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{{Infobox language family
|name=Balto-Slavic
|map=Balto Slavic countries.svg
|mapcaption=Countries where the national language is:
{{legend|#008000|Eastern Slavic}}
{{legend|#7CDC87|Western Slavic}}
{{legend|#004040|Southern Slavic}}
{{legend|#F5BD43|(Eastern) Baltic}}
|region=[[Northern Europe]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[Central Europe]], [[Southeast Europe]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|protoname=[[Proto-Balto-Slavic language|Proto-Balto-Slavic]]
|child1=[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
|child2=[[Baltic languages|Baltic]]
|glotto=balt1263
|glottorefname=Balto-Slavic
}}
[[File:Slavic languages tree.svg|thumb|right|300px|Balto-Slavic languages.]]

The '''Balto-Slavic languages''' are a branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[family of languages]]. It traditionally comprises the [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] and [[Slavic languages]]. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo-European branch, which points to a period of common development. Most Indo-Europeanists classify Baltic and Slavic languages into a single branch, even though some details of the nature of their relationship remain in dispute<ref>{{cite web|title=Balto-Slavic languages. Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/51061/Balto-Slavic-languages|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.|accessdate=10 December 2012|quote=Those scholars who accept the Balto-Slavic hypothesis attribute the large number of close similarities in the vocabulary, grammar, and sound systems of the Baltic and Slavic languages to development from a common ancestral language after the breakup of Proto-Indo-European. Those scholars who reject the hypothesis believe that the similarities are the result of parallel development and of mutual influence during a long period of contact.}}</ref> in some circles, usually due to political controversies.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fortson|2010|p=414}}</ref> Some linguists, however, have recently suggested that Balto-Slavic should be split into three equidistant groups: Eastern Baltic, Western Baltic (which is extinct) and Slavic.<ref>{{citation |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |author-link=Frederik Kortlandt |year=2009 |title=Baltica & Balto-Slavica |page=5 |quote=Though Prussian is undoubtedly closer to the East Baltic languages than to Slavic, the characteristic features of the Baltic languages seem to be either retentions or results of parallel development and cultural interaction. Thus I assume that Balto-Slavic split into three identifiable branches, each of which followed its own course of development.}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Etymological Dictionary of the Slavic Inherited Lexicon |first=Rick |last=Derksen |author-link=Rick Derksen |year=2008 |page=20 |quote="I am not convinced that it is justified to reconstruct a Proto-Baltic stage. The term Proto-Baltic is used for convenience’s sake.}}</ref>

A [[Proto-Balto-Slavic language]] is reconstructable by the [[comparative method]], descending from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] by means of well-defined [[sound law]]s, and out of which modern Slavic and Baltic languages descended. One particularly innovative dialect separated from the Balto-Slavic dialect continuum and became ancestral to the [[Proto-Slavic]] language, from which all Slavic languages descended.<ref name=enc>{{Harvcoltxt|Young|2006}}</ref>

==Historical dispute==
The nature of the relationship of the Balto-Slavic languages has been the subject of much discussion from the very beginning of historical Indo-European linguistics as a scientific discipline. A few are more intent on explaining the similarities between the two groups not in terms of a genetic relationship, but by language contact and dialectal closeness in the Proto-Indo-European period.
[[File:Balto-Slavic theories.svg|thumb|right|400px|Various schematic sketches of possible alternative Balto-Slavic language relationships; Van Wijk, 1923.]]

Baltic and Slavic share many close [[phonology|phonological]], [[Lexical (semiotics)|lexical]], [[morphosyntactic]] and accentological similarities (listed below). The notable early Indo-Europeanist [[August Schleicher]] (1861) proposed a simple solution: From Proto-Indo-European descended Proto-Balto-Slavic, out of which Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic emerged. The Latvian linguist [[Jānis Endzelīns]] thought, however, that any similarities among Baltic and Slavic languages resulted from intensive language contact, i.e. that they were genetically not more closely related and that there was no common Proto-Balto-Slavic language. [[Antoine Meillet]] (1905, 1908, 1922, 1925, 1934), the distinguished French Indo-Europeanist, in reaction to a second simplified theory of Schleicher's, propounded a view according to which all similarities of Baltic and Slavic occurred accidentally, by independent parallel development, and that there was no Proto-Balto-Slavic language. In turn, the Polish linguist Rozwadowski suggests that the similarities among Baltic and Slavic languages are a result of not only genetic relationship, but also of later language contact. [[Thomas Olander]] corroborates the claim of genetic relationship in his research in the field of comparative Balto-Slavic [[accentology]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Olander|2002}}</ref>

Even though some linguists still reject a genetic relationship, most scholars accept that Baltic and Slavic languages experienced a period of common development. {{Harvcoltxt|Beekes|1995|p=22}}, for example, states expressly that {{nobreak|"[t]he}} Baltic and Slavic languages were originally one language and so form one group".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Beekes|1995|22}}</ref> Gray and Atkinson's (2003) application of language-tree divergence analysis supports a genetic relationship between the Baltic and Slavic languages, dating the split of the family to about 1400 BCE. That this was found using a very different methodology than other studies lends some credence to the links between the two.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Gray|Atkinson|2003}}</ref>

==Modern interpretation==
The Balto-Slavic languages are most often divided into Baltic and Slavic groups.<ref>James Clackson, ''Indo-European Linguistics, An Introduction'' (2007, Cambridge)</ref><ref>Benjamin W. Fortson IV, ''Indo-European Language and Culture, An Introduction'' (2nd ed, 2010, Wiley-Blackwell)</ref> However, in the 1960s [[Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)|Vyacheslav Ivanov]] and [[Vladimir Toporov]] proposed an alternative division, suggesting that the Balto-Slavic proto-language split from the start into West Baltic, East Baltic and Proto-Slavic.<ref>[[Vyacheslav Ivanov (philologist)|Иванов, В. B]]. & [[Vladimir Toporov|Toпоров, B. H.]] 1958, ''On the Relations between Slavic and Baltic Languages'', 4th International Congress of Slavic Studies, Moscow</ref> With this, Ivanov and Toporov put Baltic unity in question. In their framework, Proto-Slavic is a peripheral and innovative Balto-Slavic dialect that suddenly expanded due to a conjunction of historical circumstances, and effectively erased all the other Balto-Slavic dialects, except in the marginal areas where [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]] and [[Old Prussian]] developed. This model is supported by [[Glottochronology|glottochronologic]] studies by V. V. Kromer,<ref>{{cite arXiv |last=Kromer |first=Victor V. |eprint= cs/0303007 |title= Glottochronology and problems of protolanguage reconstruction |year=2003 |class=cs.CL}}</ref> although both of the most recent computer-generated family trees have a Baltic node parallel to the Slavic node.<ref>James Clackson, ''Indo-European Linguistics, An Introduction'' (2007, Cambridge)--the so-called "Pennsylvania Tree" (pg. 12) and the so-called "New Zealand Tree" (pg. 19)
</ref> [[Onomastics|Onomastic]] evidence shows that Baltic languages were once spoken in much wider territory than the one they cover today, all the way to [[Moscow]], and were later replaced by Slavic.

[[File:Balto-Slavic lng.png|thumb|right|260px|Area of Balto-Slavic dialectic continuum (''purple'') with proposed material cultures correlating to speakers Balto-Slavic in Bronze Age (''white''). ''Red'' dots= archaic Slavic hydronyms.]]

==Historical expansion==
The sudden expansion of Proto-Slavic in the sixth and the seventh century (around AD 600, uniform Proto-Slavic with no detectable dialectal differentiation was spoken from [[Thessaloniki]] in Greece to [[Novgorod]] in Russia) is according to some connected to the hypothesis that Proto-Slavic was in fact a ''[[Koiné language|koiné]]'' of the [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avar state]], i.e. the language of the administration and military rule of the Avar khaganate in Eastern Europe.<ref>cf. {{Harvcoltxt|Holzer|2002}} with references</ref> In 626, the [[Siege of Constantinople (626)|Slavs, Persians and Avars jointly attacked the Byzantine Empire]] and laid siege to Constantinople. In that campaign the Slavs fought under Avar officers. As of 2009 there was an ongoing controversy over whether the Slavs might then have been a military caste under the khaganate rather than an ethnicity.<ref name=Vashka>Controversy discussed in {{Cite book|author=Martin Hurbanič |title=Posledná vojna antiky. Avarský útok na Konštantínopol roku 626 v historických súvislostiach [The Last War of Antiquity. The Avar Siege of Constantinople, 626, in Historical Sources]| publisher=Vydavatel’stvo Michala Vaška |location=Prešov|year=2009|pages=137–153}}</ref> Their language—at first possibly only one local speech—once koinéized, became a ''lingua franca'' of the Avar state. This might explain how Proto-Slavic spread to the Balkans and the areas of the Danube basin,<ref>Until the year 800 Slavic languages were spoken all the way to the Trieste–Hamburg line. Later, they were pushed back to the east.</ref> and would also explain why the Avars were assimilated so fast, leaving practically no linguistic traces, and that Proto-Slavic was so unusually uniform. However, such a theory fails to explain how Slavic spread to Eastern Europe, an area that had no historical links with the [[Avars (Carpathians)|Avar Khanate]].<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Curta|2004}}: ''It is possible that the expansion of the Avar khanate during the second half of the eighth century coincided with the spread of... Slavic into the neighbouring areas of Bohemia, Moravia and southern Poland. (but) could hardly explain the spread of Slavic into Poland, Ukraine, Belarus and Russia, all regions that produced so far almost no archaeological evidence of Avar influence''</ref>

That sudden expansion of Proto-Slavic erased most of the idioms of the Balto-Slavic dialect continuum, which left us today with only two groups: Baltic and Slavic (or East Baltic, West Baltic, and Slavic in the minority view). This secession of the Balto-Slavic dialect ancestral to Proto-Slavic is estimated on archaeological and glottochronological criteria to have occurred sometime in the period 1500–1000 BCE.<ref>cf. {{Harvcoltxt|Novotná|Blažek|2007}} with references. "Classical glottochronology" conducted by Czech Slavist M. Čejka in 1974 dates the Balto-Slavic split to -910±340 BCE, Sergei Starostin in 1994 dates it to 1210 BCE, and "recalibrated glottochronology" conducted by Novotná & Blažek dates it to 1400–1340 BCE. This agrees well with Trzciniec-Komarov culture, localized from Silesia to Central Ukraine and dated to the period 1500–1200 BCE.</ref>

==Shared features of the Balto-Slavic languages==
{{Indo-European topics}}
The degree of relationship of the Baltic and Slavic languages is indicated by a series of common innovations not shared with other Indo-European languages, and by the relative chronology of these innovations which can be established. The Baltic and Slavic languages also share some inherited words. These are either not found at all in other Indo-European languages (except when borrowed) or are inherited from Proto-Indo-European but have undergone identical changes in meaning when compared to other Indo-European languages.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/50949/Baltic-languages |title=Baltic languages |authorlink=Vytautas Mažiulis |first=Vytautas |last=Mažiulis |accessdate=2008-10-10 |work=Britannica Online Encyclopedia}}</ref> This indicates that the Baltic and Slavic languages share a period of common development, the Proto-Balto-Slavic language.

===Common sound changes===
* [[Winter's law]]: lengthening of vowels before Proto-Indo-European (PIE) unaspirated voiced consonants (''*b'', ''*d'', ''*g'').
* PIE voiced aspirated consonants (''*bʰ'', ''*dʰ'', ''*gʰ'', ''*ǵʰ'') merge into the voiced consonants (''*b'', ''*d'', ''*g'', ''*ǵ''). This also occurred in several other Indo-European branches, but as Winter's law was sensitive to the difference between the two types of consonants, the merger must have happened after it and so is a specific Balto-Slavic innovation.
* [[Hirt's law]]: retraction of the PIE accent to the preceding syllable, if that syllable ended in a laryngeal (''*h₁'', ''*h₂'', ''*h₃'', see [[Laryngeal theory]]).
* A high vowel is inserted before PIE syllabic [[sonorant]]s (''*l̥'', ''*r̥'', ''*m̥'', ''*n̥''). This vowel is usually ''*i'' (giving ''*il'', ''*ir'', ''*im'', ''*in'') but in some occasions also ''*u'' (''*ul'', ''*ur'', ''*um'', ''*un''). [[Proto-Germanic]] is the only other Indo-European language that inserts a high vowel (''*u'' in all cases), all others insert mid or low vowels instead.
* Emergence of a [[Register (phonology)|register]] distinction on long syllables, between acute (probably glottalized) and circumflex. The acute arose primarily when the syllable ended in a PIE voiced consonant (as in Winter's law) or when it ended in a laryngeal. The distinction is reflected in most Balto-Slavic languages, including Proto-Slavic, as an opposition between rising and falling tone on accented syllables. Some Baltic languages directly reflect the acute register in the form of a so-called "broken tone".
* Shortening of vowels before word-final ''*m''.<ref name="Hill 2013">{{cite journal |last=Hill |first=Eugen |date=2013 |title=Historical phonology in service of subgrouping. Two laws of final syllables in the common prehistory of Baltic and Slavonic. |url=https://www.academia.edu/5777444/Historical_phonology_in_service_of_subgrouping._Two_laws_of_final_syllables_in_the_common_prehistory_of_Baltic_and_Slavonic |journal=Baltistica |publisher= |volume= |issue=XLVIII (2) |pages=161–204 |doi= |accessdate=11 January 2015}}</ref>
* Word-final ''*-mi'' > ''*-m'' after a long vowel.<ref name="Hill 2013"/> This followed the preceding change, as the preceding long vowel is retained.
* Raising of stressed ''*o'' to ''*u'' in a final syllable.<ref name="Hill 2013"/>
* Merging of PIE short ''*o'' and ''*a'' into ''*a'' or ''*o''. This change also occurred in several other Indo-European branches, but here too it must have happened after Winter's law: Winter's law lengthens ''*o'' to ''*ō'' and ''*a'' to ''*ā'', and must therefore have occurred before the two sounds merged. It also followed the raising of ''*o'' to ''*u'' above. It is to be noted that both vowels merged differently in both groups: Baltic languages have ''a'' in both cases, but Slavic ones have ''o'' (compare Lith. ''ašìs'' with old. Sl. ''ось'' (from Ide. ''*a'': Latin ''axis'', Greec ''ἄζων''); Lith. ''avìs'', old Slavic ''овьца'' (from Ide. ''*ŏ'': Latin ''ovis'', Greec ''ὄις''). The Indoeuropean long vowels ''*ā'' and ''*ō'' merged only in the Slavic group, and later only in old Prussian.<ref name="Zigmas Zinkevičius 1984, page 120">Zigmas Zinkevičius. Lietuvių kalbos kilmė [Origin of the Lithuanian Language]. Vilnius, 1984, page 120</ref>

Common Balto-Slavic innovations include several other changes, which are also shared by several other Indo-European branches. These are therefore not direct evidence for the existence of a common Balto-Slavic family, but they do corroborate it.

* [[Satemization]]: The PIE palatovelar consonants ''*ḱ'', ''*ǵ'', ''*ǵʰ'' become palatal sibilants ''*ś'', ''*ź'', ''*ź'', while the PIE labiovelar consonants ''*kʷ'', ''*gʷ'', ''*gʷʰ'' lose their labalization and merge with the plain velar ''*k'', ''*g'', ''*gʰ''. The palatal sibilants later become plain sibilants ''*s'', ''*z'' in all Balto-Slavic languages except Lithuanian.
* [[Ruki sound law]]: ''*s'' becomes ''*š'' when preceded by ''*r'', ''*u'', ''*k'' or ''*i''. In Slavic, this ''*š'' later becomes ''*x'' (variously spelled {{angbr|ch}}, {{angbr|h}} or {{angbr|х}} in the Slavic languages) when followed by a back vowel.

===Common grammatical innovations===
* Replacement of the original PIE genitive singular ending of thematic (o-stem) nouns, which is reconstructed as ''*-osyo'', with the ablative ending ''*-ād'' (Proto-Slavic ''*vьlka'', Lithuanian ''vil̃ko'', Latvian ''vìlka''). Old Prussian, however, has another ending, perhaps stemming from the original PIE genitive: ''deiwas'' "god's", ''tawas'' "father's".
* Use of the ending ''*-ān'' (from earlier ''*-āmi'') of the instrumental singular in ā-stem nouns and adjectives.<ref name="Hill 2013"/> This contrasts with Sanskrit ''-ayā'', archaic Vedic ''-ā''. Lithuanian ''rankà'' is ambiguous and could have originated from either ending, but the correspondence with East Lithuanian ''runku'' and Latvian ''rùoku'' point to Balto-Slavic ''*-ān''.
* Use of the ending ''*-mis'' in the instrumental plural, e.g. Lithuanian ''[[wikt:sūnus#Lithuanian|sūnu'''mìs''']]'', [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''[[wikt:сꙑнъ#Old Church Slavonic|synъ'''mi''']]'' "with sons". This ending is also found in Germanic, while the other Indo-European languages have an ending with ''-bʰ-'', as in Sanskrit ''-bhis''.
* Creation of a distinction between definite (meaning similar to "the") and indefinite adjectives (meaning similar to "a"). The definite forms were formed by attaching the corresponding form of the relative/demonstrative pronoun ''*jas'' to the end of the adjective. For example, Lithuanian ''geràs'''is''''' 'the good' as opposed to ''[[wikt:geras#Lithuanian|gẽras]]'' 'good', Old Church Slavonic ''dobrъ'''jь''''' 'the good' as opposed to ''[[wikt:добръ#Old Church Slavonic|dobrъ]]'' 'good'. These forms in Lithuanian, however, seem to have developed after the split, since in older Lithuanian literature (16th century and onwards) they had not yet merged (e. g. ''naujamę́jame'' ʽin the new one’ from ''*naujamén'' + ''*jamén''). In Lithuanian, the pronoun merged with the adjective having a modern (secondary) pronominal inflection; in Slavic, the pronoun merged with an adjective, having an ancient (primary) nominal inflection.<ref name="Zigmas Zinkevičius 1984, page 120"/>
* Usage of the genitive case for the direct object of a negative verb. For example, Russian ''кни́г'''и''' (я) не читал'', Lith. ''knyg'''os''' neskaičiau'' 'I haven't read the book'.<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Matasović|2008|pp=56–57}} ''"Navedimo najvažnije baltoslavenske izoglose...Upotreba genitiva za izricanje objekta zanijekanog glagola"''</ref>

===Shared vocabulary===
Some examples of words shared among most or all Balto-Slavic languages:
* [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Balto-Slavic/leiˀpāˀ|*léiˀpāˀ]] '[[tilia]]' (linden tree): Lithuanian ''[[wikt:liepa#Lithuanian|líepa]]'', Old Prussian ''līpa'', Latvian ''[[wikt:liepa#Latvian|liẽpa]]'', Latgalian ''[[wikt:līpa#Latgalian|līpa]]'', Common Slavic ''[[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Slavic/lipa|*lipa]]'' (Old Church Slavonic ''[[wikt:липа#Old Church Slavonic|липа]]'', Russian ''[[wikt:липа#Russian|ли́па]]'', Polish ''[[wikt:lipa#Polish|lipa]]'', Czech ''[[wikt:lípa#Czech|lípa]]'')
* [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Balto-Slavic/rankāˀ|*ránkāˀ]] 'hand': Lithuanian ''[[wikt:ranka#Lithuanian|rankà]]'', Old Prussian ''rānkan'' ([[accusative case|acc.]] [[grammatical number|sg.]]), Latvian ''[[wikt:roka#Latvian|ròka]]'', Latgalian ''[[wikt:rūka#Latgalian|rūka]]'', Common Slavic ''[[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Slavic/rǫka|*rǭkà]]'' (Old Church Slavonic ''[[wikt:рѫка#Old Church Slavonic|рѫка]]'', Russian ''[[wikt:рука#Russian|рука́]]'', Polish ''[[wikt:ręka#Polish|ręka]]'', Czech ''[[wikt:ruka#Czech|ruka]]'')
* [[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Balto-Slavic/galwāˀ|*galwā́ˀ]] 'head': Lithuanian ''[[wikt:galva#Lithuanian|galvà]]'', Old Prussian ''[[wikt:galwo#Old Prussian|galwo]]'', Latvian ''[[wikt:galva#Latvian|galva]]'', Latgalian ''[[wikt:golva#Latgalian|golva]]''; Common Slavic ''[[wikt:Appendix:Proto-Slavic/golva|*golvà]]'' (Old Church Slavonic ''[[wikt:глава#Old Church Slavonic|глава]]'', Russian ''[[wikt:голова#Russian|голова́]]'', Polish ''[[wikt:głowa#Polish|głowa]]'', Czech ''[[wikt:hlava#Czech|hlava]]'')

==See also==
* [[List of Balto-Slavic languages]]
* [[Corded Ware culture]]
* [[International Workshop on Balto-Slavic Accentology]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
* {{citation | editors=Barschel; Kozianka; Weber | title=Indogermanisch, Baltisch und Slawisch, Kolloquium in Zusammenarbeit mit der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft in Jena, September 1989 | location=[[Munich]] | publisher=Otto Sagner | year=1992 | isbn=3-87690-515-X |language=German}}
* {{citation| authorlink=Robert S. P. Beekes |first=Robert |last=Beekes | title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics | location=[[Amsterdam]] | publisher=John Benjamins | year=1995 | id=ISBN 90-272-2151-0 (Europe), ISBN 1-55619-505-2 (U.S.)}}
* {{citation| last=Curta |first=Florin |title=The Slavic Lingua Franca. (Linguistic Notes of an Archaeologist Turned Historian) | url=http://florida.academia.edu/FlorinCurta/Papers/161557/The-Slavic-lingua-franca--Linguistic-notes-of-an-archaeologist-turned-historian- |journal=East Central Europe/L'Europe du Centre-Est |issue= 31 |year=2004 |pages=125–148}}
* {{citation |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W. |title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction |location=Malden, Massachusetts |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4051-8896-8}}
* {{citation |doi=10.1038/nature02029 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v426/n6965/abs/nature02029.html|first1=R.D. |last1=Gray |last2=Atkinson| first2=Q.D. |title=Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin |journal=Nature |volume=426 |issue=426 |pages=435–439 |year=2003 |bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G |pmid=14647380}}
* {{citation |year=2001 |authorlink=Georg Holzer |first=Georg |last=Holzer |language=German |title=Zur Lautgeschichte des baltisch-slavischen Areals |journal=Wiener slavistisches Jahrbuch |issue=47 |pages=33–50}}
* {{citation |url=http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/eeo/Urslawisch.pdf |contribution=Urslawisch |authorlink=Georg Holzer |first=Georg |last=Holzer |year=2002 |accessdate=2008-10-01 |title=Enzyklopädie des Europäischen Ostens |language=German |location=Klagenfurt |publisher=Wieser Verlag |format=PDF }}
*{{citation |year=2007 |authorlink=Georg Holzer |first=Georg |last=Holzer |title=Historische Grammatik des Kroatischen. Einleitung und Lautgeschichte der Standardsprache | location=[[Frankfurt am Main]] |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-631-56119-5 |language=German }}
* {{citation|authorlink=Frederik Kortlandt |first=Frederik |last=Kortlandt |url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/1853/1/344_017.pdf |title=I.-E. palatovelars before resonants in Balto-Slavic |year=1978 |journal=Recent Developments in Historical Phonology |pages=237–243 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517143920/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/dspace/bitstream/1887/1853/1/344_017.pdf |archivedate=May 17, 2014 }}
* {{citation |title=Baltica & Balto-Slavica |first=Frederik |last=Kortlandt |year=2009 |isbn=978-90-420-2652-0 |location=Amsterdam-New York |publisher=Rodopi |author-link=Frederik Kortlandt }}
* {{citation|authorlink=Ranko Matasović |first=Ranko |last=Matasović |url=http://www.leidykla.vu.lt/inetleid/baltistic/40_2/straipsniai/str1.pdf |title=Toward a relative chronology of the earliest Baltic and Slavic sound changes |year=2005 |journal=[[Baltistica]] |volume=40/2 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061009223421/http://www.leidykla.vu.lt/inetleid/baltistic/40_2/straipsniai/str1.pdf |archivedate=October 9, 2006 }}
* {{citation |authorlink=Ranko Matasović |first=Ranko |last=Matasović |language=Croatian |title=Poredbenopovijesna gramatika hrvatskoga jezika |location=[[Zagreb]] |publisher=[[Matica hrvatska]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-953-150-840-7 }}
* {{citation |first1=Petra |last1=Novotná |first2=Václav |last2=Blažek |title=Glottochronolgy and its application to the Balto-Slavic languages |journal=[[Baltistica]] |volume=XLII (2) |year=2007 |pages=185–210 |url=http://www.leidykla.eu/fileadmin/Baltistika/42-2/04_Blazeko.pdf |format=PDF}}
* {{citation |url=http://www.tommeltot.dk/files/olander-bsproblem.pdf |title=Det baltoslaviske problem – Accentologien |first=Tomas |last=Olander |author-link=Thomas Olander |year=2002 |language=Danish |format=pdf}} Thomas Olander's master's thesis on the existence of Balto-Slavic genetic node solely on the basis of accentological evidence
* {{citation |first=Thomas |last=Olander |author-link=Thomas Olander |year=2009 |title=Balto-Slavic Accentual Mobility |publisher=[[Mouton de Gruyter]] |location =Berlin & New York |isbn=978-3-11-020397-4}}
* {{citation |authorlink=Christian Stang |first=Christian |last=Stang |title=Slavonic accentuation |location=[[Oslo]] |publisher=Universitetsforlaget |year=1957 |isbn=978-82-00-06078-9 }}
* {{citation | authorlink=Oswald Szemerényi |last=Szemerényi |first=Oswald | title=The problem of Balto-Slav unity | journal=Kratylos | year=1957 | volume=2 | pages=97–123}}
* {{citation|title=Balto-Slavic languages|journal=Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA135|year=2009| last=Young |first=S |isbn=978-0-08-087774-7}}

==External links==
* [http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art218e.pdf Balto-Slavic Accentuation], by Kortlandt; a very idiosyncratic approach to Balto-Slavic accentuation
* {{Citation |url=http://www.kroraina.com/slav/bern_trub.htm |author=[[Oleg Trubachyov|Трубачев О.]] |author2=Бернштейн С. |chapter=Отрывки о балто-южнославянских изоглосах |script-title=ru:Сравнительная грамматика славянских языков |year=2005 |location=Moscow |publisher=Наука |language=Russian}} (Bernstein and Trubachev on the Balto-South-Slavic isoglosses)
* [http://puls.cs.helsinki.fi/bsnlp-2013 Biennial International Workshop on Balto-Slavic Natural Language Processing]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Balto-Slavic Languages}}
[[Category:Balto-Slavic languages| ]]

Daf Jomi

2012-02-06T19:02:44Z

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{{refimprove|date=February 2011}}
'''''Daf Yomi''''' ({{lang-he|דף יומי}}) "page [of the] day" or "daily [[wikt:folio|folio]]") is a daily regimen undertaken to study the Babylonian [[Talmud]] one folio (a ''daf'', or "blatt" in Yiddish, consists of both sides of the page) each day. Under this regimen, the entire Talmud would be completed, one day at a time, in a [[Frequency|cycle]] of seven and a half years.

==Initiation==
[[Image:Meir Shapiro.jpg|thumb|150px|Rabbi Yehuda Meir Shapiro]]
The novel idea of Jews in all corners of the globe to participate in completing together the entire Talmud, was put forth at the First World Congress of the [[World Agudath Israel]] in [[Vienna]] in 1923 by Rabbi [[Meir Shapiro]]. On the first day of [[Rosh Hashanah]] 5684 (11 September 1923) the first cycle began. To strengthen this idea, the [[Ger (Hasidic dynasty)|Gerrer]] [[Rebbe]], Rabbi [[Avraham Mordechai Alter]], learned the first ''daf'' (folio) of [[Berakhot (Talmud)|Berakhot]] in public on that day.

==Impact==
Thousands of [[Jew]]s worldwide participate in the ''Daf Yomi'' program. Currently, Daf Yomi efforts contribute significantly [how] to [[Orthodox Judaism]] and [[Baalei Teshuva]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2007}} and has had a uniting factor among Jews.

==Process==
With 2,711 pages in the Talmud,<ref>According to the [[Encyclopedia Judaica]], the Babylonian Talmud comprises 2688 pages. The total of 2711 includes Tractate Shekalim, taken from the Jerusalem Talmud, learned as part of the Daf Yomi cycle. (It should also be noted that each tractate begins with page 2, as the title page is counted as 1.)</ref> one cycle takes about 7 years, 5 months. ''Daf Yomi'' started its 12th cycle of study on 2 March 2005. The completion of the cycle is celebrated in an event known as ''[[Siyum HaShas]]'' ("completion [of] the ''Shas''"<ref>''Shas'', an [[acronym]] for ''Shisha Sidrei ([[Mishnah]])'' or "Six Orders of the Mishnah", is another name for the Talmud.</ref> The last Siyum Hashas took place on 1 March 2005 with an estimated 120,000 in attendance worldwide. It was organized by [[Agudath Israel of America]]. The next ''Siyum HaShas'' will take place on August 1, 2012 at the MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford, NJ.



==See also==
*[[Amud Yomi]]
*[[Halacha Yomis]]
*[[Siyum hashas]]
*[[Weekly Torah portion]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.e-daf.com/ E-daf.com] Study resources and additional lectures

[[Category:Hebrew words and phrases]]
[[Category:Talmud]]
[[Category:Jewish education]]
[[Category:Rabbinic legal texts and responsa]]

[[es:Daf Yomi]]
[[fr:Daf Yomi]]
[[he:הדף היומי]]
[[yi:דף היומי]]

Armenian General Benevolent Union

2010-04-20T22:06:37Z

38.117.182.130: /* External links */

The '''Armenian General Benevolent Union''' abbreviated as '''AGBU''', ({{lang-hy|Հայկական Բարեգործական Ընդհանուր Միութիւն, Haygagan Parekordzagan Enthanour Miyutyun}}, {{lang-fr|'''L'Union Générale Arménienne de Bienfaisance''' abbreviated as '''UGAB'''}}, {{lang-es|'''Union General Armenia de Beneficencia''' abbreviated as '''UGAB'''}}) is a [[non-profit]] [[Armenia]]n organization. It was established in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] in 1906. With the onset of [[World War II]], headquarters were moved to [[New York City]], [[New York]].

With an annual international budget of $36 million,<ref name=about/> AGBU preserves and promotes the Armenian identity and heritage through [[educational]], [[cultural]] and [[humanitarian]] programs, annually serving some 400,000 Armenians in 35 countries. In 2006, the AGBU celebrated its [[centenary]] in its headquarters in New York City.<ref name=about>{{cite web|url=http://www.agbu.org/aboutagbu/default.asp
|accessdate=2008-08-12
|title=About AGBU
|publisher=Armenian General Benevolent Union
}}</ref>

==Activities==

===Centers, Chapters and Offices===
*'''[[Argentina]]''': [[Buenos Aires]], [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]]
*'''[[Armenia]]''': [[Yerevan]]
*'''[[Australia]]''': [[Melbourne]], [[Sydney]]
*'''[[Austria]]''': [[Vienna]]
*'''[[Brazil]]''': [[São Paulo]]
*'''[[Bulgaria]]''': [[Burgas]], [[Dobrich]], [[Haskovo]], [[Plovdiv]], [[Rousse]], [[Silistra]], [[Sliven]], [[Sofia]], [[Varna]] and [[Yambol]]
*'''[[Canada]]''': [[Montréal]], [[Toronto]], [[Vancouver]]
*'''[[Cyprus]]''': [[Nicosia]], [[Larnaca]], [[Limassol]]
*'''[[Egypt]]''': [[Alexandria]], [[Cairo]]
*'''[[Ethiopia]]''': [[Addis Ababa]]
*'''[[France]]''': [[Lyon]], [[Marseilles]], [[Nice]], [[Paris]], [[Saint-Étienne]]-[[Saint-Chamond]], [[Valence, Drôme|Valence]], [[Vienne]]
*'''[[Greece]]''': [[Athens]], [[Thessaloniki]]
*'''[[Iraq]]''': [[Baghdad]]
*'''[[Italy]]''': [[Milan]]
*'''[[Lebanon]]''': [[Beirut]]
*'''[[South Africa]]''': [[Johannesburg]]
*'''[[Switzerland]]''': [[Geneva]]
*'''[[Syria]]''': [[Aleppo]], [[Damascus]], [[Al-Qamishli]], [[Kasab]], [[Latakia]], [[Yacoubieh]]
*'''[[United Kingdom]]''': [[London]]
*'''[[United States]]''': [[Boston]], [[Canoga Park, Los Angeles, California|Canoga Park]], [[Chicago]], [[Cleveland]], [[Detroit]], [[Fresno, California]], [[Glendale, California]]-[[San Gabriel, California]], [[Houston]], [[Manhattan Beach, California]], [[Los Angeles]], [[New England]] District, [[Oakland]]-[[San Francisco]], [[Orange County]], [[Pasadena, California]], [[Philadelphia]], [[President's Club]], [[Providence]], [[San Diego]], [[San Fernando Valley]], [[Silicon Valley]], [[Watertown, Massachusetts]]
*'''[[Uruguay]]''': [[Montevideo]].

===Education===
AGBU operates 18 day schools and 15 Saturday (one-day) schools
Some of the important schools run by the AGBU include:
*[[AGBU Manoogian-Demirdjian School|Manoogian-Demirdjian school]] in [[Canoga Park]], [[California]]
*[[AGBU High School, Pasadena]]
*Manoogian School in [[Southfield]], [[Michigan]]
*Alex Manoogian school in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]].
*Marie Manoogian school in Buenos Aires, Argentina

It awards [[scholarship]] grants and loans to over 500 students worldwide and supports the [[American University of Armenia]] and [[Yerevan State University]].

The Union has funded a number of benevolent causes including supporting the [[Lord Byron School (Gyumri)|Lord Byron School]] which was donated by the British government following the earthquake in 1988. The school has continued to twin with the [[Holgate School (Hucknall)|Holgate School]] in Nottingham. The support of the Lord Byron School in Armenia and the twinning have enjoyed the AGBU's support.<ref>[http://www.agbu.org/pressoffice/article.asp?ID=238 Obituary for George S. Kurkjian], 2005</ref>

===Youth and Culture===
Through its extensive global network of 75 chapters, young professionals groups, centers and offices, the organization sponsors numerous worthwhile cultural and humanitarian programs, including children's centers, soup kitchens, summer camps, athletics and [[Scouting|Scouts]], internship and mentoring programs and the performing arts. It claims to be the world's largest non-profit Armenian organization.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.agbu.org/pressoffice/article.asp?ID=491
|title=AGBU promotes the Armenian heritage around the world.
|work=AGBU Press Office
|publisher=Armenian General Benevolent Union
|date=2008-03-18
|accessdate=2008-08-12
}}</ref>

===Publications===

With more than a dozen publications in six languages, AGBU has a rich publishing tradition<ref>[http://www.agbu.org/publications/default.asp Listing of AGBU publications worldwide]</ref>

* '''[[Ararat Quarterly]]''' (1959–) A quarterly of literature, history, popular culture and the arts.
*AGBU News (New York, NY, USA)
*AGBU Voice (Bulgaria)
*Desilk (Scarborough, Canada)
*Deghegadou (Cairo, Egypt)
*Generation 3 (Argentina)
*Hayatsk (Aleppo, Syria)
*Hoosharar (New York, NY, USA)
*Khosnag (Beirut, Lebanon)
*Revue Arménienne des Questions Contemporaines (France)
*UGAB-France (Paris, France)
*Yeram (Damascus, Syria)
*Mioutune (Sydney, Australia)

== Presidents ==
*[[Boghos Nubar]] (1906-1928) - Founder<ref name=about/>
*[[Calouste Gulbenkian]] (1930-1932)
*[[Zareh Nubar]] (1932-1943)
*[[Arshag Karagheusian]] (1943-1953) of [[A & M Karagheusian]]
*[[Alex Manoogian]] (1953-1989) - Honorary Life President.<ref name=about/>
*[[Louise Manoogian Simone]] (1989-2002)
*[[Berge Setrakian]] (2002-present)<ref name=about/>

== See also ==

*[[Pan-Armenian Games]]
*[[Holgate School (Hucknall)]]

== References ==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.agbu.org AGBU official site]
*[http://agbublog.wordpress.com/ AGBU Blog]
*[http://www.youtube.com/agbuvideo AGBU YouTube channel]

AGBU Regional:

*Armenia
**[http://www.agbu.am/ AGBU Armenia]

*Canada
**[http://www.agbumontreal.org/ AGBU Montreal]

*Europe
*[http://www.ugab.info/ UGAB - AGBU Europe (France)]
**[http://fr.agbueurope.org/ UGAB Europe in French]
*[http://www.agbu.org.uk/ AGBU UK]

*Middle East
**[http://agbuegypt.com AGBU-Egypt Official Site]
**[http://www.agbu-lb.org/ AGBU Lebanon]

*South America
**[http://www.ugab.org.ar/ AGBU Argentina]
**[http://www.ugab.com.br/ AGBU Sao Paulo, Brazil]
**[http://www.ugab.org.uy/ AGBU Uruguay]

*USA
**[http://www.agbuchicago.org/ AGBU Chicago]
**[http://www.agbuypla.org/ AGBU YP Los Angeles]
**[http://www.agbuypnc.org/ AGBU YP North Carolina]
**[http://www.agbugennext.org/ AGBU Generation Next, Southern California]

AGBU Schools:
*[http://www.manoogian.org/ AGBU Alex and Marie Manoogian School, Southfield, Michigan]
*[http://www.alexmanoogian.qc.ca/ Ecole Alex Manoogian, Montreal, Canada]
*[http://www.agbumds.org/ Manoogian-Demirdjian School, Canoga Park, CA]
*[http://www.agbutorontoschool.com/ AGBU Zarookian School, Scarborough, Toronto, Canada]

Others:
* [http://www.antranig.org/ AGBU Antranig Danse Ensemble]
* [http://www.campnubar.org/ AGBU Camp Nubar]
* [http://www.usnubar.org/ US Nubar (camp)]

[[Category:Armenian culture]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in the United States]]

{{Armenian General Benevolent Union}}

[[hy:Հայկական Բարեգործական Ընդհանուր Միություն]]
[[ru:AGBU]]