography he wrote) and her sons Sanjeey "Sanjay" Gandhi and Rajiv Gandhi. He advocated the merits of free and open trade policies at a time when these terms invited withering contempt from the high and mighty of Indian political bureaucracy.

Lord Paul has received various awards and honours. He was awarded the [[Padma Bhushan]] by Indira Gandhi in [[1983]] and the Bharat Gaurav award by the Indian Merchant's Chamber. He holds the Pro-Chancellorship of [[Thames Valley University]] (1998) and its Governorship (1992-97), and the Chancellorship of the [[University of Wolverhampton]] and the [[University of Westminster]]. He is a member of the [[Foreign Policy Centre]] Advisory Council and MIT's Mechanical Engineering Visiting Committee. He is the chairman of the Olympic Delivery Committee with the key task of initiating measures to acquire land and provide infra-structure for the [[London Olympics]] 2012.He recently contested for the chairmanship of CommonWealth Parliamentary Association(CPA) and lost to Indonesian Minister.His agenda was to reduce the gap between the west and the east.He is the current British Parliamentarian and Labour member of House of Lords.

Lord Paul is also an Honorary Patron of [[ZSL]] and has funded major projects at the Regent's Park site.

His sons have ambitious plans in India, moving ahead aggressively in business projects.

A note to legal enthusiasts: Swaraj Paul is the owner of the Caparo firm which later on had a dispute with Dickman auditors. This case went down in English history as being the landmark case for establishing negligence and duty of care.

==Trivia==
{{Trivia|date=January 2008}}
* In April 2005 Lord Paul made headlines when he decided to pull out all stops for the wedding reception of the year for his youngest son Angad at London's [[Lancaster House]]. The wedding itself took place in [[London Zoo]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
* He sent his sons, twins Ambar and Akash, 47, and Angad, to [[Harrow School|Harrow]].
* Lord Paul is a strict [[vegetarian]].
* The industrialist donated twenty [[lakh]] rupees (approx. £ 25000) to the victims of the October 2005 earthquake in India's Jammu and Kashmir.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} and at least £ 20000 to Gordon Brown for his campaign to become Prime Minister. He is not domiciled in the UK for tax purposes.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Paul, Swraj}}
[[Category:1931 births]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
[[Category:Life peers|Paul]]
[[Category:Living people|Paul, Swraj]]
[[Category:Indian businesspeople|Paul, Swraj]]
[[Category:Indian writers|Paul, Swraj]]
[[Category:Padma Bhushan recipients|Paul, Swraj]]
[[Category:British Hindus|Paul, swraj]]
[[Category:People associated with the University of Westminster|Paul, swraj]]
[[Category:People associated with the University of Wolverhampton|Paul, swraj]]
[[Category:People from Jalandhar]]
[[Category:Businesspeople of Indian descent]]
[[Category:British billionaires]]
[[Category:British vegetarians]]

Abstraktion (Informatik)

2008-09-29T09:18:01Z

59.145.136.1: /* Object-oriented design */

In [[computer science]], '''abstraction''' is a mechanism and practice to reduce and factor out details so that one can focus on a few concepts at a time.

The following English definition of abstraction helps to understand how this term applies to Computer Science, IT and Objects - i.e. abstraction is:

A concept or idea not associated with any specific instance

The concept is by analogy with [[abstraction (mathematics)|abstraction]] in [[mathematics]]. The mathematical technique of abstraction begins with mathematical [[definition]]s; this has the fortunate effect of finessing some of the vexing philosophical issues of [[abstraction]]. For example, in both computing and in mathematics, [[number]]s are concepts in the [[programming language]]s, as founded in mathematics. Implementation details depend on the hardware and software, but this is not a restriction because the computing concept of number is still based on the mathematical concept.

Roughly speaking, abstraction can be either that of control or data. '''Control abstraction''' is the abstraction of actions while '''data abstraction''' is that of data structures (e.g. datatypes [vectors & pixels]. '''Control abstraction''' in the case of [[structured programming]] is the use of [[subprogram]]s and formatted [[control flow]]s to simulate desired concepts of surreal features or interactions in reality or abstract world. '''Data abstraction''' is to allow for handling data bits in meaningful manners. For example, it is the basic motivation behind [[datatype]]. [[Object-oriented programming]] can be seen as an attempt to abstract both data and code.

==Rationale==
Computing is mostly independent of the concrete world: The hardware implements a [[model of computation]] that is interchangeable with others. The software is structured in [[software architecture|architecture]]s to enable humans to create the enormous systems by concentration on a few issues at a time. These architectures are made of specific choices of abstractions. [[Greenspun's Tenth Rule]] is an [[aphorism]] on how such an architecture is both inevitable and complex.

A central form of abstraction in computing is the language abstraction: new artificial languages are developed to express specific aspects of a system. ''[[Modelling languages]]'' help in planning. ''[[Computer language]]s'' can be processed with a computer. An example of this abstraction process is the generational development of [[programming language]]s from the [[First-generation programming language|machine language]] to the [[Second-generation programming language|assembly language]] and the [[Third-generation programming language|high-level language]]. Each stage can be used as a stepping stone for the next stage. The language abstraction continues for example in [[scripting language]]s and [[domain-specific programming language]]s.

Within a programming language, some features let the programmer create new abstractions. These include the [[subroutine]], the [[module (programming)|module]], and the [[software component]]. Some other abstractions such as [[software design pattern]]s and [[software architecture#Architecture examples|architectural styles]] are not visible to a programming language but only in the design of a system.

Some abstractions try to limit the breadth of concepts a programmer needs by completely hiding the abstractions they in turn are built on. [[Joel Spolsky]] has criticised these efforts by claiming that all abstractions are ''[[leaky abstraction|leaky]]'' — that they are never able to completely hide the details below. Some abstractions are designed to interoperate with others, for example a programming language may contain a [[foreign function interface]] for making calls to the lower-level language.

==Language features==
===Programming languages===
{{main|Programming language}}

Different programming languages provide different types of abstraction, depending on the applications for which the language is intended. For example:
* In [[object-oriented programming language]]s such as [[C++]], [[Object Pascal]], or [[Java (programming language)|Java]], the concept of '''abstraction''' is itself a declarative statement, using the [[keyword (computer programming)|keyword]]s ''<code>virtual</code>'' or ''<code>abstract</code>'', respectively. After such a declaration, it is the responsibility of the programmer to implement a [[Class (computer science)|class]] to instantiate the [[Object (computer science)|object]] of the declaration.
* In [[functional programming language]]s, it is common to find abstractions related to functions, such as [[lambda abstraction]]s (making a term into a function of some variable), [[higher-order function]]s (parameters are functions), [[bracket abstraction]] (making a term into a function of a variable). 
* The [[Linda (coordination language)|Linda]] abstracts the concepts of ''server'' and ''shared data-space'' to facilitate distributed programming.

===Specification methods===
{{main|Formal Specification methods}}

There are various methods that have been developed to formally specify software systems. Some known methods are :
Abstract model based method (VDM, Z);
Algebraic techniques (Larch, CLEAR, OBJ, ACT ONE);
Process based techniques (LOTOS, SDL, Estelle);
Trace base techniques (SPECIAL, TAM);
Knowledge based techniques (Refine, Gist).

===Specification languages===
{{main|Specification language}}

Specification languages generally rely on abstractions of one kind or another, since specifications are typically defined earlier in a project, and at a more abstract level, than an eventual implementation. The [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]] specification language, for example, allows the definition of ''abstract'' classes, which are simply left abstract during the architecture and specification phase of the project.

==Control abstraction==
{{main|Control flow}}

Control abstraction is one of the main purposes of using programming languages. Computer machines understand operations at the very low level such as moving some bits from one location of the memory to another location and producing the sum of two sequences of bits. Programming languages allow this to be done in the higher level. For example, consider the high-level expression/program statement:

:<code>a := (1 + 2) * 5</code>

To a human, this is a fairly simple and obvious calculation (''"one plus two is three, times five is fifteen"''). However, the low-level steps necessary to carry out this evaluation, and return the value "15", and then assign that value to the variable "a", are actually quite subtle and complex. The values need to be converted to binary representation (often a much more complicated task than one would think) and the calculations decomposed (by the compiler or interpreter) into assembly instructions (again, which are much less intuitive to the programmer: operations such as shifting a binary register left, or adding the binary complement of the contents of one register to another, are simply not how humans think about the abstract arithmetical operations of addition or multiplication). Finally, assigning the resulting value of "15" to the variable labeled "a", so that "a" can be used later, involves additional 'behind-the-scenes' steps of looking up a variable's label and the resultant location in physical or virtual memory, storing the binary representation of "15" to that memory location, etc. etc.

Without control abstraction, a programmer would need to specify ''all'' the register/binary-level steps each time she simply wanted to add or multiply a couple of numbers and assign the result to a variable. This duplication of effort has two serious negative consequences: (a) it forces the programmer to constantly repeat fairly common tasks every time a similar operation is needed; and (b) it forces the programmer to program for the particular hardware and instruction set.

===Structured programming===
{{main|Structured programming}}

Structured programming involves the splitting of complex program tasks into smaller pieces with clear flow control and interfaces between components, with reduction of the complexity potential for side-effects.

In a simple program, this may be trying to ensure that loops have single or obvious exit points and trying, where it's most clear to do so, to have single exit points from functions and procedures.

In a larger system, it may involve breaking down complex tasks into many different modules. Consider a system handling payroll on ships and at shore offices:
* The uppermost level may be a menu of typical end user operations.
* Within that could be standalone executables or libraries for tasks such as signing on and off employees or printing checks.
* Within each of those standalone components there could be many different source files, each containing the program code to handle a part of the problem, with only selected interfaces available to other parts of the program. A sign on program could have source files for each data entry screen and the database interface (which may itself be a standalone third party library or a statically linked set of library routines).
*Either the database or the payroll application also has to initiate the process of exchanging data with between ship and shore and that data transfer task will often contain many other components.

These layers produce the effect of isolating the implementation details of one component and its assorted internal methods from the others. This concept was embraced and extended in object-oriented programming.

==Data abstraction==
{{main|Abstract data type}}

'''Data abstraction''' is the enforcement of a clear separation between the ''abstract'' properties of a [[data type]] and the ''concrete'' details of its implementation. The abstract properties are those that are visible to client code that makes use of the data type--the ''interface'' to the data type--while the concrete implementation is kept entirely private, and indeed can change, for example to incorporate efficiency improvements over time. The idea is that such changes are not supposed to have any impact on client code, since they involve no difference in the abstract behaviour.

For example, one could define an [[abstract data type]] called ''lookup table'', where ''keys'' are uniquely associated with ''values'', and values may be retrieved by specifying their corresponding keys. Such a lookup table may be implemented in various ways: as a [[hash table]], a [[binary search tree]], or even a simple linear list. As far as client code is concerned, the abstract properties of the type are the same in each case.

Of course, this all relies on getting the details of the interface right in the first place, since any changes there can have major impacts on client code. Another way to look at this is that the interface forms a ''contract'' on agreed behaviour between the data type and client code; anything not spelled out in the contract is subject to change without notice.


Languages that implement data abstraction include [[Ada programming language|Ada]] and [[Modula-2]]. [[Object-oriented]] languages are commonly claimed to offer data abstraction; however, their [[Inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]] concept tends to put information in the interface that more properly belongs in the implementation; thus, changes to such information ends up impacting client code, leading directly to the [[Fragile binary interface problem]].

==Abstraction in object oriented programming==
{{main|Object (computer science)}}

In [[object-oriented programming]] theory, '''abstraction''' is the facility to define objects that represent abstract "actors" that can perform work, report on and change their state, and "communicate" with other objects in the system. The term [[information hiding|encapsulation]] refers to the hiding of [[state (computer science)|state]] details, but extending the concept of ''data type'' from earlier programming languages to associate ''behavior'' most strongly with the data, and standardizing the way that different data types interact, is the beginning of '''abstraction'''. When abstraction proceeds into the operations defined, enabling objects of different types to be substituted, it is called [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]]. When it proceeds in the opposite direction, inside the types or classes, structuring them to simplify a complex set of relationships, it is called [[Delegation (programming)|delegation]] or [[Inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]].

Various object-oriented programming languages offer similar facilities for abstraction, all to support a general strategy of [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]] in object-oriented programming, which includes the substitution of one [[type in object-oriented programming|type]] for another in the same or similar role. Although it is not as generally supported, a [[configuration in object-oriented programming|configuration]] or image or package may predetermine a great many of these [[Binding (computer science)|binding]]s at [[compile-time]], [[link-time]], or [[loadtime]]. This would leave only a minimum of such bindings to change at [[run-time]].

In [[Common Lisp Object System]] or [[self programming language|self]], for example, there is less of a class-instance distinction, more use of delegation for [[polymorphism in object-oriented programming|polymorphism]], and individual objects and functions are abstracted more flexibly to better fit with a shared functional heritage from [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]].

Another extreme is C++, which relies heavily on [[generic programming|templates]] and [[method overloading|overloading]] and other static bindings at compile-time, which in turn has certain flexibility problems.

Although these are alternate strategies for achieving the same abstraction, they do not fundamentally alter the need to support abstract nouns in code - all programming relies on an ability to abstract verbs as functions, nouns as data structures, and either as processes.

For example, here is a sample [[Java (programming language)|Java]] fragment to represent some common farm "animals" to a level of abstraction suitable to model simple aspects of their hunger and feeding. It defines an <code>Animal</code> class to represent both the state of the animal and its functions:

<source lang=java>
public class Animal extends LivingThing
{
private Location loc;
private double energyReserves;

boolean isHungry() {
return energyReserves < 2.5;
}
void eat(Food f) {
// Consume food
energyReserves += f.getCalories();
}
void moveTo(Location l) {
// Move to new location
loc = l;
}
}
</source>
With the above definition, one could create objects of type <tt>Animal</tt> and call their methods like this:

<source lang=java>
thePig = new Animal();
theCow = new Animal();
if (thePig.isHungry()) {
thePig.eat(tableScraps);
}
if (theCow.isHungry()) {
theCow.eat(grass);
}
theCow.moveTo(theBarn);
</source>
In the above example, the class ''<code>Animal</code>'' is an abstraction used in place of an actual animal, ''<code>LivingThing</code>'' is a further abstraction (in this case a generalisation) of <code>Animal</code>.

If a more differentiated hierarchy of animals is required to differentiate, say, those who provide milk from those who provide nothing except meat at the end of their lives, that is an intermediary level of abstraction, probably DairyAnimal (cows, goats) who would eat foods suitable to giving good milk, and Animal (pigs, steers) who would eat foods to give the best meat quality.

Such an abstraction could remove the need for the application coder to specify the type of food, so s/he could concentrate instead on the feeding schedule. The two classes could be related using [[Inheritance (computer science)|inheritance]] or stand alone, and varying degrees of [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]] between the two types could be defined. These facilities tend to vary drastically between languages, but in general each can achieve anything that is possible with any of the others. A great many operation overloads, data type by data type, can have the same effect at compile-time as any degree of inheritance or other means to achieve polymorphism. The class notation is simply a coder's convenience.

===Object-oriented design===
{{main|Object-oriented design}}

Decisionss regarding what to abstract and what to keep under the control of the coder are the major concern of object-oriented design and [[domain analysis]]—actually determining the relevant relationships in the real world is the concern of [[object-oriented analysis]] or [[legacy analysis]].

In general, to determine appropriate abstraction, one must make many small decisions about scope, domain analysis, determine what other systems one must cooperate with, legacy analysis, then perform a detailed object-oriented analysis which is expressed within project time and budget constraints as an object-oriented design. In our simple example, the domain is the barnyard, the live pigs and cows and their eating habits are the legacy constraints, the detailed analysis is that coders must have the flexibility to feed the animals what is available and thus there is no reason to code the type of food into the class itself, and the design is a single simple Animal class of which pigs and cows are instances with the same functions. A decision to differentiate DairyAnimal would change the detailed analysis but the domain and legacy analysis would be unchanged—thus it is entirely under the control of the programmer, and we refer to abstraction in object-oriented programming as distinct from abstraction in domain or legacy analysis.

==Considerations==
When discussing [[formal semantics of programming languages]], [[formal methods]] or [[abstract interpretation]], '''abstraction''' refers to the act of considering a less accurate, but safe, definition of the observed program behaviors. For instance, one may observe only the final result of program executions instead of considering all the intermediate steps of executions. Abstraction is defined to a '''concrete''' (more precise) model of execution.

Abstraction may be '''exact''' or '''faithful''' with respect to a property if it is possible to answer a question about the property equally well on the concrete or abstract model. For instance, if we wish to know what the result of the evaluation of a mathematical expression involving only integers +, -, ×, is worth [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''n'', it is sufficient to perform all operations modulo ''n'' (a familiar form of this abstraction is [[casting out nines]]).

Abstractions, however, are not necessarily '''exact''', but one requires that they should be '''sound'''. That is, it should be possible to get sound answers from them—even though the abstraction may simply yield a result of [[undecidability]]. For instance, we may abstract the students in a class by their minimal and maximal ages; if one asks whether a certain person belongs to that class, one may simply compare that person's age with the minimal and maximal ages; if his age lies outside the range, one may safely answer that the person does not belong to the class; if it does not, one may only answer "I don't know".

Abstractions are useful when dealing with computer programs, because non-trivial properties of computer programs are essentially [[undecidable]] (see [[Rice's theorem]]). As a consequence, automatic methods for deriving information on the behavior of computer programs either have to drop termination (on some occasions, they may fail, crash or never yield out a result), soundness (they may provide false information), or precision (they may answer "I don't know" to some questions).

Abstraction is the core concept of [[abstract interpretation]]. [[Model checking]] is generally performed on abstract versions of the studied systems.

==Levels of abstraction==
{{main|Abstraction layer}}

A common concept in computer science is ''levels'' (or, less commonly, ''layers'') of abstraction, wherein each level represents a different model of the same information and processes, but uses a system of expression involving a unique set of objects and compositions that are applicable only to a particular domain.
<ref>[[Luciano Floridi]], [http://www.philosophyofinformation.net/pdf/latmoa.pdf ''Levellism and the Method of Abstraction'']
IEG – Research Report 22.11.04</ref>
Each relatively abstract, "higher" level builds on a relatively concrete, "lower" level, which tends to provide an increasingly "granular" representation. For example, gates build on electronic circuits, binary on gates, machine language on binary, programming language on machine language, applications and operating systems on programming languages. Each level is embodied, but not determined, by the level beneath it, making it a language of description that is somewhat self-contained.

===Database systems===
{{main|Database management system}}

Since many users of database systems are not deeply familiar with computer data structures, database developers often hide complexity through the following levels:

[[Image:Data abstraction levels.png|thumb|Data abstraction levels of a database system]]
'''Physical level:''' The lowest level of abstraction describes ''how'' the data is actually stored. The physical level describes complex low-level data structures in detail.

'''Logical level:''' The next higher level of abstraction describes ''what'' data are stored in the database, and what relationships exist among those data. The logical level thus describes an entire database in terms of a small number of relatively simple structures. Although implementation of the simple structures at the logical level may involve complex physical level structures, the user of the logical level does not need to be aware of this complexity. Database administrators, who must decide what information to keep in a database, use the logical level of abstraction.

'''View level:''' The highest level of abstraction describes only part of the entire database. Even though the logical level uses simpler structures, complexity remains because of the variety of information stored in a large database. Many users of a database system do not need all this information; instead, they need to access only a part of the database. The view level of abstraction exists to simplify their interaction with the system. The system may provide many views for the same database.

===Layered architecture===
The ability to provide a [[design]] of different levels of abstraction can
* simplify the design considerably, and
* enable different role players to effectively work at various levels of abstraction.

This can be used in both [[Systems design|system]] and [[Business process modeling|business process design]]. Some [[Software modeling|design processes]] specifically generate designs that contain various levels of abstraction.

==See also==
* [[Abstraction inversion]] for an anti-pattern of one danger in abstraction
* [[Abstract data type]] for an abstract description of a set of data
* [[Algorithm]] for an abstract description of a computational procedure
* [[Bracket abstraction]] for making a term into a function of a variable
* [[Data modeling]] for structuring data independent of the processes that use it
* [[Encapsulation]] for the categorical dual (other side) of abstraction
* [[Greenspun's Tenth Rule]] for an aphorism about abstracting too much yourself
* [[Higher-order function]] for abstraction of functions as parameters
* [[Lambda abstraction]] for making a term into a function of some variable
* [[Program refinement|Refinement]] for the opposite of abstraction in computing
* [[Substitution]] for the categorical left adjoint (inverse) of abstraction

==Further reading==
* Abelson, Harold, Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman. (1996) ISBN 0-262-01153-0 ''[[Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs]] (Second edition)''. The MIT Press (See [http://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp/full-text/book/book-Z-H-10.html])
* Joel Spolsky. ''[http://www.joelonsoftware.com/articles/LeakyAbstractions.html The Law of Leaky Abstractions]''. 2002-11-11.

{{FOLDOC}}

==Notes==
<references/>

[[Category:Data management]]
[[Category:Programming paradigms]]
[[Category:Articles with example Java code]]

[[af:Abstraksie (rekenaarwetenskap)]]
[[bs:Računarska apstrakcija]]
[[da:Abstraktion (datalogi)]]
[[es:Abstracción (programación orientada a objetos)]]
[[fa:انتزاعی کردن (رایانه)]]
[[fr:Abstraction (informatique)]]
[[ko:추상화 (전산학)]]
[[it:Astrazione (informatica)]]
[[ja:抽象化 (計算機科学)]]
[[pl:Abstrakcja (programowanie)]]
[[pt:Abstração (programação)]]
[[ru:Абстракция данных]]
[[sh:Kompjuterska apstrakcija]]
[[uk:Абстрагування (програмування)]]

Sleep Paralysis

2008-09-24T12:22:00Z

59.145.136.1: /* Folklore */

{{Refimprove|date=February 2008}}
[[Image:John Henry Fuseli - The Nightmare.JPG|thumb|280px|''The Nightmare'', by [[Henry Fuseli]] (1781) is thought to be one of the classic depictions of sleep paralysis perceived as a [[demon]]ic visitation.]]

'''Sleep paralysis''' is a common condition characterized by transient partial or total paralysis of skeletal muscles and [[areflexia]] that occurs upon awakening from sleep or less often while falling asleep. Stimuli such as touch or sound may terminate the episode, which usually has a duration of seconds to minutes. This condition may occur in normal subjects or be associated with [[narcolepsy]], [[cataplexy]], and [[hypnagogic hallucinations]]. The [[pathophysiology]] of this condition is closely related to the normal [[REM atonia|hypotonia]] that occur during [[REM sleep]]<ref>(From Adv Neurol 1995;67:245-271)</ref>. When considered to be a disease, isolated sleep paralysis is classified as [[Medical Subject Headings|MeSH]] D020188.<ref> [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2007/MB_cgi?field=uid&term=D020188 D020188]</ref>

Physiologically, it is closely related to the paralysis that occurs as a natural part of [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM]] (rapid eye movement) sleep, which is known as [[REM atonia]]. Sleep paralysis occurs when the [[brain]] awakes from a REM state, but the bodily paralysis persists. This leaves the person fully conscious, but unable to move. In addition, the state may be accompanied by terrifying hallucinations (hypnopompic or hypnagogic) and an acute sense of danger <ref>Hersen Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref>. Sleep paralysis is particularly frightening to the individual due to the vividness of such hallucinations<ref>Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref>. The [[hallucination|hallucinatory]] element to sleep paralysis makes it even more likely that someone will interpret the experience as a dream, since completely fanciful, or dream-like, objects may appear in the room alongside one's normal vision. Some scientists have proposed this condition as an explanation for [[alien abduction]]s and [[ghost]]ly encounters.<ref name="pmid15881271">{{cite journal |author=McNally RJ, Clancy SA. |title=Sleep Paralysis, Sexual Abuse, and Space Alien Abduction |journal=Transcultural Psychiatry |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=113–122 |year=2005|pmid=15881271 |doi=10.1177/1363461505050715}}</ref> A study by [[Susan Blackmore]] and [[Marcus Cox]] of the [[University of the West of England]] suggested that alien abductions are related to sleep paralysis rather than to [[temporal lobe]] lability.<ref name="ejufoas">{{cite journal | last = Blackmore | first = Susan | authorlink = Susan Blackmore | coauthors = Marcus Cox | title = Alien Abductions, Sleep Paralysis and the Temporal Lobe | journal = European Journal of UFO and Abduction Studies | volume = | issue = 1 | pages = pp. 113-118 | publisher = | location = | date = | url = http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Articles/ejufoas00.html | doi = | id = | accessdate = 2008-07-26}}</ref>

The paralysis can last from several seconds to several minutes "after which the individual may experience panic symptoms and the realization that the distorted perceptions were false" <ref>Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. p. 380</ref>. When there is an absence of [[narcolepsy]], sleep paralysis is referred to as isolated sleep paralysis (ISP) <ref>Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis</ref>. "ISP appears to be far more common and recurrent among African Americans than among White Americans or Nigerian Blacks" <ref>Hersen, Turner & Beidel. (2007) Adult Psychopathology and Diagnosis. p. 380</ref>, and is often referred to within African American communities as "the witch riding your back" <ref>Mattek, (2005) Memoirs p. 34</ref><ref>[http://au.answers.yahoo.com/answers2/frontend.php/question?qid=20071224062255AAqQrR5 Have you ever heard of a devil or a witch riding your back? - Yahoo!7 Answers]</ref>.

==Symptoms==
{{Original research|date=May 2008}}
Symptoms of sleep paralysis can be either one of the following or a combination:

*'''Paralysis:''' this occurs after waking up or shortly before falling asleep. The person cannot move any body part, cannot speak, and only has minimal control over blinking and breathing. This paralysis is the same paralysis that occurs when dreaming. The brain paralyzes the muscles to prevent possible injury during dreams, as some body parts may move during dreaming. If the person wakes up suddenly, the brain may still think that it is dreaming, and sustains the paralysis.

*'''Hallucinations:''' Images or speaking that appear during the paralysis. The person may think that someone is standing beside them or they may hear strange sounds. These may be dreamlike, possibly causing the person to think that they are still dreaming. Often it is reported as feeling a weight on one's chest, as if being underneath a person or heavy object.

These symptoms can last from mere seconds to several minutes (although they can feel like much longer) and can be frightening to the person. There may be some body movement, but it is very unlikely and hard for a person to accomplish.

==Possible causes==

Sleep paralysis occurs during [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM]] sleep, thus preventing the body from manifesting movements made in the subject's dreams. Very little is known about the physiology of sleep paralysis.{{Fact|date=January 2008}} However, some have suggested that it may be linked to post-[[synapse|synaptic]] inhibition of [[motor neuron]]s in the [[pons]] region of the [[brain]].{{Fact|date=January 2008}} In particular, low levels of [[melatonin]] may stop the [[depolarization]] current in the nerves, which prevents the stimulation of the muscles, to prevent the body from enacting the dream activity (e.g. preventing a sleeper from flailing his legs when dreaming about running).{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

Several studies have concluded that many or most people will experience sleep paralysis at least once or twice in their lives.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

Many people who commonly enter sleep paralysis also suffer from [[narcolepsy]]. In [[African-American]]s, [[panic disorder]] occurs with sleep paralysis more frequently than in Caucasians.<ref>
Friedman, S. & Paradis, C. (2002). Panic disorder in African-Americans: Symptomatology and isolated sleep paralysis. Cult Med Psychiatry. 2002 Jun;26(2):179-98 PMID 12211324 </ref>
Some reports read that various factors increase the likelihood of both paralysis and hallucinations. These include:<ref>{{cite web| author= J. A. Cheyne | url=http://watarts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/prevent.html | title= Preventing and Coping with Sleep Paralysis | accessmonthday=17 July | accessyear=2006}}</ref>
* Sleeping in a face upwards or [[supine position]]
* Irregular sleeping schedules; naps, sleeping in, [[sleep deprivation]]
* Increased stress
* Sudden environmental/lifestyle changes
* A [[lucid dream]] that immediately precedes the episode.

==Treatment==
[[Clonazepam]] is highly effective in the treatment of sleep paralysis.<ref>Wills L, Garcia J. (2002) ''Parasomnias: epidemiology and management''16(12):803-10.</ref> The initial dose is 0.5 mg at bedtime, while an increase to 1 mg per night might be necessary to maintain potency.

[[Ritalin]] has been used successfully as a daytime medication to promote structured sleep patterns and the prevention of sleep paralysis in ''some'' adults. Care should be taken to monitor blood pressure along with other appropriate tests. Dosage starts at 20mg per day (morning) increased weekly until episodes diminish.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

==Folklore==
{{Prose|date=March 2008}}
Complete references to many cultures are given in [[Sleep paralysis#References|the References section]]


* In African American culture, isolated sleep paralysis is commonly referred to as "the devil riding your back"
* In the Cambodian, Laotian and Thai culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as "pee umm" and "khmout sukkhot". It describes an event where the person is sleeping and dreams that ghostly figure(s) are either holding him/her down or the ghosts can just be near. The person usually thinks that they are awake but is unable to move or make any noises. This is not to be confused with "pee khao" and "khmout jool" which refers to a ghost possession.
* In [[Hmong people|Hmong]] culture, sleep paralysis describes an experience called "dab tsog" or "crushing demon" from the compound phrase "dab" (demon) and "tsog" (crush). Often the sufferer claims to be able to see a tiny figure, no larger than a child, sitting on his or her chest. What is alarming is that a vast number of American Hmong, mainly males, have died in their sleep prompting the Centers for Disease Control to create the term "Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal Death Syndrome" or "SUNDS" for short.
* In Vietnamese culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as "ma de", meaning "held down by a ghost" or "bong de", meaning "held down by a shadow". Many people in this culture believe that a ghost has entered one's body, causing the paralyzed state.
* In [[Chinese culture]], sleep paralysis is widely known as "鬼壓身/鬼压身" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā shēn) or "鬼壓床/鬼压床" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ yā chuáng), which literally translate into "ghost pressing on body" or "ghost pressing on bed." The modern scientific term, however, is "夢魘/梦魇" ([[pinyin]]: mèng yǎn); notice that the character "魘/魇" ([[pinyin]]: yǎn) is composed of "厭/厌" ([[pinyin]]: yàn), "to detest", and "鬼" ([[pinyin]]: guǐ), "ghost, demon".
* In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] culture, sleep paralysis is referred to as ''kanashibari'' ([http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E7%B8%9B%E3%82%8A 金縛り], literally "bound or fastened in metal," from kane "metal" and shibaru" to bind, to tie, to fasten"). This term is occasionally used by English speaking authors to refer to the phenomenon both in academic papers and in [[popular psychology|pop psych]] literature.
* In [[Hungary|Hungarian]] folk culture sleep paralysis is called "lidércnyomás" ("lidérc pressing") and can be attributed to a number of supernatural entities like "lidérc" (wraith), "boszorkány" (witch), "tündér" (fairy) or "ördögszerető" (demon lover).<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/3-1332.html lidérc], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref> The word "boszorkány" itself stems from the Turkish root "bas-", meaning "to press".<ref>[http://mek.oszk.hu/02100/02115/html/1-925.html boszorkány], Magyar Néprajzi Lexikon, Akadémiai Kiadó, Budapest 1977, ISBN</ref>
* In [[Iceland]] folk culture sleep paralysis is generally called having a "[[Mara (folklore)|Mara]]". Mara is an old Icelandic word for a mare but has taken on the meaning for a sort of a devil that sits on ones chest at night, trying to suffocate the victim.
* In [[Malta]], folk culture attributes a sleep paralysis incident to an attack by the "Haddiela" who is the wife of the "Hares", the entity in Maltese folk culture which haunts the individual in similar ways as to those of a poltergeist. As believed in folk culture, to rid oneself of the Haddiela, one must place a piece of silverware or a knife under the pillow prior to sleep.
*Kurdish people call this phenomenon a "mottaka", they believe that some one, in a form of a ghost or perhaps an evil spirit, turns up on top the of the person in the middle of the night and suffocates him/her. Apparently this happens usually when some one has done something bad.
*In New Guinea, people refer to this phenomenon as "Suk Ninmyo", believed to originate from sacred trees that use human essence to sustain its life. The trees are said to feed on human essence during night as to not disturb the human's daily life, but sometimes people wake unnaturally during the feeding, resulting in the paralysis.
*In [[Turkey|Turkish]] culture, sleep paralysis is often referred to as "karabasan" ("The dark presser/assailer"). It is believed to be a creature which attacks people in their sleep, pressing on their chest and stealing their breath.
*In Mexico, it's believed that sleep paralysis is in fact the spirit of a dead person getting on the person and impeding movement, calling this "se me subió el muerto" (the dead person got on me).
*In many parts of the Southern United States, the phenomenon is known as a "hag", and the event is said to often be a sign of an approaching tragedy or accident.
*Ogun Oru is a traditional explanation for nocturnal disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria; ogun oru (nocturnal warefare) involves an acute night-time disturbance that is culturally attributed to demonic infiltration of the body and psyche during dreaming. Ogun oru is characterized by its occurrence, a female preponderance, the perception of an underlying feud between the sufferer's earthly spouse and a ;spiritual' spouse, and the event of bewitchment through eating while dreaming. The condition is believed to be treatable through Christian prayers or elaborate traditional rituals designed to exorcise the imbibed demonic elements.<ref name="pmid17379609">{{cite journal |author=Aina OF, Famuyiwa OO |title=Ogun Oru: a traditional explanation for nocturnal neuropsychiatric disturbances among the Yoruba of Southwest Nigeria |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=44–54 |year=2007 |pmid=17379609 |doi=10.1177/1363461507074968}}</ref>

*In [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]], it is believed that sleep paralysis occurs when a ghost-like creature or Demon named Mora, Vrahnas or Varypnas (Greek: Μόρα, Βραχνάς, Βαρυπνάς) tries to steal the victim's speech or sits on the victim's chest causing asphyxiation.

* In Zimbabwean Shona culture the word Madzikirira is used to refer something really pressing one down. This mostly refers to the spiritual world in which some spirit--especially an evil one--tries to use its victim for some evil purpose. The people believe that witches can only be people of close relations to be effective, and hence a witches often try to use one's spirit to bewitch one's relatives.

* In Ethiopian culture the word Dukak is used. Dukak is believed to be some form of evil spirit that possesses people during their sleep. This experience is also believed to be related to use of [[Khat]]. Most Khat users experience sleep paralysis when quitting after a long time of use.

* In Ireland it is also known as "the hag." The expression originates from reports of an old woman that was believed to be seen near the sufferer during paralysis.

*Several studies have shown that African-Americans may be predisposed to isolated sleep paralysis also known as "the witch is riding you," or "the haint is riding you."<ref name="pmid6737506">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Shakoor B, Thompson B, Dew D, Hughley E, Mays R, Shorter-Gooden K |title=Prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=76 |issue=5 |pages=501–508 |year=1984 |pmid=6737506}}</ref> In addition, other studies have shown that African-Americans who have frequent episodes of isolated sleep paralysis, i.e., reporting having one or more sleep paralysis episodes per month coined as "sleep paralysis disorder," were predisposed to having panic attacks.<ref name="pmid3746934">{{cite journal |author=Bell CC, Dixie-Bell DD, Thompson B |title=Further studies on the prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis in black subjects |journal=Journal of the National Medical Association |volume=78 |issue=7 |pages=649–659 |year=1986|pmid=3746934}}</ref> This finding has been replicated by other independent researchers<ref name="pmid15881272">{{cite journal |author=Paradis CM, Friedman S |title=Sleep Paralysis in African Americans with Panic Disorder |journal=Transcultural psychiatry |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=692–694 |year=2006 |pmid=15881272 |unused_data=|DOI: 10.1177/1363461505050720}}</ref><ref name="pmid7982696">{{cite journal |author=Friedman S, Paradis CM, Hatch M |title=Characteristics of African-Americans and white patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia |journal=Hospital and Community Psychiatry |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=798–803 |year=1994 |pmid=7982696}}</ref>

* In [[Culture of Pakistan|Pakistan]]i culture, it is an encounter with evil [[Genie|jinn]]s and [[demon]]s. It is also assumed that it is due to the [[black magic]] performed by enemies and jealous persons. [[Curse]]s could also result in [[ghoul]] haunting a person. Some homes and locations are also haunted by these [[Satan|satanic]] beings.

* In Korean Culture, sleep paralysis is known as 가위눌림 ("ga-ui nool-lim"), which means "pressed by a nightmare."

* In [[Tamil_Nadu|Tamil]] and [[Culture of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]n Culture, this particular phenomenon is referred to as 'Amuku Be" or 'Amuku Pei' meaning the ghost that forces one down.

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
* Culhane-Pera, Kathie (2003). Healing by Heart: Clinical and Ethical Case Stories of Hmong Families and Western Providers. Vanderbilt University Press.
*Bower, Bruce (July 9, 2005). "[http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20050709/bob9.asp Night of the Crusher]." ''Science News''.
*Conesa, J. (2000). Geomagnetic, cross-cultural and occupational faces of sleep paralysis: An ecological perspective. ''Sleep and Hypnosis'', 2, (3), 105-111.
*Conesa, J. (2002). Isolated Sleep Paralysis and Lucid Dreaming: Ten-year longitudinal case study and related dream frequencies, types, and categories. ''Sleep and Hypnosis'', 4, (4), 132-143.
*Conesa, J. (2003). Sleep Paralysis Signaling (SPS) As A Natural Cueing Method for the Generation and Maintenance of Lucid Dreaming. Presented at The 83rd Annual Convention of the Western Psychological Association, May 1 - 4, 2003 in Vancouver, BC, Canada.
*Conesa-Sevilla, Jorge (2004). Wrestling With Ghosts: A Personal and Scientific Account of Sleep Paralysis. Pennsylvania: Xlibris/Randomhouse.
*Firestone M. The “Old Hag”: sleep paralysis in Newfoundland. ''The Journal of Psychoanalytic Anthropology'' 1985; 8:47-66.
*Fukuda K, Miyasita A, Inugami M, Ishihara K. High prevalence of isolated sleep paralysis: kanashibari phenomenon in Japan. ''Sleep'' 1987; 10:279-286.
*Hartmann E. The nightmare: the psychology and biology of terrifying dreams. New York:Basic,1984.
*Hufford D.J. The terror that comes in the night: an experience-centered study of supernatural assault traditions. Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982
*Kettlewell, N; Lipscomb, S; Evans, E. (June, 1993). "Differences in neuropsychological correlates between normals and those experiencing "Old Hag Attacks'." ''Perceptual and Motor Skills''. 76 (3 Pt 1): 839-45; discussion 846. PMID 8321596
* Ness RC. “The Old Hag” phenomenon as sleep paralysis: a bicultural interpretation . Culture, ''Medicine and Psychiatry'' 1978; 2:15-39.
*Ohayon MM, Zulley J, Guilleminault C, Smirne, S. Prevalence and pathologic associations of sleep paralysis in the general population. ''Neurology'', 1999; 52:1194-1200.
*Sagan, Carl (1997). ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark''.
* Schneck JM. Sleep paralysis and microsomatognosia with special reference to hypnotherapy . The ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'' 1977; XXV:72-77.
*Takeuchi T, Miyasita A, Sasaki Y, Inugami M, Fukuda K. Isolated sleep paralysis elicited by sleep interruption. ''American Sleep Disorders Association and Sleep Research Society'', 1992; 15: 217-225.

==External links==
* [http://www.spis.org.uk Sleep Paralysis Information Service]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~dement/paralysis.html Sleep information and links] from Stanford University
* [http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~acheyne/S_P.html Sleep Paralysis and Associated Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Experiences] from University of Waterloo
* [http://www.csicop.org/doubtandabout/sleep/ Waking Up to Sleep Paralysis]

{{SleepSeries2}}

[[Category:Sleep physiology]]
[[Category:Sleep disorders]]
[[Category:Neuropsychology]]

[[ca:Paràlisi del son]]
[[da:Søvnparalyse]]
[[de:Bewegungsunfähigkeit im Schlaf]]
[[el:Παράλυση ύπνου]]
[[es:Parálisis del sueño]]
[[fr:Paralysie du sommeil]]
[[ko:가위눌림]]
[[it:Paralisi nel sonno]]
[[he:שיתוק שינה]]
[[lt:Miego paralyžius]]
[[nl:Slaapverlamming]]
[[ja:金縛り]]
[[pl:Porażenie przysenne]]
[[pt:Catalepsia projetiva]]
[[ru:Сонный паралич]]
[[simple:Sleep paralysis]]
[[fi:Unihalvaus]]
[[sv:Sömnparalys]]
[[tr:Uyku felci]]
[[zh:睡眠瘫痪症]]

Lux Aeterna (Mansell)

2008-07-11T09:32:38Z

59.145.136.1: /* Advertisements */

{{Song infobox
| Name = Lux Aeterna

| Artist = [[Kronos Quartet]]
| Album = [[Requiem for a Dream (soundtrack)|Requiem for a Dream]]
| track_no = 32
| Length = 3:54
| Key_Signature = G minor
| Composer = [[Clint Mansell]]
| prev_no = 31
| prev = "Meltdown"
| next_no = 33
| next = "Coney Island Low"
}}
"'''Lux Aeterna'''" ([[Latin language|Latin]], ''Lux Æterna'': "eternal light") is a composition by [[Clint Mansell]], the [[theme song]] and [[leitmotif]] of ''[[Requiem for a Dream]]'', and the penultimate piece in the [[Requiem for a Dream (soundtrack)|''Requiem for a Dream'' score]]. The popularity of this piece led to its use in [[popular culture]] outside the film, mostly in [[film trailer]]s.

A version of the track was re-orchestrated with a [[choir]] and full [[orchestra]] for ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers|The Lord of The Rings: The Two Towers]]'' trailer.<ref>Ebert, Roger. [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20021117/ANSWERMAN/211170301 "The Movie Answer Man"] November 17, 2002. (accessed March 24, 2007)</ref> The piece, named "Requiem for a Tower", was made exclusively for the trailer and was not featured in either ''Requiem for a Dream'' or the [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|''The Lord of the Rings'' film trilogy]]. It was arranged by Simone Benyacar, Dan Nielsen, and Veigar Margeirsson. Although never intended for release, after considerable demand by fans this piece was made available as part of the ''Requiem for a Tower'' album release from [[Corner Stone Cues]].

==Appearances==

Other films, trailers, and commercials which feature tracks, or re-mixes of tracks, from ''Requiem for a Dream'' include:

===Film trailers===
* ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''
* ''[[Babylon A.D. (film)|Babylon A.D.]]''
* ''[[Hitman (2007 film)|Hitman]]''
* ''[[300 (film)|300]]''
* ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers|The Lord of The Rings: The Two Towers]]'' as ''Requiem for a Tower''
* ''[[The Da Vinci Code (film)|The Da Vinci Code]]''
* ''[[Sunshine (2007 film)|Sunshine]]''
* ''[[Zathura:_A_Space_Adventure|Zathura]]''
* ''[[The Trials of Darryl Hunt]]'' ([http://www.hbo.com/docs/programs/darrylhunt/index.html an independent film released by HBO])
* ''[[Valley of Flowers]]''

===Advertisements===
* A version of "Lux Aeterna" by [[Fiachra Trench]] was featured in the [[Enda McCallion]]-directed advertisement "Epic" for the 2006 [[Allied Irish Banks|AIB]] [[Ryder Cup]].
* A version of the song was used in a television ad for a Tata four-wheel drive (Safari Dicor).

===Other uses (not canon to official soundtrack)===
* Was used for a [[Brian Dawkins]] highlight reel style mixtape of recognizable and memorable plays, as well as famous speeches or quotes.
* Danish rapper "[[Niarn]]" sampled the music for the track "Dø Til Det Her".
* [[Ubisoft]] used the music in ''[[Tom Clancy's EndWar]]'' and ''[[Assassin's Creed]]'' trailers.
* The [[Documentary film|documentary]] ''Future Focus: Patent for a Pig'' uses the un-[[remix]]ed version momentarily.
* [[Paul Oakenfold]] extensively [[Sampling (music)|samples]] "Lux Aeterna" for his track "Zoo York" on his album ''[[Bunkka]]''.
* The music was used to back an extended rant against aspirational television delivered by [[Charlie Brooker]] during the first episode of the second season ''[[Screenwipe]]''.
* The trailers for four of the last six episodes of the [[Lost (season 3)|third season]] of ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' – "[[Catch-22 (Lost)|Catch-22]]", "[[D.O.C. (Lost)|D.O.C.]]", "[[The Brig]]", and "[[The Man Behind the Curtain]]" – featured "Requiem for a Tower."
* Sampled for "Throw It Up", the second track from the [[Lil Jon]] album ''[[Kings of Crunk]]''.
* Sampled for various [[drum and bass]] tracks, such as "Shadows" by Unknown Error.
* Used in the cartoon series ''[[Team Galaxy (TV series)|Team Galaxy]]'' (Aired on Jetix in the [[Netherlands]] and Cartoon Network in the (US)) in the episode "Mini Marshalls".
* Used as the theme on [[Dennis Miller]]'s radio show for the ''Dennis Ex Machina'' open line hours
* Has been used since early 2006 for a pre-match video shown at [[Madejski Stadium]]. The video is a compilation of [[Reading F.C.]] action edited to the pace of the song.
* Has been used when introducing the judges and contestants in the show ''[[Britain's Got Talent]]''.
* Has been used in 2007 in trailers for [[BBC Four]]'s ''Science You Can't See'' season.
* Used intermittently in [[BBC Two]]'s ''[[Top Gear: Polar Special]]'' episode and other episodes in series 9.
* Since [[August 5]], [[2007]], used as ''[[Sky Sports News]]''' main theme.
* The band [[Bleeding Through]] used a similar keyboard part in the music video version of the song [[Line in the Sand (Bleeding Through song)|Line in the Sand]] in 2007.
*This is the [[Boston Celtics]] presentation song before the player introductions when they play at [[TD Banknorth Garden]] as of 2007.
*This is the theme song to the West Virginia University entrance video for 2007.
*This is the theme song to the University of Alabama Crimson Tide's pre-game "Crimson Tradition" football montage.
*The [[Channel Four]] trailer for the [[Terminator (franchise)|Terminator]] series of films (Feb 2008).
*Used for the background theme on the intro for 'HipHop Essentials: Movie FX' vinyl compiled by DJ Rob & Filthy Rich
*The short film ''Drained'' by Peter McClelland
* [[Orkidea]] made his own remix of "Lux Aeterna" for his album "Metaverse" in 2008. Track's name is "Requiem".
* For Virgin1's trailer for the [[Sarah Conner Chronicles]].
* The score is also used in [[The CW]]'s ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' promotion of episodes.
* Professional wrestler [[Chris Hero]] uses the "Requiem For A Tower" remix as his entrance theme.
* This also has been used at the beginning of Episode 1 of [[So You Think You Can Dance]] Season 4
* It was used in the 10th June 2008 episode of British soap opera [[Hollyoaks]].
* Used in the finale of the 2008 US Open television broadcast on 16th June 2008.
* Used as part of a warm-up mix for the Colby College Mules basketball squad.

* A very similar track (including both strings and arpeggio motif) was used on the 23rd episode of [[Ghost in the Shell: S.A.C. 2nd GIG|2nd GIG]].

==See also==
*[[Requiem for a Dream (soundtrack)]]

==References==
{{refs}}

[[Category:Songs from films]]
[[category:Theme music]]

Benutzerin:Weltenspringerin/Rathore-Dynastie

2008-01-07T06:47:15Z

59.145.136.1: /* Rathore clans in modern times */

[[Image:Mehrangarh.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The Mehrangarh fort, [[Jodhpur]]]]

The '''Rathore''' or '''Rathor''' or '''Rathur''' or '''Rathod''' ([[Hindi]]: राठौड, [[IAST]]:''{{unicode|Rāṭhauḍ}}'' or ''{{unicode|Rāṭhaur}}'', [[Urdu]]: راٹھور) is a [[Rajput]] [[tribe]] of [[India]]. The Rathores of India and Pakistan are a [[Rajput]] clan from the [[Marwar]] region of western [[Rajasthan]], inhabiting Idar state of [[Gujarat]] and also the [[Chhapra]] ,[[Sheohar]](a village called [[tariyani Chapra]] ('''LAND OF AMAR RATHORE''')is also having large number of rathore rajputs,migrated from jaipur,they were the king of jaipur fort) [[Muzaffarpur]] districts of [[Bihar]] in very small numbers. In [[India]], their native languages are [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and its dialects (such as [[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]], [[Marwari]] and other languages of Rajasthan, [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]] in [[Gujarat]], as well as [[Punjabi]] in the [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] a dialect of [[Punjabi]] called [[Rathi]] spoken in [[Ratia]] and [[Tohana]] in present day [[Haryana]]).

Dynasties belonging to this clan ruled a number of kingdoms and [[princely state]]s in Rajasthan and neighbouring states before India's independence in 1947. The largest and oldest among these was [[Jodhpur]], in Marwar and Bikaner. Also the Idar State in Gujrat. The [[Gaj Singh, Maharaja of Jodhpur|Maharaja of Jodhpur]], is regarded as the head of the extended Rathore clan of [[Hindu]] Rajputs. Even in the modern times the clout of this clan in the democratic world is such that a large number of MLAs and MPs have been elected from among them.

== Early history ==

Based on "khyats" (traditional accounts) written in seventeenth century, it is surmised that the Rathores and Rathods were originally feudatories of the [[Ujjain]]i-based [[Gurjara]]-[[Pratihara]] dynasty, and may perhaps have been domiciled in the vicinity of [[Kannauj]] in the heyday of that dynasty. Pratihara-ruled Kannauj was sacked by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] in 1019 CE, which ushered in a chaotic period for that area. A family known to us as the "[[Gahadvala]]" dynasty gained control of Kannauj and ruled for nearly a century; their best-known dynast was Raja [[Jaichand of Kannauj|Jaichand]], their last king. The Gahadvalas were displaced from Kannauj by the invasion, in 1194 CE, of [[Muhammad of Ghor]]. It is said that Sheoji, a surviving grandson of Jaichand, made his way into the western desert with a group of faithful followers, finally settling in the town of [[Pali, Rajasthan|Pali]] in Marwar, which was ruled by another branch of the Pratiharas. Sheoji is regarded as the patriarch of the entire Rathore clan and all Rathores and Rathods trace their patrilineage back to him.
The tradition finds supports from a number of inscriptions found in the vicinity of Kannauj that mention several generations of a [[Rashtrakuta]] dynasty ruling there for two centuries. A very similar account is also mentioned in the "[[Rashtrayudha Kavya]]" of Rudrakavi, finished in 1595, who was the court poet in the court of the Rathore king, Narayana of Mayurgiri.

== Marwar and beyond ==

The Rathores gradually spread across Marwar, forming a brotherhood of landowners and village chieftains, loosely bound to each other by ties of clan and caste. An epoch in the history both of Marwar and of the Rathores was marked by [[Rao Jodha]], a warrior who founded a kingdom that grew to encompass all of Marwar. He also founded the city of [[Jodhpur]] in 1459, and moved his capital thither from [[Mandore]].
One of his sons, Rao Bika, with the help of his brave uncle [[Rawat Kandhal]], established the town of [[Bikaner]] in 1488, in the [[Jangladesh]] region lying to the north of Marwar; that town was to become the seat of a second major Rathore kingdom. Some of these migrations from Marwar into Gujarat caused changes in language and the spelling of Rathore to Rathod, which is seen in clans present in Gujarat. Rathods of Gujarat trace their history to the city Jodhpur.

The various cadet branches of the Rathore clan gradually spread to encompass all of Marwar and later sallied abroad to found states in [[Central India]] and Gujarat. At the time of India's independence in 1947, the princely states ruled by various branches of the Rathore clan included:
*[[Jodhpur]] ([[Marwar]]): Covering the present-day districts of Jodhpur, Pali, [[Nagaur]], [[Barmer, Rajasthan|Barmer]], and [[Jalor]].
*[[Bikaner]] ([[Jangladesh]]): Covering the present-day districts of Bikaner, [[Churu]], [[Ganganagar]] and [[Hanumangarh]];
*[[Kishangarh]] in present-day Rajasthan, founded in 1611 by Raja Kishan Singh, son of Udai Singh of Marwar.
*[[Idar]] in present-day Gujarat, founded in 1728 or 1729.
*[[Ratlam]] in present-day [[Ratlam District]] of Madhya Pradesh, founded 1651.
*[[Sitamau]] in present-day [[Mandsaur District]] of Madhya Pradesh, founded 1701 by Raja Kesho Das.
*[[Sailana]] in present-day Ratlam District of Madhya Pradesh, founded in 1730 by Raja Jai Singh.
* Rathore rajputs are also found in Bihar ,,District called Sheohar there is a village called tariyani chapra,,there are lots of rathore rajputs...migrated from rajasthan(Jaipur)
*Amar rathore is one of them.

==Rathore clans in modern times==
*Rathore , Living in MP region of INDIA, basically in MP they are in
Jabalpur,Indore,Bhopal,Sehore,Betul,Gwalior. In Chhastishgarh they are living in Raipur.
*Banirot, living in Ghanghu (Churu District) area
*Kandhal, living around Ghanghu (Churu District)
*Jodha, Rulers of [[Jodhpur]], Rajasthan
*Jaitawat, living around pali, descendent of rao jaitaji rathore
*Champawat, Living around Jodhpur & Pali
*Udawat, Living around Pali
*Mertia, living largely in Nagaur district [[Rajasthan]]
*Kumpawat,
*Bika, Rulers of [[Bikaner]]
*Bidawat, living around Bidasar [[Churu]]
*Jodha Ratansinghot''' [Rulers of Ratlam]'''
*Rawatot, living around Rawatsar
*Karamsot, living around Khinvsar [[Nagaur]] and [[Bikaner]]
*Karnot the clan of [[Durgadas Rathore]]
*Jetmalot
*Bhatra
*Rathore, living around [[Kotli]], Farward Kahuta, and Nakar Bandi (about 60 km East of Bagh) in [[Azad Kashmir]]
*Rathore, living around [[Buxer]], [[Bhojpur]] and [[Ghazipur]] in eastern UP and Bihar
*Rathore living in villages of Kanda tehsil of Bageshware district in Uttarakhand
*Rathore , Daneswar (Kasyap)Living in Dist.-Etah(Raja ka Rampur)Uttar Pradesh
Rathore, Family (Kashyap)Living in Nagod Estate now in District Satna of Madhya Pradesh
*Rathur, living in the metro-Detroit area of Michigan in the United States of America (when Mughal Emperor Jahangir brought some Rajput soldiers with him on his conquest of Kashmir, many of them settled there and embraced Islam. Several of the Kashmiri Rathores changed their name to "Rathur").

== Rathore/Rao Genealogy ==
(1200 A D onwards up to 1500 A D)

[[RAO SHIVA]] (Sheoji)
| 1212-1272 A.D.
[[Rao Asthan|RAO ASTHAN]]----[[Rao Sonag|RAO SONAG]]----[[Rao Ajay|RAO AJAY]]
| 1272-1292 A.D.
[[Rao Doohad|RAO DOOHAD]]----[[RAO JOPSA]]----[[Dhandhul|RAO DHANDHUL]]----[[RAO HIRNAK]]----[[RAO POHAD]]----[[RAO KHIPSA]]----[[RAO AASAL]]----[[RAO CHACHIG]]
| 1292-1309 A.D.
[[RAO RAIPAL]]----[[RAO KIRTIPAL]]----[[RAO BEHAD]]----[[RAO PAITHAR]]----[[RAO JOGA]]----[[RAO DALU]]----[[RAO VEGAD]]
| 1309-1313 A.D.
[[RAO KANHA]]----[[RAO KELHAN]]----[[RAO SANDA]]----[[RAO LAKHAN]]----[[RAO DAANGI]]----[[RAO MOHAN]]----[[RAO JANJAN]]----[[RAO RAJO]]----[[RAO RANDHA]]----[[RAO HATHUNDIYA]]
| 1313-1323 A.D.
[[RAO JALANSI]](Second Son) ----[[RAO BHIMKARAN]](Oldest Son. Died in a battle in his father's reign) ----[[RAO VIJAYPAL]]
| 1323-1328 A.D.
[[RAO CHADA]]----[[RAO BHAKAR SINGH]]----[[RAO DUNGAR SINGH]]
| 1328-1344 A.D.
[[RAO TIDA]]----[[Khokra|RAO KHOKRA]]----[[RAO VANAR]]----[[RAO SEEMAL]]----[[RAO RUDRAPAL]]----[[RAO KHIPSA]]
| 1344-1357 A.D.
[[RAO SALKHA]] (Second Son) ---------------------------------------------------------------------[[RAO KANHAD DEV]] (Oldest Son. His progeny did not rule.)
| 1357-1374 A.D. |
[[RAO VIRAMDEV]](Third Son) ----[[RAO MALLINATH]] (Oldest Son) ----[[RAO JAITMAL]]----[[RAO SOBHIT]] [[RAO TRIBHUVAN]]
| 1374-1383 A.D. 1373-1399 A.D.
[[RAO CHUNDA]]
| 1399-1423 A.D.
[[RAO RANMAL]]---------------[[RAO SATAL]]----[[RAO KANHA]]
| 1427-1438 A.D. (1424-1427 A.D.)
[[Rao Jodha|RAO JODHA]]----[[Rawat Kandhal|RAWAT KANDHAL]]----[[RAO CHAMPA]]----[[RAO AKHAIRAJ]]----[[RAO MANDLO]]----[[RAO PATTA]]----[[RAO LAKHA]]----[[RAO BALA]]----[[Jaitawat|RAO JAITMUL]]----[[Karnot|RAO KARNA]]----[[RAO ROOPA]]----[[RAO NATHOO]]----[[RAO DUNGRA]]----[[RAO SANDA]]----[[RAO MANDO]]----[[RAO BIROO]]----[[RAO JUGMAL]]----[[RAO HAMPO]]----[[RAO SAKTO]]----[[RAO KARMA]]----[[RAO URIVAL]]----[[RAO KHETSI]]----[[RAO SHATRUSAL]]----[[RAO TEJMAL]]
| 1453-1489 A.D. |
| [[Kumpawat|RAO KUMPA]]
| (-1544 A.D)
|
[[RAO SAATUL]]----[[RAO SURAJ]]----[[RAO GUMMA]]----[[RAO DUDA]]----[[RAO BIR]]----[[Bika|RAO BIKA]]----[[RAO BHARMUAL]]----[[RAO SURJA]]----[[RAO KURUM SINGH]]----[[RAO RAEMUL]]----[[RAO SAMANT SINGH]]----[[RAO BEEDA]]----[[RAO BANHUR]]----[[RAO NEEMBO]]
1489-1492 A.D. 1492-1515 A.D.
|
[[RAO BAGH SINGH]]
|
[[RAO GANGA SINGH]]
| 1515-1532 A.D.
[[Rao Maldeo Rathore|RAO MALDEO]]
1532-1562 A.D.
* Jetmalot

== Rathore rulers of Marwar (Jodhpur) ==

* Rao Sheoji or Siyaji (1226-1273)
* Rao Asthan (1273-1292)
* Rao Doohad (1291-1309)
* Rao Raipal (1309-1313)
* Rao Kanhapal (1313-1323)
* Rao Jalansi (1323-1228)
* Rao Chada (1328-1344)
* Rao Tida (1334-1357)
* Rao Kanhadev (1357-1374)
* Rao Biram Dev (1374-1383)
* Rao Chanda or Chunda Rao (1383-1424)
* Rao Kanha (1424-1427)
* Rai Sanha (in rebellion) (1424-1427)
* Rao Ranmal or Ranmalla (1427-1438)
* Rao Jodha (1438-1488). Founder of Jodhpur.
* Rao Satal (1488-1491)
* Rao Suja (1491-1515)
* Rao Ganga (1515-1532)
* [[Rao Maldev]] or Malladeva (1532-1562)
* Rao Chandrasen (1562-1584)
* Raja Udai Singh or Udaya Singh (1584-1595)
* Sawai Raja Suraj Singh (1595-1620)
* Maharaja Gaja Singh (1620-1638)
* [[Maharaja Jaswant Singh]] I (1638-1679)
* Maharaja Ajit Singh ([[19 February]] [[1679]] - [[24 June]] [[1724]]). Born 1679, died 1724.
* Maharaja Abhai Singh ([[24 June]] [[1724]] - [[18 June]] [[1749]]). Born 1702, died 1749.
* Maharaja Ram Singh (1st time) ([[18 June]] [[1749]] - July 1751). Born 1730, died 1772.
* Maharaja Bakht Singh (July 1751 - [[21 September]] [[1752]]). Born 1706, died1752.
* Maharaja Bijay Singh (1st time) ([[21 September]] [[1752]] - 1753). Born 1724, died 1793.
* Maharaja Ram Singh (2nd time) (1753 -September 1772)
* Maharaja Bijay Singh (2nd time) (1772 - [[17 July]] [[1793]])
* Maharaja Bhim Singh (in rebellion) ([[13 April]] [[1792]] - [[20 March]] [[1793]]). Died 1803.
* Maharaja Bhim Singh ([[17 July]] [[1793]] - [[19 October]] [[1803]])
* [[Maharaja Man Singh Rathore]] ([[19 October]] [[1803]] - [[4 September]] [[1843]]). Born 1783, died 1843.
* Chhatra Singh (regent) ([[19 April]] [[1817]] - [[6 January]] [[1818]]). Born c.1800, died 1818.
* Maharaja Takht Singh ([[14 October]] [[1843]] - [[13 February]] [[1873]]). Born 1819, died 1873.
* Maharaja Jaswant Singh II ([[13 February]] [[1873]] - [[11 October]] [[1895]]. Born 1838, died 1895.
* Maharaja Sardar Singh ([[11 October]] [[1895]] - [[21 March]] [[1911]]). Born 1880, died 1911.
* Maharaja Sumer Singh ([[21 March]] [[1911]] - [[3 October]] [[1918]]). Born 1898, died 1918.
* Maharaja Umaid Singh ([[3 October]] [[1918]] - [[9 June]] [[1947]]). Born 1903, died 1947.
* Maharaja [[Hanwant Singh]] ([[9 June]] [[1947]]-7 April 1949). Born 1923, acceded to India [[7 April]] [[1949]], died 1952.
* Maharaja [[Gaj Singh II]]

== Rathore rulers of Bikaner (Jangladesh)==

* [[Rao Bika]] (1465-1504). Born 1438, died 1504. Founded Bikaner 1465. Son of Rao Jodha of Marwar.
* Rao Naroji Singh (1504-1505). Son of Rao Bika.
* Rao Lunkaranji (1505-1526). Son of Rao Bika.
* Rao Jetsiji Singh (1526-1542). Son of Rao Lunkaranji.
* Rao Kalyan Singh (1542-1571). Born 1519, died 1571. Son of Rao Jetsiji Singh.
* Raja Raj Singh I (1571-1611). Born 1541, died 1612. Son of Raja Kalyan Singh.
* Raja Dalpat Singh (1611-1614). Born 1565, died 1614. Son of Raja Raj Singh I.
* Raja Sur Singh (1614-1631). Born 1595, died 1631. Son of Raja Raj Singh I.
* Raja Karan Singh (1631-1669. Born 1616, died 1669. Son of Raja Karan Singh.
* Maharaja Anup Singh (Raja 1669-1687, Maharaja 1687-1698). Born 1638, died 1698. Son of Raja Karan Singh.
* Maharaja Sarup Singh (1698-1700). Born 1689, died 1700.
* Maharaja Sujan Singh (1700-1736). Born 1690, died 1736.
* Maharaja Zorawar Singh (1736-1745). Born 1713, died 1745. Husband of, Maharani. Gurnoor Kaur
* Maharaja Gaj Singh (1745-1787). Born 1723, died 1787.
* Maharaja Raj Singh II (1787). Born 1744, died 1787.
* Maharaja Pratap Singh (1787). Born 1781, died 1787.
* Maharaja Surat Singh (1788-1828). Born1766, died 1828.
* Maharaja Ratan Singh (1828-1851). Born 1791, died 1851.
* Maharaja Sardar Singh (1851-16 May 1872). Born 1818, died 1872.
* Maharaja Dungar Singh ([[16 May]] [[1872]] - [[19 August]] [[1887]]). Born 1854, died 1887.
* [[Maharaja Ganga Singh]] ([[19 August]] [[1887]]-2 February 1943). Born 1880, died 1943.
* Maharaja Sadul Singh ([[2 February]] [[1943]] - [[7 April]] [[1949]]). Born 1902, acceded to India [[7 April]] [[1949]], died [[25 September]] [[1950]])
* [[Maharaja Karni Singh]]

'''[RATHORE RULERS OF RATLAM]'''

Rathore Rulers of Ratlam

* M.Dalpat Singh '''[4th son of Mota Raja Udai Singh Of Jodhpur]'''
* M.Mahesh Das
* M.Ratan Singh Ji ['Radh Rane ,Bhane Rattan.Kartabbi Bharat Kann.
Narnah Je Mukh Neer. Grehwant Gayan Gaheer.Susmatth Sure Sakkaj. Gajdiyan Bhanjan Gajj.Pit Mat Taran Pakkh. Singar Terah Sakkh'.]
* M Ram Singh Ji
* M.Shiv Singh Ji
* M.Keshav Das
* M.Chatrasal Ji
* M.Berisal ji '''[Retired to jaipur]'''
* Raja Abhey Singh Ji
* Raja Fateh Singh Ji
* Raja Sajet Singh Ji
* Raja Sumer Singh Ji
* Raja Pep Singh Ji
* Raja Karan Singh Ji
* Raja Bhom Singh Ji
* Raja Amar Singh Ji [IPS] Rajasthan Police '''
* '''M. Vikram Singh Ji [Retired Commercial Taxes Officer]''''''
* Raja Raghuveer Singh Ji
* M.Chanderveer Singh Ji
* M.Pushpender Singh Ji
*''' M.K.NatwarSingh jI'''
* KR.Harshvardhan singh
* KR.Yashovardhan Singh
* KR.Manvendra Singh
* KR.Mahaveer Singh
* Bhanwar hanupratap

== Connection to the Rashtrakutas ==

At Hathundi, in what was formerly the princely state of Jodhpur, 10th century inscriptions have been found mentioning kings Harivarma, Vidagdha, Mammata, Dhavala and Balaprasada, all of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. This is not in fact surprising, since the Rashtrakutas held sway over Marwar in that era. However, as we have seen above, the Rathores first emerge in Rajasthan shortly after that same era; therefore, there have been some recent efforts to impute to the Rathores and Rathod a connection with the Rashtrakutas. The connection is tenuous to say the least, being based mainly upon the similarity of the two names; it is accpted by historians as being possible. One can only await further research into this question.

== Some prominent Rathores ==
*[[Rao Maldeo Rathore]]
*[[Rao Jodha]]
*[[Rawat Kandhal]]
*[[Durgadas Rathore]]
*[[Amar Singh Rathore]]
*[[Maharaja Jaswant Singh]]
*[[Mohar Singh Rathore]]
*[[Rajyavardhan Singh Rathore]]
*[[Karni Singh Rathore]]
* Khet Singh Rathore
* Lt. Col. Jodh Singh Banirot,SARDAR BAHADUR, O.B.I.(I class), of GHANGHU.
* Th. Jagmal Singh''ji'' Rathore, RPS, recipient of Presidents Medal for Gallantry, son of Jodh Singh''ji'' Rathore
* [[Lt.Gen Sagat Singh,PVSM Padma Bhushan]]
* Om Prakash Rathor (IPS, DGP Chhatiesgarh, Former Adviser to UN, recipient of Presidents Medal for Gallantary & UN 21 Award)
* [http://www.janmejay.com Janmejay Rathore]
* '''Raja Amar singh [IPS] RATLAM,'''
* Raja Raghuveer Singh Ji Ratlam
* Maharaj Vikram Singh Ji Ratlam
* '''M.k.Natwar Singh Of Ratlam'''
* Maharaj Chanderveer Singh ji Ratlam
* Maharaj Pushpender Singh Of Ratlam [stain glass artist]
* Kr. Harshvardhan Singh Of Ratlam
* Col Madho Singh of Mayapur, Nagaur
* Major General NK Singh, VSM of Mayapur, Nagaur
* '''Amar Singh .King of Tariyani Chapra,Bihar'''
* Maj Gen Kalyaan Singh Rathore (PVSM)

== References ==

* Dr. Hukam Singh Bhati (1990), ''Maheca Rathaurom ka mula itihasa: Ravala Mallinatha ke vamsaja - Maheca, Baramera, Pokarana, Kotariya aura Khavariya Rathaurom ka sodhapurna itihasa.'' Publisher: Ratan Prakashan, Jodhpur.
* Dr. Mahendra Singh Nagar (2004), ''The genealogical survey: Royal house of Marwar and other states.'' Publisher: Maharaja Man Singh Pustak Prakashan, Jodhpur.
* Bruyne, J.L. DE. (Rudra Kavi). The Great Poem of the Dynasty of Rastraudha. Leiden, E.J. Brill, 1968.

{{Ethnic groups, tribes and clans of the Punjab}}

[[Category:Social groups of India]]
[[Category:Social groups of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Social groups of Rajasthan]]
[[Category:Rajputs]]
[[Category:Rajput clans]]
[[Category:Punjabi tribes]]
[[Category:Sindhi tribes]]
[[Category:Indian family names]]

Jog-Wasserfälle

2007-09-25T13:16:29Z

59.145.136.1:

:''This page is about the water falls. For the town with the same name see [[Jog Falls, Shivamoga]]''

{{Infobox Waterfall
| name = Jog Falls
| image = Jogmonsoon.jpg
| caption = Jog Falls during [[Monsoon]]
| location = [[Shivamoga District]], [[Karnataka]], [[India]]
| latitude = 16.37 N
| longitude = 76.51 E
| elevation = 2600 feet
| type = Cataract, Segmented
| height = 829 feet/253 meters
| height_longest = 829 feet/253 meters
| average_width = 1550 feet/472 meters
| number_drops = 1
| average_flow = 5,387 ft³/s or 153 m³/s
| watercourse = [[Sharavathi River]]
| world_rank = 313
}}

'''Jog Falls''' ([[Kannada]]-ಜೋಗ ಜಲಪಾತ ) is the highest untiered [[waterfall]] in [[India]], located in [[Shivamoga District]] of [[Karnataka]] state. Created by [[Sharavathi River]] falling from a height of 253 meters (829 ft), Jog Falls is one of the major attractions in [[Karnataka tourism]]. It is also called by alternative names of ''Gerusoppe falls'', ''Gersoppa Falls'' and ''Jogada Gundi''.<ref>http://www.world-waterfalls.com/waterfall_print.php?num=156</ref>

==Description==
[[Sharavathi River|River Sharavathi]] splits up into four different tracks which are named in accordance with their perceived trajectories. Going from left to right respectively in the picture, the names and the reasons for naming are:

* ''Raja'' (King): Named so because of its apparently 'dignified' and 'serene' fall.
* ''Roarer'': This stream appears out of a mass of rocks, making a tremendous amount of noise.
* ''Rocket'': Consists of a large volume of water streaming out of a small opening at a very high speed.
* ''Rani'' (Queen), also called ''Lady'': The stream has a winding, twisting trajectory, said to resemble the movements of a female dancer.

==Significance of Jog Waterfalls==

Associated with the waterfall is the nearby [[Linganmakki Dam]] across [[Sharavathi River|river Sharavathi]], and the [[Hydroelectricity|hydro-electric]] [[power station]] that it serves. The power station has been operational since 1949, and is, at 1200 [[Watt|MW]] capacity, one of the largest hydro-electric stations in India and a significant source of [[electric power]] for Karnataka. The power station was previously named [[Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV|Krishna Rajendra]] hydro-electric project, after the King of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] at that time. The name was later changed to ''[[Mahatma Gandhi]] hydro-electric Project''. It was served by Hirebhaskara dam until 1960. After 1960, thanks to visions of [[Mokshagundam Visvesvarayya|Sir M. Visvesvarayya]], Linganmakki Dam, built across river Sharavathi is being used for power generation.

==Change in flow==
[[Image:Mighty Jog.jpg|thumb|200px|Jog Falls in full flow]]
Before the onset of monsoon, when there is not much water in the Linganmakki dam, the "mighty" Jog Falls are nearly unrecognizable. Instead of the roar and the spray and the massive flow of water, there are only a pair of thin streams of water trickling down the cliff. If you happen to ask any of the local people what happened to the falls, they would tell you that the authorities open the dam only during weekends, when there are a lot of tourists to view it.

== How to reach ==

August-December is the season of best flow and best time to visit. Jog is situated at 30 kilometers away from [[Sagara, India|Sagara]], and 379 kilometers away from [[Bangalore]].

*Nearest Bus Stations - Jog, Sagara. One can reach Jog from direct buses to Jog from Bangalore. Alternative way is to take direct bus to Sagara from Bangalore and local bus from Sagara to Jog. Distance - 409 kilometers from Bangalore, 104 kilometers from [[Shivamoga, Karnataka|Shivamoga]] and 30 kilometers from Sagara.

*Nearest Train Station - Shivamoga. One can take train to Shivamoga from Bangalore and can travel to Jog in buses from Shivamoga.

*Airport - Bangalore airport is the nearest operational airport. Another convenient airport is Mangalore......

==Other places of interest==
*[[Honnemaradu]], an island formed with the [[backwater]] of Linganmakki Dam, is famous for [[Water sport (recreation)|watersports]].

==Arguments about its height==
There are many waterfalls in Asia - and also in India - which drop from a higher altitude. But, unlike those falls, Jog Falls is untiered, i.e., it drops directly and does not stream on to rocks. Thus, it can be described as the highest untiered waterfalls in India.

==Gallery==

<gallery>
Image:Jog_Raja.JPG
Image:Jog_Rani.JPG
Image:Jog_Rocket.JPG
Image:Jog_Roarer.JPG
Image:Mighty Jog.jpg|Jog Falls in full flow
Image:JogFalls_Top.jpg|Jog Falls Top view - in December
Image:JogFalls_Rainbow.jpg|Jog Falls with Rainbow - in December
Image:JogFalls_Evening.jpg|Jog Falls evening view - in December
Image:Jog_Falls,_India_-_August_2004.jpg|Jog Falls in early monsoon
Image:Jog_Falls,_India_-_August_2006.jpg|Jog Falls in late monsoon
Image:JogFalls_fom_Downunder_07Aug06.JPG|Jog Falls from bottom
Image:JogFallsFromBelow2.JPG|Jog Falls from below
Image:Jog_Side_View.jpg|Jog from a different view
Image:Jog_in_summer1.jpg|Jog before the onset of monsoon in June 2007
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[List of waterfalls in India]]
==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

* [http://www.kiruthik.com/Jog+Falls+And+Shimoga.aspx Jog Falls on Kiruthik.Com ]
* [http://www.dreamroutes.org/western/jogfalls.html Jog Falls on Dreamroutes]
* [http://www.prithvibhat.com/tp/joga.html Comprehensive information on Jog Falls]
* [http://www.world-waterfalls.com/waterfall.php?num=156 World Waterfall Database entry]
* [http://www.shimogaonline.com/tourism.htm Shivamoga District Tourism]
* [http://www.westernghats.org/tourism.html Western Ghats Tourism]
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/letters/jogfalls.htm Jog Falls in 1946 - A Letter]
*
{{Western Ghats}}
{{Karnataka}}

[[Category:Mysore Kingdom]]
[[Category:Tourism in Karnataka]]
[[Category:Waterfalls of Karnataka]]

[[bpy:ঝোগ ফলস্]]
[[kn:ಜೋಗ]]
[[new:जोग फल्स]]
[[ta:ஜோக் அருவி]]
[[te:జోగ్ జలపాతం]]

Benutzer:Mop66/Gesetz zur Übertragbarkeit und Rechenschaftspflicht von Krankenversicherungen

2007-06-18T13:11:51Z

59.145.136.1: /* The Unique Identifiers Rule (National Provider Identifier) */

The '''Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act''' ('''HIPAA''') was enacted by the [[U.S. Congress]] in [[1996]].

According to the [[Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services]] (CMS) website, Title I of HIPAA protects health insurance coverage for workers and their families when they change or lose their jobs.

Title II of HIPAA, the Administrative Simplification (AS) provisions, requires the establishment of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, [[health insurance]] plans, and employers.

The AS provisions also address the security and privacy of health data. The standards are meant to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the nation's health care system by encouraging the widespread use of [[electronic data interchange]] in the US health care system.

==Title I: Health Care Access, Portability, and Renewability==
Title I of '''HIPAA''' regulates the availability and breadth of group and individual health insurance plans. It amends both the [[Employee Retirement Income Security Act]] and the [[Public Health Service Act]].

Title I prohibits any group health plan from creating eligibility rules or assessing premiums for individuals in the plan based on health status, medical history, genetic information, or disability.<ref>{{usc-clause|29|1182|(a)(1)}}</ref> This does not apply to private individual insurance.

Title I also limits restrictions that a group health plan can place on benefits for preexisting conditions. Group health plans may refuse to provide benefits relating to preexisting conditions for a period of 12 months after enrollment in the plan or 18 months in the case of late enrollment.<ref>{{usc-clause|29|1181|(a)(2)}}</ref> However, individuals may reduce this exclusion period if they had health insurance prior to enrolling in the plan. Title I allows individuals to reduce the exclusion period by the amount of time that they had “creditable coverage” prior to enrolling in the plan and after any “significant breaks” in coverage.<ref>{{usc-clause|29|1181|(a)(3)}}</ref> “Creditable coverage” is defined quite broadly and includes nearly all group and individual health plans, [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]], and [[Medicaid]].<ref>{{usc-clause|29|1181|(c)(1)}}</ref> A “significant break” in coverage is defined as any 63 day period without any creditable coverage.<ref>{{usc-clause|29|1181|(c)(2)(A)}}</ref>

To illustrate, suppose someone enrolls in a group health plan on [[January 1]] [[2006]]. This person had previously been insured from [[January 1]] [[2004]] until [[February 1]] [[2005]] and from [[August 1]] [[2005]] until [[December 31]] [[2005]]. To determine how much coverage can be credited against the exclusion period in the new plan, start at the enrollment date and count backwards until you reach a significant break in coverage. So, the five months of coverage between [[August 1]] [[2005]] and [[December 31]] [[2005]] clearly counts against the exclusion period. But the period without insurance between [[February 1]] [[2005]] and [[August 1]] [[2005]] is greater than 63 days. Thus, this is a significant break in coverage, and any coverage prior to it cannot be deducted from the exclusion period. So, this person could deduct five months from his or her exclusion period, reducing the exclusion period to seven months. Hence, Title I requires that any preexisting condition begin to be covered on [[August 1]] [[2006]].

Title I also forbids individual health plans from denying coverage or imposing preexisting condition exclusions on individuals who have at least 18 months of creditable group coverage without significant breaks and who are not eligible to be covered under any group, state, or federal health plans at the time they seek individual insurance.<ref>{{usc|42|300gg-41}}</ref>

==Title II: Preventing Health Care Fraud and Abuse; Administrative Simplification; Medical Liability Reform==

Title II of HIPAA defines numerous offenses relating to health care and sets civil and criminal penalties for them. It also creates several programs to control fraud and abuse within the health care system.<ref>{{usc|42|1320a-7c|}}</ref><ref>{{usc|42|1395ddd}}</ref><ref>{{usc|42|1395b-5}}</ref> However, the most significant provisions of Title II are its Administrative Simplification rules. Title II requires the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (HHS) to draft rules aimed at increasing the efficiency of the health care system by creating standards for the use and dissemination of health care information.

These rules apply to “covered entities” as defined by HIPAA and the HHS. Covered entities include health plans, health care clearinghouses, such as billing services and community health information systems, and health care providers that transmit health care data in a way that is regulated by HIPAA.<ref>{{CodeFedReg|45|160|103}}</ref><ref>[http://hipaa.ohio.gov/tools/CEDefinition.pdf Definitions of a Covered Entity]</ref>

Per the requirements of Title II, the HHS has promulgated five rules regarding Administrative Simplification: the Privacy Rule, the Transactions and Code Sets Rule, the Security Rule, the Unique Identifiers Rule, and the Enforcement Rule.

===The Privacy Rule===
The Privacy Rule took effect [[April 14]], [[2003]], with a one-year extension for certain "small plans". It establishes regulations for the use and disclosure of Protected Health Information (PHI). PHI is any information about health status, provision of health care, or payment for health care that can be linked to an individual.<ref>{{CodeFedReg|45|164|501}}</ref> This is interpreted rather broadly and includes any part of a patient’s [[medical record]] or payment history.

Covered entities must disclose PHI to the individual within 30 days upon request.<ref>{{CfrClause|45|164|524|(b)}}</ref> They also must disclose PHI when required to do so by law, such as reporting suspected [[child abuse]] to state child welfare agencies.<ref>{{CodeFedReg|45|164|512}}</ref>

A covered entity may disclose PHI to facilitate treatment, payment, or health care operations<ref>{{CfrClause|45|164|524|(a)(1)(ii)}}</ref> or if the covered entity has obtained authorization from the individual.<ref>{{CfrClause|45|164|502|(a)(1)(iv)}}</ref> However, when a covered entity discloses any PHI, it must make a reasonable effort to disclose only the minimum necessary information required to achieve its purpose.<ref>{{CfrClause|45|164|502|(b)}}</ref>

The Privacy Rule gives individuals the right to request that a covered entity correct any inaccurate PHI.<ref>{{CodeFedReg|45|164|526}}</ref> It also requires covered entities to take reasonable steps to ensure the confidentiality of communications with individuals.<ref>{{CfrClause|45|164|522|(b)}}</ref> For example, an individual can ask to be called at his or her work number, instead of home or cell phone number.

The Privacy Rule requires covered entities to notify individuals of uses of their PHI. Covered entities must also keep track of disclosures of PHI and document privacy policies and procedures.<ref>{{CodeFedReg|45|164|528}}</ref> They must appoint a Privacy Official and a contact person<ref>{{CfrClause|45|164|530|(a)}}</ref> responsible for receiving complaints and train all members of their workforce in procedures regarding PHI.<ref>{{CfrClause|45|164|530|(b)}}</ref>

An individual who believes that the Privacy Rule is not being upheld can file a complaint with the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]] Office for Civil Rights (OCR).<ref>[http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/privacyhowtofile.htm How to File A Health Information Privacy Complaint with the Office for Civil Rights]</ref><ref>{{CodeFedReg|45|160|306}}</ref>

===The Transactions and Code Sets Rule===
The HIPAA/EDI provision was scheduled to take effect [[October 16]], [[2003]] with a one-year extension for certain "small plans"; however, due to widespread confusion and difficulty in implementing the rule, CMS granted a one-year extension to all parties. As of [[October 16]], [[2004]], full implementation was not achieved and CMS began an open-ended "contingency period." Penalties for non-compliance were not levied; however, all parties are expected to make a "good-faith effort" to come into compliance.

CMS announced that the Medicare contingency period ended [[July 1]], [[2005]]. After July 1, most medical providers that file electronically will have to file their electronic claims using the HIPAA standards in order to be paid. There are exceptions for doctors that meet certain criteria.

Key [[electronic data interchange|EDI]] transactions used for HIPAA compliance are:

'''EDI Health Care Claim Transaction set (837)''' is used to submit health care claim billing information, encounter information, or both. It can be sent from providers of health care services to payers, either directly or via intermediary billers and claims clearinghouses. It can also be used to transmit health care claims and billing payment information between payers with different payment responsibilities where coordination of benefits is required or between payers and regulatory agencies to monitor the rendering, billing, and/or payment of health care services within a specific health care/insurance industry segment.

For example, a state mental health agency may mandate all healthcare claims, Providers and health plans who trade professional (medical) health care claims electronically must use the 837 Health Care Claim: Professional standard to send in claims. As there are many different business applications for the Health Care claim, there can be slight derivations to cover off claims involving unique claims such as for Institutions, Professionals, Chiropractors, and Dentists etc.

'''EDI Health Care Claim Payment/Advice Transaction Set (835)''' can be used to make a payment, send an Explanation of Benefits (EOB) remittance advice, or make a payment and send an EOB remittance advice only from a health insurer to a health care provider either directly or via a financial institution.

'''EDI Benefit Enrolment and Maintenance Set (834)''' can be used by employers, unions, government agencies, associations or insurance agencies to enrol members to a payer. The payer is a healthcare organization that pays claims, administers insurance or benefit or product. Examples of payers include an insurance company, health care professional (HMO), preferred provider organization (PPO), government agency (Medicaid, Medicare etc.) on any organization that may be contracted by one of these former groups.

'''EDI Application Advice (824)''' this transaction set can be used to report the results of an application system's data content edits of transaction sets. The results of editing transaction sets can be reported at the functional group and transaction set level in either coded or free-form format. It is designed to accommodate the business need of reporting the acceptance/rejection or acceptance with change of any transaction set. The Application Advice should not be used in place of a transaction set designed as a specific response to another transaction set (e.g., purchase order acknowledgment sent in response to a purchase order.)

'''EDI Payroll Deducted and other group Premium Payment for Insurance Products (820)''' this transaction set can be used to make a premium payment for insurance products. It can be used to order a financial institution to make a payment to a payee.

'''EDI Health Care Eligibility/Benefit Inquiry (270)''' is used to inquire about the health care benefits and eligibility associated with a subscriber or dependent

'''EDI Health Care Eligibility/Benefit Response (271)''' is used to respond to a request inquire about the health care benefits and eligibility associated with a subscriber or dependent

'''EDI Health Care Claim Status Request (276)''' this transaction set can be used by a provider, recipient of health care products or services or their authorized agent to request the status of a health care claim.

'''EDI Health Care Claim Status Notification (277)''' This transaction set can be used by a health care payer or authorized agent to notify a provider, recipient or authorized agent regarding the status of a health care claim or encounter, or to request additional information from the provider regarding a health care claim or encounter. This transaction set is not intended to replace the Health Care Claim Payment/Advice Transaction Set (835) and therefore, is not used for account payment posting. The notification is at a summary or service line detail level. The notification may be solicited or unsolicited.

'''EDI Health Care Service Review Information (278)''' This transaction set can be used to transmit health care service information, such as subscriber, patient, demographic, diagnosis or treatment data for the purpose of request for review, certification, notification or reporting the outcome of a health care services review.

'''EDI Functional Acknowledgement Transaction Set (997)''' this transaction set can be used to define the control structures for a set of acknowledgments to indicate the results of the syntactical analysis of the electronically encoded documents. The encoded documents are the transaction sets, which are grouped in functional groups, used in defining transactions for business data interchange. This standard does not cover the semantic meaning of the information encoded in the transaction sets.

These standards are X12 compliant, and are grouped under the label X12N.

===The Security Rule===

The Final Rule on Security Standards was issued on [[February 20]], [[2003]]. It took effect on [[April 21]], [[2003]] with a compliance date of [[April 21]] [[2005]] for most covered entities and [[April 21]], [[2006]] for “small plans”. The Security Rule complements the Privacy Rule. While the privacy pertains to all (PHI)protected heath information,including paper and Electronic. The Security rule deals specificaly with (EPHI)electronic protected health information. It lays out three types of security safeguards required for compliance: administrative, physical, and technical. For each of these types, the Rule identifies various security standards, and for each standard, it names both required and addressable implementation specifications. Required specifications must be adopted and administered as dictated by the Rule. Addressable specifications are more flexible. Individual covered entities can evaluate their own situation and determine the best way to implement addressable specifications. The standards and specifications are as follows:

* '''''Administrative Safeguards''''' - policies and procedures designed to clearly show how the entity will comply with the act
** Covered entities (entities that must comply with HIPAA requirements) must adopt a written set of privacy procedures and designate a privacy officer to be responsible for developing and implementing all required policies and procedures.
** The policies and procedures must reference management oversight and organizational buy-in to compliance with the documented security controls.
** Procedures should clearly identify employees or classes of employees who will have access to electronic protected health information (EPHI). Access to EPHI must be restricted to only those employees who have a need for it to complete their job function.
** The procedures must address access authorization, establishment, modification, and termination.
** Entities must show that an appropriate ongoing training program regarding the handling of PHI is provided to employees performing health plan administrative functions.
** Covered entities that out-source some of their business processes to a third party must ensure that their vendors also have a framework in place to comply with HIPAA requirements. Companies typically gain this assurance through clauses in the contracts stating that the vendor will meet the same data protection requirements that apply to the covered entity. Care must be taken to determine if the vendor further out-sources any data handling functions to other vendors and monitor whether appropriate contracts and controls are in place.
** A contingency plan should be in place for responding to emergencies. Covered entities are responsible for backing up their data and having disaster recovery procedures in place. The plan should document data priority and failure analysis, testing activities, and change control procedures.
** Internal audits play a key role in HIPAA compliance by reviewing operations with the goal of identifying potential security violations. Policies and procedures should specifically document the scope, frequency, and procedures of audits. Audits should be both routine and event-based.
** Procedures should document instructions for addressing and responding to security breaches that are identified either during the audit or the normal course of operations.

* '''''Physical Safeguards''''' - controlling physical access to protect against inappropriate access to protected data
** Controls must govern the introduction and removal of hardware and software from the network. (When equipment is retired it must be disposed of properly to ensure that PHI is not compromised.)
** Access to equipment containing health information should be carefully controlled and monitored.
** Access to hardware and software must be limited to properly authorized individuals.
** Required access controls consist of facility security plans, maintenance records, and visitor sign-in and escorts.
** Policies are required to address proper workstation use. Workstations should be removed from high traffic areas and monitor screens should not be in direct view of the public.
** If the covered entities utilize contractors or agents, they too must be fully trained on their physical access responsibilities.

* '''''Technical Safeguards''''' - controlling access to computer systems and enabling covered entities to protect communications containing PHI transmitted electronically over open networks from being intercepted by anyone other than the intended recipient
** Information systems housing PHI must be protected from intrusion. When information flows over open networks, some form of encryption must be utilized. If closed systems/networks are utilized, existing access controls are considered sufficient and encryption is optional.
** Each covered entity is responsible for ensuring that the data within its systems has not been changed or erased in an unauthorized manner.
** Data corroboration, including the use of check sum, double-keying, message authentication, and digital signature may be used to ensure data integrity.
** Covered entities must also authenticate entities it communicates with. Authentication consists of corroborating that an entity is who it claims to be. Examples of corroboration include: password systems, two or three-way handshakes, telephone callback, and token systems.
** Covered entities must make documentation of their HIPAA practices available to the government to determine compliance.
** In addition to policies and procedures and access records, information technology documentation should also include a written record of all configuration settings on the components of the network because these components are complex, configurable, and always changing.
** Documented risk analysis and risk management programs are required. Covered entities must carefully consider the risks of their operations as they implement systems to comply with the act. (The requirement of risk analysis and risk management implies that the act’s security requirements are a minimum standard and places responsibility on covered entities to take all reasonable precautions necessary to prevent PHI from being used for non-health purposes.)

===The Unique Identifiers Rule (National Provider Identifier)===

Effective May 2006 (May 2007 for small health plans), all covered entities using electronic communications (e.g., physicians, hospitals, health insurance companies, and so forth) must use a single new National Provider Identifier (NPI). The NPI replaces all other identifiers used by health plans, Medicare (i.e, the [[UPIN]]), Medicaid, and other government programs. The NPI does not replace a provider's DEA number however, or a provider's state license number or tax identification number. The NPI is 10 digits (may be alphanumeric), the last digit being a checksum. The NPI cannot contain any embedded intelligence; in other words, the NPI is simply a number that does not itself have any additional meaning. The NPI is unique and national, never re-used, and except for institutions, a provider usually can have only one. An institution may obtain multiple NPIs for different "subparts" such as a free-standing cancer center or rehab facility.

===The Enforcement Rule===

On [[February 16]] [[2006]], HHS issued the Final Rule regarding HIPAA enforcement. It became effective on [[March 16]] [[2006]]. The Enforcement Rule sets civil money penalties for violating HIPAA rules and establishes procedures for investigations and hearings for HIPAA violations, however its deterrent effects seems to be negligible with few prosecutions for violations. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/04/AR2006060400672.html]

==Effect on research and clinical care==

The enactment of the Privacy and Security Rules has caused major changes in the way physicians and medical centers operate. While respect for patient privacy was already informally considered a cornerstone of medical [[professionalism]], the complex legalities and potentially stiff penalties associated with HIPAA, as well as the increase in paperwork and the cost of its implementation, were causes for concern among physicians and medical centers. An [[August]] [[2006]] article in the journal ''Annals of Internal Medicine'' detailed some such concerns over the implementation and effects of HIPAA.<ref name="annals">{{cite journal |author=Wilson J |title=Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Privacy rule causes ongoing concerns among clinicians and researchers |journal=Ann Intern Med |volume=145 |issue=4 |pages=313-6 |year=2006 |pmid=16908928}}</ref>

===Effects on research===
HIPAA restrictions on researchers have affected their ability to perform retrospective, chart-based research as well as their ability to prospectively evaluate patients by contacting them for follow-up. A study from the [[University of Michigan]] demonstrated that implementation of the HIPAA Privacy rule resulted in a drop from 96% to 34% in the proportion of follow-up surveys completed by study patients being followed after a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Armstrong D, Kline-Rogers E, Jani S, Goldman E, Fang J, Mukherjee D, Nallamothu B, Eagle K |title=Potential impact of the HIPAA privacy rule on data collection in a registry of patients with acute coronary syndrome |journal=Arch Intern Med |volume=165 |issue=10 |pages=1125-9 |year=2005 |pmid=15911725}}</ref> Another study, detailing the effects of HIPAA on recruitment for a study on cancer prevention, demonstrated that HIPAA-mandated changes led to a 73% decrease in patient accrual, a tripling of time spent recruiting patients, and a tripling of mean recruitment costs.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wolf M, Bennett C |title=Local perspective of the impact of the HIPAA privacy rule on research |journal=Cancer |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=474-9 |year=2006 |pmid=16342254}}</ref>

In addition, [[informed consent]] forms for research studies now are required to include extensive detail on how the participant's protected health information will be kept private. While such information is important, the addition of a lengthy, legalistic section on privacy may make these already complex documents even more user-unfriendly for patients who are asked to read and sign them.

These data suggest that the HIPAA privacy rule, as currently implemented, may be having negative impacts on the cost and quality of medical research. Dr. Kim Eagle, professor of [[internal medicine]] at the [[University of Michigan]], was quoted in the ''Annals'' article as saying, "Privacy is important, but research is also important for improving care. We hope that we will figure this out and do it right."<ref name="annals"/>

===Effects on clinical care===
The complexity of HIPAA, combined with potentially stiff penalties for violators, can lead physicians and medical centers to withhold information from those who may have a right to it. A review of the implementation of the HIPAA Privacy Rule by the U.S. [[Government Accountability Office]] found that health care providers were "uncertain about their [legal] privacy responsibilities and often responded with an overly guarded approach to disclosing information...than necessary to ensure compliance with the Privacy rule."<ref name="annals"/>

===Costs of implementation===
In the period immediately prior to the enactment of the HIPAA Privacy and Security Acts, medical centers and medical practices were charged with getting "into compliance". With an early emphasis on the potentially severe penalties associated with violation, many practices and centers turned to private, for-profit "HIPAA consultants" who were intimately familiar with the details of the legislation and offered their services to ensure that physicians and medical centers were fully "in compliance". In addition to the costs of developing and revamping systems and practices, the increase in paperwork and staff time necessary to meet the legal requirements of HIPAA may impact the finances of medical centers and practices at a time when [[insurance company]] and [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] reimbursement is also declining.

==Legislative information==
*[[United States House of Representatives|House]]: 104 H.R. 3103, H. Rept. 104-469, Pt. 1, H. Rept. 104-736
*[[United States Senate|Senate]]: 104 S. 1028, 104 S. 1698, S. Rept. 104-156
*Law: Pub. L. 104-191, 110 Stat. 1936
*[[HHS]] Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information; Final Rule: 45 CFR Parts 160 and 164
*[[HHS]] Security Standards; Final Rule: 45 CFR Parts 160, 162, and 164

== See also ==
* [[ISO TC 215]]
* [[Directive 95/46/EC on the protection of personal data]] (EU)
* [[European Institute for Health Records]] (EU)
* [[TC 251|CEN/TC 251]] (EU)
* [[openehr|openEHR]] Foundation
* [[Information technology audit]]
* [[Eric Drew]]
* [[Identity theft]]
* [[HIPAA compliant email postscript]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==












*[http://www.cms.hhs.gov/hipaa/ Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services - HIPAA Page]
*[http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/hipaa/ Office for Civil Rights page on HIPAA]
*[http://www.legalarchiver.org/hipaa.htm Full text of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]
*[http://www.hhs.gov/ocr/hipaa/FinalEnforcementRule06.pdf Full text of the Final HIPAA Enforcement Rule]
*[http://www.ohi.ca.gov/state/calohi/ohiHome.jsp California Office of HIPAA Implementation] CalOHI Burt R. Cohen, Director.
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=hipaa&search_crit=title&search=Search&date1=Anytime&date2=Anytime&type=form Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding HIPAA] from University of North Texas Libraries

[[Category:1996 in law]]
[[Category:Healthcare policy in the United States]]
[[Category:Privacy]]
[[Category:United States federal healthcare legislation]]
[[Category:Medicare and Medicaid (United States)]]
[[Category:Data privacy]]
[[Category:Insurance legislation]]
[[Category:Statutory law]]

[[nl:Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]]

Jog-Wasserfälle

2006-06-27T18:29:54Z

59.145.136.1: /* How to reach */

[[Image:Jog_Falls,_India_-_August_2004.jpg|thumb|270px|Jog Falls]]

The '''Jog waterfall''' (Jogada Gundi in Kannada) is one of the highest [[waterfalls]] in Asia, located in [[Shimoga]] District, [[Karnataka]] state, southern [[India]]. It's also called ''The Gerusoppe'' falls. It is created by the river [[Sharavati]], falling through a height of 292 m. The falls are said to be the most beautiful in [[India]]

The river splits up into four streams just before the waterfall; the four streams are named in accordance with their perceived trajectories:

* ''Raja'' (King): Named so because of its apparently 'dignified' and 'serene' fall (first from the left in the picture).
* ''Rani'' (Queen), also called ''Lady'': The stream has a winding, twisting trajectory, said to resemble the movements of a female dancer (third from the left in the picture).
* ''Roarer'': This stream appears out of a mass of rocks, making a tremendous amount of noise (hence the name) (second from left, starting from middle height).
* ''Rocket'': Consists of a large volume of water streaming out of a small opening at a very high speed (first from the right).

Associated with the waterfall is the nearby ''Linganamakki'' dam across the Sharavati river, and the hydro-electric power station that it serves. The power station has been operational since 1949, and is, at 1200 MW capacity, one of the largest hydro-electric stations in India and is a significant source of power for Karnataka. The power station was previously named Krishna Rajendra Hydro-Electric project, after the King of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]] at the time. The name was later changed to ''Mahatma Gandhi Hydro-Electric Project''. It was served by the Hirebhaskara dam until the 1960s. At this time, a dam across the Sharavati river was built just before the river jumps into the Jog Falls, and this dam has been used for power generation since then.

The dam has led to a reduction of the amount of water reaching the falls during the summer months. During the rainy season (June-October), the floodgates of the dam need to be opened and the waterfall runs full. This is also the main tourist season at the waterfall.

=== How to reach ===
Jog falls is one of the must visit places in Karnataka. Travellers from different states and countries visit this place. August-November is the best time to visit.
Jog is situated around 32 Km from a small town Sagara, and is 379 Km away from Bangalore.
Recommended way to reach: Bangalore to Shimoga by train, Shimoga to Sagara by Non-stop bus and to Jog by bus from Sagar. For those who would like to travel by bus there are direct KSRTC busses from Banagalore to Jog (8.30 Hrs Travel).

Nearest Railway staion: Shimoga City
Nearest Towns: Sagara, Siddapura, Sirsi.
Places to Stay: There are facilities to stay in Jog.
Other Places of interest: Honnemarudu, a water adventure centre, is few miles away

== External links ==
*[http://www.world-waterfalls.com/waterfall.php?num=156 World Waterfalls] Pictures of Jog Falls

{{Karnataka-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Karnataka]]
[[Category:Waterfalls of India]]
[[Category:Mysore Kingdom]]

[[kn:ಜೋಗ]]

'''Click below to see pictures of Jog Falls.'''
'''http://pg.photos.yahoo.com/ph/sudarshan_bhat_trekker/album?.dir=9c3f&.src=ph&store=&prodid=&.done=http%3a//pg.photos.yahoo.com/ph/sudarshan_bhat_trekker/my_photos'''