Verfassungskonvent der Vereinigten Staaten

2006-12-14T18:40:34Z

216.195.203.194: /* Historical context */

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[[Image:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States.png|475px|thumb|right|''[[Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States]]'', by [[Howard Chandler Christy]].]]

The '''Philadelphia Convention''' (now also known as the '''Constitutional Convention''', the '''Federal Convention''', or the "'''Grand Convention at Philadelphia'''") took place from [[May 25]] to [[September 17]], [[1787]], to address problems in [[The United States of America]] following independence from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]. Although it was purportedly intended only to revise the [[Articles of Confederation]], the intention of many of the Convention's proponents, chief among them [[James Madison]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]], was from the outset to create a new government rather than "fix" the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the convention. The result of the Convention was the [[United States Constitution]]. The Convention is one of the central events in the [[history of the United States]].

==Historical context==
Before the Constitution was drafted, the Federalists and Anti-Federalists both agreed about the government's failure to deal with commerce. Virginia and Maryland had made an effective agreement about navigating the [[Chesapeake Bay]] and its tributaries and wanted Delaware and Pennsylvania to join. Such an agreement, however, was illegal without the consent of the Confederal Congress assembled under Article VI of the [[Articles of Confederation]]. Frustration over oh me gosh becky the deal led to the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]], where only five states came to discuss possible trade remedies. At the convention, the date for Philadelphia in 1787 was set.

Three events took place that increased the Philadelphia Convention's legitimacy. First, New York voted Robert Morris' 25-year plan to raise revenue after all other states had agreed (many with reservations). The nation was in desperate need of revenue to pay foreign debts to France and the Netherlands, soldiers who were fighting Indians in western lands, and general costs of running a government. The 1786 impost requested $3.8 million dollars and received only $663 in requisitions. Second, [[Shays' Rebellion]] shook the country. The rebellion to capture an arsenal in Massachusetts was suppressed relatively easily, but news of the event scared people in all states and exposed the Articles' weaknesses. Also, the blockades placed on the country because of debts proved the weakness of the Articles and showed the inability of the government to do anything.

In the ratification debate, Federalists exaggerated the desperate need for a new government. Frenchman Louis Otto noted that the brief recession of 1786-1787 had "happily arisen", and historian William Findley argued that the Federalists' cries were "convincing a man in health he is sick". After ratification, Alexander Hamilton noted in his First Report on Public Credit as Secretary of the Treasury that the economic recession was a "rehearsal" for future problems.

== Deliberations ==
The convention was held in the [[Independence Hall|Pennsylvania State House]] during the hot summer of 1787. The windows were kept shut and guards posted so that others could not hear the discussions.
===Virginia plan===
The [[Virginia Plan]] was the unofficial agenda for the Convention. The Virginia delegation arrived before the other delegations to Philadelphia and began meeting daily to discuss plans for the new government. All but the first resolution was written by [[James Madison]], and was first reported to the Convention by [[Edmund Randolph]]. It included:
*A [[bicameral]] [[legislature]]
*Both houses' membership determined proportionately
*The [[lower house]] was elected by the people of the several states
*The [[upper house]] was elected by the lower house out of nominations from state legislatures
*The legislature was very powerful
*An executive was planned, but would exist to ensure the will of the legislature was carried out, and so was chosen by the legislature
*Formation of a judiciary, with life-terms of service
*A Council of Revision consisted of the executive and some of the national judiciary and would have the power to [[veto]] and revise national legislation, subject to override
*The national legislature would be able to veto state laws

===New Jersey plan===
Some, like [[William Paterson]], thought that if too much power was given to government, or to larger states, then they could swallow up the smaller states and take over the House, and the smaller states would have little influence in future issues in the country. The [[New Jersey Plan]] was largely a response to the [[Virginia Plan]]. Patterson reported the plan to the Convention on June 15, 1787. It included:
*The current Congress was maintained, but granted new powers. For example, the Congress could set taxes and force their collection
*An executive, elected by Congress, was created - the Plan allowed for a multi-person executive
*The executives served a single term and were subject to recall based on the request of state governors
*A judiciary appointed by the executives, with life-terms of service
*Laws enacted by the Congress took precedence over state laws
*The House of Representatives would have representation according to the population of the state
* There was only one house in the Legislative Branch.

===Hamilton's plan===
On June 18th [[Alexander Hamilton]] reported his own plan for the US government. In a marathon speech, Hamilton outlined a plan calling for a president and Senate that would be elected, but serve for life on "good behavior," and a House of Representatives directly elected for three year terms. It was largely based on the British form of government, which still had a number of admirers in America, and hinted of [[Monarchy]]. The plan was never seriously considered by the convention. Although the delegates had agreed that the debates of the convention were to be confidential, in later years, Hamilton's political foes leaked elements of his plan in an effort to cast Hamilton as a monarchist.

Hamilton left the convention soon after, but returned later and sat on the influential Committee of Style, which presented the Convention with the Constitution in nearly the form we know today.

===Dickinson's plan===

John Dickinson also formed a plan. He never formally presented it in its entirety, but his notes reveal his general ideas. Because he owned substantial property in a large state and in a small state, he anticipated the debates over representation. Dickinson proposed a resolution that based representation upon financial contribution. Historians speculate that Dickinson was going to present the rest of his plan if his first resolution was generally accepted. He did not want to follow Hamilton's five hour-long oration, and he fell ill, complaining of a "severe headache," shortly after he planned to present it. Delegates objected to the first resolution on the basis that some states without ports would have no source of revenue and therefore would be taken over in the government by wealthier states. New Jersey was a "cask tapped at both ends" according to Madison, and North Carolina was a "patient bleeding at both arms." His plan was not adopted, but Dickinson supported the final Constitution.

===The Great Compromise===
[[Roger Sherman]] was well liked in the convention, and he had the respect of many of the other members. Earlier on June 11, Sherman proposed: "That the proportion of suffrage in the 1st. branch should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more." This was largely disregarded as too radical at first. Later when neither side would give into the other, they made a compromise, known as [[The Great Compromise]] following Sherman's plan of having the [[House of Representatives]] be based on population and in the [[Senate]] each state would get an equal amount of Senators. This was also known as the [[Connecticut Compromise]].

==Slavery==
Many question remained unsolved. Among the most important was slavery. [[Slaves]] accounted for about one-fifth of the population in the [[American colonies]]. Most of them lived in the Southern colonies, where slaves made up 40 percent of the population. Whether slavery was to be permitted and continued under the new [[Constitution]] was a matter of conflict between the North and South, with several Southern states refusing to join the [[Union]] if slavery were disallowed. So there was no serious discussion of abolishing slavery. However, the main issue was: Would slaves be counted as part of the population in determining representation in [[Congress]]? Or would they be considered [[property]] not entitles to representation? Delegates from states with large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation but as property if the new government was to [[levy]] [[taxes]] on the states on basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had disappeared or almost disappeared, argued that slaves should be included in taxation but not in determing representation.

Delegates debated and fought for long weeks. Finally on July 2nd, the convention formed a grand [[committee]] lead by [[Benjamin Franklin]], the oldest in the convention, and one delegate from each state. Together they produced what became the basis of the [[Great Compromise]], or [[Connecticut Compromise]]. Connecticut delegates [[Roger Sherman]] and [[Oliver Ellsworth]] called for a two-house legislature. Ellsworth explained that equal state representation was imperative in a Union “partly [[national]], partly [[federal]].” On June 11th, Sherman proposed a specific agreement for a [[dual]] system of representation. In the [[lower house]], each state would be assigned a number of seats based on its population; each slave would count for three fifths of a free person in determining the basis for both representation and taxes. In the [[upper house]], all states would have the same number of seats, two representatives apiece. On July 16th, 1787, the convention adopted the Connecticut Compromise by a heart-stopping margin of one [[vote]]. Later it became known as the [[Three-Fifths Compromise]]. Without that vote, there likely would have been no Constitution.

Following the Connecticut Compromise, another controversy erupted: What should be done about the [[slave trade]], the importing of new slaves into the United States? Ten states had already outlawed it. Many delegates heatedly denounced it. But the three states, Georgia and the two [[Carolinas]], that allowed it threatened to leave the convention if the trade were banned. In effect they postponed the decision on the slave trade because of its contentious nature. The delegates to the Convention did not want its [[ratification]] to fail because of the conflict over slavery. Therefore, a special committee worked out another compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the slave trade, but not until at least 20 years (January 1, 1808).

== Drafting and signing==
In late July, the convention appointed a committee to draft a document based on the agreements that had been reached. After another month of discussion and refinement, a second committee, the Committee of Style and Arrangement, headed by [[Gouverneur Morris]], and including Hamilton, William Samuel Johnson, Rufus King, and Madison, produced the final version, which was submitted for signing on [[September 17]]. Morris is credited now, as then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble.

Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; some left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: [[Edmund Randolph]] and [[George Mason]] of [[Virginia]], and [[Elbridge Gerry]] of [[Massachusetts]]. Of the 39 who did sign, probably no one was completely satisfied, but such is the nature of compromise. Their views were ably summed up by [[Benjamin Franklin]], who said, ''"There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them. ... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution. ... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies..."''

==Delegates who attended==
The 55 [[delegate]]s who drafted the Constitution included most of the outstanding leaders, or [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]], of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson said of the convention, “It is really an assembly of demi-gods.” They represented a wide range of interests, backgrounds, and stations in life, although the vast majority of them were wealthy landowners, and all were white males. There were thirty-two lawyers, eleven merchants, four politicians, two military men, two doctors, two teacher/educators, one inventor, and one farmer. The Convention was mostly made up of Christian faiths including Congregationalist, Dutch Reformed, Episcopal, Lutheran, Methodist, Presbyterian, Quaker, and Roman Catholic. Also a few Deists were in attendance. Thomas Jefferson and John Adams did not attend; they were abroad in Europe, but they wrote home to encourage the delegates. [[Patrick Henry]] was also absent, he refused to go for he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy."

[[Image:George-Washington.jpg|thumb|right|[[George Washington]] served as president of the Convention.]]
[[Image:Gouverneur Morris.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gouverneur Morris]], the author of large sections of the Constitution, including the [[Preamble to the United States Constitution|Preamble]].]]
[[Image:JamesMadison.jpg|thumb|right|[[James Madison]], traditionally regarded as the "Father of the Constitution", took detailed notes on the Convention deliberations.]]
[[Image:Benjamin Franklin by Jean-Baptiste Greuze.jpg|thumb|right|[[Benjamin Franklin]] was the oldest delegate at the Convention.]]

*Connecticut
**[[William Samuel Johnson]]
**[[Roger Sherman]]
**[[Oliver Ellsworth]]*

*Delaware
**[[George Read (signer)|George Read]]
**[[Gunning Bedford, Jr.]]
**[[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]]
**[[Richard Bassett]]
**[[Jacob Broom]]

*Georgia
**[[William Few]]
**[[Abraham Baldwin]]
**[[William Pierce]]*
**[[William Houstoun]]*

*Maryland
**[[James McHenry]]
**[[Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer]]
**[[Daniel Carroll]]
**[[John Francis Mercer]]*
**[[Luther Martin]]*

*Massachusetts
**[[Elbridge Gerry]]*
**[[Nathaniel Gorham]]
**[[Rufus King]]
**[[Caleb Strong]]*

*New Hampshire
**[[John Langdon]]
**[[Nicholas Gilman]]

*New Jersey
**[[David Brearley]]
**[[William Houston]]*
**[[William Paterson]]
**[[William Livingston]]
**[[Jonathan Dayton]]
**[[Elijah Hodges]]*
*New York
**[[Robert Yates (politician)|Robert Yates]]*
**[[Alexander Hamilton]]
**[[John Lansing, Jr.]]*

*North Carolina
**[[Alexander Martin]]*
**[[William Richardson Davie]]*
**[[Richard Dobbs Spaight]]
**[[William Blount]]
**[[Hugh Williamson]]

*Pennsylvania
**[[Thomas Mifflin]]
**[[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]]
**[[George Clymer]]
**[[Jared Ingersoll]]
**[[Thomas Fitzsimons]]
**[[James Wilson]]
**[[Gouverneur Morris]]
**[[Benjamin Franklin]]

*Rhode Island
**''No Appointment''

*South Carolina
**[[John Rutledge]]
**[[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]
**[[Pierce Butler]]

*Virginia
**[[George Washington]]
**[[Edmund Randolph]]*
**[[John Blair]]
**[[James Madison]]
**[[George Mason]]*
**[[George Wythe]]*
**[[James McClurg]]*

''(*) Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution''

==See also==
*[[Founding Fathers of the United States]]
*[[Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787]]
*[[History of the United States]]
*[[Constitution Day (United States)]]

== External link ==
* [http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_ccon.html USConstitution.net - The Constitutional Convention]

{{US Constitution}}

[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Political history of the United States]]
[[Category:History of Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Constitutional conventions]]
[[Category:1787 in the United States]]

[[de:Philadelphia Convention]]
[[nl:Constitutional Convention]]

Kolonialarchitektur in Nordamerika

2006-11-09T18:20:57Z

216.195.203.194: /* Characteristics */

[[Image:SI_ColonialHouse.jpg|thumb|200px|Colonial house and street]]
A '''colonial house''', also called [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]], is a style of [[house]] that was popular in America from 1690 to 1830. They were built by wealthy Americans in [[New England]] and the Southern colonies. The style drew much of its influence from the [[Italian Renaissance]] style.

"Colonial House''" was also a short-run [[television series]] produced by Thirteen/[[WNET]] New York and Wall to Wall Television in the United Kingdom. It aired on [[PBS]] in [[2004]].

==Characteristics==

The defining characteristics of a colonial house are its square, symmetrical shape, central door, and straight lines of windows on the first and second floor. There is usually a decorative crown above the door and flattened columns to either side of it. The door leads to an entryway with stairway and hall aligned along the center of the house. All rooms branch off of these.

A Colonial-style house usually has a formally-defined [[living room]], [[dining room]] and [[family room]]. The [[bedroom]]s are typically on the second floor. They also have a huge chimney that is huge and is in the middle or at the side. It may contain one or two.

==See also==
* [[Colonial Revival]]

==External links==
===Architecture===
*[http://architecture.about.com/library/bl-georgiancolonial.htm About: Colonial Houses]
*[http://www.oldhouses.com/cf/archivelist.cfm?q_styleid=18&searchname=Georgian%20Colonial%20Style Photo Gallery of Colonial Houses]
*[http://images.google.com/images?q=houses%20of%20colonial%20williamsburg&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&sa=N&tab=wi Examples of Colonial House style at Colonial Williamsburg, Virginia]
*[http://www.enonhall.com The Restoration of a Colonial House in Virginia]
===PBS TV Show===
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/colonialhouse/ Colonial House PBS series.]
{{architecture-stub}}

[[Category:House styles]]
[[Category:American architecture]]

Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Verfassungskonvent der Vereinigten Staaten

Kolonialarchitektur in Nordamerika