Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Schlacht am Kings Mountain

2006-10-15T21:34:01Z

207.200.116.134: /* Aftermath */

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Kings Mountain
|partof=the [[American Revolutionary War]]
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[October 7]] [[1780]]
|place=near [[Blacksburg, South Carolina]] [[Kings Mountain, North Carolina]]
|result=Decisive Patriot victory
|combatant2=[[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] militia
|combatant1=[[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] militia
|commander2=[[Patrick Ferguson]]†
|commander1=[[William Campbell (general)|William Campbell]] [[John Sevier]] [[Joseph McDowell (Colonel)|Joseph McDowell]] [[Benjamin Cleveland]] [[James Williams (Colonel)|James Williams]]† [[Isaac Shelby]]
|strength2=1,100 (+200 nearby)
|strength1=900 (+500 nearby)
|casualties2=157 killed, 163 wounded, 698 captured (nine of the captured were later hanged for treason)
|casualties1=28 killed (including James Williams), 62 wounded
}}
{{Campaignbox American Revolutionary War: Southern}}

The '''Battle of Kings Mountain''', [[October 7]], [[1780]], was an important [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] victory in the [[Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War|Southern campaign]] of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Frontier [[militia]] overwhelmed the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|loyalist]] militia led by Major [[Patrick Ferguson]]. In ''The Winning of the West,'' [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote of Kings Mountain, "This brilliant victory marked the turning point of the American Revolution."

For the Patriots, there was no overall command structure. Colonels [[William Campbell (general)|William Campbell]], [[John Sevier]], [[Joseph McDowell (Colonel)|Joseph McDowell]], [[Benjamin Cleveland]], [[James Williams (Colonel)|James Williams]], and [[Isaac Shelby]] each appeared in command of parts of their militia units. Even some of lesser rank, such as Captain [[Joseph Winston]], Edward Lacey, and Frederick Hambright commanded mostly autonomous units.

==Background==
After the defeat of [[Horatio Gates]]'s army at the [[Battle of Camden]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Cornwallis]] was convinced that [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]] and [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]] were under British control, and he began plans to move into [[Province of North Carolina|North Carolina]]. However, a brutal [[civil war]] between colonists continued to rage in South Carolina. The [[Whig (American Revolution)|Whig]] frontiersmen, led by a group of self-proclaimed colonels of the rebellion—Isaac Shelby, [[Elijah Clarke]], and Charles McDowell—conducted hit-and-run raids on [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] outposts. To protect his western flank, Cornwallis gave Major Patrick Ferguson command of the Loyalist militia.

Cornwallis invaded North Carolina on [[September 9]], [[1780]], and reached [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]] on [[September 26]]. Ferguson followed and established a base camp at Gilbertown and issued a challenge to the Patriot leaders to lay down their arms or he would, "Lay waste to their country with fire and sword." But the tough-talking words only outraged the [[Appalachia]]n frontiersmen, who decided to bring the battle to Ferguson rather than wait for him to come to them.

==Forces==
With the exception of Major Daniel and about 100 of his personally trained British troops, all of the participants of the battle were Americans. Ferguson commanded over 1,000 well-trained Loyalist milita. The Patriots, about 900 strong, were under the command of frontier colonels.

==Battle==
The battle opened on [[October 7]], [[1780]], when 900 frontiersmen, including John Crockett, the father of [[Davy Crockett]], approached the base of Kings Mountain at dawn. The rebels formed eight groups of 100 to 200 men. Two parties, led by Colonels John Sevier and William Campbell, assaulted the 'high heel' of the mountain, the smallest area but highest point, while the other six groups, led by Colonels Shelby, Williams, Cleveland, Chronicle, McDowell, and Winston, attacked the main Loyalist position around the 'ball' base beside the 'heel' crest of the mountain.

The Patriots crept up the hill and fired on the scarlet-clad Loyalists from behind rocks and trees. Ferguson rallied his troops and launched a [[bayonet]] charge against Campbell and Sevier's men. With no bayonets of their own, the rebels retreated down the hill and into the woods. But Campbell rallied his troops, returned to the base of the hill, and resumed firing. Two more times, Ferguson launched bayonet attacks. During one of the charges, Colonel Williams was killed and Colonel McDowell wounded. But after each charge, the frontiersmen returned to the base of the hill and resumed shooting. It was hard for the Loyalists to find a target because the Patriots were constantly moving.

After several hours of combat, Loyalist casualties were heavy. Ferguson rode back and forth across the hill, blowing a silver whistle he used to signal charges. Growing desperate, he slipped on a plaid shirt to cover his officer's coat. A soldier saw this and alerted his comrades immediately. At the crest, as the Patriots overran the Loyalist position, a dozen rifle balls struck Ferguson, and he fell dead from his saddle.

Seeing their leader fall, Loyalists lost heart and began to raise their arms in surrender. Eager to avenge defeats at the [[Waxhaw Massacre]] and elsewhere, the rebels were in no mood to take prisoners. Rebels continued firing and shouted, "Give 'em [[Banastre Tarleton|Tarleton's]] Quarter!" But after a few more minutes of bloodletting, the colonels asserted control and gave quarter to almost 700.

==Aftermath==

On the Loyalist side, 157 were killed and 163 seriously wounded, and the remainder, 698, surrendered. The Patriot casualties were 28 killed and 62 wounded. Loyalist prisoners well enough to walk were herded to camps several miles from the battlefield. The dead and wounded were left on the field. The Patriots hanged as many as nine Loyalists who had changed sides. Other accounts say that the Tories were tried before North Carolina judges for violation of the state's criminal laws. Those who were hanged were convicted of such crimes as [[arson]], house breaking and murder of civilians.

Joseph Greer of the [[Watauga Settlement]] (or [[Watauga Association]] in what is today the city of [[Elizabethton]] located in [[Carter County, Tennessee]]) undertook a 600 mile (950 km), month-long expedition to notify the [[Continental Congress]] of the British defeat at the battle; he arrived in [[Philadelphia]] on [[November 7]], [[1780]].[http://tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060704/NEWS01/607040352/-1/NLETTER01] Greer's report of the American Patriot victory at Kings Mountain "re-energized a downtrodden Continental Congress."[http://tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060704/NEWS01/607040352/-1/NLETTER01]

In 1931, the [[Congress of the United States]] created the [[Kings Mountain National Military Park]] on the site of the battle. The park headquarters is in [[Blacksburg, South Carolina]], and hosts over a quarter million visitors each year. penis

==External links==
*[http://www.nps.gov/kimo/index.htm National Park web pages]
*[http://www.co.cleveland.nc.us/battle_of_kings_mountain.htm Description of the Battle]
*[http://www.roanmountain.com/club.htm Roan Mountain (Tennessee) Citizens Club - Overmountain Men Celebration]
*[http://tennessean.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060704/NEWS01/607040352/-1/NLETTER01 "'Kings Mountain Messenger' bravery remembered by few". Kate Howard. The Tennessean. July 4, 2006.]
*[http://kingsmountain.gassar.org Georgia Participants at Kings Mountain (offered by Georgia Society, Sons of the American Revolution)]

==Further reading==
*Pat Aldreman; ''"Overmountain Men";'' 1986, Overmountain Press, ''(juvenile literature)'', ISBN 0-932807-15-1; ''Papberback, ISBN 0-932807-16-X.''
*Lyman Draper; ''" King's Mountain and Its Heroes: History of the Battle of King's Mountain";'' 1996, Overmountain Press, ISBN 1-57072-060-6.
* J. David Damerob; ''"Kings Mountain: The Defeat of the Loyalists October 7, 1870";'' 2003, DaCapo Press, ISBN 0-306-81194-4.
*Bobby G. Moss; ''"Patriots at Kings Mountain";'' 1990, Scotia Hibernia Press, Paperback, ISBN 0-9626172-0-2.
*Bobby G. Moss; ''"Roster of the Loyalists in the Battle of Kings Mountain";'' 1998, Scotia Hibernia Press, Paperback, ISBN 0-9626172-4-5.

[[Category:1780]]
[[Category:Battles of the American Revolutionary War|King's Mountain]]
[[Category:History of South Carolina|King's Mountain]]
[[Category:History of North Carolina|King's Mountain]]

[[no:Slaget ved Kings Mountain]]

Oskar Merikanto

2006-07-07T00:13:14Z

207.200.116.134:

I won't stop until 'Dat dere cell-tech' is on the English language article: Ronnie coleman!

Schlacht um Iwojima

2006-06-25T06:04:26Z

207.200.116.134: /* Literatur */

{{Schlacht|BILD=Stars and Stripes on Mount Suribachi (Iwo Jima).jpg
|BILDBESCHREIBUNG=Die Originalflagge auf dem Vulkan Suribachi
|SCHLACHT_NAME=Schlacht um Iwojima
|KONFLIKT=[[Zweiter Weltkrieg]], [[Pazifikkrieg]]
|DATUM=[[19. Februar]] bis [[26. März]] [[1945]]
|ORT=[[Iwojima]], [[Pazifik|Westpazifik]]
|ERGEBNIS=Sieg der USA
|KONTRAHENT1=[[USA]]
|KOMMANDEUR1=[[Holland Smith]]
|TRUPPENSTAERKE1=ca. 100.000 Soldaten
|VERLUSTE1=ca. 7.000 Tote
|KONTRAHENT2=[[Japan]]
|KOMMANDEUR2=[[Tadamichi Kuribayashi]]
|TRUPPENSTAERKE2=ca. 21.000 Soldaten
|VERLUSTE2= ca. 20.800 Tote
|KONFLIKT1=
|ÜBERBLICK=[[Pazifikkrieg/Chronologischer Kriegsverlauf|Überblick - Pazifikkrieg]]
}}
[[Bild:Tadamichi Kuribayashi.jpg|thumb|Tadamichi Kuribayashi]]
[[Bild:Shelling on Iwo Jima.jpg|thumb|[[M101 (Geschütz)|105mm-Geschütz]] im schwarzen Sand von Iwojima]]
[[Bild:Marines on Red Beach - Iwo Jima.jpg|thumb|Marines der 5. Division erklimmen eine Düne am Red Beach Nr. 1]]
Die '''Schlacht um Iwojima''' ist eines der bekanntesten Gefechte des [[Zweiter Weltkrieg | Zweiten Weltkriegs]]. Sie wurde zwischen den Streitkräften [[Japan]]s und denen der [[USA]] im Rahmen des [[Pazifikkrieg]]es ausgetragen. Die äußerst blutige und - besonders auf japanischer Seite - verlustreiche Schlacht währte vom [[19. Februar]] bis zum [[26. März]] [[1945]]. Sie gilt heute als Paradebeispiel einer klassischen [[Amphibische Kriegführung |Amphibienlandeoperation]].

== Ziel des Angriffs ==

Die USA benötigten die Insel, um [[Begleitjäger]] für die nach Japan fliegenden [[B-29 Superfortress]] Bomber stationieren zu können. Des Weiteren sollte sie den ''fliegenden Festungen'' als Notlandeplatz dienen. Die Lage der Insel, etwa 1.000 km südlich von [[Tokyo]], eignete sich ideal für diese Zwecke, und der dortige Flugplatz verfügte über drei Start- und Landebahnen, von denen aus japanische Luftstreitkräfte bis dato ihre Angriffe gegen Amerikaner flogen. Zudem wurde von hier aus das Mutterland vor ankommenden Bombern gewarnt, das sich so auf die bevorstehenden Luftangriffe vorbereiten konnte.

== Die japanische Festung ==

Die etwa 21.000 japanischen Soldaten wurden darauf gedrillt, sich niemals zu ergeben und auf jeden Fall vor ihrem eigenen Ableben mindestens zehn Gegner zu töten. Neben ihrer guten Ausbildung hatten sie nicht nur vorteilhafte Ortskenntnisse, sondern konnten auch auf gut ausgebaute Stellungen zurückgreifen. Da die strategisch wichtige Lage der Insel der japanischen Militärführung schon seit langem bewusst war, wurden hier meterdicke [[Bunker (Militär) | Bunker]]anlagen errichtet, die Unterschlupf für Tausende von Soldaten gewährten, sowie Unmengen an Geschützen, von Schiffs[[artillerie]]kanonen über schwere [[Raketenwerfer]], fest ins Gelände integrierten [[Panzer]]n, [[Mörser]]n, [[Flak]]geschützen und [[Maschinengewehr]]nestern auf die Insel geschafft. Der [[Proviant]]vorrat auf der Insel war darauf ausgelegt, alle vorhandenen Soldaten über einen Monat lang ohne jegliche Zufuhr von außen ernähren zu können.

== Die Schlacht ==

Im Vorfeld der Schlacht wurde die Insel drei Tage lang von Schiffsartillerie beschossen und von Bombern der [[USAAF]] bombardiert, was jedoch nur geringe Schäden an den gut befestigten japanischen Stellungen verursachte. Um 8:30 Uhr des [[19. Februar]] [[1945]] begann die Landung von 30.000 Marines der 3./4. und 5. Marine Divisionen des V. Amphibischen US-Corps. In Folge kam es zu härtesten Auseinandersetzungen, in denen am ersten Tag etwa 2.400 Menschen ihr Leben ließen.

Der erbitterte Widerstand der japanischen Streitkräfte führte dazu, dass amerikanische Generäle sogar den Einsatz von [[Giftgas]] erwogen, was jedoch vom Präsidenten [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] kategorisch abgelehnt wurde. Traurige Berühmtheit erlangte die Schlacht aber dennoch, weil hier erstmals (von amerikanischer Seite) [[Napalm]] eingesetzt wurde. Dennoch wechselten Stellungen mehrmals die Seiten.

Eines der am meisten umkämpften Gebiete war der erloschene [[Vulkan]] [[Suribachi]]. Gegen die äußerst dick gepanzerten japanischen Bunkeranlagen dort halfen weder amerikanische Granaten noch Bomben, so dass im [[Nahkampf]] mit [[Handgranate]]n und [[Flammenwerfer]]n nach und nach jede einzelne Stellung erobert werden musste.

Das Hochziehen der amerikanischen [[Flagge]] auf dem Gipfel des Vulkans wurde später nachgestellt und vom [[Kriegsberichterstatter]] [[Joe Rosenthal]] fotografiert. Dieses Foto diente als Vorlage für das bekannte [[United States Marine Corps War Memorial|US Marine Corps War Memorial]].

Die Insel wurde am [[26. März]] [[1945]] für sicher erklärt. Bis dahin wendeten die USA eine unbekannte Anzahl von Flugzeugen und etwa 900 Schiffe auf. Dabei setzten sie etwa 100.000 Soldaten ein, von denen etwa 7.000 getötet und mehr als 17.000 verwundet wurden. Es starben beinahe alle der 21.000 japanischen Soldaten, die mit der Verteidigung der Insel betraut waren, nur 216 ergaben sich in Kriegsgefangenschaft. Einer der Toten war der Befehlshaber der Japaner, [[Tadamichi Kuribayashi]]. Etwa ein Viertel aller [[Medal of Honor]] Auszeichnungen der US-Streitkräfte im Zweiten Weltkrieg wurde an Soldaten in dieser Schlacht verliehen.

Die [[US Navy]] gab mehreren Schiffen den Namen der Insel Iwojima, siehe [[USS Iwo Jima]].

== Siehe auch ==
* [[Iwojima]]
* [[Pazifikkrieg]] - [[Pazifikkrieg/Chronologischer Kriegsverlauf|Chronologische Zusammenfassung]]
* [[Zweiter Weltkrieg]]
* [[Ira Hayes]]
* [[Joe Rosenthal]]

== Literatur ==
* Robert Leckie, ''The Battle for Iwo Jima'', I Books, 2004, ISBN 074348682X
* Walt Sandberg, ''The Battle of Iwo Jima: A Resource Bibliography and Documentary Anthology'', McFarland & Company, 2004, ISBN 0786417900
* Marvin D. Veronee, ''The Battle for Iwo Jima'', Visionary Art Publishing, 2001, ISBN 0971592829
* Derrick Wright, Iwo Jima 1945: Pacific Theatre (Campaign), Osprey Publishing, 2001, ISBN 1841761788
* James Bradley; Flags of our Fathers , Bantam Books, ISBN-13: 978-0-553-58908-5

== Filme ==
* '''Heroes of Iwo Jima''', TV Dokumentation USA 2001, Regie: [[Lauren Lexton]], Erzähler: [[Gene Hackman]]
* '''Sands of Iwo Jima''', Spielfilm USA 1949, Regie: [[Allan Dwan]], Darsteller: [[John Wayne]], [[John Agar]], [[Adele Mara]] u.a.
* ''Flags of Our Fathers'', Spielfilm USA (geplanter Start: Herbst 2006), Regie: [[Clint Eastwood]]
* ''Lamps Before the Wind'', Spielfilm USA (geplanter Start: Herbst 2006), Regie: [[Clint Eastwood]]

== Weblinks ==
{{Commons|Battle of Iwo Jima}}
* [http://www.iwojima.com/ Umfangreiche Seite über die Schlacht] (englisch)
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/Iwo/index.html Schlachtbeschreibung auf ibiblio.org] (englisch)
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-634212782694418867&q=39054 Google Video, Marines Raise Flag Over Iwo Jima 1945 (National Archives and Records Administration)]

[[Kategorie:Schlacht (Japan)|Iwo Jima]]
[[Kategorie:Schlacht (USA)|Iwo Jima]]
[[Kategorie:Pazifikkrieg (Schlacht)|Iwo Jima]]
[[Kategorie:Präfektur Tokio]]
[[Kategorie:1945|Iwo Jima]]

[[en:Battle of Iwo Jima]]
[[es:Batalla de Iwo Jima]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Iwo Jima]]
[[he:קרב איוו ג'ימה]]
[[it:Battaglia di Iwo Jima]]
[[ja:硫黄島の戦い]]
[[nl:Landing op Iwo Jima]]
[[no:Slaget om Iwo Jima]]
[[pt:Batalha de Iwo Jima]]
[[sr:Битка за Иво Џиму]]
[[sv:Slaget om Iwo Jima]]
[[zh:硫磺岛战役]]

Hausbuch (Schloss Wolfegg)

2006-06-22T02:50:30Z

207.200.116.134:

I'm not gonna stop until you let me add 'dat dere cell-tech' to Article:: Ronnie Coleman (English

Diskussion:Idaho

2006-04-28T17:45:03Z

207.200.116.134:

==Erhebung 8050m?==

Puh, also 8050 m als höchste Erhebung halte ich für ziemlich unwahrscheinlich, oder?

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borah_Peak http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borah_Peak] sagt der höchste Punkt in Idaho ist der Borah Peak mit nicht mal 4000 m

--[[Benutzer:Momo|Momo]] 22:03, 16. Jun 2004 (CEST)

:Ist IMHO auch viel zu hoch, hab mich auch schon etwas gewundert als ich die Sidebar mit den Werten aus der englischen Wikipedia gefüllt habe. [[Benutzer:Twam|Twam]] 08:53, 17. Jun 2004 (CEST)

::In der niederländischen (noch ohne Sidebar) wird auch der Borah Peak angegeben. Ich behaupte mal >8000m sind schlicht falsch. Das wären ja Himalaya-verhältnisse. Und der höchste Berg Nordamerikas ist der [[Denali]] mit >6000m.--[[Benutzer:Momo|Momo]] 12:48, 17. Jun 2004 (CEST)

:::Dann würde ich vorschlagen die Höhe auf die von Borah Peak zu setzen. [[Benutzer:Twam|Twam]] 14:09, 17. Jun 2004 (CEST)

== Kriegsgefangenschaft 1945 ==

Hallo Ihr da drausen, wer kann Informationen zu einem Farmer namens Blinko nennen, der im Jahre 1945 Kriegsgefangene aus Deutschland bei sich hatte?. Mein Opa würde gerne eine Reise nach idaho unternehmen um nochmals an diesen Platz zurückzukehren, an dem er so gut behandelt wurde. meine e-mail adresse ullihiller@web.de . Vielen Dank für eure Hilfe.

==Bevölkerung==
According to the Census Bureau, the population of Idaho grew 2.4 percent from mid-'04 to mid-'05, to 1,429,096, making Idaho the third-fastest growing U.S. state, behind Nevada and Arizona.

[[Benutzer:207.200.116.134|207.200.116.134]] 19:45, 28. Apr 2006 (CEST)

Tea bag

2005-12-12T04:39:52Z

207.200.116.134: added extra term

'''Teabagging''' can have various meanings.

==Teabagging as a prank==

As a '''[[practical joke|prank]]''', teabagging can refer to the repeated dunking of a person restrained inside a bag into water. This is a common boys' boarding school prank. It should be noted that this predates any known usage of the term below.
[[Image:Owned_balls.jpg|thumb|200px|A teabagger in action]]
Teabagging can also refer to a [[man]] placing his [[testicle]]s on another [[person]] or object as a practical joke. This is sometimes known as '''cat-braining''', after the appearance of the [[scrotum]]; an alternate term is '''hanging brain''', a term also used as a level name in [[Marathon (computer game)|Marathon]]. Teabagging is inflicted on someone who is either [[sleep]]ing, [[unconsciousness|unconscious]], being held down by others or has been [[duct tape]]d, and usually involves the man placing his testicles on the recipient's [[face]] or in his or her [[mouth]]. [[Photograph]]s are often taken of this pose as a part of the prank in order to further [[humiliation|humiliate]] the victim. This practice can potentially backfire when the victim unexpectedly wakes up and clenches down upon the "teabag".

==Teabagging as a sexual practice==

As a sexual practice, "teabagging" refers to a man dipping his testicles into the mouth of his partner as a form of [[oral sex]]; thus his partner was "teabagged". Sometimes teabagging is taken to specifically mean the act of a male [[stripper]] repeatedly tapping and grinding his testicles into a woman patron's forehead. In this case the woman was "teabagged."

Teabagging first entered [[pop culture]] in [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]]' [[cult film]] ''[[Pecker (film)|Pecker]]'' (as an act - the forehead variety of teabagging - banned in a particular male strip club). Waters discovered the practice at a [[Baltimore]] bar called the Atlantis. He also claims it has since been superseded by the related act of ''helicoptering'', "where they whap-whap you in the face with their hard-on" [http://www.bizarremag.com/bizarre_lives.php?id=1925]. The term was more recently seen on the [[television series]] ''[[Sex and the City]]'' and appeared again in the film ''[[Soul Plane]]'', included in a list of sexual acts and later defined. It also appears in ''[[America: The Book]]'' by the staff of ''[[The Daily Show]]'' and has been referenced on the television show by its host, [[Jon Stewart]]. It also appears as a kind of teenage party hoax in the movie [[In My Father's Den]]

A variant known as a '''roman helmet''' involves laying the [[penis]] along the person's [[nose]] while placing the testicles on their eyes, somewhat resembling the [[helmet]] of a [[Roman legionary]].

[[Category:Sexual fetishism]]
[[Category:Sex moves]]
[[Category:Pranks]]

Konversion (Judentum)

2005-07-06T16:56:22Z

207.200.116.134: /* Place in religious life */

:''See also: [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Judaism|Conversion to Judaism]]''.

'''Ger tzedek''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: "righteous convert" or "convert [of] righteousness") or '''Ger''' ("stranger" or "convert") or is a [[gentile]] (i.e. a non-[[Jew]] by birth) who has undergone ''giur'' ([[Religious conversion#Conversion to Judaism|religious conversion]]) to [[Judaism]] by fulfilling the ritual requirements for such conversion accepting the obligations of Jewish religious observance.

==History==

In [[Tanakh|Biblical]] [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the word ''ger'' can denote either a convert (and is usually interpreted as such by the [[Talmud]]) or a non-Jewish inhabitant of the [[Land of Israel]] who observes the seven [[Noahide Laws]] and has repudiated all links with idolatry. The word ''ger tzedek'' was used to denote a full convert. In post-Talmudic times, the word ''ger'' has become synonymous with ''ger tzedek''; ''Ger'' is commonly translated by the word "proselyte", and has come to mean a convert to Judaism.

===Motivations for conversion===

A mystical interpretation of conversions to [[Judaism]] is that there a convert is someone with a [[Jew]]ish ''neshama'' (soul) who is simply trying to find his/her way home.

In general terms, anyone who commits to living a religiously observant life is an acceptable candidate for conversion. For a variety of reasons, [[rabbi]]s have traditionally discouraged people from converting to Judaism, and most will insist that the candidate for conversion demonstrate his/her commitment in word and deed before the conversion is undertaken.

A number of reasons for converting exist: some have theological convictions consistent with Judaism; others are attracted to elements of Jewish religious life; some wish to belong to a particular Jewish community. A significant portion wish to convert because they want to marry someone who is Jewish. This latter reason (see [[secondary conversion]]) is considered to be insufficient by most [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] rabbis.

===Traditional requirements===
The requirements under ''[[halakha]]'' for [[religious conversion|conversion]] to [[Judaism]] are that a ''[[beth din]]'' witnesses and approves:
*[[Circumcision]] (''[[Brit milah]]'') for men
*Immersion (''t'vilah'') in a ''[[mikveh]]'' (ritual bath)
*Understanding and acceptance of the obligations of being a religiously observant [[Jew]].

After confirming that all these criteria have been met, the ''beth din'' issues a ''Shtar Giur'' ("Certificate of Conversion"), certifying that the former [[gentile]] is now a Jew.

===Variations and controversy===

The requirements for conversion to Judaism are intended to avoid any uncertainty about a convert's true status. The certification by a ''[[beth din]]'' was based on events the completeness of which were carefully defined.

The [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] movement has relaxed some of the requirements for conversion, notably by making ''[[brit milah]]'' optional, only encouraging ''t'vilah'' (immersion), and requiring that converts commit to religious standards set by the Reform movement.

Both the [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] movements require that all ''[[halakha|halakhic]]'' requirements be met, but they differ on what constitutes a competent ''beth din''. Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept the authority of non-Orthodox rabbis. Moreover, in Orthodoxy, a person who converts under the guidance of a non-Orthodox rabbi is presumed to have an incomplete or erroneous understanding of the law he or she is taking upon him or herself; therefore, Orthodox rabbis generally do not accept conversions under Conservative (or Reform, or [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]]) auspices.

Since the Orthodox movement is not organized in a unified way, Orthodox rabbis will not automatically accept each other's authority. This has led to a general reluctance in the Orthodox communities to prepare and perform conversions.

===Consequences of conversion===
Once undergone, a religious conversion to Judaism is irreversible, unless there are grounds to believe that the convert was insincere during the conversion process. In such cases - which are rare - a ''[[beth din]]'' may annul the conversion.

===Place in religious life===
Halakha forbids reminding a convert that he/she was once not a [[Jew]] and hence little distinction is made in Judaism between "Jews by birth" and "Jews by choice." According to Orthodox halakha, converts face a limited number of restrictions, e.g. they cannot marry Kohanim. Converts can become rabbis (and many have).

==See also==
*[[Abraham ben Abraham]]
*[[List of converts to Judaism]]
*[[Religious conversion]]
*[[Ger toshav]]

==External links==
*[http://www.convert.org/ Conversion to Judaism homepage] - information on conversion within all branches of Judaism in North America
*[http://www.itim.org.il/bin/en.jsp?enDispWho=CeremonySuperTopic%5El6&enPage=BlankPage_E&enDisplay=view&enDispWhat=object&enZone=CeremonySuperTopic&enInfolet=viewObject_E.jsp Conversion to Judaism] on the Itim site (practical information on Orthodox conversion through the Israeli Chief Rabbinate and conversion in the diaspora).
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/int-intro.html Intermarriage and Conversion Reading List Introduction]
*Frequently asked questions:
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-07.html How does one convert?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-13.html Why is the conversion process so complicated?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-08.html What about adults who are not circumcised?]
**[http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-14.html What is the status of a child when the mother converts to Judaism during pregnancy?]

[[Category:Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
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