Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Leon Russell

2007-09-20T16:23:02Z

207.69.137.24:

'''Leon Russell''' (eigentlich '''Claude Russell Bridges'''; * [[2. April]] [[1942]] in [[Lawton (Oklahoma)|Lawton]], [[Oklahoma]], [[USA]]) ist ein US-amerikanischer Sänger, Songschreiber, Pianist und Gitarrist. Als begehrter Studiomusiker spielte Russell mit so verschiedenen Interpreten und Bands wie [[Jerry Lee Lewis]], [[Phil Spector]] und den [[Rolling Stones]]. Seine Solokarriere umfasst die Genres [[Rockmusik|Rock]], [[Blues]] und [[Gospel]].

Russell begann seine musikalische Karriere mit 14 Jahren, als er mit [[Ronnie Hawkins]] und [[Jerry Lee Lewis]] in [[Tulsa]], [[Oklahoma]], auftrat. Zwei Jahre später studierte er in [[Los Angeles]] bei James Burton Gitarre und spielte u. a. bei [[Glen Campbell]].

Als Mitglied der Studiogruppe von [[Phil Spector]] war Russell an den Hits vieler Stars der [[1960er]] beteiligt, darunter die [[Byrds]], [[Gary Lewis]] und [[Herb Alpert]]. [[1967]] baute er sein eigenes Studio auf und produzierte sein erstes Soloalbum ''Look Inside the Asylum Choir''. Er schrieb für [[Joe Cocker]] den Hit ''Delta Lady'' ([[1970]]) und organisierte dessen Tour ''[[Mad Dogs & Englishmen]]''. Kurz darauf erschien sein zweites Soloalbum ''Leon Russell'' mit dem Hit ''A Song for You''.

[[1971]] trat Russell auf dem von [[George Harrison]] organisierten [[Konzert für Bangladesh]] auf. Er hatte zuvor mit [[B. B. King]], [[Eric Clapton]] und [[Bob Dylan]] Aufnahmen gemacht, anschließend ging er mit den [[Rolling Stones]] auf Tour. Sein Soloalbum ''Carny'' erreichte Platz 2 der amerikanischen [[Charts]].

[[1975]] heiratete Russell Mary McCreary, die zuvor mit der Gesangsgruppe "Little Sister" bei [[Sly & the Family Stone]] mitgemacht hatte. Die beiden arbeiteten bei verschiedenen Alben zusammen. Seit [[1979]] hatte Russel verschiedene Projekte mit [[Willie Nelson]].

Leon Russell bringt weiterhin neue Alben heraus und ist häufig auf Tour, zuletzt zusammen mit seinen Töchtern Tina Rose und Sugaree Noel.
COPYRIGHTINFRINGEMENT
[[Kategorie:Mann|Russell, Leon]]
[[Kategorie:US-Amerikaner|Russell, Leon]]
[[Kategorie:Rockmusiker|Russell, Leon]]
[[Kategorie:Rocksänger|Russell, Leon]]
[[Kategorie:Songwriter|Russell, Leon]]
[[Kategorie:Pianist|Russell, Leon]]
[[Kategorie:Gitarrist|Russell, Leon]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1942|Russell, Leon]]
{{Personendaten|
NAME=Russell, Leon
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Bridges, Claude Russell
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=US-amerikanischer Musiker
|GEBURTSDATUM=[[2. April]] [[1942]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[Lawton (Oklahoma)|Lawton]], [[Oklahoma]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Leon Russell]]
[[fr:Leon Russell]]
[[he:לאון ראסל]]
[[ja:レオン・ラッセル]]
[[no:Leon Russell]]
[[uk:Расселл Леон]]

Carole King

2007-09-20T16:19:29Z

207.69.137.24:

'''Carole King''' (eigentlich ''Carol Klein'', * [[9. Februar]] [[1942]] in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]]) ist eine amerikanische Musikerin. Sie trug 1971 mit ihrem Album [[Tapestry (Album)|Tapestry]] zur Etablierung des [[Singer-Songwriter]]-Genres bei.COPYRIGHTINFRINGEMENT

== Biografie ==
=== 1960: Songschreiber-Duo mit Gerry Goffin ===
Im Alter von vier Jahren nahm Carole King [[Klavier]]unterricht und während ihrer Schulzeit begann sie mit dem Komponieren von Liedern. Während ihrer Zeit am College, das sie gemeinsam mit [[Paul Simon]] besuchte, lernte sie ihren ersten Ehemann [[Gerry Goffin]] kennen. Mit ihm zusammen bildete sie das neben [[Burt Bacharach]] und [[Hal David]] ein bedeutendes Songschreiber-Duo der [[1960er]] Jahre.
Während King die Melodien komponierte, schrieb Goffin die Texte, unter anderem für [[The Everly Brothers]], [[The Drifters]], [[The Byrds]], [[Dusty Springfield]] und [[Aretha Franklin]]. Ihren ersten Nummer-Eins-Hit hatte die 18jährige Carole King mit dem Lied ''Will You Love Me Tomorrow'', geschrieben für die schwarze [[Girlgroup]] „[[The Shirelles]]“.

Zu Kings größten Bewunderern gehörten [[John Lennon]] und [[Paul McCartney]], die einmal sagten: „Unser Ziel ist es, Lieder zu schreiben, die das Format von Goffins und Kings Kompositionen haben.“ Auf den frühen Alben der [[The Beatles|Beatles]] finden sich deshalb vier Coverversionen von Goffin/King-Songs.

Aus dieser Zeit gibt es auch einige Veröffentlichungen mit Carole King als Sängerin. Aus dieser Zeit stammen die Hits ''It might as well rain until September'' sowie ''Crying in the Rain'', beide aus dem Jahr 1963.

=== 1970er: Solo-Künstlerin ===
Nach ihrem Erfolg von "Natural Woman" für [[Aretha Franklin]] trennte sich Carole King von Gerry Goffin und ging nach Kalifornien, wo sie mit ihrem zweiten Mann und Bassisten [[Charley Larkey]] und ihren beiden Töchtern Louise und Sherry in Los Angeles im berühmten [[Laurel Canyon]] lebte, in engem Kontakt zu [[James Taylor]], [[Joni Mitchell]] und vielen anderen aufstrebenden Musikern der Zeit. Mit Gerry Goffin blieb sie weiterhin befreundet, und beide komponierten auch in den folgenden Jahren regelmäßig Songs. Ihr erstes Album nahm sie [[1968]] noch innerhalb einer Gruppe "The City" auf, da sie sich primär als Songschreiberin und weniger als Sängerin verstand.

Unter dem Einfluss von James Taylor begann sie im Jahre 1970 mit eigenen Bühnenauftritten und veröffentlichte nach ihrem von Kritikern beachteten ersten Soloalbum "Writer" - auf dem sich einige ihrer schönsten Kompositionen befinden, u.a. "Up on the roof", "No easy way down" und "Goin' back" - im darauffolgenden Jahr mit ''Tapestry'' eines der erfolgreichsten Alben der Popmusik. Die mit vier [[Grammy]]s ausgezeichnete [[Langspielplatte|LP]] verkaufte sich weltweit über 25 Millionen Mal und blieb 25 Jahre lang das bestverkaufte Album einer Solosängerin.
Auf Tapestry befinden sich solche Klassiker wie "So far away", "It's too late", "You've got a friend" und "Natural Woman".
(Das renommierte Musikmagazin "Rolling Stone" zeichnete im Dezember 2003 "Tapestry" als eines der besten Alben der Pop- und Rockmusik aller Zeiten aus.)

Auch die folgenden Plattenveröffentlichungen waren erfolgreich und erhielten mehrfach Platinstatus. Mit einem auf Jazz, Blues und Soul basierenden sanften Rock, der stets melancholische Brüche aufweist, und einem eindringlichen Klavierspiel schuf sie einen neuen Musikstil, der Vorbildfunktion für viele nachfolgende weibliche Musikerinnen (z.B. [[Norah Jones]]) hatte. Nach dem souligen Album "Music" (1971) und dem bittersüßen "Rhymes and Reasons" (1972) zeigte sie auf ihrem Konzeptalbum "Fantasy" im Jahre 1973, dass sie auch eine hervorragende Jazzpianistin und -komponistin ist.
Nach dem erfolgreichen, eher kommerziellen Pop-Album "Wrap around Joy" von 1974 und dem darin enthaltenen Nr.-2-Hit "Jazzman" brachte sie im Jahre 1976 das von der Kritik hoch gelobte Album "Thoroughbred" heraus, das an "Tapestry" erinnerte. Die bewegendsten Songs schrieb sie hierfür wiederum gemeinsam mit ihrem Ex-Mann Gerry Goffin - unter anderem die melancholische Ballade "High out of time", die eindringlich die Sehnsucht nach der "verlorenen Zeit" beschreibt - mit James Taylor als Backgroundsänger.

Nach der Trennung von Larkey, dem plötzlichen Drogentod ihres dritten Mannes und einigen mäßig erfolgreichen Alben zog sie sich Anfang der 80er Jahre aus dem Musikgeschäft zurück. Carole King, die politisch immer sehr aktiv war und sich Anfang der 70er Jahre in der Friedensbewegung engagiert hatte, machte sich nun für Projekte im Umweltschutz stark.

=== Seit Ende der 80er: Sängerin, Songschreiberin, Schauspielerin ===
Nach längerer musikalischer Pause bringt sie seit Ende der 80er Jahre in unregelmäßigen Abständen musikalische Neuerscheinungen auf den Markt, bei denen sie unter anderem von Musikern wie [[Eric Clapton]], [[K. D. Lang]], [[Saul Hudson|Slash]] und [[Kenneth Edmonds|Babyface]] unterstützt wird. Sie ist weiterhin als Songsschreiberin sehr erfolgreich - auch im Genre RnB - und schrieb Hits beispielsweise für [[Mariah Carey]] und [[Céline Dion]]. Mit ihrem 1993 erschienenen rockigen Album "Colour of your dreams" und der Top-20-Single "Now and forever" - gleichzeitig Titelsong für den Film "Eine Klasse für sich" mit Tom Hanks, Geena Davis und Madonna - schaffte sie auch kommerziell ein Comeback in die Musikszene.

Im Zuge der Renaissance des Singer-Songwriter-Genres in den 90er Jahren durch Sängerinnen wie Tori Amos oder Tracy Chapman, die Carole King immer wieder als Vorbild für ihren Musikstil nannten, setzte man der Künstlerin mit dem Album "Tapestry Revisited" 1996 ein musikalisches Denkmal. Die 12 Songs ihres berühmten Albums von 1971 werden hierauf von namhaften Künstlern wie [[Aretha Franklin]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[Amy Grant]] oder [[Faith Hill]] interpretiert.

Im Jahr 1998 trat sie beim DIVA-Konzert als Überraschungsgast neben Stars wie Aretha Franklin, Shania Twain, Mariah Carey, Celine Dion und Gloria Estefan mit "You've got a friend" und "Natural Woman" auf.

Carole King ist außerdem als Schauspielerin tätig und hatte in den 90ern große Erfolge am Broadway. Politisch setzt sie sich nach wie vor für die Linksliberalen und die Bürgerrechtsbewegung ein und unterstützte im Wahlkampf 2004 die Demokraten. Ihren 60. Geburtstag feierte sie auf [[Kuba]] - zusammen mit [[Fidel Castro]] -, um so ein Zeichen für eine Politik der Aussöhnung zu setzen.

Mit ihrer jüngsten Veröffentlichung "Love makes the world" (2001) erntete sie wiederum das Lob der Kritiker.

Ihr Nr.-1-Hit aus dem Jahre 1961 "Take good care of my baby" wurde 2004 in Deutschland von von Dick Brave ([[Sasha]]) gecovert und war wochenlang in den Charts erfolgreich.

Im Sommer 2004 ging Carole King nach mehr als zehn Jahren Bühnenpause in den USA wieder auf Konzertreise. Der Konzertmitschnitt der "Living Room Tour" kam im Sommer 2005 auf den Markt und erreichte nach wenigen Wochen Platz 17 der Billboard-Charts. Zusammen mit ihrer Tochter [[Louise Goffin]] nahm Carole King zudem den Song „Where You Lead” als Titellied für die Serie [[Gilmore Girls]] in einer veränderten Fassung neu auf. In dieser Serie trat King auch als Gaststar auf und spielte mehrfach die Ladenbesitzerin Sophie.

Ende des Jahres 2006 tourte Carole King erstmals durch Australien und Neuseeland.

== Ehrungen ==
* 1987 – Aufnahme in die ''[[Songwriters Hall of Fame]]''
* 1990 – Aufnahme in die ''[[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]''

== Diskografie (Alben)==
* 2005 - The Living Room Tour (Live)
* 2002 - Crying In The Rain
* 2001 - Love Makes The World
* 2000 - Super Hits
* 1998 - Goin' Back
* 1997 - Time Heals All Wounds
* 1996 - Carnegie Hall Concert: June 18 1971
* 1994 - Time Gone By
* 1994 - In concert
* 1993 - Colour Of Your Dreams
* 1989 - City Streets
* 1983 - Speeding Time
* 1982 - One To One
* 1980 - Pearls: Songs Of Goffin And King
* 1979 - Touch The Sky
* 1978 - Welcome Home
* 1977 - Simple Things
* 1976 - Thoroughbred
* 1975 - Really Rosie
* 1974 - Wrap Around Joy
* 1973 - Fantasy
* 1972 - Rhymes And Reasons
* 1971 - Music
* 1971 - Tapestry
* 1970 - Writer

== Literatur ==
* James E. Perone: ''Carole King. A bio-bibliography''. Greenwood Press, Westport 1999. ISBN 0-313-30711-3

== Weblinks ==
* {{IMDb Name|0005580}}
* http://www.caroleking.com/

[[Kategorie:Frau|King, Carole]]
[[Kategorie:US-amerikanischer Komponist|King, Carole]]
[[Kategorie:Popsänger|King, Carole]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1942|King, Carole]]

{{Personendaten|
NAME=King, Carole
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Carol Klein
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=US-amerikanische [[Rock (Musik)|Rock]]-/[[Popmusik|Pop]]-Musikerin
|GEBURTSDATUM=[[9. Februar]] [[1942]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[Brooklyn]]/ [[New York City]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Carole King]]
[[es:Carole King]]
[[fi:Carole King]]
[[fr:Carole King]]
[[gl:Carole King]]
[[it:Carole King]]
[[ja:キャロル・キング]]
[[nl:Carole King]]
[[no:Carole King]]
[[pt:Carole King]]
[[sv:Carole King]]
[[th:คาโรล์ คิง]]

Carole King

2007-09-20T16:17:57Z

207.69.137.24:

'''Carole King''' (eigentlich ''Carol Klein'', * [[9. Februar]] [[1942]] in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]]) ist eine amerikanische Musikerin. Sie trug 1971 mit ihrem Album [[Tapestry (Album)|Tapestry]] zur Etablierung des [[Singer-Songwriter]]-Genres bei.COPYRIGHTINFRNGEMENT

== Biografie ==
=== 1960: Songschreiber-Duo mit Gerry Goffin ===
Im Alter von vier Jahren nahm Carole King [[Klavier]]unterricht und während ihrer Schulzeit begann sie mit dem Komponieren von Liedern. Während ihrer Zeit am College, das sie gemeinsam mit [[Paul Simon]] besuchte, lernte sie ihren ersten Ehemann [[Gerry Goffin]] kennen. Mit ihm zusammen bildete sie das neben [[Burt Bacharach]] und [[Hal David]] ein bedeutendes Songschreiber-Duo der [[1960er]] Jahre.
Während King die Melodien komponierte, schrieb Goffin die Texte, unter anderem für [[The Everly Brothers]], [[The Drifters]], [[The Byrds]], [[Dusty Springfield]] und [[Aretha Franklin]]. Ihren ersten Nummer-Eins-Hit hatte die 18jährige Carole King mit dem Lied ''Will You Love Me Tomorrow'', geschrieben für die schwarze [[Girlgroup]] „[[The Shirelles]]“.

Zu Kings größten Bewunderern gehörten [[John Lennon]] und [[Paul McCartney]], die einmal sagten: „Unser Ziel ist es, Lieder zu schreiben, die das Format von Goffins und Kings Kompositionen haben.“ Auf den frühen Alben der [[The Beatles|Beatles]] finden sich deshalb vier Coverversionen von Goffin/King-Songs.

Aus dieser Zeit gibt es auch einige Veröffentlichungen mit Carole King als Sängerin. Aus dieser Zeit stammen die Hits ''It might as well rain until September'' sowie ''Crying in the Rain'', beide aus dem Jahr 1963.

=== 1970er: Solo-Künstlerin ===
Nach ihrem Erfolg von "Natural Woman" für [[Aretha Franklin]] trennte sich Carole King von Gerry Goffin und ging nach Kalifornien, wo sie mit ihrem zweiten Mann und Bassisten [[Charley Larkey]] und ihren beiden Töchtern Louise und Sherry in Los Angeles im berühmten [[Laurel Canyon]] lebte, in engem Kontakt zu [[James Taylor]], [[Joni Mitchell]] und vielen anderen aufstrebenden Musikern der Zeit. Mit Gerry Goffin blieb sie weiterhin befreundet, und beide komponierten auch in den folgenden Jahren regelmäßig Songs. Ihr erstes Album nahm sie [[1968]] noch innerhalb einer Gruppe "The City" auf, da sie sich primär als Songschreiberin und weniger als Sängerin verstand.

Unter dem Einfluss von James Taylor begann sie im Jahre 1970 mit eigenen Bühnenauftritten und veröffentlichte nach ihrem von Kritikern beachteten ersten Soloalbum "Writer" - auf dem sich einige ihrer schönsten Kompositionen befinden, u.a. "Up on the roof", "No easy way down" und "Goin' back" - im darauffolgenden Jahr mit ''Tapestry'' eines der erfolgreichsten Alben der Popmusik. Die mit vier [[Grammy]]s ausgezeichnete [[Langspielplatte|LP]] verkaufte sich weltweit über 25 Millionen Mal und blieb 25 Jahre lang das bestverkaufte Album einer Solosängerin.
Auf Tapestry befinden sich solche Klassiker wie "So far away", "It's too late", "You've got a friend" und "Natural Woman".
(Das renommierte Musikmagazin "Rolling Stone" zeichnete im Dezember 2003 "Tapestry" als eines der besten Alben der Pop- und Rockmusik aller Zeiten aus.)

Auch die folgenden Plattenveröffentlichungen waren erfolgreich und erhielten mehrfach Platinstatus. Mit einem auf Jazz, Blues und Soul basierenden sanften Rock, der stets melancholische Brüche aufweist, und einem eindringlichen Klavierspiel schuf sie einen neuen Musikstil, der Vorbildfunktion für viele nachfolgende weibliche Musikerinnen (z.B. [[Norah Jones]]) hatte. Nach dem souligen Album "Music" (1971) und dem bittersüßen "Rhymes and Reasons" (1972) zeigte sie auf ihrem Konzeptalbum "Fantasy" im Jahre 1973, dass sie auch eine hervorragende Jazzpianistin und -komponistin ist.
Nach dem erfolgreichen, eher kommerziellen Pop-Album "Wrap around Joy" von 1974 und dem darin enthaltenen Nr.-2-Hit "Jazzman" brachte sie im Jahre 1976 das von der Kritik hoch gelobte Album "Thoroughbred" heraus, das an "Tapestry" erinnerte. Die bewegendsten Songs schrieb sie hierfür wiederum gemeinsam mit ihrem Ex-Mann Gerry Goffin - unter anderem die melancholische Ballade "High out of time", die eindringlich die Sehnsucht nach der "verlorenen Zeit" beschreibt - mit James Taylor als Backgroundsänger.

Nach der Trennung von Larkey, dem plötzlichen Drogentod ihres dritten Mannes und einigen mäßig erfolgreichen Alben zog sie sich Anfang der 80er Jahre aus dem Musikgeschäft zurück. Carole King, die politisch immer sehr aktiv war und sich Anfang der 70er Jahre in der Friedensbewegung engagiert hatte, machte sich nun für Projekte im Umweltschutz stark.

=== Seit Ende der 80er: Sängerin, Songschreiberin, Schauspielerin ===
Nach längerer musikalischer Pause bringt sie seit Ende der 80er Jahre in unregelmäßigen Abständen musikalische Neuerscheinungen auf den Markt, bei denen sie unter anderem von Musikern wie [[Eric Clapton]], [[K. D. Lang]], [[Saul Hudson|Slash]] und [[Kenneth Edmonds|Babyface]] unterstützt wird. Sie ist weiterhin als Songsschreiberin sehr erfolgreich - auch im Genre RnB - und schrieb Hits beispielsweise für [[Mariah Carey]] und [[Céline Dion]]. Mit ihrem 1993 erschienenen rockigen Album "Colour of your dreams" und der Top-20-Single "Now and forever" - gleichzeitig Titelsong für den Film "Eine Klasse für sich" mit Tom Hanks, Geena Davis und Madonna - schaffte sie auch kommerziell ein Comeback in die Musikszene.

Im Zuge der Renaissance des Singer-Songwriter-Genres in den 90er Jahren durch Sängerinnen wie Tori Amos oder Tracy Chapman, die Carole King immer wieder als Vorbild für ihren Musikstil nannten, setzte man der Künstlerin mit dem Album "Tapestry Revisited" 1996 ein musikalisches Denkmal. Die 12 Songs ihres berühmten Albums von 1971 werden hierauf von namhaften Künstlern wie [[Aretha Franklin]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[Amy Grant]] oder [[Faith Hill]] interpretiert.

Im Jahr 1998 trat sie beim DIVA-Konzert als Überraschungsgast neben Stars wie Aretha Franklin, Shania Twain, Mariah Carey, Celine Dion und Gloria Estefan mit "You've got a friend" und "Natural Woman" auf.

Carole King ist außerdem als Schauspielerin tätig und hatte in den 90ern große Erfolge am Broadway. Politisch setzt sie sich nach wie vor für die Linksliberalen und die Bürgerrechtsbewegung ein und unterstützte im Wahlkampf 2004 die Demokraten. Ihren 60. Geburtstag feierte sie auf [[Kuba]] - zusammen mit [[Fidel Castro]] -, um so ein Zeichen für eine Politik der Aussöhnung zu setzen.

Mit ihrer jüngsten Veröffentlichung "Love makes the world" (2001) erntete sie wiederum das Lob der Kritiker.

Ihr Nr.-1-Hit aus dem Jahre 1961 "Take good care of my baby" wurde 2004 in Deutschland von von Dick Brave ([[Sasha]]) gecovert und war wochenlang in den Charts erfolgreich.

Im Sommer 2004 ging Carole King nach mehr als zehn Jahren Bühnenpause in den USA wieder auf Konzertreise. Der Konzertmitschnitt der "Living Room Tour" kam im Sommer 2005 auf den Markt und erreichte nach wenigen Wochen Platz 17 der Billboard-Charts. Zusammen mit ihrer Tochter [[Louise Goffin]] nahm Carole King zudem den Song „Where You Lead” als Titellied für die Serie [[Gilmore Girls]] in einer veränderten Fassung neu auf. In dieser Serie trat King auch als Gaststar auf und spielte mehrfach die Ladenbesitzerin Sophie.

Ende des Jahres 2006 tourte Carole King erstmals durch Australien und Neuseeland.

== Ehrungen ==
* 1987 – Aufnahme in die ''[[Songwriters Hall of Fame]]''
* 1990 – Aufnahme in die ''[[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]''

== Diskografie (Alben)==
* 2005 - The Living Room Tour (Live)
* 2002 - Crying In The Rain
* 2001 - Love Makes The World
* 2000 - Super Hits
* 1998 - Goin' Back
* 1997 - Time Heals All Wounds
* 1996 - Carnegie Hall Concert: June 18 1971
* 1994 - Time Gone By
* 1994 - In concert
* 1993 - Colour Of Your Dreams
* 1989 - City Streets
* 1983 - Speeding Time
* 1982 - One To One
* 1980 - Pearls: Songs Of Goffin And King
* 1979 - Touch The Sky
* 1978 - Welcome Home
* 1977 - Simple Things
* 1976 - Thoroughbred
* 1975 - Really Rosie
* 1974 - Wrap Around Joy
* 1973 - Fantasy
* 1972 - Rhymes And Reasons
* 1971 - Music
* 1971 - Tapestry
* 1970 - Writer

== Literatur ==
* James E. Perone: ''Carole King. A bio-bibliography''. Greenwood Press, Westport 1999. ISBN 0-313-30711-3

== Weblinks ==
* {{IMDb Name|0005580}}
* http://www.caroleking.com/

[[Kategorie:Frau|King, Carole]]
[[Kategorie:US-amerikanischer Komponist|King, Carole]]
[[Kategorie:Popsänger|King, Carole]]
[[Kategorie:Geboren 1942|King, Carole]]

{{Personendaten|
NAME=King, Carole
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=Carol Klein
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=US-amerikanische [[Rock (Musik)|Rock]]-/[[Popmusik|Pop]]-Musikerin
|GEBURTSDATUM=[[9. Februar]] [[1942]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[Brooklyn]]/ [[New York City]]
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Carole King]]
[[es:Carole King]]
[[fi:Carole King]]
[[fr:Carole King]]
[[gl:Carole King]]
[[it:Carole King]]
[[ja:キャロル・キング]]
[[nl:Carole King]]
[[no:Carole King]]
[[pt:Carole King]]
[[sv:Carole King]]
[[th:คาโรล์ คิง]]

Gerry Goffin

2007-09-20T16:17:18Z

207.69.137.24:

'''Gerry Goffin''' (* [[11. Februar]] [[1939]] in [[New York City]]) ist ein [[Songtexter]] des [[Brill Building]]s, der seine große Zeit in den 1960er Jahren erlebte.COPYRIGHTINFRINGEMENT

Goffin wuchs im New Yorker Stadtteil [[Queens]] auf, wo er schon früh Songtexte zu schreiben begann. 1958 lernte er auf dem College [[Carole King]] kennen, die er später heiratete und mit der er sich zu einem Songwriter-Duo zusammenschloss. Neben Klassikern wie ''Up On The Roof'' und ''(You Make Feel Like A) Natural Woman'' schrieben die beiden gemeinsam die vier Nummer-1-Hits ''Will You Love Me Tomorrow'' für die [[The Shirelles|Shirelles]], ''Take Good Care Of My Baby'' für [[Bobby Vee]] (beide 1961), ''The Loco-Motion'' für [[Little Eva]] (1962) und ''Go Away Little Girl'' für [[Steve Lawrence]] (1963). Als King in den 1970er Jahren eine Solo-Karriere anstrebte, beendete das die Partnerschaft der beiden.

Auch Goffin veröffentlichte 1973 ein Solo-Album in Form von ''It Ain't Exactly Entertainment'', doch ansonsten konzentrierte er sich weiterhin auf das Schreiben von Liedtexten. 1976 wurde er für [[Diana Ross]]' Nummer-1-Hit ''Theme From Mahogany (Do You Know Where You're Going To?)'', den er zusammen mit [[Michael Masser]] geschrieben hatte, für einen [[Academy Award]] nominiert. Mit [[Whitney Houston]]s ''Saving All My Love For You'' kam 1985 eine weitere Goffin/Masser-Komposition an die Spitze der Charts.

1990 wurde Goffin zusammen mit King in der Non-Performers-Kategorie in die [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] aufgenommen. Mit ''Back Room Blood'' erschien 1996 sein zweites Solo-Album.

[[Kategorie:Geboren 1939|Goffin, Gerry]]
[[Kategorie:Liedtexter|Goffin, Gerry]]
[[Kategorie:Mann|Goffin, Gerry]]
[[Kategorie:Popsänger|Goffin, Gerry]]
[[Kategorie:US-Amerikaner|Goffin, Gerry]]

{{Personendaten|
NAME=Goffin, Gerry
|ALTERNATIVNAMEN=
|KURZBESCHREIBUNG=US-amerikanischer Liedtexter
|GEBURTSDATUM=[[11. Februar]] [[1939]]
|GEBURTSORT=[[New York City]], USA
|STERBEDATUM=
|STERBEORT=
}}

[[en:Gerry Goffin]]

Carole King

2007-09-20T16:15:16Z

207.69.137.24:

Carole King

2007-09-20T16:13:00Z

207.69.137.24:

Psychologische Unterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen

2007-03-21T03:35:26Z

207.69.137.24: /* History */

'''Sex and intelligence''' research investigates differences in the distributions of cognitive skills between men and women. This research employs experimental tests of cognitive ability, which take a variety of forms, including written tests like the [[SAT]].
Research focuses on differences in individual skills as well as overall differences in [[general intelligence factor|general cognitive ability]], which is often called ''g''. [[Intelligence quotient|IQ tests]], which are specially designed to measure cognitive ability, usually test a variety of skills.

The population of men and women differ on average in how well they perform on some of these skill tests, but do equally well on other tests. For example, women tend to score higher on certain verbal and memory test, whereas men tend to score higher on spatial tests, particularly mental spatial rotations.

While these results are relatively uncontroversial, the question of whether men and women differ on average in ''g'' is a matter of debate among experts. Most studies unambiguously find that men as a population are more varied than women in ''g'' (i.e. there are more men than women at the extremes of ability). For instance, a 2005 study which was published in the British Journal of Psychology concluded that there are twice as many men with an above-average IQ of 125 than there are women. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/4183166.stm]

However, determining whether men and women differ on average has been more difficult. It is easy to design an IQ test in which either males or females score higher on average, by selecting different tests or giving them different weights, so the question boils down to which weights the different tests should have for the ''g factor''.

The primary reason for expecting that men will have higher average ''g'' than women is the male advantage in brain size. Resolving this question requires the use of sophisticated statistical techniques to extract ''g'' from the results of IQ tests. Some studies find an average male advantage in ''g'', but most do not.

== History ==
The scientific study of the differences in mental aptitudes between men and women dates back at least as far as the mid-nineteenth century, when the question of women's [[voting rights]] arose in a number of countries. In [[Victorian England]], for example, the philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] argued that there were no differences between men and women, whereas the scientist [[Charles Darwin]] (in his ''[[Descent of Man]]'') argued that women were by their nature inferior in respect to mental ability. Many of these early attempts were based on anecdotal data. However, some scientists, such as [[Paul Broca]] (1861), attempted to derive empirical results from various forms of [[anthropometry]], namely the comparison of [[brain]] mass. With the development of [[psychology]] at the end of the nineteenth century, and the evolving focus on [[intelligence testing]] in the early twentieth century, further attempts were made by a variety of scientists to examine the mental differences between men and women. [[Leta Hollingworth]] has argued that women were not permitted to realize their full potential, as they were confined to the roles of child rearing and housekeeping.

The findings have provoked controversy at various times, often because political implications were perceived to be attached to them. In the nineteenth century, as noted, whether men and women had equal intelligence was seen by many as a prerequisite for the granting of [[suffrage]]. In the late-twentieth century, whether men and women had different aptitudes is often taken to reveal whether disproportionate employment or payment of men is a form of [[sexism]] or simply a reflection of innate aptitudes.<ref>''Myths of Gender: biological theories about women and men'' By Anne Fausto-Sterling 1992 ISBN 0465047920</ref>NAncy rules sh eis betyter than a mne

==SAT scores==
[[Image:SAT by sex.png|right|thumb|350px|Average [[SAT]] scores (recentered) by sex, 1972 - 2003. Source: [http://www.collegeboard.com/prod_downloads/about/news_info/cbsenior/yr2003/pdf/2003_TOTALGRP_PRD.pdf], Table A]]

The [[SAT]] is a voluntary, standardised test taken by many American college applicants. It is administered by the [[Educational Testing Service]], which keeps track of the gender of test-takers and releases SAT scores by gender. In 2001, men scored 509 out of 800 on the verbal portion while women scored 502 out of 800.

The difference, however, is more pronounced and consistent on the math segment of the SAT. In 2001, men scored 533 while women scored 498. This difference tends to appear year after year.

Jackson and Rushton extracted a ''g'' factor from 145 items on the 1991 SAT, using responses from 46,509 males and 56,007 females.<ref name="Jackson and Rushton">Douglas N. Jackson and J. Philippe Rushton, Males have greater g: Sex differences in general mental ability from 100,000 17- to 18-year-olds on the Scholastic Assessment Test, Intelligence, Volume 34, Issue 5, September-October 2006, Pages 479-486.</ref> They write that their study found that 17 to 18-year old males averaged the equivalent of 3.63 IQ points higher than their female counterparts. They also write that male-female differences in ''g'' are found throughout the score distribution, at every socioeconomic level, and across several ethnic groups.

===Allegations of SAT bias===
{{copypaste}}
Rosser (1989 http://sq.4mg.com/IQincome.htm#G) claimed that there were four potential areas for testing bias in the SAT:
#Test content in which many more men than women are referred to or depicted and where women are depicted, they are typically shown in lower status situations
#Test context in which questions are set in experiences more familiar to men (except when the situation involved driving to the [[grocery store]], [[cooking food]], or doing the dishes)
#Test validity in which women's academic capabilities are under-predicted while that of men are over-predicted
#Test use in which women's access to educational opportunities are diminished or restricted by an institution's reliance on test scores which under-predicts their abilities.

However, many of these hypotheses are difficult to test, and there is no direct evidence women's lower scores are due to any of these factors.

==IQ tests==

According to Jackson and Rushton, a scientific consensus existed during the 20th century that there are no sex differences in overall intelligence.<ref name="Jackson and Rushton"/> They attribute this consensus in part to early work by [[Cyril Burt]]<ref>Burt and Moore, 1912 Burt, C. L., and Moore, R. C. (1912). The mental differences between the sexes. Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, 1, 273–284, 355–388.</ref> and [[Lewis Terman]]<ref>Terman, 1916 L.M. Terman, The measurement of intelligence, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA (1916).</ref> who found no sex differences in the first IQ tests.

A 1994 study by H. Stumpf and [[Douglas N. Jackson]] based on medical school application test scores showed that men averaged IQs about 8.4 points higher than women, while women averaged memories about 7.5 IQ points higher than men.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Stumpf, H. and Jackson, D. N. | title=Gender-related differences in cognitive abilities: evidence from a medical school admissions program | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | year=1994 | volume=17 | pages=335–344}}</ref> This study, however, may be atypical.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

A 1999 study by [[Richard Lynn]] [http://www.rlynn.co.uk/pages/publications.asp], found that the IQ difference between men and women is typically about 3-4 IQ points, while women usually maintain short-term memory advantages over men of about 2 IQ points. In a 2005 study published in the ''British Journal of Psychology'' <ref>[[Paul Irwing]], [[Richard Lynn]], "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16248939&query_hl=19&itool=pubmed_docsum Sex differences in means and variability on the progressive matrices in university students: a meta-analysis]," ''[[British Journal of Psychology]]'', 96(4):505-524, 2005 November.</ref> which attracted media attention in the wake of the January 2005 controversy at Harvard (below),<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4183166.stm BBC reporting Lynn & Irwing study, 2005]</ref><ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/focus/story/0,6903,1635380,00.html Guardian reporting Lynn & Irwing study and Blinkhorn's reply, 2005]</ref> he and [[Paul Irwing]] analyzed existing studies to report that university men have an average IQ between 3.3 and 5.0 points higher than that of university women; in ''Nature'', intelligence-test designer [[Steve Blinkhorn]] argued in reply that Lynn and Irwing's analysis was critically flawed, for example by deliberately excluding a large contrary study that made up almost 45% of the subjects in the meta-analysis.<ref>Blinkhorn, S. [http://home.iprimus.com.au/burgess1/genderdifference2005.pdf ''Intelligence: a gender bender''], Nature 2005 Nov 3;438(7064):31-2.</ref>

===Variance in IQ===
Evidence against differences in overall average IQ scores between men and women comes from several very large and representative studies.<ref name="Hedges and Nowell">{{cite journal | author=Larry V. Hedges; Amy Nowell | title=Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals | journal=Science | year=1995 | volume=269 | pages=41-45}}</ref> However, these studies did find that the scores of men show greater variance than the scores of women, and that men and women have some differences in average scores on tests of particular abilities, which tend to balance out in overall IQ scores.

Deary ''et al.'' (2003) performed an analysis of an IQ test administered to almost all children in Scotland at age 11 in 1932 (>80,000).<ref name="Deary 2003">{{cite journal | author=IJ Deary, G Thorpe, V Wilson, JM Starr, LJ Whalley | title=Population sex differences in IQ at age 11: the Scottish mental survey 1932 | journal=Intelligence | year=2003 | volume=31 | pages=533–542}}</ref> The average IQ scores by sex were 100.64 for girls and 100.48 for boys. The difference in mean IQ is not significant. However, the standard deviation was 14.1 for girls and 14.9 for boys. This difference was statistically significant. In the sample studied, 49.6% are girls and 50.4% are boys. Because of the difference in variance between the sexes however, girls are in excess by 2% in the middle IQ range of 90–115. At the extreme IQ ranges, 50–60 and 130–140, boys make up 58.6% and 57.7% of the population (a gap of 17.2% and 15.4%) respectively. That is, boys were overrepresented amongst the lowest and highest IQ groups. A study done on 11 year olds may not be representative of adult populations.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Deary ''et al.'' (in press) compared IQ scores from 1292 pairs of opposite-sex siblings from the US [[NLSY|National Longitudinal Survey of Youth]].<ref>Ian J. Deary, Paul Irwing, Geoff Der and Timothy C. Bates. Brother–sister differences in the g factor in intelligence: Analysis of full, opposite-sex siblings from the NLSY1979. Intelligence, In Press. {{doi|10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.003}}</ref> Siblings were used to control for background factors that differ between families. They describe finding a 1 IQ point sized difference in mean scores favoring males, which was significant in this sample. They describe finding larger differences in variance, with nearly twice as many males as females scoring in the top 2% (the IQ equivalent of scores above 130).

===Specific abilities===
A 2001 report by Richard J. Coley of the ETS found that females often outperformed males on various measures of verbal ability, while males tended to outperform females on measures of mathematical and spatial ability. [http://www.ets.org/research/pic/gender.pdf]

*Spatial abilities: large differences favoring males are found in performance on visual-spatial tasks (e.g., mental rotation) and spatio-temporal tasks (e.g., tracking a moving object through space).<ref name="APA">[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]</ref> The male advantage in visual-spatial tasks is approximately 1 standard deviation.
*Quantitative abilities: female have an advantage in quantitative abilities in the early years of school. This trend reverses before puberty, after which time males maintain an advantage.
*Verbal abilities: a range of differences, some large, favoring females are found in performance on verbal tasks. Males also show higher levels of [[dyslexia]] and other reading disabilities. The incidence of [[stuttering]] is also higher among males.
*Memory: Several studies have shown women are better at certain types of memory. <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00018E9D-879D-1D06-8E49809EC588EEDF Sex Differences in the Brain]: Men and women display patterns of behavioral and cognitive differences that reflect varying hormonal influences on brain development
By Doreen Kimura May 13, 2002.</ref>
*General knowledge: A study by Richard Lynn showed that men have more [[general knowledge]] than women.<ref>[http://www.rlynn.co.uk/pages/publications.asp Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen IQ and Global Inequality. (2006).]</ref>
*Education: In the United States, women tend to outnumber men at colleges and universities, except at technical institutions that emphasize math and science such as [[MIT]] and [[Caltech]], where men predominate.<ref name="NBR">[http://www.nber.org/digest/jan07/w12139.html Why Do Women Outnumber Men in College?]</ref><ref>[http://www.uwire.com/content/topnews120502003.html More black women than men in college, journal finds] by Seung Hwa Hong, Daily Trojan (U. Southern California) 12/05/2002</ref>
*Academia: Men outnumber women in tenured faculty positions in math and science. Women outnumber men in tenured faculty positions in humanities fields.
*High IQ societies: In many "high IQ societies" men outnumber women, e.g., in [[Mensa International|Mensa]] the male-to-female ratio is 2:1. However, these societies are self-selecting, with voluntary membership.
*Boys tend to have a higher incidence of behavioral problems in schools which may impact academic achievement<ref name="NBR">..</ref>

===Evolution over time===
Hedges and Nowell (1995) performed a meta-analysis of national ability surveys that cover a 32-year period.<ref name="Hedges and Nowell"/> Their primary conclusion is that male scores show greater variance (more men than women at the extremes of ability) in most abilities. The use of representative samples gives them reassurance that these differences in variance are true, and not the result of differential selection by sex. Their second finding is that average differences in most abilities are small. Exceptions include moderate to strong average advantages for men in math and science and typically male vocations, and moderate to strong average disadvantages to men in reading. They suggest the male advantage in measures of typical male vocations is not predictive, but that the other strong differences are. Thus, they claim to be concerned about the relative disadvantage of men in writing and the disadvantage to women in science and math. For example, they mention that male advantage in math and science may cause inequality in income between men and women and the underrepresentation of women in these academic fields, and likewise that men may suffer greater rates of illiteracy that will push more of them towards unemployment.

A recent report by the National Academies in 2006 found that female performance in high school mathematics now matches that of males, and expressed that if biology were the basis of the change, then major evolution has occurred in the past decades. In addition, the report found that there were lower numbers of women in the mathematics and science fields than there should be even when studies based on biological differences, childbearing demands, and hormonal differences were looked at. The report concluded that women were the subject of unintended bias in these fields. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14893782/ National Academy]

==Controversy==
Another study performed by the [[American Psychological Association]] in response to the book ''[[The Bell Curve]]'', which investigated the difference in intelligence between different races, determined (as did the authors of the book) that the studies available in 1995 showed no major difference between males and females in regard to [[IQ]] scores. <ref>[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]</ref>

In January [[2005]], [[Lawrence Summers]], president of [[Harvard University]], unintentionally provoked a public controversy when MIT biologist [[Nancy Hopkins]] leaked comments he made at a closed economics conference at the [[National Bureau of Economic Research]].
<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2005/01/17/summers_remarks_on_women_draw_fire?mode=PF Original Boston Globe story] reporting the remarks of Larry Summers at a January 2005 conference</ref>
<ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/nber.html Transcript] of Summers' remarks at NBER Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce</ref> <ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/womensci.html Summers' initial response to controversy]</ref> In analyzing the disproportionate numbers of men over women in high-end science and engineering jobs, he suggested that after the conflict between employers' demands for high time commitments and women's disproportionate role in the raising of children the next most important factor might be the above-mentioned greater variance in intelligence among men than women, and that this difference in variance might be intrinsic, adding that he "would like nothing better than to be proved wrong". The controversy generated a great deal of media attention, forced Summers to make a number of apologies, and led Harvard to commit $50 million to the recruitment and hiring of women faculty.<ref>[http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=507771 University Will Commit $50M to Women in Science], [[Harvard Crimson]], [[2005]] [[May 16]]</ref>

In May 2005, Harvard University psychology professors [[Steven Pinker]] and [[Elizabeth Spelke]] debated "The Science of Gender and Science".<ref>http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/debate05/debate05_index.html</ref>

In July 2006, Stanford University [[neurobiologist]] [[Ben Barres]], a [[transsexual man]], wrote a provocative piece in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' on his own experiences as both a male and female scientist. <ref name="barres">Barres, Ben (13 July 2006). [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v442/n7099/edsumm/e060713-04.html Does Gender Matter?] ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''</ref> Barres argued that prior to transition, he had succeeded as a female despite pervasive [[sexism]]. Barres wrote that numerous studies show female scientists are consistently rated lower than their male counterparts with the same levels of productivity and credentials.

In 2006, Danish psychologist [[Helmuth Nyborg]] was asked to vacate his position at [[Aarhus University]] after publishing a paper in ''[[Personality and Individual Differences]]'' that showed an 8 point IQ difference in favour of men.{{cite journal | author=Nyborg, Helmuth | title=Sex-related differences in general intelligence g, brain size, and social status | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | year=2005 | volume=39 | pages=497-509}}

==Brain size==
{{seealso|Craniometry|Brain size and intelligence}}

In 1861, [[Paul Broca]] examined 432 human brains and found that the brains of males had an average weight of 1325 grams, while the brains of females had an average weight of 1144 grams. A 1992 study of 6325 Army personnel found that men's brains had an average volume of 1442 cm³, while the women averaged 1332 cm³. (Ankney 1992[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(92)90013-H]). The differences are smaller but persist when adjusted for body size (Ankey, 1992).

In [[2005]], Haier ''et al.'' reported that compared with men, women show more [[white matter]] and fewer [[gray matter]] areas related to intelligence.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Haier RJ, Jung RE, Yeo RA, et al. | title=The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters | journal=NeuroImage | year=2005 | volume=25 | pages=320–327}}</ref> They also report that the brain areas correlated with IQ differ between the sexes. They conclude that men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions.<ref>[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1261 Intelligence in men and women is a gray and white matter: Men and women use different brain areas to achieve similar IQ results, UCI study finds] by Irvine, Calif. , January 20, 2005</ref>

Although women may have smaller brains than men, they appear to have greater neuron density in their [[prefrontal lobe]] ([http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/wome.html]), which is involved in higher functions such as planning, judgement, and language, although men still have higher absolute grey matter volume than women in their [[prefrontal lobe]]
([http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/4065]).

==Reasons for differences==
[[Image:Stereotype threat gender.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The effect of Stereotype threat. Data from ''Linking Stereotype Threat and Anxiety'' by Jason W. Osborne* North Carolina State University, USA]]

The importance of testosterone and other androgens as a cause of sex differences has been a subject of study. Adult women who were exposed to unusually high levels of androgens in the womb due to a condition called [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] score significantly higher on tests of spatial ability.<ref>Resnick, S.M., Berenbaum, S.A, Gottesman. I.I., & Bouchard, T.J., Jr. (1986) Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology. 22. 191-198.</ref> Girls with this condition play more with "boys' toys" and less with "girls' toys" than unaffected controls.<ref>Berenbaum, S.A., & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203 206.</ref> Many studies find positive correlations between testosterone levels in normal males and measures of spatial ability.<ref>Janowsky, J.S., Oviatt, S.EC, & Orwoll, E.S. (1994). Testosterone influences spatial cognition in older men. Behavioral Neuroscience. I08, 325-332.</ref> However, the relationship is complex.<ref>Gouchie, C., & Kimura, D. (1991). The relation ship between testosterone levels and cognitive ability patterns. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 16, 323-334.</ref><ref>Nyborg, H. (1984). Performance and intelligence in hormonally different groups. In G. .J. DeVries. J. DeBruin, H. Uylings, & M. Cormer (Eds.), Progress in brain research, 16I. 491-508). Amsterdam Elsevier Science Publishers.</ref>

It is possible that [[sexual dimorphism]] may exist in regard to intellectual abilities in humans. Men may have evolved greater spatial abilities, possibly as a result of certain behaviors, such as navigating during a hunt, that they were more likely to be involved in during humans' evolutionary history.<ref name="Geary">Geary, D. (1998). ''Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref> Similarly, women may have evolved to devote more mental resources to gathering food, as well as understanding and tracking relationships and reading others' emotional states in order for them to be able to better understand their social situation.<ref name="Geary"/>

Another possibility is the effects of socialization. Girls are sometimes discouraged from studying math or science. Similarly, boys are sometimes discouraged from displaying empathy, or from spending excessive time reading for pleasure{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Thus, differences in intellectual abilities between the sexes may reflect which abilities each sex is more often encouraged to develop. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

According to [[Diane F. Halpern]], the above two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive; some combination of the two may be at work. She wrote in the preface of her 2000 book ''Sex Differences In Cognitive Abilities'':
<blockquote>At the time I started writing this book it seemed clear to me that any between sex differences in thinking abilities were due to socialization practices, artifacts, and mistakes in the research. After reviewing a pile of journal articles that stood several feet high, and numerous books and book chapters that dwarfed the stack of journal articles, I changed my mind. The literature on sex differences in cognitive abilities is filled with inconsistent findings, contradictory theories, and emotional claims that are unsupported by the research. Yet despite all the noise in the data, clear and consistent messages could be heard. There are real and in some cases sizable sex differences with respect to some cognitive abilities. Socialization practices are undoubtedly important, but there is also good evidence that biological sex differences play a role in establishing and maintaining cognitive sex differences, a conclusion I wasn't prepared to make when I began reviewing the relevant literature.</blockquote>

==See also==
*[[Race and intelligence]]
*[[Neuroscience and intelligence]]
*[[Height and intelligence]]
*[[Sexual dimorphism]]
*[[Sex and crime]]
*[[Gender differences]]
*[[Ruth Hubbard]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite journal | author=Born, M. P., Bleichrodt, N. & van der Flier, H. | title=Cross-cultural comparison of sex-related differences on intelligence tests | journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology | year=1987 | volume=18 | pages=283–314}}
*{{cite journal | author=Haier RJ, Benbow CP. | title=Sex differences and lateralization in temporal lobe glucose metabolism during mathematical reasoning | journal=Dev Neuropsychol. | year=1995 | volume=11 | pages=405–414}}
*{{cite journal | author=Lynn, Richard, with P.Irwing and T.Cammock | title= Sex differences in general knowledge | journal=Intelligence | year=2002 | volume=30 | pages=27–40}}
*{{cite journal | author=Lynn, Richard | title= Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: a developmental theory | journal=Intelligence | year=1999 | volume=27 | pages=1–12}}

==External links==
*[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/debate05/debate05_index.html Pinker vs. Spelke, The Science of Gender and Science]
*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00018E9D-879D-1D06-8E49809EC588EEDF Sex Differences in the Brain], by Doreen Kimura, [[Scientific American]]
*[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3695933 Summerstime, and the living ain't easy: Free speech and academia, The Economist Feb 24th 2005 ]
*[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=1883723 "Be a man: Men compete harder than women. That is why they do better at work", The Economist Jun 26th 2003]
*[http://www.neuropsychiatryreviews.com/mar05/menandwomen.html Men and Women Achieve Intelligence Differently], by Janis Kelley, NeuroPsychiatry Reviews
*[http://women.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,17909-1749346,00.html "Is this a clever thing to say about women's IQ?"]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/cc-sex.html Various medline abstracts]
*[http://www.sfu.ca/~dkimura/dkhome.htm Website] of [[Doreen Kimura]], contains links to more papers on subject
** [http://www.sfu.ca/~dkimura/articles/sex.htm "Sex, sexual orientation and sex hormones influence human cognitive function"]
*[http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/4065 Sex Differences in Brain Gray and White Matter in Healthy Young Adults: Correlations with Cognitive Performance]

{{Race and sex differences}}

[[Category:Intelligence]]
[[Category:Psychometrics]]
[[Category:Gender]]

[[ru:Пол и интеллект]]
[[zh:數學能力及性別]]

Psychologische Unterschiede zwischen Männern und Frauen

2007-03-21T03:34:37Z

207.69.137.24: /* Brain size */ ************************************************

'''Sex and intelligence''' research investigates differences in the distributions of cognitive skills between men and women. This research employs experimental tests of cognitive ability, which take a variety of forms, including written tests like the [[SAT]].
Research focuses on differences in individual skills as well as overall differences in [[general intelligence factor|general cognitive ability]], which is often called ''g''. [[Intelligence quotient|IQ tests]], which are specially designed to measure cognitive ability, usually test a variety of skills.

The population of men and women differ on average in how well they perform on some of these skill tests, but do equally well on other tests. For example, women tend to score higher on certain verbal and memory test, whereas men tend to score higher on spatial tests, particularly mental spatial rotations.

While these results are relatively uncontroversial, the question of whether men and women differ on average in ''g'' is a matter of debate among experts. Most studies unambiguously find that men as a population are more varied than women in ''g'' (i.e. there are more men than women at the extremes of ability). For instance, a 2005 study which was published in the British Journal of Psychology concluded that there are twice as many men with an above-average IQ of 125 than there are women. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/4183166.stm]

However, determining whether men and women differ on average has been more difficult. It is easy to design an IQ test in which either males or females score higher on average, by selecting different tests or giving them different weights, so the question boils down to which weights the different tests should have for the ''g factor''.

The primary reason for expecting that men will have higher average ''g'' than women is the male advantage in brain size. Resolving this question requires the use of sophisticated statistical techniques to extract ''g'' from the results of IQ tests. Some studies find an average male advantage in ''g'', but most do not.

== History ==
The scientific study of the differences in mental aptitudes between men and women dates back at least as far as the mid-nineteenth century, when the question of women's [[voting rights]] arose in a number of countries. In [[Victorian England]], for example, the philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] argued that there were no differences between men and women, whereas the scientist [[Charles Darwin]] (in his ''[[Descent of Man]]'') argued that women were by their nature inferior in respect to mental ability. Many of these early attempts were based on anecdotal data. However, some scientists, such as [[Paul Broca]] (1861), attempted to derive empirical results from various forms of [[anthropometry]], namely the comparison of [[brain]] mass. With the development of [[psychology]] at the end of the nineteenth century, and the evolving focus on [[intelligence testing]] in the early twentieth century, further attempts were made by a variety of scientists to examine the mental differences between men and women. [[Leta Hollingworth]] has argued that women were not permitted to realize their full potential, as they were confined to the roles of child rearing and housekeeping.

The findings have provoked controversy at various times, often because political implications were perceived to be attached to them. In the nineteenth century, as noted, whether men and women had equal intelligence was seen by many as a prerequisite for the granting of [[suffrage]]. In the late-twentieth century, whether men and women had different aptitudes is often taken to reveal whether disproportionate employment or payment of men is a form of [[sexism]] or simply a reflection of innate aptitudes.<ref>''Myths of Gender: biological theories about women and men'' By Anne Fausto-Sterling 1992 ISBN 0465047920</ref>

==SAT scores==
[[Image:SAT by sex.png|right|thumb|350px|Average [[SAT]] scores (recentered) by sex, 1972 - 2003. Source: [http://www.collegeboard.com/prod_downloads/about/news_info/cbsenior/yr2003/pdf/2003_TOTALGRP_PRD.pdf], Table A]]

The [[SAT]] is a voluntary, standardised test taken by many American college applicants. It is administered by the [[Educational Testing Service]], which keeps track of the gender of test-takers and releases SAT scores by gender. In 2001, men scored 509 out of 800 on the verbal portion while women scored 502 out of 800.

The difference, however, is more pronounced and consistent on the math segment of the SAT. In 2001, men scored 533 while women scored 498. This difference tends to appear year after year.

Jackson and Rushton extracted a ''g'' factor from 145 items on the 1991 SAT, using responses from 46,509 males and 56,007 females.<ref name="Jackson and Rushton">Douglas N. Jackson and J. Philippe Rushton, Males have greater g: Sex differences in general mental ability from 100,000 17- to 18-year-olds on the Scholastic Assessment Test, Intelligence, Volume 34, Issue 5, September-October 2006, Pages 479-486.</ref> They write that their study found that 17 to 18-year old males averaged the equivalent of 3.63 IQ points higher than their female counterparts. They also write that male-female differences in ''g'' are found throughout the score distribution, at every socioeconomic level, and across several ethnic groups.

===Allegations of SAT bias===
{{copypaste}}
Rosser (1989 http://sq.4mg.com/IQincome.htm#G) claimed that there were four potential areas for testing bias in the SAT:
#Test content in which many more men than women are referred to or depicted and where women are depicted, they are typically shown in lower status situations
#Test context in which questions are set in experiences more familiar to men (except when the situation involved driving to the [[grocery store]], [[cooking food]], or doing the dishes)
#Test validity in which women's academic capabilities are under-predicted while that of men are over-predicted
#Test use in which women's access to educational opportunities are diminished or restricted by an institution's reliance on test scores which under-predicts their abilities.

However, many of these hypotheses are difficult to test, and there is no direct evidence women's lower scores are due to any of these factors.

==IQ tests==

According to Jackson and Rushton, a scientific consensus existed during the 20th century that there are no sex differences in overall intelligence.<ref name="Jackson and Rushton"/> They attribute this consensus in part to early work by [[Cyril Burt]]<ref>Burt and Moore, 1912 Burt, C. L., and Moore, R. C. (1912). The mental differences between the sexes. Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, 1, 273–284, 355–388.</ref> and [[Lewis Terman]]<ref>Terman, 1916 L.M. Terman, The measurement of intelligence, Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA (1916).</ref> who found no sex differences in the first IQ tests.

A 1994 study by H. Stumpf and [[Douglas N. Jackson]] based on medical school application test scores showed that men averaged IQs about 8.4 points higher than women, while women averaged memories about 7.5 IQ points higher than men.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Stumpf, H. and Jackson, D. N. | title=Gender-related differences in cognitive abilities: evidence from a medical school admissions program | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | year=1994 | volume=17 | pages=335–344}}</ref> This study, however, may be atypical.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

A 1999 study by [[Richard Lynn]] [http://www.rlynn.co.uk/pages/publications.asp], found that the IQ difference between men and women is typically about 3-4 IQ points, while women usually maintain short-term memory advantages over men of about 2 IQ points. In a 2005 study published in the ''British Journal of Psychology'' <ref>[[Paul Irwing]], [[Richard Lynn]], "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16248939&query_hl=19&itool=pubmed_docsum Sex differences in means and variability on the progressive matrices in university students: a meta-analysis]," ''[[British Journal of Psychology]]'', 96(4):505-524, 2005 November.</ref> which attracted media attention in the wake of the January 2005 controversy at Harvard (below),<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4183166.stm BBC reporting Lynn & Irwing study, 2005]</ref><ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/focus/story/0,6903,1635380,00.html Guardian reporting Lynn & Irwing study and Blinkhorn's reply, 2005]</ref> he and [[Paul Irwing]] analyzed existing studies to report that university men have an average IQ between 3.3 and 5.0 points higher than that of university women; in ''Nature'', intelligence-test designer [[Steve Blinkhorn]] argued in reply that Lynn and Irwing's analysis was critically flawed, for example by deliberately excluding a large contrary study that made up almost 45% of the subjects in the meta-analysis.<ref>Blinkhorn, S. [http://home.iprimus.com.au/burgess1/genderdifference2005.pdf ''Intelligence: a gender bender''], Nature 2005 Nov 3;438(7064):31-2.</ref>

===Variance in IQ===
Evidence against differences in overall average IQ scores between men and women comes from several very large and representative studies.<ref name="Hedges and Nowell">{{cite journal | author=Larry V. Hedges; Amy Nowell | title=Sex Differences in Mental Test Scores, Variability, and Numbers of High-Scoring Individuals | journal=Science | year=1995 | volume=269 | pages=41-45}}</ref> However, these studies did find that the scores of men show greater variance than the scores of women, and that men and women have some differences in average scores on tests of particular abilities, which tend to balance out in overall IQ scores.

Deary ''et al.'' (2003) performed an analysis of an IQ test administered to almost all children in Scotland at age 11 in 1932 (>80,000).<ref name="Deary 2003">{{cite journal | author=IJ Deary, G Thorpe, V Wilson, JM Starr, LJ Whalley | title=Population sex differences in IQ at age 11: the Scottish mental survey 1932 | journal=Intelligence | year=2003 | volume=31 | pages=533–542}}</ref> The average IQ scores by sex were 100.64 for girls and 100.48 for boys. The difference in mean IQ is not significant. However, the standard deviation was 14.1 for girls and 14.9 for boys. This difference was statistically significant. In the sample studied, 49.6% are girls and 50.4% are boys. Because of the difference in variance between the sexes however, girls are in excess by 2% in the middle IQ range of 90–115. At the extreme IQ ranges, 50–60 and 130–140, boys make up 58.6% and 57.7% of the population (a gap of 17.2% and 15.4%) respectively. That is, boys were overrepresented amongst the lowest and highest IQ groups. A study done on 11 year olds may not be representative of adult populations.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Deary ''et al.'' (in press) compared IQ scores from 1292 pairs of opposite-sex siblings from the US [[NLSY|National Longitudinal Survey of Youth]].<ref>Ian J. Deary, Paul Irwing, Geoff Der and Timothy C. Bates. Brother–sister differences in the g factor in intelligence: Analysis of full, opposite-sex siblings from the NLSY1979. Intelligence, In Press. {{doi|10.1016/j.intell.2006.09.003}}</ref> Siblings were used to control for background factors that differ between families. They describe finding a 1 IQ point sized difference in mean scores favoring males, which was significant in this sample. They describe finding larger differences in variance, with nearly twice as many males as females scoring in the top 2% (the IQ equivalent of scores above 130).

===Specific abilities===
A 2001 report by Richard J. Coley of the ETS found that females often outperformed males on various measures of verbal ability, while males tended to outperform females on measures of mathematical and spatial ability. [http://www.ets.org/research/pic/gender.pdf]

*Spatial abilities: large differences favoring males are found in performance on visual-spatial tasks (e.g., mental rotation) and spatio-temporal tasks (e.g., tracking a moving object through space).<ref name="APA">[[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]]</ref> The male advantage in visual-spatial tasks is approximately 1 standard deviation.
*Quantitative abilities: female have an advantage in quantitative abilities in the early years of school. This trend reverses before puberty, after which time males maintain an advantage.
*Verbal abilities: a range of differences, some large, favoring females are found in performance on verbal tasks. Males also show higher levels of [[dyslexia]] and other reading disabilities. The incidence of [[stuttering]] is also higher among males.
*Memory: Several studies have shown women are better at certain types of memory. <ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00018E9D-879D-1D06-8E49809EC588EEDF Sex Differences in the Brain]: Men and women display patterns of behavioral and cognitive differences that reflect varying hormonal influences on brain development
By Doreen Kimura May 13, 2002.</ref>
*General knowledge: A study by Richard Lynn showed that men have more [[general knowledge]] than women.<ref>[http://www.rlynn.co.uk/pages/publications.asp Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen IQ and Global Inequality. (2006).]</ref>
*Education: In the United States, women tend to outnumber men at colleges and universities, except at technical institutions that emphasize math and science such as [[MIT]] and [[Caltech]], where men predominate.<ref name="NBR">[http://www.nber.org/digest/jan07/w12139.html Why Do Women Outnumber Men in College?]</ref><ref>[http://www.uwire.com/content/topnews120502003.html More black women than men in college, journal finds] by Seung Hwa Hong, Daily Trojan (U. Southern California) 12/05/2002</ref>
*Academia: Men outnumber women in tenured faculty positions in math and science. Women outnumber men in tenured faculty positions in humanities fields.
*High IQ societies: In many "high IQ societies" men outnumber women, e.g., in [[Mensa International|Mensa]] the male-to-female ratio is 2:1. However, these societies are self-selecting, with voluntary membership.
*Boys tend to have a higher incidence of behavioral problems in schools which may impact academic achievement<ref name="NBR">..</ref>

===Evolution over time===
Hedges and Nowell (1995) performed a meta-analysis of national ability surveys that cover a 32-year period.<ref name="Hedges and Nowell"/> Their primary conclusion is that male scores show greater variance (more men than women at the extremes of ability) in most abilities. The use of representative samples gives them reassurance that these differences in variance are true, and not the result of differential selection by sex. Their second finding is that average differences in most abilities are small. Exceptions include moderate to strong average advantages for men in math and science and typically male vocations, and moderate to strong average disadvantages to men in reading. They suggest the male advantage in measures of typical male vocations is not predictive, but that the other strong differences are. Thus, they claim to be concerned about the relative disadvantage of men in writing and the disadvantage to women in science and math. For example, they mention that male advantage in math and science may cause inequality in income between men and women and the underrepresentation of women in these academic fields, and likewise that men may suffer greater rates of illiteracy that will push more of them towards unemployment.

A recent report by the National Academies in 2006 found that female performance in high school mathematics now matches that of males, and expressed that if biology were the basis of the change, then major evolution has occurred in the past decades. In addition, the report found that there were lower numbers of women in the mathematics and science fields than there should be even when studies based on biological differences, childbearing demands, and hormonal differences were looked at. The report concluded that women were the subject of unintended bias in these fields. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14893782/ National Academy]

==Controversy==
Another study performed by the [[American Psychological Association]] in response to the book ''[[The Bell Curve]]'', which investigated the difference in intelligence between different races, determined (as did the authors of the book) that the studies available in 1995 showed no major difference between males and females in regard to [[IQ]] scores. <ref>[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]</ref>

In January [[2005]], [[Lawrence Summers]], president of [[Harvard University]], unintentionally provoked a public controversy when MIT biologist [[Nancy Hopkins]] leaked comments he made at a closed economics conference at the [[National Bureau of Economic Research]].
<ref>[http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2005/01/17/summers_remarks_on_women_draw_fire?mode=PF Original Boston Globe story] reporting the remarks of Larry Summers at a January 2005 conference</ref>
<ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/nber.html Transcript] of Summers' remarks at NBER Conference on Diversifying the Science & Engineering Workforce</ref> <ref>[http://www.president.harvard.edu/speeches/2005/womensci.html Summers' initial response to controversy]</ref> In analyzing the disproportionate numbers of men over women in high-end science and engineering jobs, he suggested that after the conflict between employers' demands for high time commitments and women's disproportionate role in the raising of children the next most important factor might be the above-mentioned greater variance in intelligence among men than women, and that this difference in variance might be intrinsic, adding that he "would like nothing better than to be proved wrong". The controversy generated a great deal of media attention, forced Summers to make a number of apologies, and led Harvard to commit $50 million to the recruitment and hiring of women faculty.<ref>[http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=507771 University Will Commit $50M to Women in Science], [[Harvard Crimson]], [[2005]] [[May 16]]</ref>

In May 2005, Harvard University psychology professors [[Steven Pinker]] and [[Elizabeth Spelke]] debated "The Science of Gender and Science".<ref>http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/debate05/debate05_index.html</ref>

In July 2006, Stanford University [[neurobiologist]] [[Ben Barres]], a [[transsexual man]], wrote a provocative piece in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' on his own experiences as both a male and female scientist. <ref name="barres">Barres, Ben (13 July 2006). [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v442/n7099/edsumm/e060713-04.html Does Gender Matter?] ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''</ref> Barres argued that prior to transition, he had succeeded as a female despite pervasive [[sexism]]. Barres wrote that numerous studies show female scientists are consistently rated lower than their male counterparts with the same levels of productivity and credentials.

In 2006, Danish psychologist [[Helmuth Nyborg]] was asked to vacate his position at [[Aarhus University]] after publishing a paper in ''[[Personality and Individual Differences]]'' that showed an 8 point IQ difference in favour of men.{{cite journal | author=Nyborg, Helmuth | title=Sex-related differences in general intelligence g, brain size, and social status | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | year=2005 | volume=39 | pages=497-509}}

==Brain size==
{{seealso|Craniometry|Brain size and intelligence}}

In 1861, [[Paul Broca]] examined 432 human brains and found that the brains of males had an average weight of 1325 grams, while the brains of females had an average weight of 1144 grams. A 1992 study of 6325 Army personnel found that men's brains had an average volume of 1442 cm³, while the women averaged 1332 cm³. (Ankney 1992[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0160-2896(92)90013-H]). The differences are smaller but persist when adjusted for body size (Ankey, 1992).

In [[2005]], Haier ''et al.'' , women show more [[white matter]] and fewer [[gray matter]] areas related to intelligence.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Haier RJ, Jung RE, Yeo RA, et al. | title=The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters | journal=NeuroImage | year=2005 | volume=25 | pages=320–327}}</ref> They also report that the brain areas correlated with IQ differ between the sexes. They conclude that men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions.<ref>[http://today.uci.edu/news/release_detail.asp?key=1261 Intelligence in men and women is a gray and white matter: Men and women use different brain areas to achieve similar IQ results, UCI study finds] by Irvine, Calif. , January 20, 2005</ref>

Although women may have smaller brains than men, they appear to have greater neuron density in their [[prefrontal lobe]] ([http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/wome.html]), which is involved in higher functions such as planning, judgement, and language, although men still have higher absolute grey matter volume than women in their [[prefrontal lobe]]
([http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/4065]).

==Reasons for differences==
[[Image:Stereotype threat gender.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The effect of Stereotype threat. Data from ''Linking Stereotype Threat and Anxiety'' by Jason W. Osborne* North Carolina State University, USA]]

The importance of testosterone and other androgens as a cause of sex differences has been a subject of study. Adult women who were exposed to unusually high levels of androgens in the womb due to a condition called [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] score significantly higher on tests of spatial ability.<ref>Resnick, S.M., Berenbaum, S.A, Gottesman. I.I., & Bouchard, T.J., Jr. (1986) Early hormonal influences on cognitive functioning in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Developmental Psychology. 22. 191-198.</ref> Girls with this condition play more with "boys' toys" and less with "girls' toys" than unaffected controls.<ref>Berenbaum, S.A., & Hines, M. (1992). Early androgens are related to childhood sex-typed toy preferences. Psychological Science, 3, 203 206.</ref> Many studies find positive correlations between testosterone levels in normal males and measures of spatial ability.<ref>Janowsky, J.S., Oviatt, S.EC, & Orwoll, E.S. (1994). Testosterone influences spatial cognition in older men. Behavioral Neuroscience. I08, 325-332.</ref> However, the relationship is complex.<ref>Gouchie, C., & Kimura, D. (1991). The relation ship between testosterone levels and cognitive ability patterns. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 16, 323-334.</ref><ref>Nyborg, H. (1984). Performance and intelligence in hormonally different groups. In G. .J. DeVries. J. DeBruin, H. Uylings, & M. Cormer (Eds.), Progress in brain research, 16I. 491-508). Amsterdam Elsevier Science Publishers.</ref>

It is possible that [[sexual dimorphism]] may exist in regard to intellectual abilities in humans. Men may have evolved greater spatial abilities, possibly as a result of certain behaviors, such as navigating during a hunt, that they were more likely to be involved in during humans' evolutionary history.<ref name="Geary">Geary, D. (1998). ''Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.</ref> Similarly, women may have evolved to devote more mental resources to gathering food, as well as understanding and tracking relationships and reading others' emotional states in order for them to be able to better understand their social situation.<ref name="Geary"/>

Another possibility is the effects of socialization. Girls are sometimes discouraged from studying math or science. Similarly, boys are sometimes discouraged from displaying empathy, or from spending excessive time reading for pleasure{{Fact|date=February 2007}}. Thus, differences in intellectual abilities between the sexes may reflect which abilities each sex is more often encouraged to develop. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

According to [[Diane F. Halpern]], the above two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive; some combination of the two may be at work. She wrote in the preface of her 2000 book ''Sex Differences In Cognitive Abilities'':
<blockquote>At the time I started writing this book it seemed clear to me that any between sex differences in thinking abilities were due to socialization practices, artifacts, and mistakes in the research. After reviewing a pile of journal articles that stood several feet high, and numerous books and book chapters that dwarfed the stack of journal articles, I changed my mind. The literature on sex differences in cognitive abilities is filled with inconsistent findings, contradictory theories, and emotional claims that are unsupported by the research. Yet despite all the noise in the data, clear and consistent messages could be heard. There are real and in some cases sizable sex differences with respect to some cognitive abilities. Socialization practices are undoubtedly important, but there is also good evidence that biological sex differences play a role in establishing and maintaining cognitive sex differences, a conclusion I wasn't prepared to make when I began reviewing the relevant literature.</blockquote>

==See also==
*[[Race and intelligence]]
*[[Neuroscience and intelligence]]
*[[Height and intelligence]]
*[[Sexual dimorphism]]
*[[Sex and crime]]
*[[Gender differences]]
*[[Ruth Hubbard]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite journal | author=Born, M. P., Bleichrodt, N. & van der Flier, H. | title=Cross-cultural comparison of sex-related differences on intelligence tests | journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology | year=1987 | volume=18 | pages=283–314}}
*{{cite journal | author=Haier RJ, Benbow CP. | title=Sex differences and lateralization in temporal lobe glucose metabolism during mathematical reasoning | journal=Dev Neuropsychol. | year=1995 | volume=11 | pages=405–414}}
*{{cite journal | author=Lynn, Richard, with P.Irwing and T.Cammock | title= Sex differences in general knowledge | journal=Intelligence | year=2002 | volume=30 | pages=27–40}}
*{{cite journal | author=Lynn, Richard | title= Sex differences in intelligence and brain size: a developmental theory | journal=Intelligence | year=1999 | volume=27 | pages=1–12}}

==External links==
*[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/debate05/debate05_index.html Pinker vs. Spelke, The Science of Gender and Science]
*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00018E9D-879D-1D06-8E49809EC588EEDF Sex Differences in the Brain], by Doreen Kimura, [[Scientific American]]
*[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3695933 Summerstime, and the living ain't easy: Free speech and academia, The Economist Feb 24th 2005 ]
*[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=1883723 "Be a man: Men compete harder than women. That is why they do better at work", The Economist Jun 26th 2003]
*[http://www.neuropsychiatryreviews.com/mar05/menandwomen.html Men and Women Achieve Intelligence Differently], by Janis Kelley, NeuroPsychiatry Reviews
*[http://women.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,17909-1749346,00.html "Is this a clever thing to say about women's IQ?"]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/cc-sex.html Various medline abstracts]
*[http://www.sfu.ca/~dkimura/dkhome.htm Website] of [[Doreen Kimura]], contains links to more papers on subject
** [http://www.sfu.ca/~dkimura/articles/sex.htm "Sex, sexual orientation and sex hormones influence human cognitive function"]
*[http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/4065 Sex Differences in Brain Gray and White Matter in Healthy Young Adults: Correlations with Cognitive Performance]

{{Race and sex differences}}

[[Category:Intelligence]]
[[Category:Psychometrics]]
[[Category:Gender]]

[[ru:Пол и интеллект]]
[[zh:數學能力及性別]]

Kingdom Hearts (Computerspiel)

2007-02-15T00:07:29Z

207.69.137.24: /* Kingdom Hearts II */

{{dablink|This article contains information on the first ''Kingdom Hearts'' video game. For the series, see [[Kingdom Hearts series]].}}
{{Infobox CVG
|title = Kingdom Hearts
|image = [[Image:Kingdom Hearts.jpg|256px]]
|developer = [[Square Co., Ltd.|Square Co.]]
|publisher = <div style="white-space: nowrap;">[[Square Co.]] ''(Japan)'' [[Square Electronic Arts|Square EA]], [[Buena Vista Games|Disney Interactive]] ''(N. America)'' [[Sony Computer Entertainment|SCEE]] ''(Europe/Australia)''
|designer = [[Shinji Hashimoto]] ([[Game producer|producer]]) [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] ([[executive producer]]) [[Tetsuya Nomura]] ([[game director|director]], character design and concept design) Jun Akiyama ([[scenario]]) [[Yoko Shimomura]] ([[composer]])
|series = [[Kingdom Hearts series]]
|engine =
|released = {{vgrelease|Japan|JP|[[March 28]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|North America|NA|[[September 17]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|European Union|EU|[[November 15]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|Australasia|AUS|[[November 22]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|International version|INT|[[December 26]], [[2002]] — as ''Kingdom Hearts: Final Mix''}}
|genre = [[Action role-playing game|Action RPG]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: Everyone [[Pan European Game Information|PEGI]]: 7+ [[Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle|USK]]: 6+ [[Office of Film and Literature Classification (Australia)|OFLC]]: G8+ [[Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association|ELSPA]]: 11+
|platforms = [[PlayStation 2]]
|media = 1 [[DVD|DVD-ROM]]
|requirements =
|input =
}}
{{nihongo|'''''Kingdom Hearts'''''|キングダムハーツ|Kingudamu Hātsu}} is a hybrid [[action role-playing game|action]]-[[console role-playing game|RPG]] that was released in [[2002 in video gaming|2002]], which is notable for being the result of a collaboration between the video game developer and publisher [[Square Co., Ltd.|Square]] and [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]. The game combines characters and settings from Disney's [[animation|animated]] [[List of Disney theatrical animated features|features]] and films with those from Square's ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' RPG series. Although the game's primary plot lines follow characters who were created specifically for ''Kingdom Hearts'', characters from both companies play major roles in the game and its storyline. The game features real-time rendered backgrounds and scenery.

==Gameplay==
''Kingdom Hearts'' is heavily influenced by its parent franchise, ''[[Final Fantasy]]'', and carries many gameplay elements over into its own action-based, hack-and-slash system. [[Sora (Kingdom Hearts)|Sora]], the main character, is directly controlled by the player from a [[Grammatical person#Use of grammatical person in creative media|third person]] camera angle. Most gameplay occurs on interconnected field maps where battles take place. The game is driven by a linear progression to the next story event, usually told in the form of a [[cut scene]], though there are numerous [[Quest (gaming)#Side-quest|side quests]] available that provide bonus benefits to the characters.

Like many traditional role-playing games, ''Kingdom Hearts'' features an [[experience point]] system which determines character development. As enemies are defeated, the player gains experience which culminate in a "level-up", where the [[player character]]s grows stronger and gains access to new [[Statistic (role-playing games)#Skill|abilities]]. Unlike many other games of its type, ''Kingdom Hearts'' allows a certain degree of character development customization through a short tutorial found at the beginning of the game. By choosing certain options, the player is able to manipulate how Sora learns abilities, [[Statistic (role-playing games)#Attributes|grows statistically]], and even gains levels.

Combat in ''Kingdom Hearts'' is in real time and involves button presses which initiate Attacks by the on-screen character. Also, a ''Final Fantasy''-esque menu found at the bottom left of the screen provides other combat options such as using Magic and Items. There is also a context-sensitive option at the bottom of the menu, usually used for interaction with the environment or for performing Special Attacks. This menu is manipulated using the right analogue stick or digital pad, while movement is controlled by the left stick, allowing the player to navigate the menu while avoiding or approaching enemies. In addition to the main character, two party members are usually present who also participate in combat. Though these characters are computer-controlled, the player is allowed to customize their behavior to a certain extent through the menu screen.

==Plot==

===Setting===
{{see|List of worlds in the Kingdom Hearts series}}
[[Level (computer and video games)|Levels]] in ''Kingdom Hearts'' are called "worlds". Many are based on Disney movies (primarily ones from the [[List of Disney animated features|Disney animated features canon]]). Players travel from one world to another via gummi ship.

*'''Destiny Islands''': Sora begins his journey here. The world is only accessible at the story's beginning. The islands and the events in them are critical to the entire game's storyline. Sora, Riku, and Kairi originate here, and Final Fantasy characters, [[Selphie Tilmitt]], [[Tidus]], and [[Wakka]] live there as well.
*'''Traverse Town''': Sora first meets Donald and Goofy here. Traverse Town serves as a launching point into the majority of gameplay; as its name implies, it offers traditional-RPG shops. . Several Final Fantasy and Disney characters reside here, including [[Aerith Gainsborough]], [[Yuffie Kisaragi]], [[Squall Leonhart]], [[Cid Highwind]], The Fairy Godmother from ''[[Cinderella]]'', Dalmatians from ''[[101 Dalmatians]]'', [[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]] from ''[[The Sword in the Stone (film)]]'', and later on in the game, Geppetto and Pinocchio from ''[[Pinocchio]]''.
*'''[[Wonderland]]''', from ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'': Intended to be the next level the player travels to, this world is the first that can be closed to the Heartless by sealing the Keyhole. It features the [[Cheshire Cat]], the Doorknob, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]], the [[Queen of Hearts (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Queen of Hearts]], the [[White Rabbit]], and animated playing cards as they appeared in the movie. The Mad Hatter and the March Hare appear as picture in their "tea garden".
*'''Olympus Coliseum''', from ''[[Hercules (1997 movie)|Hercules]]'': This includes [[Hades (Disney)|Hades]], [[Hercules (Disney character)|Hercules]], [[Philoctetes]], [[Cerberus]], [[Cloud Strife]] and [[Sephiroth]]. This world, rather than being an explorable platform level, hosts fighting tournaments.
*'''Deep Jungle''', from ''[[Tarzan (1999 movie)|Tarzan]]''. [[Tarzan]] joins the party here. [[Jane Porter (Tarzan)|Jane]], [[Clayton (Tarzan)|Clayton]] and several [[gorilla]]s from the movies also appear.
*'''Agrabah''', from ''[[Aladdin (1992 film)|Aladdin]]'': This world includes Agrabah and the Cave of Wonders. [[Aladdin (Disney character)|Aladdin]] joins the party. Abu, [[Princess Jasmine]], [[Jafar (Aladdin)|Jafar]], [[Iago (Aladdin)|Iago]], [[Genie (Aladdin)|Genie]], and the Magic Carpet also appear.
*'''Monstro''', from ''[[Pinocchio (1940 movie)|Pinocchio]]'': [[Pinocchio]] and his maker [[Geppetto]] can be found here. Since Monstro is a living being, not a world, this level cannot be sealed.
*'''Atlantica''', from ''[[The Little Mermaid (movie)|The Little Mermaid]]'': This world consists of the underwater environments of Ursula's Cave, the city of Atlantica, and several grottos. [[Ariel (The Little Mermaid)|Ariel]] joins the party. [[King Triton]], [[Ursula (The Little Mermaid)|Ursula]], [[Sebastian (The Little Mermaid)|Sebastian]], [[Flounder (The Little Mermaid)|Flounder]], [[Flotsam and Jetsam (The Little Mermaid)|Flotsam and Jetsam]] appear in this world. While in this world, Sora is transformed into a mer-man while Donald and Goofy become sea animals.The three-dimensional underwater controls are frequently criticized by players.
*'''Halloween Town''', from ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (includes the Guillotine Square, Oogie Boogie's Manor, Moonlit Hill, and a graveyard): [[Jack Skellington]] joins the party. [[Sally (The Nightmare Before Christmas)|Sally]], [[Lock, Shock, and Barrel]], [[Doctor Finklestein]], Zero, [[Mayor (The Nightmare Before Christmas)|the two-faced Mayor]] and [[Oogie Boogie]] also appear. In this world, Sora, Goofy and Donald disguise themselves as monsters.
*'''[[Neverland|Never Land]]''', from ''[[Peter Pan (1953 movie)|Peter Pan]]'', does not actually include Neverland itself; its two areas are [[Captain Hook]]'s ship and [[London]]'s [[Big Ben]]. [[Peter Pan]] joins the party. [[Captain Hook]], [[Wendy Darling]], [[Smee]] and [[Tinkerbell]] appear here. Story events ultimately allow the characters to fly while in this world.
*'''Hollow Bastion''': ''Final Fantasy'' characters that appear in Kingdom Hearts come from this world (excepting those in the Destiny Islands). [[Beast (Disney)|The Beast]] joins the party. This is also Maleficent's headquarters.
*'''[[List of worlds in the Kingdom Hearts series#End of the World|End of the World]]''': A large, dark world created from the assimilation of various worlds consumed in darkness. Here, many Heartless and evil beings reside. The final battles with Ansem are fought here. The World Terminus is located here, and small pockets of all other playable realms appear in this world due to its presence.
*'''[[100 Acre Wood]]''', from ''[[The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh]]'': This world exists only in a book within the game, and its different areas are unlocked by collecting 'Torn Pages'. Each area hosts a different mini-game. Unlike other worlds, it has no enemies.
*'''Disney Castle''' (not to be confused with [[Sleeping Beauty Castle]]) is not a playable world, though it appears in cut scenes and, inaccessibly, on the world map. [[Mickey Mouse]], [[Donald Duck]], and [[Goofy]] originate here.

===Characters===
[[Image:Kingdom Hearts Battle Screenshot.jpg|thumb|left|A typical battle in ''Kingdom Hearts''.]]
The main characters are [[Sora (Kingdom Hearts)|Sora]], [[Donald Duck]], and [[Goofy]]. While Donald specializes in MP and Magic usage, and Goofy in Defense, HP, and Special Attacks, Sora's stats, however, are more customizable; at the start of the game, the player selects what attribute to excel in and which attribute to be lacking in: Strength, Defense, or Magic. Several traits can also be altered further by permanent boost items or equipped item effects. Sora is also unique in that he can use both Magic and Special Attacks, whereas Donald and Goofy can only use each respectively.

Sora is the only character directly controlled by the player; other members in the party are computer-controlled. The [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] characters can have their behavior altered by the player, changing their Item usage from "occasionally" to "constantly" for example. Donald and Goofy are the only computer-controlled characters that are usable on every world. Most worlds have a unique AI party member who can be chosen to replace Goofy or Donald in the party while in that world. For instance, [[Jack Skellington]] joins the player's party in Halloween Town, but will not accompany the player elsewhere.

Various Disney characters can be temporarily called upon during battle as Summons. These characters replace Sora's two companions for the duration of the summon. Such characters include the [[Genie (Aladdin)|Genie]] from ''[[Aladdin]]'' and [[Simba]] from ''[[The Lion King]]''.

As a game meant to explore the fictional universes of various Disney films, there are many Disney characters from those films, along with others in cameo roles, such as the ''[[One Hundred and One Dalmatians]]'' puppies playing part in a quest to collect all ninety-nine.

====Final Fantasy cameos====
Squaresoft also incorporated several of its famous characters from the Final Fantasy series into the game, though the characters have been tweaked slightly for novelty and to fit the game's backstory. On Destiny Islands, the player meets younger versions of [[Tidus]], [[Wakka]] (both from Final Fantasy X), and [[Selphie]] (from Final Fantasy VIII). In Traverse Town, the player encounters [[Squall Leonhart]] (under the alias of "Leon"; from Final Fantasy VIII), as well as [[Aerith Gainsborough]], [[Cid Highwind]] and [[Yuffie Kisaragi]] from Final Fantasy VII. [[Rikku]] from Final Fantasy X and [[Irvine Kinneas]] from Final Fantasy VIII were both originally set to make cameo appearances, but were replaced by Yuffie and Wakka respectively. [[Cloud Strife]] and [[Sephiroth (Final Fantasy VII)|Sephiroth]] (both from Final Fantasy VII) make appearances in Olympus Coliseum, where the player can fight them in the tournaments.

The game also uses other Final Fantasy icons. [[Moogles]] make an appearance and provide item synthesis. Several weapons, such as ''Lionheart'' and ''Save the Queen'', share names with other weapons from previous entries in the Final Fantasy series. The name of the raft Riku had suggested was Highwind, is a reference to the airship of Final Fantasy VII. The magic-naming system in Kingdom Hearts (i.e. Cure, Cura, Curaga, etc.) is reminiscent of Final Fantasy magic. The names of various spells are the names of Gummi blocks, and various summons, weapons, bosses, and monsters are the names of Gummi ships blueprints.

The emphasis on characters from later Final Fantasy installments disappointed some fans; the refusal to use earlier characters stems from character designer Tetsuya Nomura's hesitation to use characters he did not design.

Kingdom Hearts has been criticized by some Final Fantasy fans for making poor use of the Final Fantasy characters placed in it. For example, several prominent characters are made much younger and do not play a major role in the story. Some fans also disapproved of the casting of the voice actors for the more popular Final Fantasy characters: in particular, the casting of pop music singers [[Mandy Moore]] as Aerith and [[Lance Bass]] as Sephiroth.

===Story===

The game begins within [[Sora (Kingdom Hearts)|Sora]]'s "dream world", in which the player is introduced to the gameplay of ''Kingdom Hearts''. Sora is directed by a nameless voice, who tells him that "the door is still closed," but there are various references toward the said door opening soon, and that if Sora does not prepare appropriately, it will lead to his end. As such, Sora is requested to choose one of three weapons, and sacrifice one other, before being plunged into his first battle with shadow creatures, who assault him on sight. Battling his way through the vast array of these shadows, Sora confronts a large creature, who, upon his defeat, absorbs Sora into darkness. Before the dream ends, the voice says to him "You are the one...who will open the door."

Sora awakens on the shore of the Destiny Islands, his home, with Kairi standing over him. The two of them engage in a brief discussion, in which we discover that Kairi suffers from amnesia, and cannot recall where she came from before arriving on the Islands. This does not appear to disturb her, though; she is apparently content with her life in her current home. Riku, another friend of Sora and Kairi's, joins in on the conversation and reminds them that they have to continue building their raft. The friends are attempting to leave the Destiny Islands on a raft, in search of Kairi's home, and other worlds that may be out there. Riku seems to be the only one deeply interested in discovering other lands, though, with Sora and Kairi thinking the journey as just something for fun and adventure.

The next day, Sora goes in search of food supplies for the raft, and comes across a cloaked stranger inside the "Secret Place." The shadowy figure's conversation with Sora is as follows: "This world has been connected. Tied to the darkness. Soon to be completely eclipsed. You have so very much to learn, you understand so little. A meaningless effort... One who knows nothing can understand nothing." Sora is confused by his words, and though he tries to discover who this enigma is, his questions are ignored. With those words, the figure disappears.

That night, a violent storm sweeps over the Islands, with the catalyst being a large orb of darkness in the sky. Sora rushes to protect the raft from damage, but he is attacked by the shadow-creatures from his dream. His wooden sword is useless, so he takes the next alternative and flees, finding Riku. However, Riku comments that "the door has opened," and that now they can go to other worlds. He allows the darkness to swallow him and reaches out his hand to Sora to follow him. However, the light in Sora's heart prevents him from reaching through the darkness to Riku and Riku soon disappears. In that moment, he receives a new and mysterious weapon called the Keyblade. With it, he battles against the Heartless and reaches the Secret Place to try and locate Kairi. But his efforts are futile, and Kairi and the Islands are swept away, leaving Sora to battle against the Darkside once again. After he defeats the Heartless leader, he too is swallowed into the orb of darkness.

Meanwhile at Disney Castle the Court Wizard [[Donald Duck]] discovers that King [[Mickey Mouse]] has disappeared. Donald recovers a letter signed by King Micky from the mouth of the king's dog, [[Pluto (Disney)|Pluto]]. After reading the letter Donald immediately goes to find the captain of the king's knights, Captain [[Goofy]]. As Donald tries to explain the secrecy of their mission to Goofy, he attracts the attention of Queen [[Minnie Mouse]] and [[Daisy Duck]], who demand answers from the magician.

The contents of the letter reveals that King Mickey has left to confront whatever dark force is plaguing the worlds at present, and he has requested that Donald and Goofy go in search of the mysterious "Keybearer," beginning with the small refugee world of Traverse Town. Bringing with them a chronicler named [[Jiminy Cricket]], the pair leave as instructed, promising Queen Minnie that they will help the King in whatever way they can.

From the Destiny Islands, Sora lands in Traverse Town, where he joins [[Goofy]] and [[Donald Duck]] in their quest to find King [[Mickey Mouse]] and defeat the Heartless. During their adventure the trio explore many Disney-themed worlds, including ''[[Aladdin (1992 film)|Aladdin's]]'' Agrabah, ''[[Peter Pan|Peter Pan's]]'' Neverland and ''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid's]]'' Atlantica. Along the way they lock "keyholes" in each of the destinations they visit to prevent the Heartless from consuming these worlds. Standing in their way, however, is a cabal of Disney villains, with [[Maleficent]] as their leader and none-other than Riku as her apprentice. Being manipulated by Maleficent into believing Sora has no desire to locate Kairi or him and has simply 'replaced' them with Donald and Goofy, Riku has taken responsibility into his hands and struck a deal with Maleficent in order to help Kairi regain her heart. The goal of Maleficent and her group is to collect seven maidens of the purest heart, the "Princesses of Heart", in order to open the pathway to Kingdom Hearts, which is the origin of all Heartless and a limitless repository of power and knowledge, equal to that contained within each individual's heart. In this sense, Kingdom Hearts is the heart of all worlds.

Finally reaching Hollow Bastion, Maleficent's headquarters, Sora confronts Riku directly. Their confrontation ends with the revelation that Riku is actually the rightful Keyblade master, causing Sora's own Keyblade to disappear into Riku's hands. Unfazed by the loss of his weapon, Sora puts his faith into his friends and wins back the Keyblade with his heart, causing Riku to retreat. It is during this time that the cloaked stranger who spoke to Sora on the Destiny Islands appears and offers Riku greater power with which to defeat Sora. Riku impulsively accepts. Meanwhile Sora and his teammates face and defeat Maleficent, when a strangely-behaving Riku strikes her with a unique type of Keyblade, one that opens hearts. This causes Maleficent to transform into a dragon, reflecting the darkness in her heart. Sora's party rises to the challenge and destroys Maleficent.

Sora confronts Riku again, only this time it is not truly Riku; it is actually [[Xehanort|Ansem]], a scientist who conducted extensive research on the Heartless, occupying Riku's body. He is also the cloaked figure who taunted Sora on Destiny Islands. Ansem desires to become part of what he believes to be the primordial phase of existence, the darkness that he believes to compose Kingdom Hearts. Kairi is revealed to be a Princess of Heart, as her heart was trapped in Sora's body ever since they were separated. Sora and Ansem battle, with Sora as the victor. Following the battle, Sora impales himself on Ansem's Keyblade in order to free Kairi's heart, losing his own heart in the process while restoring Kairi and freeing the other Princesses' hearts. However, the pathway to Kingdom Hearts is opened.

Now a Heartless, Sora scampers to Kairi's protection. Knowing that it's truly Sora, Kairi's light pulls him from the infinite darkness and restores Sora. They flee Hollow Bastion in face of the immense number of Heartless pouring through the pathway to Kingdom Hearts. Sora returns to lock the keyhole and later travel to Kingdom Hearts itself, facing Ansem in a climactic final battle.

Though the light of Kingdom Hearts defeats Ansem, the door to the realm of darkness threatens to unleash millions upon millions of Heartless onto the universe. Sora, Donald and Goofy attempt to close the door, but their strength is not enough. Riku, who has regained his body, helps the others close the door on the other side, along with King Mickey. Using his own Keyblade, Mickey locks Kingdom Hearts from the inside with Sora's help, but this forces the King and Riku to stay inside the realm of darkness. Before the door is locked, Riku tells Sora to take care of Kairi. Sora and Kairi's reunion is cut extremely short as they are pulled apart by the reforming Destiny Islands. Sora promises to return to Kairi once he finds Riku. The game ends on an optimistic note, with the same disembodied voice Sora encountered in the beginning of the game arriving once again to tell the keyblade master that he will be the one to open the door to the light.

==Development==
====English version====
The English version of ''Kingdom Hearts'' had new features that were not found in the original version of ''Kingdom Hearts'' in Japan. Besides English localization, three additional optional bosses were added. [[Yoko Shimomura]]'s arrangement of ''[[Night on Bald Mountain]]'' was set as the background music for the [[Chernabog (Disney)|Chernabog]] boss fight, whereas the original Japanese version uses generic boss music. In addition, the secret video entitled "Another Side, Another Story", was included in the English version; this scene ultimately became a blueprint of sorts for the sequels.

====Final Mix====
[[Image:Neo Shadow.jpg|200px|thumb|bottom|right|Neoshadows, one of the new enemies, in ''Final Mix'', along with the One-Winged Angel Keyblade.]]
''Kingdom Hearts'' was re-released in Japan as ''Kingdom Hearts: Final Mix''; this version has several events and a number of gameplay tweaks that are not in previous releases. Spoken dialogue is in English, with Japanese subtitles.

New scenes, clarifying certain plot points, such as [[Riku (Kingdom Hearts)|Riku]]'s journey and foreshadowing of ''Kingdom Hearts II'', were included. A gameplay tweak allows the player to skip cutscenes after seeing them once. The optional bosses first included in the English version were introduced to Japanese players for the first time, along with the "[[Organization XIII#I. Xemnas|Unknown]]", in an attempt to raise interest for the sequel. In another attempt at foreshadowing, a video called "Another Side, Another Story [deep dive]" plays along with "Another side, Another story…" if the player accomplishes certain tasks.

New music was incorporated; the tracks are "Disappeared" and "Another Side". The "Night on Bald Mountain" and "One-Winged Angel" tracks from the English version were included as well.

Other changes include new abilities, new weapons, new items, additional and recolored enemies; and gameplay tweaks to make the game easier for the player, along with two new difficulty levels.

A limited edition version of ''Kingdom Hearts: Final Mix'' was also released. The version includes an action figure of Sora, a sticker set, sketches of some of the main characters and the game itself.

==Audio==
===Voice cast===
A special effort was made to preserve the original voice actors from the Disney movies used in Kingdom Hearts. Some of the voice actors from the related television series or direct-to-video sequels were chosen over original voice actors, where applicable (e.g. [[Dan Castellaneta]] as Genie, rather than [[Robin Williams]]). It also has famous names including [[Haley Joel Osment]] as the voice of Sora and [[Hayden Panettiere]] as the voice of Kairi. <ref name="ffnet">{{cite web | author=Alex Sains | title=Kingdom Hearts voice actors | url=http://www.ffnet.org/square-enix/kingdom-hearts/ | work=[http://www.ffnet.org/ Final Fantasy Net] | accessdate=December 23 | accessyear=2006}}</ref>

===Musical score===
The music is composed by [[Yoko Shimomura]], the opening orchestration and ending credits theme were arranged by [[Kaoru Wada]], and the main vocal theme is "[[Hikari (song)|Hikari]]" ("[[Simple And Clean]]" was used in the Western releases and ''Final Mix''). Both versions of the song were composed and performed by [[Utada Hikaru]]. While there are some melodies derived from prior Disney films, most of the soundtrack consists of original themes written specifically for the game by Shimomura.

==Reception==
===Critical response===
According to [[Game Rankings]], Kingdom Hearts has an average rating of 86%<ref name="KHgamerankings">[http://www.gamerankings.com/htmlpages4/516587.asp Kingdom Hearts (PS2)] "gamerankings.com". URL Accessed December 15, 2006</ref>. Critics commended the visuals, the orchestral score, and the action-adventure RPG feel to the game. The voice acting was also mentioned.

[[GameSpot]] cites "tedious" combat as one gaming issue<ref name="KHgamespot">[http://www.gamespot.com/ps2/adventure/kingdomhearts/review.html Kingdom Hearts (Platinum)] "www.gamespot.com". URL Accessed December 15, 2006</ref>, with the review citing the Gummi Ship sections as "pale imitations of the [[Star Fox (series)|Star Fox]] series". A few reviewers also mentioned that they felt the developers had focused on cut scenes and special effects instead of core game play. Another failing is the periodic departure from the main plot into the Disney side stories. And, when the original plot builds to a climax, "...the story fails to gel thanks to a confusing mish-mash of vague terms and symbolism that probably made more sense in the director's head than in this final product."<ref name="KHgamespy">[http://ps2.gamespy.com/playstation-2/kingdom-hearts/540394p2.html Kingdom Hearts (PS2)] "ps2.gamespy.com". URL Accessed December 15, 2006</ref>

===Legacy===
====Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories====
''[[Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories]]'', the [[Game Boy Advance]] [[sequel]] to the original game, takes place directly after the plot of ''Kingdom Hearts'', and provides the link between ''Kingdom Hearts'' and ''Kingdom Hearts II''. In the beginning, Sora, Donald and Goofy meet a mysterious man who leads them to Castle Oblivion, a strange castle where even memories cannot be trusted. There, the group visits replicas of the worlds in the original game, created by Sora's memories. At the same time, Riku separates from King Mickey, escapes from the realm of darkness and finds his own way to Castle Oblivion, where he must contend with the lingering darkness of "Ansem" in his heart. As both Sora and Riku fight their ways through the castle, piecing together what is real and what is not, they are unaware that they are being targeted by a mysterious organization.

The game abandoned the ''Kingdom Hearts'' battle system, focusing instead on card-based gameplay. These cards can be used to create new worlds, open doors, and attack Heartless. The game was released on [[December 7]], [[2004]].

====Kingdom Hearts II====
A second sequel, ''[[Kingdom Hearts II]]'' for the [[PlayStation 2]], was first released in December 2005. Taking place one year after ''Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories'', ''Kingdom Hearts II'' features Sora, Donald and Goofy, as well as a new cast of characters, including [[Mickey Mouse|King Mickey]] himself and familiar faces. The Heartless are still running loose and a mysterious group, [[Organization XIII]], is plotting against Sora. There are new worlds exclusive to the sequel, such as ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Port Royal and ''[[The Lion King]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Pride Lands, as well as new places to visit in old worlds; those include the Underworld in the ''Hercules'' world and the palace garden in Agrabah. The sequel uses a refined camera system, and includes a Drive ability that gives Sora the ability to merge with one or more of his party members for a short time to gain new powers, as well as the new limit break system, allowing Sora to unleash a devastating attack with a team member.

==Merchandise==
===Manga===
The game was adapted into a manga by [[Shiro Amano]], and all four volumes have been published in English in the [[United States]] by [[TOKYOPOP]] (ISBN 1-59816-217-9). A boxed set containing all four volumes has been released , as well as the second manga series, ''Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories''. A noteworthy feature of the manga is that even in its original, Japanese language edition, the ''Kingdom Hearts'' comic adaptation was designed to be read from left to right, contrary to the Japanese usage. The ''Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories'' and ''Kingdom Hearts II'' comic adaptations are read from right to left, though.

==References==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>
{{unreferenced|date=August 2006}}

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

*[http://na.square-enix.com/games/kingdomhearts/ Official ''Kingdom Hearts'' site]
*[http://www.kingdom-hearts.com/ Official international ''Kingdom Hearts ''site]
*{{imdb title|id=0322968}}
*{{moby game|id=/ps2/kingdom-hearts|name=''Kingdom Hearts''}}
*[http://www.kh2.co.uk/ ''Kingdom Hearts'' Ultimania]
{{Kingdom Hearts series}}

[[Category:2002 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Kingdom Hearts]]
[[Category:Manga series]]
[[Category:PlayStation 2-only games]]
[[Category:Computer and video games developed in Japan]]

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Kingdom Hearts (Computerspiel)

2007-02-15T00:07:07Z

207.69.137.24: /* Kingdom Hearts II */

{{dablink|This article contains information on the first ''Kingdom Hearts'' video game. For the series, see [[Kingdom Hearts series]].}}
{{Infobox CVG
|title = Kingdom Hearts
|image = [[Image:Kingdom Hearts.jpg|256px]]
|developer = [[Square Co., Ltd.|Square Co.]]
|publisher = <div style="white-space: nowrap;">[[Square Co.]] ''(Japan)'' [[Square Electronic Arts|Square EA]], [[Buena Vista Games|Disney Interactive]] ''(N. America)'' [[Sony Computer Entertainment|SCEE]] ''(Europe/Australia)''
|designer = [[Shinji Hashimoto]] ([[Game producer|producer]]) [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] ([[executive producer]]) [[Tetsuya Nomura]] ([[game director|director]], character design and concept design) Jun Akiyama ([[scenario]]) [[Yoko Shimomura]] ([[composer]])
|series = [[Kingdom Hearts series]]
|engine =
|released = {{vgrelease|Japan|JP|[[March 28]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|North America|NA|[[September 17]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|European Union|EU|[[November 15]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|Australasia|AUS|[[November 22]], [[2002]]}} 
{{vgrelease|International version|INT|[[December 26]], [[2002]] — as ''Kingdom Hearts: Final Mix''}}
|genre = [[Action role-playing game|Action RPG]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: Everyone [[Pan European Game Information|PEGI]]: 7+ [[Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle|USK]]: 6+ [[Office of Film and Literature Classification (Australia)|OFLC]]: G8+ [[Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association|ELSPA]]: 11+
|platforms = [[PlayStation 2]]
|media = 1 [[DVD|DVD-ROM]]
|requirements =
|input =
}}
{{nihongo|'''''Kingdom Hearts'''''|キングダムハーツ|Kingudamu Hātsu}} is a hybrid [[action role-playing game|action]]-[[console role-playing game|RPG]] that was released in [[2002 in video gaming|2002]], which is notable for being the result of a collaboration between the video game developer and publisher [[Square Co., Ltd.|Square]] and [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]. The game combines characters and settings from Disney's [[animation|animated]] [[List of Disney theatrical animated features|features]] and films with those from Square's ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' RPG series. Although the game's primary plot lines follow characters who were created specifically for ''Kingdom Hearts'', characters from both companies play major roles in the game and its storyline. The game features real-time rendered backgrounds and scenery.

==Gameplay==
''Kingdom Hearts'' is heavily influenced by its parent franchise, ''[[Final Fantasy]]'', and carries many gameplay elements over into its own action-based, hack-and-slash system. [[Sora (Kingdom Hearts)|Sora]], the main character, is directly controlled by the player from a [[Grammatical person#Use of grammatical person in creative media|third person]] camera angle. Most gameplay occurs on interconnected field maps where battles take place. The game is driven by a linear progression to the next story event, usually told in the form of a [[cut scene]], though there are numerous [[Quest (gaming)#Side-quest|side quests]] available that provide bonus benefits to the characters.

Like many traditional role-playing games, ''Kingdom Hearts'' features an [[experience point]] system which determines character development. As enemies are defeated, the player gains experience which culminate in a "level-up", where the [[player character]]s grows stronger and gains access to new [[Statistic (role-playing games)#Skill|abilities]]. Unlike many other games of its type, ''Kingdom Hearts'' allows a certain degree of character development customization through a short tutorial found at the beginning of the game. By choosing certain options, the player is able to manipulate how Sora learns abilities, [[Statistic (role-playing games)#Attributes|grows statistically]], and even gains levels.

Combat in ''Kingdom Hearts'' is in real time and involves button presses which initiate Attacks by the on-screen character. Also, a ''Final Fantasy''-esque menu found at the bottom left of the screen provides other combat options such as using Magic and Items. There is also a context-sensitive option at the bottom of the menu, usually used for interaction with the environment or for performing Special Attacks. This menu is manipulated using the right analogue stick or digital pad, while movement is controlled by the left stick, allowing the player to navigate the menu while avoiding or approaching enemies. In addition to the main character, two party members are usually present who also participate in combat. Though these characters are computer-controlled, the player is allowed to customize their behavior to a certain extent through the menu screen.

==Plot==

===Setting===
{{see|List of worlds in the Kingdom Hearts series}}
[[Level (computer and video games)|Levels]] in ''Kingdom Hearts'' are called "worlds". Many are based on Disney movies (primarily ones from the [[List of Disney animated features|Disney animated features canon]]). Players travel from one world to another via gummi ship.

*'''Destiny Islands''': Sora begins his journey here. The world is only accessible at the story's beginning. The islands and the events in them are critical to the entire game's storyline. Sora, Riku, and Kairi originate here, and Final Fantasy characters, [[Selphie Tilmitt]], [[Tidus]], and [[Wakka]] live there as well.
*'''Traverse Town''': Sora first meets Donald and Goofy here. Traverse Town serves as a launching point into the majority of gameplay; as its name implies, it offers traditional-RPG shops. . Several Final Fantasy and Disney characters reside here, including [[Aerith Gainsborough]], [[Yuffie Kisaragi]], [[Squall Leonhart]], [[Cid Highwind]], The Fairy Godmother from ''[[Cinderella]]'', Dalmatians from ''[[101 Dalmatians]]'', [[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]] from ''[[The Sword in the Stone (film)]]'', and later on in the game, Geppetto and Pinocchio from ''[[Pinocchio]]''.
*'''[[Wonderland]]''', from ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'': Intended to be the next level the player travels to, this world is the first that can be closed to the Heartless by sealing the Keyhole. It features the [[Cheshire Cat]], the Doorknob, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]], the [[Queen of Hearts (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Queen of Hearts]], the [[White Rabbit]], and animated playing cards as they appeared in the movie. The Mad Hatter and the March Hare appear as picture in their "tea garden".
*'''Olympus Coliseum''', from ''[[Hercules (1997 movie)|Hercules]]'': This includes [[Hades (Disney)|Hades]], [[Hercules (Disney character)|Hercules]], [[Philoctetes]], [[Cerberus]], [[Cloud Strife]] and [[Sephiroth]]. This world, rather than being an explorable platform level, hosts fighting tournaments.
*'''Deep Jungle''', from ''[[Tarzan (1999 movie)|Tarzan]]''. [[Tarzan]] joins the party here. [[Jane Porter (Tarzan)|Jane]], [[Clayton (Tarzan)|Clayton]] and several [[gorilla]]s from the movies also appear.
*'''Agrabah''', from ''[[Aladdin (1992 film)|Aladdin]]'': This world includes Agrabah and the Cave of Wonders. [[Aladdin (Disney character)|Aladdin]] joins the party. Abu, [[Princess Jasmine]], [[Jafar (Aladdin)|Jafar]], [[Iago (Aladdin)|Iago]], [[Genie (Aladdin)|Genie]], and the Magic Carpet also appear.
*'''Monstro''', from ''[[Pinocchio (1940 movie)|Pinocchio]]'': [[Pinocchio]] and his maker [[Geppetto]] can be found here. Since Monstro is a living being, not a world, this level cannot be sealed.
*'''Atlantica''', from ''[[The Little Mermaid (movie)|The Little Mermaid]]'': This world consists of the underwater environments of Ursula's Cave, the city of Atlantica, and several grottos. [[Ariel (The Little Mermaid)|Ariel]] joins the party. [[King Triton]], [[Ursula (The Little Mermaid)|Ursula]], [[Sebastian (The Little Mermaid)|Sebastian]], [[Flounder (The Little Mermaid)|Flounder]], [[Flotsam and Jetsam (The Little Mermaid)|Flotsam and Jetsam]] appear in this world. While in this world, Sora is transformed into a mer-man while Donald and Goofy become sea animals.The three-dimensional underwater controls are frequently criticized by players.
*'''Halloween Town''', from ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' (includes the Guillotine Square, Oogie Boogie's Manor, Moonlit Hill, and a graveyard): [[Jack Skellington]] joins the party. [[Sally (The Nightmare Before Christmas)|Sally]], [[Lock, Shock, and Barrel]], [[Doctor Finklestein]], Zero, [[Mayor (The Nightmare Before Christmas)|the two-faced Mayor]] and [[Oogie Boogie]] also appear. In this world, Sora, Goofy and Donald disguise themselves as monsters.
*'''[[Neverland|Never Land]]''', from ''[[Peter Pan (1953 movie)|Peter Pan]]'', does not actually include Neverland itself; its two areas are [[Captain Hook]]'s ship and [[London]]'s [[Big Ben]]. [[Peter Pan]] joins the party. [[Captain Hook]], [[Wendy Darling]], [[Smee]] and [[Tinkerbell]] appear here. Story events ultimately allow the characters to fly while in this world.
*'''Hollow Bastion''': ''Final Fantasy'' characters that appear in Kingdom Hearts come from this world (excepting those in the Destiny Islands). [[Beast (Disney)|The Beast]] joins the party. This is also Maleficent's headquarters.
*'''[[List of worlds in the Kingdom Hearts series#End of the World|End of the World]]''': A large, dark world created from the assimilation of various worlds consumed in darkness. Here, many Heartless and evil beings reside. The final battles with Ansem are fought here. The World Terminus is located here, and small pockets of all other playable realms appear in this world due to its presence.
*'''[[100 Acre Wood]]''', from ''[[The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh]]'': This world exists only in a book within the game, and its different areas are unlocked by collecting 'Torn Pages'. Each area hosts a different mini-game. Unlike other worlds, it has no enemies.
*'''Disney Castle''' (not to be confused with [[Sleeping Beauty Castle]]) is not a playable world, though it appears in cut scenes and, inaccessibly, on the world map. [[Mickey Mouse]], [[Donald Duck]], and [[Goofy]] originate here.

===Characters===
[[Image:Kingdom Hearts Battle Screenshot.jpg|thumb|left|A typical battle in ''Kingdom Hearts''.]]
The main characters are [[Sora (Kingdom Hearts)|Sora]], [[Donald Duck]], and [[Goofy]]. While Donald specializes in MP and Magic usage, and Goofy in Defense, HP, and Special Attacks, Sora's stats, however, are more customizable; at the start of the game, the player selects what attribute to excel in and which attribute to be lacking in: Strength, Defense, or Magic. Several traits can also be altered further by permanent boost items or equipped item effects. Sora is also unique in that he can use both Magic and Special Attacks, whereas Donald and Goofy can only use each respectively.

Sora is the only character directly controlled by the player; other members in the party are computer-controlled. The [[Artificial Intelligence|AI]] characters can have their behavior altered by the player, changing their Item usage from "occasionally" to "constantly" for example. Donald and Goofy are the only computer-controlled characters that are usable on every world. Most worlds have a unique AI party member who can be chosen to replace Goofy or Donald in the party while in that world. For instance, [[Jack Skellington]] joins the player's party in Halloween Town, but will not accompany the player elsewhere.

Various Disney characters can be temporarily called upon during battle as Summons. These characters replace Sora's two companions for the duration of the summon. Such characters include the [[Genie (Aladdin)|Genie]] from ''[[Aladdin]]'' and [[Simba]] from ''[[The Lion King]]''.

As a game meant to explore the fictional universes of various Disney films, there are many Disney characters from those films, along with others in cameo roles, such as the ''[[One Hundred and One Dalmatians]]'' puppies playing part in a quest to collect all ninety-nine.

====Final Fantasy cameos====
Squaresoft also incorporated several of its famous characters from the Final Fantasy series into the game, though the characters have been tweaked slightly for novelty and to fit the game's backstory. On Destiny Islands, the player meets younger versions of [[Tidus]], [[Wakka]] (both from Final Fantasy X), and [[Selphie]] (from Final Fantasy VIII). In Traverse Town, the player encounters [[Squall Leonhart]] (under the alias of "Leon"; from Final Fantasy VIII), as well as [[Aerith Gainsborough]], [[Cid Highwind]] and [[Yuffie Kisaragi]] from Final Fantasy VII. [[Rikku]] from Final Fantasy X and [[Irvine Kinneas]] from Final Fantasy VIII were both originally set to make cameo appearances, but were replaced by Yuffie and Wakka respectively. [[Cloud Strife]] and [[Sephiroth (Final Fantasy VII)|Sephiroth]] (both from Final Fantasy VII) make appearances in Olympus Coliseum, where the player can fight them in the tournaments.

The game also uses other Final Fantasy icons. [[Moogles]] make an appearance and provide item synthesis. Several weapons, such as ''Lionheart'' and ''Save the Queen'', share names with other weapons from previous entries in the Final Fantasy series. The name of the raft Riku had suggested was Highwind, is a reference to the airship of Final Fantasy VII. The magic-naming system in Kingdom Hearts (i.e. Cure, Cura, Curaga, etc.) is reminiscent of Final Fantasy magic. The names of various spells are the names of Gummi blocks, and various summons, weapons, bosses, and monsters are the names of Gummi ships blueprints.

The emphasis on characters from later Final Fantasy installments disappointed some fans; the refusal to use earlier characters stems from character designer Tetsuya Nomura's hesitation to use characters he did not design.

Kingdom Hearts has been criticized by some Final Fantasy fans for making poor use of the Final Fantasy characters placed in it. For example, several prominent characters are made much younger and do not play a major role in the story. Some fans also disapproved of the casting of the voice actors for the more popular Final Fantasy characters: in particular, the casting of pop music singers [[Mandy Moore]] as Aerith and [[Lance Bass]] as Sephiroth.

===Story===

The game begins within [[Sora (Kingdom Hearts)|Sora]]'s "dream world", in which the player is introduced to the gameplay of ''Kingdom Hearts''. Sora is directed by a nameless voice, who tells him that "the door is still closed," but there are various references toward the said door opening soon, and that if Sora does not prepare appropriately, it will lead to his end. As such, Sora is requested to choose one of three weapons, and sacrifice one other, before being plunged into his first battle with shadow creatures, who assault him on sight. Battling his way through the vast array of these shadows, Sora confronts a large creature, who, upon his defeat, absorbs Sora into darkness. Before the dream ends, the voice says to him "You are the one...who will open the door."

Sora awakens on the shore of the Destiny Islands, his home, with Kairi standing over him. The two of them engage in a brief discussion, in which we discover that Kairi suffers from amnesia, and cannot recall where she came from before arriving on the Islands. This does not appear to disturb her, though; she is apparently content with her life in her current home. Riku, another friend of Sora and Kairi's, joins in on the conversation and reminds them that they have to continue building their raft. The friends are attempting to leave the Destiny Islands on a raft, in search of Kairi's home, and other worlds that may be out there. Riku seems to be the only one deeply interested in discovering other lands, though, with Sora and Kairi thinking the journey as just something for fun and adventure.

The next day, Sora goes in search of food supplies for the raft, and comes across a cloaked stranger inside the "Secret Place." The shadowy figure's conversation with Sora is as follows: "This world has been connected. Tied to the darkness. Soon to be completely eclipsed. You have so very much to learn, you understand so little. A meaningless effort... One who knows nothing can understand nothing." Sora is confused by his words, and though he tries to discover who this enigma is, his questions are ignored. With those words, the figure disappears.

That night, a violent storm sweeps over the Islands, with the catalyst being a large orb of darkness in the sky. Sora rushes to protect the raft from damage, but he is attacked by the shadow-creatures from his dream. His wooden sword is useless, so he takes the next alternative and flees, finding Riku. However, Riku comments that "the door has opened," and that now they can go to other worlds. He allows the darkness to swallow him and reaches out his hand to Sora to follow him. However, the light in Sora's heart prevents him from reaching through the darkness to Riku and Riku soon disappears. In that moment, he receives a new and mysterious weapon called the Keyblade. With it, he battles against the Heartless and reaches the Secret Place to try and locate Kairi. But his efforts are futile, and Kairi and the Islands are swept away, leaving Sora to battle against the Darkside once again. After he defeats the Heartless leader, he too is swallowed into the orb of darkness.

Meanwhile at Disney Castle the Court Wizard [[Donald Duck]] discovers that King [[Mickey Mouse]] has disappeared. Donald recovers a letter signed by King Micky from the mouth of the king's dog, [[Pluto (Disney)|Pluto]]. After reading the letter Donald immediately goes to find the captain of the king's knights, Captain [[Goofy]]. As Donald tries to explain the secrecy of their mission to Goofy, he attracts the attention of Queen [[Minnie Mouse]] and [[Daisy Duck]], who demand answers from the magician.

The contents of the letter reveals that King Mickey has left to confront whatever dark force is plaguing the worlds at present, and he has requested that Donald and Goofy go in search of the mysterious "Keybearer," beginning with the small refugee world of Traverse Town. Bringing with them a chronicler named [[Jiminy Cricket]], the pair leave as instructed, promising Queen Minnie that they will help the King in whatever way they can.

From the Destiny Islands, Sora lands in Traverse Town, where he joins [[Goofy]] and [[Donald Duck]] in their quest to find King [[Mickey Mouse]] and defeat the Heartless. During their adventure the trio explore many Disney-themed worlds, including ''[[Aladdin (1992 film)|Aladdin's]]'' Agrabah, ''[[Peter Pan|Peter Pan's]]'' Neverland and ''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid's]]'' Atlantica. Along the way they lock "keyholes" in each of the destinations they visit to prevent the Heartless from consuming these worlds. Standing in their way, however, is a cabal of Disney villains, with [[Maleficent]] as their leader and none-other than Riku as her apprentice. Being manipulated by Maleficent into believing Sora has no desire to locate Kairi or him and has simply 'replaced' them with Donald and Goofy, Riku has taken responsibility into his hands and struck a deal with Maleficent in order to help Kairi regain her heart. The goal of Maleficent and her group is to collect seven maidens of the purest heart, the "Princesses of Heart", in order to open the pathway to Kingdom Hearts, which is the origin of all Heartless and a limitless repository of power and knowledge, equal to that contained within each individual's heart. In this sense, Kingdom Hearts is the heart of all worlds.

Finally reaching Hollow Bastion, Maleficent's headquarters, Sora confronts Riku directly. Their confrontation ends with the revelation that Riku is actually the rightful Keyblade master, causing Sora's own Keyblade to disappear into Riku's hands. Unfazed by the loss of his weapon, Sora puts his faith into his friends and wins back the Keyblade with his heart, causing Riku to retreat. It is during this time that the cloaked stranger who spoke to Sora on the Destiny Islands appears and offers Riku greater power with which to defeat Sora. Riku impulsively accepts. Meanwhile Sora and his teammates face and defeat Maleficent, when a strangely-behaving Riku strikes her with a unique type of Keyblade, one that opens hearts. This causes Maleficent to transform into a dragon, reflecting the darkness in her heart. Sora's party rises to the challenge and destroys Maleficent.

Sora confronts Riku again, only this time it is not truly Riku; it is actually [[Xehanort|Ansem]], a scientist who conducted extensive research on the Heartless, occupying Riku's body. He is also the cloaked figure who taunted Sora on Destiny Islands. Ansem desires to become part of what he believes to be the primordial phase of existence, the darkness that he believes to compose Kingdom Hearts. Kairi is revealed to be a Princess of Heart, as her heart was trapped in Sora's body ever since they were separated. Sora and Ansem battle, with Sora as the victor. Following the battle, Sora impales himself on Ansem's Keyblade in order to free Kairi's heart, losing his own heart in the process while restoring Kairi and freeing the other Princesses' hearts. However, the pathway to Kingdom Hearts is opened.

Now a Heartless, Sora scampers to Kairi's protection. Knowing that it's truly Sora, Kairi's light pulls him from the infinite darkness and restores Sora. They flee Hollow Bastion in face of the immense number of Heartless pouring through the pathway to Kingdom Hearts. Sora returns to lock the keyhole and later travel to Kingdom Hearts itself, facing Ansem in a climactic final battle.

Though the light of Kingdom Hearts defeats Ansem, the door to the realm of darkness threatens to unleash millions upon millions of Heartless onto the universe. Sora, Donald and Goofy attempt to close the door, but their strength is not enough. Riku, who has regained his body, helps the others close the door on the other side, along with King Mickey. Using his own Keyblade, Mickey locks Kingdom Hearts from the inside with Sora's help, but this forces the King and Riku to stay inside the realm of darkness. Before the door is locked, Riku tells Sora to take care of Kairi. Sora and Kairi's reunion is cut extremely short as they are pulled apart by the reforming Destiny Islands. Sora promises to return to Kairi once he finds Riku. The game ends on an optimistic note, with the same disembodied voice Sora encountered in the beginning of the game arriving once again to tell the keyblade master that he will be the one to open the door to the light.

==Development==
====English version====
The English version of ''Kingdom Hearts'' had new features that were not found in the original version of ''Kingdom Hearts'' in Japan. Besides English localization, three additional optional bosses were added. [[Yoko Shimomura]]'s arrangement of ''[[Night on Bald Mountain]]'' was set as the background music for the [[Chernabog (Disney)|Chernabog]] boss fight, whereas the original Japanese version uses generic boss music. In addition, the secret video entitled "Another Side, Another Story", was included in the English version; this scene ultimately became a blueprint of sorts for the sequels.

====Final Mix====
[[Image:Neo Shadow.jpg|200px|thumb|bottom|right|Neoshadows, one of the new enemies, in ''Final Mix'', along with the One-Winged Angel Keyblade.]]
''Kingdom Hearts'' was re-released in Japan as ''Kingdom Hearts: Final Mix''; this version has several events and a number of gameplay tweaks that are not in previous releases. Spoken dialogue is in English, with Japanese subtitles.

New scenes, clarifying certain plot points, such as [[Riku (Kingdom Hearts)|Riku]]'s journey and foreshadowing of ''Kingdom Hearts II'', were included. A gameplay tweak allows the player to skip cutscenes after seeing them once. The optional bosses first included in the English version were introduced to Japanese players for the first time, along with the "[[Organization XIII#I. Xemnas|Unknown]]", in an attempt to raise interest for the sequel. In another attempt at foreshadowing, a video called "Another Side, Another Story [deep dive]" plays along with "Another side, Another story…" if the player accomplishes certain tasks.

New music was incorporated; the tracks are "Disappeared" and "Another Side". The "Night on Bald Mountain" and "One-Winged Angel" tracks from the English version were included as well.

Other changes include new abilities, new weapons, new items, additional and recolored enemies; and gameplay tweaks to make the game easier for the player, along with two new difficulty levels.

A limited edition version of ''Kingdom Hearts: Final Mix'' was also released. The version includes an action figure of Sora, a sticker set, sketches of some of the main characters and the game itself.

==Audio==
===Voice cast===
A special effort was made to preserve the original voice actors from the Disney movies used in Kingdom Hearts. Some of the voice actors from the related television series or direct-to-video sequels were chosen over original voice actors, where applicable (e.g. [[Dan Castellaneta]] as Genie, rather than [[Robin Williams]]). It also has famous names including [[Haley Joel Osment]] as the voice of Sora and [[Hayden Panettiere]] as the voice of Kairi. <ref name="ffnet">{{cite web | author=Alex Sains | title=Kingdom Hearts voice actors | url=http://www.ffnet.org/square-enix/kingdom-hearts/ | work=[http://www.ffnet.org/ Final Fantasy Net] | accessdate=December 23 | accessyear=2006}}</ref>

===Musical score===
The music is composed by [[Yoko Shimomura]], the opening orchestration and ending credits theme were arranged by [[Kaoru Wada]], and the main vocal theme is "[[Hikari (song)|Hikari]]" ("[[Simple And Clean]]" was used in the Western releases and ''Final Mix''). Both versions of the song were composed and performed by [[Utada Hikaru]]. While there are some melodies derived from prior Disney films, most of the soundtrack consists of original themes written specifically for the game by Shimomura.

==Reception==
===Critical response===
According to [[Game Rankings]], Kingdom Hearts has an average rating of 86%<ref name="KHgamerankings">[http://www.gamerankings.com/htmlpages4/516587.asp Kingdom Hearts (PS2)] "gamerankings.com". URL Accessed December 15, 2006</ref>. Critics commended the visuals, the orchestral score, and the action-adventure RPG feel to the game. The voice acting was also mentioned.

[[GameSpot]] cites "tedious" combat as one gaming issue<ref name="KHgamespot">[http://www.gamespot.com/ps2/adventure/kingdomhearts/review.html Kingdom Hearts (Platinum)] "www.gamespot.com". URL Accessed December 15, 2006</ref>, with the review citing the Gummi Ship sections as "pale imitations of the [[Star Fox (series)|Star Fox]] series". A few reviewers also mentioned that they felt the developers had focused on cut scenes and special effects instead of core game play. Another failing is the periodic departure from the main plot into the Disney side stories. And, when the original plot builds to a climax, "...the story fails to gel thanks to a confusing mish-mash of vague terms and symbolism that probably made more sense in the director's head than in this final product."<ref name="KHgamespy">[http://ps2.gamespy.com/playstation-2/kingdom-hearts/540394p2.html Kingdom Hearts (PS2)] "ps2.gamespy.com". URL Accessed December 15, 2006</ref>

===Legacy===
====Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories====
''[[Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories]]'', the [[Game Boy Advance]] [[sequel]] to the original game, takes place directly after the plot of ''Kingdom Hearts'', and provides the link between ''Kingdom Hearts'' and ''Kingdom Hearts II''. In the beginning, Sora, Donald and Goofy meet a mysterious man who leads them to Castle Oblivion, a strange castle where even memories cannot be trusted. There, the group visits replicas of the worlds in the original game, created by Sora's memories. At the same time, Riku separates from King Mickey, escapes from the realm of darkness and finds his own way to Castle Oblivion, where he must contend with the lingering darkness of "Ansem" in his heart. As both Sora and Riku fight their ways through the castle, piecing together what is real and what is not, they are unaware that they are being targeted by a mysterious organization.

The game abandoned the ''Kingdom Hearts'' battle system, focusing instead on card-based gameplay. These cards can be used to create new worlds, open doors, and attack Heartless. The game was released on [[December 7]], [[2004]].

====Kingdom Hearts II====
A second sequel, ''[[Kingdom Hearts II]]'' for the [[PlayStation 2]], was first released in December 2005. Taking place one year after ''Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories'', ''Kingdom Hearts II'' features Sora, Donald and Goofy, as well as a new cast of characters, including [[Mickey Mouse|King Mickey]] himself and familiar faces. The Heartless are still running loose and a mysterious group, [[Organization XIII]], is plotting against Sora. There are new worlds exclusive to the sequel, such as ''[[Pirates of the Caribbean]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Port Royal and ''[[The Lion King]]''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s Pride Lands, as well as new places to visit in old worlds; those include the Underworld in the ''Hercules'' world and the palace garden in Agrabah. The sequel uses a refined camera system, and includes a Drive ability that gives Sora the ability to merge with one or more of his party members for a short time to gain new powers, as well as the new limit break system, allowing Sora to unleash a devastating attack with a team member.
---

==Merchandise==
===Manga===
The game was adapted into a manga by [[Shiro Amano]], and all four volumes have been published in English in the [[United States]] by [[TOKYOPOP]] (ISBN 1-59816-217-9). A boxed set containing all four volumes has been released , as well as the second manga series, ''Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories''. A noteworthy feature of the manga is that even in its original, Japanese language edition, the ''Kingdom Hearts'' comic adaptation was designed to be read from left to right, contrary to the Japanese usage. The ''Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories'' and ''Kingdom Hearts II'' comic adaptations are read from right to left, though.

==References==
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{{unreferenced|date=August 2006}}

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

*[http://na.square-enix.com/games/kingdomhearts/ Official ''Kingdom Hearts'' site]
*[http://www.kingdom-hearts.com/ Official international ''Kingdom Hearts ''site]
*{{imdb title|id=0322968}}
*{{moby game|id=/ps2/kingdom-hearts|name=''Kingdom Hearts''}}
*[http://www.kh2.co.uk/ ''Kingdom Hearts'' Ultimania]
{{Kingdom Hearts series}}

[[Category:2002 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Kingdom Hearts]]
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[[Category:PlayStation 2-only games]]
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Wurzelrasse

2006-07-22T22:23:06Z

207.69.137.24:

Die '''Wurzelrassenhypothese''' ist eine zentrale Vorstellung in der religiösen Weltanschauung der [[Theosophie]]. Die Kulturtheorie der theosophischen Lehre vertritt die Ansicht, dass sich die Menschheit in "[[Rasse|Rassen]]", von niederen zu immer höheren Stadien entwickelt hat, mit der "[[Arier|arischen]] Rasse" als bislang höchster Entwicklungsstufe. Nach diesen überwiegend [[Hypothese|hypothetischen]] "Rassen" sind daher die Zeiträume oder Kulturstufen der Menschheitsgeschichte benannt (sog. '''Wurzelrassen''' mit jeweils sieben ''Unterrassen'').

Die ausdrücklich sich gegen den unangemessenen Rasse-Begriff abgrenzende Modifizierung der theosophischen Lehre zu einer Nicht-Lehre in der [[Anthroposophie]] [[Rudolf Steiner|Rudolf Steiners]] führte die - auch noch aus heutiger Sicht - weniger anstößigen Begriffe ''Hauptzeitraum'' bzw. ''Zeitalter'' (anstatt "Wurzelrasse") und ''Kulturepoche'' (für "Unterrasse") ein, und hält nur in Bezug auf die Vergangenheit deutlich an der [[Begriff|begrifflichen]] Koppelung von Entwicklungszeiträumen an einzelne Kulturgruppen im Sinne von "Rassen" oder Völkern, die durch blutsverwandtschaft begründet sind, als ihren zentralen Trägern fest. Die schon seit längerem zunehmende Individualisierung des Menschen werde sich jedoch so stark entwickeln, dass in Zukunft jegliche Reste von biologischen Bluts- und Rasse-Zusammenhängen nicht mehr vorhanden seien. Wobei er dem uralten Begriff "Rasse" im Sinne einer festen Zugehörigkeit des Einzelnen Menschens zu einer abgerenzten Gruppe seit Beginn der nachatlantischen Zeit die Berechtigung abspricht.<ref>Rudolf Steiner: ''Die Geheimwissenschaft im Umriß'' (GA 13), ISBN 3-7274-5710-4</ref>

Die ''Hauptzeiträume'' oder auch ''Menschheiten'' sind mythologisch verankerten zyklischen Geschichtsvorstellungen wie der [[Ära]], dem [[Zeitalter]] oder dem [[Platonisches Jahr|Platonischen Weltenjahr]] mit insgesamt ca. 25.920 Jahren vergleichbar: Je ein Zwölftel des Platonischen Weltenjahres entspricht einer ''Kulturepoche'' (Entwicklungszeitraum) und durch die ganzheitlichen Begriffe Evolution und Involution erweitert. Während jeder der im Durchschnitt ca. 2.160 Jahre währenden Kulturepochen wandert die Sonne am so genannten [[Frühlingspunkt]] stets im gleichen astronomischen [[Tierkreiszeichen]], um mit dem Erreichen des nächsten astronomischen Tierkreiszeichens die nächste Kulturepoche einzuläuten. Mit den derzeitigen Erkenntnissen der [[Wissenschaft|wissenschaftlichen]] [[Ur- und Frühgeschichte]] und [[Anthropologie]] sind diese Theorien bisher nur teilweise und mühsam zur Deckung zu bringen; sie gehören aus heutiger materialistischer Sicht in den Bereich von [[Spiritualismus|spiritualistischen]] [[Dogma|Glaubenslehren]] und [[Weltanschauung]]en, ohne es ihrem Selbstverständnis nach zu sein. Nach Steiner durchläuft der Mensch von Inkarnation zu [[Inkarnation]] in einem rhythmischen Wechsel von gesamtmenschheitlicher Evolution und Involution alle Kulturepochen, um sich immer mehr zu vervollkommnen. Daher gehört aus seiner Sicht jede menschliche Individualität keiner einzelnen "Wurzelrasse" sondern der gesamten Menschheit als einer organischen Ganzheit an.

Jeder bisherige Hauptzeitraum soll sieben Kulturepochen umfassen. Der gegenwärtige ''nachatlantische'' (''arische'') Hauptzeitraum wird eingeteilt in 1. die urindische (7227 - 5067 v.Chr.), 2. die urpersische (5067–2907 v. Chr.), 3. die ägyptisch-chaldäische (2907–747 v. Chr.), 4. die griechisch-römische (747 v. Chr. – 1413 n. Chr.) und 5. die gegenwärtige, die germanisch-angelsächsische Kulturepoche, die 1413 n. Chr. begann und um 3573 enden soll. Im Durchschnitt dauern die einzelnen Kulturepochen 2160 Jahre (das ist ein Zwölftel des Platonischen Weltenjahres, wobei jeder Abschnitt des Platonischen Weltenjahres dem astronomischen Tierkreiszeichen entspricht, in welchem im Frühlingspunkt die Sonne aufgeht). In Zukunft sollen noch die 6. "slawische" und dann als letzte unseres Hauptzeitraums als 7. die "amerikanische" Kulturepoche folgen, in der durch den „Kampf aller gegen alle“ und durch ungezügelten Egoismus unser gegenwärtiger Hauptzeitraum dem Ende der Involution entgegengehen werde, wodurch wiederum neue Evolutionsschritte möglich würden (neue Hauptzeiträume).

Dem gegenwärtigen Hauptzeitraum, der bereits weit in die [[Vorgeschichte]] ausgreift, werden weitere Kulturstufen der Menschheit (Hauptzeiträume) vorangestellt, die die Namen ''[[Polaris]]'', ''[[Hyperborea|Hyperboräa]]'', ''[[Lemuria|Lemuris]]'' und ''[[Atlantis]]'' tragen und zugleich mythische Menschenrassen meinen. Ihr Ansatz ist [[esoterisch]], d.h. aus materialistischer Sicht völlig spekulativ. So ist es in keinerlei prähistorischer Erkenntnis fundiert, dass für den jetzigen Hauptzeitraum der vorausgehende Hauptzeitraum (die ''Atlantis'') mit ihrer fünften, ''ursemitischen'' Kulturepoche die Wurzeln gelegt haben soll. Allerdings widersprechen die bisherigen Funde den "Forschungsergebnissen" Steiners nicht. Seine Absicht ist es nicht, die biologische und äußerlich-kulturelle Geschichte des Menschen zu ersetzen sondern den Blick auf die "Menschheitsentwicklung" um ihre spirituelle Dimension zu erweitern. So habe die dritte "Wurzelrasse", die sogenannten ''Lemurier'', südlich des heutigen Asien gelebt. Sie hausten in Erdhöhlen und atmeten eine wässrige, milchartige Substanz ein. Sie seien ursprünglich geborene [[Zauberer|Magier]] gewesen, konnten Gedanken lesen und ungeheure Lasten durch bloßen Willen heben.

Die "Wurzelrasse" der '''Atlantier''' soll mit ihrem Kontinent [[Atlantis (Platon)|Atlantis]] gegen Ende ihrer 7. Kulturepoche im Gebiet des heutigen Atlantischen Ozeans versunken sein (Sintflutsage, ca. 8000 v. Chr.). Ein Inselrest (Poseidonis) soll aber noch eine gewisse Zeit weiter existiert haben. Ferner wird über Atlantis ausgesagt: Die Bewohner der Atlantis hätten ebenfalls über gewaltige magische Kräfte verfügt und mittels Naturmagie ätherische (übersinnliche) Fahrzeuge durch die Luft schweben lassen können, dafür hatten sie einen wenig entwickelten Verstand bzw. ein nur geringes [[Denkvermögen]], hatten aber dafür ein phänomenales Gedächtnis. Die ersten Keime zu einem selbständigen [[Denken]] seien in der ursemitischen Kulturepoche der Atlantis gelegt worden.

Aus Steiners Werk ergibt sich eine, nicht immer explizit formulierte, Unterscheidung zwischen dem sinnlich wahrnehmbaren Körper und dem seelisch-geistigen Menschen. Mit modernen Worten näherungsweise bildhaft ausgedrückt, könnte der vererbungsmäßige Körper des Menschen mit einem Fahrzeug und der eigentliche Mensch (Seele und Geist) mit dem Fahrer verglichen werden:
Jeder Fahrer nutzt im Laufe seiner eigenen Entwicklung immer wieder neue Fahrzeuge. Dadurch lernt er mit der Zeit die untershiedlichsten Fabrikate kennen und kann dadurch eine Gesamtheit an unterschiedlichesten Fähigkeiten erwerben. Kritiker Steiners übersehen, um im Bild zu bleiben, die ausdrückliche Unterscheidung zwischen "Fahrer" und "Fahrzeug" bzw. messen ihr nicht die Bedeutung bei, die sich aus dem Kontext von Steiners Denkweise ergibt. Steiner wollte der damaligen Unsitte, dass ein "Mercesdesfahrer" ein besserer Mensch sei als ein "Opelfahrer", entgegenwirken ohne dabei den Blick für die Unterschiedlichen Lernmöglichkeiten einzelner "Fabrikate" zu verlieren. Dass für Rudolf Steiner der Wert des "Fahrers" vom "Fahrzeug" abhinge wirft man ihm z.B. an den Stellen vor, wo es ihm darum geht die "Fahrer" darauf hinzuweisen, dass es für die Entwicklung weg vom Rassismus hinderlich ist, wenn mann zu lange einem "Fabrikat" anhängt. Weil man mit rein naturwissenschaftlicher Sichtweise "Fahrer" und "Fahrzeug" als eine Einheit erlebt, muss für ein überwiegend materialistisches Denken Steiners Sichtweise missverständlich sein. Dass man aus einer solchen Weltsicht heraus einen engagierten Gegner von allem, was in seiner Zeit auf Blutsverandtschaft gründete (Rasse, Nationalismuss, Blutsbande) nun als einen Anhänger des Rassismus hinzustellen versucht, scheint man nicht zu bemerken.

Als ein [[Ideologiekritik]]er von Steiners vermeintlicher "Weltanschauung" tritt z.B. Peter Bierl auf.

== Quellen ==
<references />

== Literatur ==

*Adolf Baumann: ABC der Anthroposophie, ISBN 3-7214-0688-5;
*Dankmar Bosse: Die gemeinsame Evolution von Erde und Mensch. Entwurf einer Geologie und Paläontologie der lebendigen Erde, ISBN 3-7725-1593-2;
*Andreas Delor: Kampf um Atlantis. Ein Beitrag zur anthroposophischen Atlantis-Diskussion, ISBN 3-924391-30-0;
*Rudolf Steiner: [[Aus der Akasha-Chronik]] (GA 11), ISBN 3-7274-5708-2;
*Rudolf Steiner: Die Geheimwissenschaft im Umriß (GA 13), ISBN 3-7274-5710-4;
*Rudolf Steiner: Grundelemente der Esoterik (GA 93a), insbesondere S. 229, ISBN 3-7274-0935-5;
*Gisela Gorrissen: Astrosophie des Tierkreises und der Planeten. Der Mensch im Spannungsfeld zwischen Kosmos und Erde, ISBN 3-8251-7254-6
*Caroline von Heydebrand: Vom Lehrplan der Freien Waldorfschule,ISBN 3772502008
*Martin Freksa: Das verlorene Atlantis. Die Geschichte der Auflösung eines alten Rätsels, ISBN 3-86150-301-8
*Murry Hope: Atlantis. Legende, Mythos und Wirklichkeit des versunkenen Kontinents, ISBN 3-453-14783-9;
*Hans-Jürgen Bader/Manfred Leist/Lorenzo Ravagli: Rassenideale sind der Niedergang der Menschheit. Anthroposophie und der Antisemitismusvorwurf, ISBN 3-7725-1916-4;
*Hans-Jürgen Bader/Lorenzo Ravagli: Rassenideale sind der Niedergang der Menschheit. Anthroposophie und der Rassismusvorwurf, ISBN 3-7725-1917-2;
*Helena Petrovna Blavatsky: "Die Geheimlehre", neu zusammengestellt und herausgegeben von Hank Troemel, ISBN 3-927837-67-9;
*[[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]]: Lexikon der Geheimlehren, ISBN 3-924849-46-3;
*W. Scott-Elliot: Teil 1 Atlantis/Teil 2 Das untergegangene Lemuria, Freiburg 1977 (Hermann Bauer Verlag), ohne ISBN veröffentlicht;
*Frank Waters: Das Buch der Hopi. Mythen, Legenden und Geschichte eines Indianervolkes, ISBN 3-426-77444-5.

Als Kritiker dieser Anschauung:
*Peter Bierl: Wurzelrassen, Erzengel und Volksgeister. Die Anthroposophie Rudolf Steiners und die Waldorfpädagogik, ISBN 3894581719;
*Jutta Ditfurth: Feuer in die Herzen, Konkret-Literatur-Verlag 1997,ISBN 389458159X

== Weblinks ==
*[http://www.zdf.de/ZDFde/download/0,1896,2003269,00.pdf Rassismus an Waldorfschulen - Reportage des ZDF-Magazins "Frontal 21", pdf-Manuskript der Sendung]
*[http://www.zdf.de/ZDFmediathek/inhalt/1/0,4070,3925313-5,00.html Rassismus an Waldorfschulen - Reportage des ZDF-Magazins "Frontal 21", Video-Stream]
*[http://www.akdh.ch/ps/ps_74-Wurzelrassen.html Die Wurzelrassen-Lehre als ein zentrales Element anthroposophischer Weltanschauung]
*[http://www.antisemitismus.net/deutschland/steiner-7.htm Ein der Kritik entgegnender Artikel von Ralf Sonnenberg]
*[http://www.waldorf.at/bilder/antisem.pdf Rassenideale sind der Niedergang der Menschheit]
*[http://www.anthroposophie-de.com/aktuelles/aktuell.html Stellungnahmen zu Rassismus-, Antisemitismus- und Sektenvorwürfen]

[[Kategorie:Anthroposophie]]
[[Kategorie:Theosophie]]
[[Kategorie:Rassismus]]