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Spanische Missionen in Kalifornien

2007-10-29T18:28:46Z

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{{SpanishMissions}}
The '''Spanish missions in California''' (more simply referred to as the '''California Missions''') comprise a series of [[religious]] outposts established by [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Catholics]] of the [[Franciscan]] Order between 1769 and 1823 to spread the [[Catholic]] faith among the local [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The missions represented the first major effort by [[Europe]]ans to colonize the [[Pacific Coast]] region, and gave Spain a valuable toehold in the frontier land. The settlers introduced European [[livestock]], [[fruit]]s, [[vegetables]], and [[industry]] into the [[California]] region; however, the Spanish occupation of California also brought with it serious, though unintended, negative consequences to the Native American populations with whom the missionaries came in contact. Today, the missions are among the state's oldest structures and the most-visited historic monuments.

[[Image:Mission San Juan Capistrano 4-5-05 100 6588.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A view of [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]] in April of 2005. At left is the façade of the first adobe church with its added ''espadaña''; behind the ''campanario'', or "bell wall" is the "Sacred Garden." The Mission has earned a reputation as the "''Loveliest of the Franciscan Ruins''."]]
[[Image:Wikiup.jpg|thumb|300px|Many native cultures built cone-shaped huts (''[[Wigwam|wikiups]]'') made of [[willow]] branches covered with brush or mats made of [[tule]] leaves. The shelters were utilized primarily for sleeping or as refuge in cases of inclement weather. Europeans generally regarded such contrivances as "''...evidence of the Indians' inability to fashion more sophisticated structures''." <ref>Rawls, p. 29: In the late 1780s, [[France|French]] naval officer and explorer [[Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse]] described the native dwellings in and around [[Monterey, California|Monterey]]—consisting of long poles stuck in the ground and drawn together to form arches, then covered with thatch—as "''...the most miserable that are to be met with among any people''." [[England|British]] naval officer and explorer [[George Vancouver]] documented similar conditions as observed during his 1792 visit to the [[San Francisco Bay]] area in [[Vancouver Expedition|''A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean'']] (Paddison, pp. 81-82).</ref>]]

==Prehistory==
The current prevailing theory postulates that [[Paleo-Indians]] entered the Americas from [[Asia]] via a land bridge called "[[Beringia]]" that connected eastern [[Siberia]] with present-day [[Alaska]] (when sea levels were significantly lower, due to widespread glaciation) between about 15,000 to 35,000 years ago. The remains of [[Arlington Springs Man]] on [[Santa Rosa Island, California|Santa Rosa Island]] are among the traces of a very early habitation in California, dated to the last [[ice age]] ([[Wisconsin glaciation]]) about 13,000 years ago. The first humans are therefore thought to have made their homes among the southern valleys of California's coastal mountain ranges some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago; the earliest of these people are known only from archaeological evidence.<ref>Paddison, p. 333: The first undisputable archaeological evidence of human presence in California dates back to ''circa'' 8,000 [[BCE]].</ref> i need a website to california fires?<br />#REDIRECT [[
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==History==
===Early exploration and contact===
[[Image:Franciscan missionaries in bvjkgu yykugtygh k,hgyutygyg l ityughjbhgkygky gyug hjgyt gkykhjgyug yu hyjgk hjg California.jpg|thumb|300px|righ|Franciscans of the California missions donned gray [[Religious habit|habits]], in contrast to the brown [[cassock]]s that are typically worn today.<ref>Kelsey, p. 18</ref>]]

As early as the voyages of [[Christopher Columbus]], the Kingdom of [[Spain]] sought to establish missions to convert [[Paganism|Pagans]] to [[Roman Catholicism]] in ''Nueva España'' ([[New Spain]], consisting of the [[Caribbean]], [[Mexico]] and most of what today is the [[Southwestern United States]]), in order to facilitate [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization]] of these lands [[Inter caetera|awarded]] to Spain by the [[Catholic Church]]. The modern region "California" in this context refers to the Spanish territory formerly known as [[Alta California]]. It was not until 1741 (the time of the [[Vitus Bering]] expedition) that the territorial ambitions of [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] towards North America became known, however, that the King felt such installations were necessary in Upper ("Alta") California.<ref>Morrison, p. 214: During his voyage of exploration along the [[Pacific Coast]] of [[North America]] in 1579, [[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]] claimed the region (which he dubbed ''[[Nova Albion]]'', [[Latin]] for "New Britain") in the name of [[England]], a full generation before the first landing in [[Jamestown, Virginia]]. However, in order to preserve an uneasy peace with Spain, and to avoid having Spain threaten England's claims in the New World, the discovery of, and claim on, New Albion was ordered by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] to be treated as a state secret.</ref> Between 1774 and 1791, the Spanish Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to explore the [[Pacific Northwest]].

The Spanish mission system arose in part from the need to control Spain's ever-expanding holdings in the New World. Realizing that the colonies would require a literate population base that the mother country could not supply, the Spanish Crown (with the cooperation of the Church) established a network of missions with the goal of converting the natives to Christianity; the aim was to make converts and tax paying citizens of the [[indigenous peoples]] they conquered. In order to become Spanish citizens and productive inhabitants, the native Americans were required to learn Spanish language and vocational skills along with Christian teachings.<ref>"Old Mission Santa Inés:" In the words of clerical historian [[Maynard Geiger]], "''This was to be a cooperative effort, imperial in origin, protective in purpose, but primarily spiritual in execution''."</ref> With the [[Suppression of the Jesuits|expulsion]] of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] from Baja California in 1768, ''Visitador General'' [[José de Gálvez]] engaged the Franciscan Order to take over the administration of the missions there. This plan, however, was changed within a few months after Gálvez received the following orders: "''Occupy and fortify San Diego and Monterey for God and the King of Spain.''" <ref>James, p. 11</ref> It thereupon was decided to call upon the priests of the [[Dominican Order]] to take charge of the Baja California missions in order to allow the Franciscans to concentrate on founding new missions in Alta California.

===Mission Period (1769 – 1833)===
[[Image:Canyon of the Little Christians.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The first recorded baptisms in Alta California were performed in "The Canyon of the Little Christians." <ref name="engelhardtSJCM258">Engelhardt 1922, p. 258</ref>]]
On [[July 14]], 1769 Gálvez sent the expedition of Junípero Serra and [[Gaspar de Portolà]] to found a mission at San Diego and presidio at Monterey, respectively.<ref>Yenne, p. 10</ref> En route, Fathers [[Francisco Gómez]] and [[Juan Crespí]] came across a native settlement wherein two young girls were dying: one, a baby said to be "dying at its mother's breast," the other a small girl suffering of burns. On [[July 22]], Father Gómez baptized the baby, giving her the name "Maria Magdalena," while Father Crespí baptized the older child, naming her "Margarita;" these were the first recorded baptisms in Alta California.<ref>Leffingwell, p. 25</ref> The expedition's soldiers dubbed the spot ''Los Cristianos''.<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 258: Today, the site (located at {{Coor dms|33|25|41.58|N|117|36|34.92|W}} on [[Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton]] in [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]]) is referred to more commonly as ''La Cañada de los Bautismos'', literally "The Gorge of the Baptisms," or simply ''Los Christianitos'', "The Little Christians" and is designated as [[California Historical Landmark]] [http://ohp.parks.ca.gov/default.asp?page_id=21478 #562].</ref> The group continued northward but missed Monterey Harbor and returned to San Diego on [[January 24]], [[1770]]. Near the end of 1771 the Portolà Expedition arrived at [[San Francisco Bay]]. Arguably "''the worst epidemic of the Spanish Era in California''" was known to be the [[measles]] epidemic of 1806, wherein one-quarter of the mission Indian population of the [[San Francisco Bay Area|San Francisco Bay area]] died of the measles or related complications between March and May of that year.<ref>Milliken, pp. 172-173, 193</ref>

[[Image:Luiseno drawing early 1800s.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Pablo Tac]], who lived at Mission San Luis Rey in the 1820s and 1830s, penned this drawing depicting two young men wearing skirts of twine and feathers with feather decorations on their heads, rattles in their hands, and (perhaps) painted decorations on their bodies.<ref>Kelsey, p. 4</ref>]]
Each mission was to be turned over to a [[secular clergy]] and all the common mission lands distributed amongst the native population within ten years after its founding, a policy that was based upon Spain's experience with the more advanced tribes in [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and [[Peru]].<ref>Robinson, p. 28</ref> In time, it became apparent to Father Serra and his associates that the [[Indian tribes]] on the northern frontier in Alta California would require a much longer period of acclimatization.<ref name="engelhardtMAM3-18">Engelhardt 1908, pp. 3-18</ref> None of the California missions ever attained complete [[self-sufficiency]], and required continued (albeit modest) financial support from mother Spain, out of what was often referred to as ''El Fondo Piadoso de las Californias'' ("The Pious Fund of the Californias," which had its origin in 1697 and consisted of voluntary donations made by individuals and religious bodies in Mexico to members of the [[Society of Jesus]]) to enable them to propagate the Catholic Faith in the area then known as California.<ref>"The Pious Fund of the Californias"</ref> Starting with the onset of the [[Mexican War of Independence]] in 1810, this support largely disappeared and the missions and their converts were left on their own (as of 1800, native labor had made up the backbone of the colonial economy).<ref>Rawls, p. 106</ref> In 1811, the Spanish Viceroy in Mexico sent an ''interrogatorio'' (questionnaire) to all of the missions in Alta California regarding the customs, disposition, and condition of the Mission Indians.<ref>Kroeber, p. 1</ref> The replies, which varied greatly in the length, spirit, and even the value of the information contained therein, were collected and prefaced by the Father-Presidente with a short general statement or abstract; the compilation was thereupon forwarded to the viceregal government.<ref>Kroeber, p. 2: "''Some of the missionaries evidently regarded compliance with the instructions of the questionnaire as an official requirement which was perfunctorily performed. In many cases no answers were given various questions at certain of the missions''."</ref> The contemporary nature of the responses, no matter how incomplete or biased some may be, are nonetheless of considerable value to modern [[ethnology|ethnologists]].

In November and December of 1818, several of the missions were attacked by [[Hippolyte de Bouchard|Hipólito Bouchard]], "''California's only pirate''." <ref>There is a great contrast between the legacy of Bouchard in Argentina versus his reputation in the United States. In Buenos Aires, Bouchard is honored as a brave patriot, while in California he is most often remembered as a pirate, and not a privateer. See [[Hippolyte de Bouchard#California and Central America|Hippolyte de Bouchard]].</ref> A [[France|French]] [[privateer]] sailing under the flag of [[Argentina]], ''Pirata Buchar'' (as he was known to the locals) worked his way down the California coast, conducting raids on the installations at Monterey, [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], and San Juan Capistrano, with limited success.<ref>Jones, p. 170</ref> Upon hearing of the attacks, many mission priests (along with a few government officials) sought refuge at Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, the mission chain's most isolated outpost. Ironically, Mission Santa Cruz (though ultimately ignored by the marauders) was ignominiously sacked and vandalized by local residents who were entrusted with securing the church's valuables.<ref>Young, p. 102</ref> By 1819, Spain decided to limit its "reach" in the New World to [[Northern California]] due to the costs involved in sustaining these remote outposts; the northernmost settlement therefore is Mission San Francisco Solano, founded in [[Sonoma, California|Sonoma]] in 1823 (an attempt to found a twenty-second mission in [[Santa Rosa, California|Santa Rosa]] in 1827 was aborted).<ref>Hittell, p. 499</ref>

===Rancho Period (1834 – 1849)===
As the Mexican republic matured, calls for the [[secularization]] ("disestablishment") of the missions increased.<ref>Robinson, p. 29: The Spanish ''cortes'', or legislature, issued a decree in 1813 for at least partial secularization affecting all missions in America that was to apply to all outposts which had been operating for ten years or more; however, the decree was never enforced in California.</ref> [[José María de Echeandía]], the first native Mexican to be elected Governor of Alta California, issued his "Proclamation of Emancipation" (or "''Prevenciónes de Emancipacion''") on [[July 25]], [[1826]].<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 80</ref> All Indians within the military districts of San Diego, Santa Barbara, and [[Monterey]] who were found qualified were freed from missionary rule and made eligible to become Mexican citizens. Those who wished to remain under mission tutelage were exempted from most forms of corporal punishment.<ref>Bancroft, vol. i, pp. 100-101: Bancroft postulated that the motives behind the issuance of Echeandía's premature decree had more to do with the his desire to appease "''...some prominent Californians who had already had their eyes on the mission lands...''" than they did with concerns regarding the welfare of the natives.</ref><ref>Stern and Miller, pp. 51-52: Catholic historian Zephyrin Engelhardt referred to Echeandía as "''...an avowed enemy of the religious orders''."</ref> Despite the fact that Echeandía's emancipation plan met was met with little encouragement from the neophytes who populated the southern missions, he was nonetheless determined to test the scheme on a large scale at Mission San Juan Capistrano. To that end, he appointed a number of ''comisianados'' (commissioners) to oversee the emancipation of the Indians.<ref>Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 322; 626</ref> Although Governor [[José Figueroa]] (who took office in 1833) initially attempted to keep the mission system intact, the [[Congress of Mexico|Mexican Congress]] nevertheless passed ''An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California'' on [[August 17]], [[1833]].<ref>Yenne, p. 19</ref> The Act also provided for the colonization of both Alta and Baja California, the expenses of this latter move to be borne by the proceeds gained from the sale of the mission property to private interests. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year when, on [[August 9]], 1834 Governor Figueroa issued his "Decree of Confiscation." <ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 114</ref> Nine other settlements quickly followed, with six more in 1835; [[San Buenaventura]] and San Francisco de Asís were among the last to succumb, in June and December of 1836, respectively.<ref>Yenne, pp. 83, 93</ref> The [[Franciscan]]s soon thereafter abandoned most of the missions, taking with them most everything of value, after which the locals typically plundered the mission buildings for construction materials. In spite of this neglect, the Indian towns at [[Mission San Juan Capistrano|San Juan Capistrano]], [[San Dieguito Complex|San Dieguito]], and [[Las Flores Estancia|Las Flores]] did continue on for some time under a provision in ''Gobernador'' Echeandía's 1826 Proclamation that allowed for the partial conversion of missions to ''pueblos''.<ref>Robinson, p. 42</ref>

[[Image:Choir missals at Mission San Luis Rey.jpg|thumb|300px|Illuminated choir [[missal]]s on display at [[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia]] in 1913.<ref>James, p. 215</ref>]]
[[Pío Pico|Pío de Jesus Pico IV]], the last Mexican Governor of Alta California, found upon taking office that there were few funds available with which to carry on the affairs of the province. He prevailed upon the assembly to pass a decree authorizing the renting or the sale of all mission property, reserving only the church, a curate's house, and a building for a courthouse. The expenses of conducting the services of the church were to be provided from the proceeds, but there was no disposition made as to what should be done to secure the funds for that purpose. After secularization, Father Presidente Narciso Durán transferred the missions' headquarters to Santa Barbara, thereby making Mission Santa Barbara the repository of some 3,000 original documents that had been scattered through the California missions. The Mission archive is the oldest library in the State of California that still remains in the hands of its founders, the Franciscans (it is the only mission in which they have maintained an uninterrupted presence). Beginning with the writings of [[Hubert Howe Bancroft]], the library has served as a center for historical study of the missions for more than a century. In 1895 journalist and historian [[Charles Fletcher Lummis]] criticized the Act and its results, saying:

<blockquote>''Disestablishment—a polite term for robbery—by Mexico (rather than by native Californians misrepresenting the Mexican government) in 1834, was the death blow of the mission system. The lands were confiscated; the buildings were sold for beggarly sums, and often for beggarly purposes. The Indian converts were scattered and starved out; the noble buildings were pillaged for their tiles and adobes...''" <ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 248</ref>
</blockquote>

===California Statehood (1850 and beyond)===
[[Image:Hugo Reid at Rancho Santa Anita.png|thumb|250px|[[Hugo Reid]], an outspoken critic of the mission system and its effects on ther native populations, at [[Rancho Santa Anita]] ''circa'' 1850.]]
By way of confiscation of the missions between 1834 and 1838 the approximately 15,000 resident ''neophytes'' lost the protection of the mission system, along with their stock and other movable property; by the transfer of California to the United States, they were left without legal title to their land. Via the Act of [[September 30]], [[1850]], [[United States Congress|Congress]] appropriated funds to allow the [[President of the United States|President]] to appoint three Commissioners to study the California situation and "''...negotiate treaties with the various Indian tribes of California''." Treaty negotiations ensued during the period between [[March 19]], [[1851]] and [[January 7]], [[1852]], during which time the Commission interacted with 402 Indian chiefs and headmen (representing approximately one-third to one-half of the California tribes) and entered into eighteen treaties.<ref>Robinson, p. 14</ref> California Senator [[William M. Gwin|William M. Gwin's]] Act of [[March 3]], [[1851]] created the [[Public Land Commission]], whose purpose was to determine the validity of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[land grant]]s in California.<ref>Robinson, p. 100</ref> On [[February 19]], [[1853]] [[Archbishop]] [[Joseph Sadoc Alemany|J.S. Alemany]] filed petitions for the return of all former mission lands in the state. Ownership of 1,051.44 [[acre]]s (for all practical intents being the exact area of land occupied by the original mission buildings, cemeteries, and gardens) was subsequently conveyed to the Church, along with the ''Cañada de los Pinos'' (or College Rancho) in [[Santa Barbara County]] comprising 35,499.73 acres, and ''La Laguna'' in [[San Luis Obispo County]], consisting of 4,157.02 acres.<ref>Robinson, pp. 31-32: The area shown is that stated in the ''Corrected Reports of Spanish and Mexican Grants in California Complete to February 25, 1886'' as a supplement to the Official Report of 1883-1884. Patents for each mission were issued to [[Archbishop]] [[Joseph Sadoc Alemany|J.S. Alemany]] based on his claim filed with the [[Public Land Commission]] on [[February 19]], [[1853]].</ref> As the result of a [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]] investigation in 1873, a number of [[Indian reservation]]s were assigned by executive proclamation in 1875. According to one estimate, the original population in and around the missions proper was approximately 80,000 at the time of the confiscation. The "pre-colonization" native population in Alta California (which may have numbered as high as 300,000, divided into more than 100 separate tribes or nations)<ref>Rawls, p. 6; Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have been based on a number of different sources, and therefore vary substantially. See [[Population of Native California]].</ref> had dwindled to approximately 100,000 by the early 1840s, due in large part to the natives' exposure to European diseases for which they lacked immunity, and from the Franciscan practice of cloistering women in the ''convento'' and controlling sexuality during the child-bearing age; Baja California experienced a similar reduction in native population resulting from Spanish colonization efforts there. The commissioner of Indian affairs reported in 1879 that the number of [[Mission Indians]] in the state was down to around 3,000.<ref>Rawls, pp. 112-113</ref>

==Site selection and layout==
{{main|Architecture of the California missions}}

In addition to the ''presidio'' (royal fort) and ''pueblo'' (town), the ''misión'' was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its [[colonial]] territories. ''Asistencias'' ("satellite" or "sub" missions, sometimes referred to as "contributing chapels") were small-scale missions that regularly conducted [[Service of worship|Divine service]] on days of obligation but lacked a resident priest;<ref>Harley</ref> as with the missions, these settlements were typically established in areas with high concentrations of potential native converts.<ref>Ruscin, p. 61</ref> Since 1493, the Kingdom of [[Spain]] had maintained a number of missions throughout ''Nueva España'' ([[New Spain]], consisting of [[Mexico]] and portions of what today are the [[Southwestern United States|Southwestern]] [[United States]]) in order to facilitate colonization of these lands. In this context, the term "California" is used to refer to the territory that comprises [[Alta California]] (chiefly the current U.S. state of [[California]]) and the Mexican states of [[Baja California]] and [[Baja California Sur]]. It was not until the threat of invasion by [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]], in 1765, however, that the King felt such installations were necessary in Upper ("Alta") California. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to explore the [[Pacific Northwest]], but, by 1819, chose to limit its "reach" to [[Northern California]] due to the costs involved in sustaining such remote outposts. Each [[frontier]] station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was literally months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, and the cargo [[ship]]s of the day were too small to carry more than a few months’ [[ration]]s in their holds. In order to sustain a mission, the ''padres'' required the help of [[colonist]]s or converted [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], called ''neophytes'', to cultivate [[agriculture|crops]] and tend [[livestock]] in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the Fathers to employ simple [[building material]]s and methods in the construction of mission structures.

[[Image:San Luis Rey de Francia circa 1910 William Amos Haines.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia]], ''circa'' 1910. This mission is architecturally distinctive because of the strong [[Islamic architecture|Moorish]] lines exhibited.]]
Although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish [[hierarchy]], the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of "priestly whim." The founding of a mission followed longstanding rules and procedures; the paperwork involved required months, sometimes years of correspondence, and demanded the attention of virtually every level of the bureaucracy. Once empowered to erect a mission in a given area, the men assigned to it chose a specific site that featured a good water supply, plenty of wood for fires and building material, and ample fields for grazing [[herds]] and raising [[agriculture|crops]]. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their [[military]] escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes, roofed with [[thatch]] or [[Phragmites|reed]]s (''cañas''). It was these simple huts that would ultimately give way to the stone and adobe buildings which exist to this day.

The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the [[church]] (''iglesia''). The majority of mission sanctuaries were oriented on a roughly east-west axis to take the best advantage of the sun's position for interior [[illumination (lighting)|illumination]]; the exact alignment depended on the geographic features of the particular site. Once the spot for the church was selected, its position would be marked and the remainder of the mission complex would be laid out. The [[workshop]]s, [[kitchen]]s, living quarters, storerooms, and other ancillary chambers were usually grouped in the form of a [[quadrangle (architecture)|quadrangle]], inside which religious celebrations and other festive events often took place. The ''cuadrángulo'' was rarely a perfect square because the Fathers had no [[surveying]] instruments at their disposal and simply measured off all dimensions by foot.

==Mission life==
[[Image:Death of Father Jayme.jpg|thumb|300px|An illustration depicts the brutal death of Father Luís Jayme by the hands of angry natives at Mission San Diego de Alcalá, [[November 4]], [[1775]].<ref>Ruscin, p. 12</ref> The uprising was the first of a dozen similar incidents that took place in Alta California during the Mission Period; however, most rebellions tended to be localized and short-lived due to the Spaniards' superior weaponry (native resistance more often took the form of non-cooperation, desertion, and raids on mission livestock).<ref>Paddison, p. 48</ref>]]
The Alta California missions were of a type known as ''reduccíones'' (reductions) or ''congregacíones'' (congregations), a concept developed in the late [[16th century]] to be employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native ''pueblos''; Indians were congregated around the mission proper through the use of various means, whereupon they were "reduced" from their "free, undisciplined" state and ultimately converted into civilized members of colonial society.<ref>Rawls, pp. 14-16</ref> A total of 146 [[Franciscan#Name|Friars Minor]], all of whom were ordained as priests (and mostly Spaniards by birth) served in California between 1769–1845. 67 missionaries died at their posts (two as [[martyr]]s: ''Padres'' [[Luís Jayme]] and [[Andrés Quintana]]), while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment.<ref>Leffingwell, pp. 19, 132</ref> As the rules of the Franciscan Order forbade friars to live alone, two missionaries were assigned to each settlement, sequestered in the mission's ''convento''. To these the governor assigned a guard of five or six soldiers under the command of a corporal, who generally acted as steward of the mission's temporal affairs, subject to the fathers' direction.<ref name="engelhardtMAM3-18">Engelhardt 1908, pp. 3-18</ref>

Life at the California missions varied slightly throughout the entire system. Once a "[[gentile]]" was baptized, he or she became a ''[[neophyte]]'', or new believer. This happened only after a brief period during which the initiates were instructed in the most basic aspects of the Catholic faith. But, while many natives were lured to join the missions out of curiosity and sincere desire to participate and engage in trade, many found themselves trapped once they received the sacrament of [[baptism]]. To the ''padres'', a baptized Indian was no longer free to move about the country, but had to labor and worship at the mission under the strict observance of the fathers and overseers, who herded them to daily masses and labors. If an Indian did not report for their duties for a period of a few days, they were searched for, and if it was discovered that they left without permission, they were considered runaways.

[[Image:Mission San Jose natives.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Georg von Langsdorff, an early visitor to California, sketched a group of ''[[Ohlone|Costeño]]'' dancers at [[Mission San José]] in 1806. "''The hair of these people is very coarse, thick, and stands erect; in some it is powdered with down feathers''," Langsdorff noted. "''Their bodies are fantastically painted with charcoal dust, red clay, and chalk. The foremost dancer is ornamented all over with down feathers, which gives him a monkey-like appearance; the hindermost has had the whimsical idea of painting his body to imitate the uniform of a Spanish soldier, with his boots, stockings, breeches, and upper garments''." <ref>Paddison, p. 130</ref>]]
Young native women were required to reside in the ''monjério'' (or "nunnery") under the supervision of a trusted Indian matron who bore the responsibility for their welfare and education. Women only left the convent after they had been "won" by an Indian suitor and were deemed ready for marriage. Following Spanish custom, courtship took place on either side of a barred window. After the marriage ceremony the woman moved out of the mission compound and into one of the family huts.<ref>Newcomb, p. viii</ref> These "nunneries" were considered a necessity by the priests, who felt the women needed to be protected from the men, both Indian and ''de razón''. The cramped and unsanitary conditions the girls lived in contributed to the fast spread of disease and [[population decline]]. So many died at times that many of the Indian residents of the missions urged the fathers to raid new villages to supply them with more women. As of [[December 31]], [[1832]] (the peak of the mission system's development) the mission ''padres'' had performed a combined total of 87,787 baptisms and 24,529 marriages, and recorded 63,789 deaths.<ref>Krell, p. 316</ref>

Bells were vitally important to daily life at any mission. The bells were rung at mealtimes, to call the Mission residents to work and to religious services, during births and funerals, to signal the approach of a ship or returning missionary, and at other times; novices were instructed in the intricate rituals associated with the ringing the mission bells. The daily routine began with sunrise [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and morning [[prayers]], followed by instruction of the natives in the teachings of the [[Roman Catholic]] faith. After a generous (by era standards) breakfast of ''[[atole]]'', the able-bodied men and women were assigned their tasks for the day. The women were committed to dressmaking, knitting, weaving, embroidering, laundering, and cooking, while some of the stronger girls would grind flour or carry adobe bricks (weighing 55 [[Kilogram|lb]], or 25 [[Kilogram|kg]] each) to the men engaged in building. The men were tasked with a variety of jobs, having learned from the missionaries how to plow, sow, irrigate, cultivate, reap, thresh, and glean. In addition, they were taught to build adobe houses, tan leather hides, shear sheep, weave rugs and clothing from wool, make ropes, soap, paint, and other useful duties.

[[Image:Spanish Morning Hymn.png|thumb|300px|"''Ya Viene El Alba''" ("The Dawn Already Comes"), typical of the hymns sung at the missions.<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 30</ref>]]
The work day was six hours, interrupted by dinner (lunch) around 11:00 a.m. and a two-hour ''siesta'', and ended with evening prayers and the [[rosary]], supper, and social activities. About 90 days out of each year were designated as religious or civil holidays, free from [[Manual labour|manual labor]]. The labor organization of the missions resembled a slave plantation in many respects. Foreigners who visited the missions remarked at how the priests' control over the Indians appeared excessive, but necessary given the white men's isolation and numeric disadvantage. Indians were not paid wages as they were not considered free laborers and, as a result, the missions were able to extract [[surplus value]] for the goods produced by the [[Mission Indians]] to the detriment of the other Spanish and Mexican settlers of the time who could not compete economically with the advantage of the mission system. In recent years, much debate has arisen as to the actual treatment of the Indians during the Mission period, and many claim that the California mission system is directly responsible for the decline of the native cultures. Evidence has now been brought to light that puts the Indians' experiences in a very different context.

==Mission industries==
[[Image:Mission San Juan Capistrano 4-5-05 100 6559.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A view of the [[Catalan forge]]s at Mission San Juan Capistrano, the oldest existing facilities (''circa'' 1790s) of their kind in the State of California. The sign at the lower right-hand corner proclaims the site as being "''...part of Orange County's first industrial complex.''"]]

The goal of the missions was, above all, to become self-sufficient in relatively short order. [[Farming]], therefore, was the most important [[industry]] of any mission. [[Barley]], [[maize]], and [[wheat]] were among the most common crops grown. [[Cereal]] grains were dried and ground by stone into [[flour]]. Even today, California is well-known for the abundance and many varieties of [[fruit tree]]s that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of wild [[berry|berries]] or grew on small bushes. [[Spain|Spanish]] [[missionary|missionaries]] brought fruit seeds over from [[Europe]], many of which had been introduced to the [[Old World]] from [[Asia]] following earlier expeditions to the continent; [[orange (fruit)|orange]], [[grape]], [[apple]], [[peach]], [[pear]], and [[fig]] seeds were among the most prolific of the imports. [[Grape]]s were also grown and [[fermentation (food)|ferment]]ed into [[wine]] for [[sacramental]] use and again, for trading. The specific variety, called the ''Criolla'' or "[[Mission (grape)|Mission grape]]," was first planted at Mission San Juan Capistrano in 1779; in 1783, the first wine produced in Alta California emerged from the mission's winery. Mission San Gabriel Arcángel would unknowingly witness the origin of the California [[citrus]] industry with the planting of the region’s first significant orchard in 1804, though the commercial potential of citrus would not be realized until 1841.<ref>A. Thompson, p. 341</ref> [[Olive]]s (first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá) were grown, cured, and pressed under large stone [[wheel]]s to extract their [[Vegetable oil|oil]], both for use at the mission and to trade for other goods. Father Serra set aside a portion of the Mission Carmel gardens in 1774 for [[tobacco]] plants, a practice which soon spread throughout the mission system.<ref>Bean and Lawson, p. 37: "''Serra's decision to plant tobacco at the missions was prompted by the fact that from San Diego to Monterey the natives invariably begged him for Spanish tobacco''."</ref>

It was also the missions' responsibility to provide the Spanish forts, or "presidios", with the necessary foodstuffs, and manufactured goods to sustain operations. It was a constant point of contention between missionaries and the soldiers as to how many ''fanegas'' <ref>A ''fanega'' is equal to 100 [[Pound (mass)|pound]]s.</ref> of barley, or how many shirts or blankets the mission had to provide the garrisons on any given year. At times these requirements were hard to meet, especially during years of drought, or when the much anticipated shipments from the port of [[San Blas, Nayarit|San Blas]] failed to arrive. The Spaniards kept meticulous records of mission activities, and each year reports submitted to the Father-Presidente summarizing both the material and spiritual status at each of the settlements.

[[Image:Primitive plow.jpg|thumb|300px|Natives utilize a primitive [[plough|plow]] to prepare a field for planting near Mission San Diego de Alcalá.]]
Livestock was raised, not only for the purpose of obtaining meat, but also for wool, leather, and tallow, and for cultivating the land. In 1832, at the height of their prosperity, the missions collectively owned:
* 151,180 head of cattle;
* 137,969 sheep;
* 14,522 horses;
* 1,575 mules or burros;
* 1,711 goats; and
* 1,164 swine.<ref>Krell, p. 316: As of December 31, 1832.</ref>

All of these animals were originally brought up from Mexico. A great many Indians were required to guard the herds and flocks, which created the need for "''...a class of horsemen scarcely surpassed anywhere.''" <ref name="engelhardtMAM3-18">Engelhardt 1908, pp. 3-18</ref> These animals multiplied beyond the settler's expectations, often overrunning pastures and extending well-beyond the domains of the missions. The giant herds of horses and cows took well to the climate and the extensive pastures of the Coastal California region, but at a heavy price for the Native inhabitants. The uncontrolled spread of these new species quickly exhausted the grasslands and hillsides the Indians depended on for their seed harvests. This problem was also recognized by the Spaniards themselves, who at times sent out extermination parties to kill thousands of excess livestock, when the populations grew beyond their control. Mission [[kitchen]]s and [[bakery|bakeries]] prepared and served thousands of meals each day. [[Candles]], [[soap]], [[Grease (lubricant)|grease]], and [[ointment]]s were all made from [[tallow]] ([[kitchen rendering|rendered]] [[animal]] [[fat]]) in large [[vat]]s located just outside the west wing. Also situated in this general area were vats for dyeing [[wool]] and [[tanning]] [[leather]], and primitive [[loom]]s for [[weaving]]s. Large ''bodegas'' (warehouses) provided long-term storage for preserved foodstuffs and other treated materials.

[[Image:Mission sb lavanderia.jpg|left|thumb|300px|right|Mission Santa Barbara's ''lavanderia'' was constructed by the [[Chumash (tribe)|Chumash]] Indians around 1806.]]
Each mission had to fabricate virtually all of its construction materials from local materials. Workers in the ''carpintería'' ([[carpentry]] shop) used crude methods to shape beams, lintels, and other structural elements; more skilled artisans carved doors, furniture, and wooden implements. For certain applications bricks (''ladrillos'') were fired in [[oven]]s ([[kilns]]) to strengthen them and make them more resistant to the elements; when ''tejas'' (roof tiles) eventually replaced the conventional ''jacal'' roofing (densely-packed reeds) they were placed in the kilns to harden them as well. Glazed ceramic pots, dishes, and canisters were also made in mission kilns. Prior to the establishment of the missions, the native peoples knew only how to utilize bone, seashells, stone, and wood for building, tool making, weapons, and so forth. The missionaries discovered that the Indians, who regarded labor as degrading to the masculine sex, had to be taught industry in order to learn how to be self-supportive. The result was the establishment of a great manual training school that comprised agriculture, the mechanical arts, and the raising and care of livestock. Everything consumed and otherwise utilized by the natives was produced at the missions under the supervision of the padres; thus, the neophytes not only supported themselves, but after 1811 sustained the entire military and civil government of California.<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 211</ref> The [[foundry]] at Mission San Juan Capistrano was the first to introduce the Indians to the [[Iron Age]]. The [[blacksmith]] used the mission’s [[Catalan forge|Catalan furnaces]] (California’s first) to [[smelt]] and fashion [[iron]] into everything from basic tools and hardware (such as [[nail (fastener)|nails]]) to crosses, gates, hinges, even [[cannon]] for mission defense. Iron was one commodity in particular that the mission relied solely on trade to acquire, as the missionaries had neither the know-how nor the technology to [[mining|mine]] and process [[metal]] [[ore]]s.

No study of the missions would be complete without mention of their extensive [[water supply]] systems. Stone ''zanjas'' ([[aqueducts]]), sometimes spanning miles, brought [[fresh water]] from a nearby river or spring to the mission site. Baked clay pipes, joined together with [[lime mortar]] or [[bitumen]], deposited the water into large [[cistern]]s and gravity-fed fountains, and emptied into waterways where the force of the water was used to turn grinding wheels and other simple machinery, or dispensed for use in cleaning. Water used for drinking and cooking was allowed to trickle through alternate layers of sand and charcoal to remove the impurities.

==Missions in present–day California (U.S.)==
[[Image:Mission San Juan Bautista.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A view of the restored [[Mission San Juan Bautista]] and its three-bell ''campanario'' ("bell wall") in 2004.]]
===Founding===
The 21 Alta California missions were established along the northernmost section of California's [[El Camino Real (California)|El Camino Real]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "The Royal Highway," though often referred to as "The King's Highway"), christened in honor of King [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]]), much of which is now [[U.S. Route 101]] and several [[Mission Street]]s. The mission planning was begun in 1767 under the leadership of Fray [[Junípero Serra]], O.F.M. (who, in 1767, along with his fellow [[priest]]s, had taken control over a group of missions in [[Baja California]] previously administered by the Jesuits). Father [[Pedro Estévan Tápis]] proposed the establishment of a mission on one of [[Channel Islands of California|California's Channel Islands]] in 1784, with either [[Santa Catalina Island, California|Santa Catalina]] or [[Santa Cruz Island|Santa Cruz]] (known as ''Limú'' to the inhabitants) being the most likely locations; an offshore mission might have attracted potential converts who were not disposed to associate with a mainland oupost, and would have been an effective measure to restrict smuggling operations.<ref>Bancroft, pp. 33-34</ref> Though Governor [[José Joaquín de Arrillaga|Arrillaga]] approved the plan the following year, an outbreak of ''sarampion'' ([[measles]]) that left some 200 natives dead, coupled with a scarcity of good lands and water, left the success of such a venture in doubt, and no attempt to found an island mission was ever made. In September, 1821 Father Mariano Payeras, "''Comisario Prefecto''" of the California missions, visited Cañada de Santa Ysabel as part of a plan to establish an entire chain of inland missions, with the Santa Ysabel Asistencia as the "mother" mission. The plan never came to fruition, however. Work on the mission chain was concluded in 1823, even though Serra had died in 1784. Father [[Fermin Lasuen|Fermín Francisco de Lasuén]] took up Serra's work and established nine more mission sites, from 1786 through 1798; others established the last three compounds, along with at least ''asistencias''.<ref>Young, p. 17</ref> At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California.<ref>Robinson, p. 25</ref> Two short-lived settlements, [[Mission Puerto de Purísima Concepción]] and [[Mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuñer]], though located on the California side of the [[Colorado River]], were founded under the authority of the [[Spanish missions in Arizona|Arizona mission]] hierarchy and are therefore not included herein.

===Restoration===
No group of structures in the United States elicits the intense interest that the missions of California inspire (California is home to the greatest number of well-preserved missions than any other U.S. state).<ref>Morrison, p. 214: That the buildings in the California mission chain are in large part intact is due in no small measure to their relatively recent construction; Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded more than two centuries after the establishment of the [[Spanish missions in Florida|Mission of Nombre de Dios]] in [[St. Augustine, Florida]] in 1565 and 170 years following the founding of [[Spanish missions in New Mexico|Mission San Gabriel del Yunque]] in present-day [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]] in 1598.</ref> The missions are collectively the best-known [[historic]] element of the coastal regions of California. Four of the twenty-one missions have been designated [[minor basilica]]s by the [[Holy See]] due to their cultural, historic, architectural, and religious importance. Seven are designated [[National Historic Landmark]]s, fourteen are listed in the [[National Register of Historic Places]], and all are designated as [[California Historical Landmark]]s for their historic, architectural, and archaeological significance. Because virtually all of the artwork at the missions served either a devotional or didactic purpose, there was no underlying reason for the mission residents to record their surroundings graphically; visitors, however, found them to be objects of curiosity.<ref>Stern and Miller, p. 85</ref> During the 1850s a number of artists found gainful employment as draftsmen attached to expeditions sent to map the [[Pacific]] coastline and the border between California and Mexico (as well as plot practical railroad routes); many of the drawings were reproduced as [[lithograph]]s in the expedition reports. In 1875 American [[illustrator]] [[Henry Ford (illustrator)|Henry Chapman Ford]] began visiting each of the twenty-one mission sites, where he created a historically-important portfolio of watercolors, oils, and etchings. His depictions of the missions were (in part) responsible for the revival of interest in the state's Spanish heritage, and indirectly for the restoration of the missions. The 1880s saw the appearance of a number of articles on the missions in national publications and the first books on the subject; as a result, a large number of artists did one or more mission paintings, though few attempted series.<ref>Stern and Neuerburg, p. 95</ref> The popularity of the missions also stems largely from [[Helen Hunt Jackson]]'s 1884 novel ''[[Ramona]]'' and the subsequent efforts of [[Charles Fletcher Lummis]], [[William Randolph Hearst]], and other members of the "Landmarks Club of Southern California" to restore the missions in the early 20th century.<ref>Thompson, Mark, pp. 185-186: In the words of Charles Lummis, the historic structures "''...were falling to ruin with frightful rapidity, their roofs being breached or gone, the adobe walls melting under the winter rains''."</ref> Lummis wrote in 1895,
<blockquote>''In ten years from now—unless our intelligence shall awaken at once—"there will remain of these noble piles nothing but a few indeterminable heaps of adobe. We shall deserve and shall have the contempt of all thoughtful people if we suffer our noble missions to fall.''" <ref>"Past Campaigns"</ref></blockquote>
In 1911 author [[John Steven McGroarty]] penned ''The Mission Play'', a three-hour pageant describing the California missions from their founding in 1769 through secularization in 1834, and ending with their "final ruin" in 1847.

[[Image:San Juan Capistrano 1880 painting.jpg|thumb|300px|left|''Misión San Juan de Capistrano'' by Henry Chapman Ford, 1880. The work depicts the rear of the "Great Stone Church" and part of the mission's [[Cemetery|''campo santos'']].]]
Today, the missions exist in varying degrees of architectural integrity and structural soundness. The most common extant features at the mission grounds include the church building and an ancillary ''convento'' ([[convent]]) wing. In some cases (in [[San Rafael, California|San Rafael]], [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]], and [[Soledad, California|Soledad]], for example), the current buildings are replicas constructed on or near the original site. Other mission compounds remain relatively intact and true to their original, Mission Era construction. A notable example of an intact complex is the now-threatened Mission San Miguel Arcángel: its chapel retains the original interior [[mural]]s created by [[Salinan]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] under the direction of [[Esteban Munras]], a Spanish artist and last Spanish diplomat to California. This structure was closed to the public in 2003 due to severe damage from the [[San Simeon, California|San Simeon]] [[Earthquake]]. Many missions have preserved (or in some cases reconstructed) historic features in addition to chapel buildings. The missions have earned a prominent place in California's historic consciousness, and a steady stream of tourists from all over the world visit them. In recognition of that fact, on [[November 30]], [[2004]] President [[George W. Bush]] signed HR 1446, the "California Mission Preservation Act," into law. The measure will fund $10 million over a five-year period to the California Missions Foundation for projects related to the physical preservation of the missions, including structural rehabilitation, stabilization, and conservation of mission art and artifacts.<ref>[http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=108_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ420.108.pdf California Missions Preservation Act]</ref>

==Mission Trail==
In order to facilitate overland travel, the mission settlements were situated approximately 30 miles (48 kilometers) apart, so that they were separated by one day's long ride on horseback (or three days on foot) along the 600-mile (966-kilometer) long "California Mission Trail." Father Lasuén is credited for having brought the concept to life in 1798 when he successfully argued that filling in the "spaces" along [[El Camino Real (California)|El Camino Real]] with additional outposts would provide much-needed rest stops, where travelers could take lodging in relative safety and comfort.<ref>Yenne, p. 132</ref> Heavy freight movement was practical only via water. Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled [[mustard plant|mustard]] seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers.<ref>Markham, p. 79; Riesenberg, p. 260</ref>

===In geographical order, north to south===
[[Image:1920 Alta California mission trail.jpg|thumb|250px|right|An early map illustrating the route of "El Camino Real" in 1821, along with the 21 Franciscan missions in Alta California. The road at this time was merely a horse and mule trail.]]
* [[Mission San Francisco Solano]], in [[Sonoma, California|Sonoma]]
* [[Mission San Rafael Arcángel]], in [[San Rafael, California|San Rafael]]
* [[Mission San Francisco de Asís]] (Mission Dolores), in [[San Francisco]]
* [[Mission San José]], in [[Fremont, California|Fremont]]
* [[Mission Santa Clara de Asís]], in [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]
* [[Mission Santa Cruz]], in [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]]
* [[Mission San Juan Bautista]], in [[San Juan Bautista, California|San Juan Bautista]]
* [[Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo]], south of [[Carmel, California|Carmel]]
* [[Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad]], south of [[Soledad, California|Soledad]]
* [[Mission San Antonio de Padua]], northwest of [[Jolon, California|Jolon]]
* [[Mission San Miguel Arcángel]], north of [[Paso Robles, California|Paso Robles]]
* [[Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa]], in [[San Luis Obispo, California|San Luis Obispo]]
* [[Mission La Purísima Concepción]], northeast of [[Lompoc, California|Lompoc]]
* [[Mission Santa Inés]], in [[Solvang, California|Solvang]]
* [[Mission Santa Barbara]], in [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]]
* [[Mission San Buenaventura]], in [[Ventura, California|Ventura]]
* [[Mission San Fernando Rey de España]], in [[Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California|Mission Hills (Los Angeles)]]
* [[Mission San Gabriel Arcángel]], in [[San Gabriel, California|San Gabriel]]
* [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]], in [[San Juan Capistrano, California|San Juan Capistrano]]
* [[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia|Mission San Luís Rey de Francia]], in [[Oceanside, California|Oceanside]]
* [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]], in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]

===In chronological order===
====Franciscan Establishments (1769–1823)====
* [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]] founded in 1769
* [[Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo]] founded in 1770
* [[Mission San Antonio de Padua]] founded in 1771
* [[Mission San Gabriel Arcángel]] founded in 1771
* [[Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa]] founded in 1772
* [[Mission San Francisco de Asís]] (Mission Dolores) founded in 1776
* [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]] founded in 1776
* [[Mission Santa Clara de Asís]] founded in 1777
* [[Mission San Buenaventura]] founded in 1782
* [[Mission Santa Barbara]] founded in 1786
* [[Mission La Purísima Concepción]] founded in 1787
* [[Mission Santa Cruz]] founded in 1791
* [[Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad]] founded in 1791
* [[Mission San José]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Juan Bautista]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Miguel Arcángel]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Fernando Rey de España]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia]] founded in 1798
* [[Mission Santa Inés]] founded in 1804
* [[Mission San Rafael Arcángel]] founded in 1817 — originally planned as an ''asistencia'' to Mission San Francisco de Asís
* [[Mission San Francisco Solano]] founded in 1823 — originally planned as an ''asistencia'' to Mission San Rafael Arcángel

===''Asistencias'' in geographical order, north to south===
* [[San Pedro y San Pablo Asistencia]], founded in 1786 in [[Pacifica, California|Pacifica]]
* [[Santa Margarita de Cortona Asistencia]], founded in 1787 in [[Santa Margarita, California|Santa Margarita]]
* [[Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles Asistencia]], founded in 1784 in [[Los Angeles]]
* [[Santa Ysabel Asistencia]], founded in 1818 in [[Santa Ysabel, California|Santa Ysabel]]
* [[San Antonio de Pala Asistencia]] (Pala Mission), founded in 1816 in eastern [[San Diego County]]

===''Estancias'' in geographical order, north to south===
* [[San Bernardino de Sena Estancia]], founded in 1819 in [[Redlands, California|Redlands]]
* [[Diego Sepúlveda Adobe|Santa Ana Estancia]], founded in 1817 in [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa]]
* [[Las Flores Estancia]] (Las Flores Asistencia), founded in 1823 in [[Camp Pendleton, California|Camp Pendleton]]

==Headquarters of the Alta California Mission System==
* Mission San Diego de Alcalá (1769–1771)
* Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1771–1815)
* Mission La Purísima Concepción* (1815–1819)
* Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1819–1824)
* Mission San José* (1824–1827)
* Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1827–1830)
* Mission San José* (1830–1833)
* Mission Santa Barbara (1833–1846)

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Fathers Payeras and Durán remained at their resident missions during their terms as "Father-Presidente," therefore those settlements became the ''[[de facto]]'' headquarters (until 1833, when all mission records were permanently relocated to Santa Barbara).<ref>Yenne, p. 186</ref>

==Father-Presidents of the Alta California Mission System==
* Father [[Junípero Serra]] (1769–1784)
* Father [[Francisco Palóu]] (acting) (1784–1785)
* Father [[Fermín Francisco de Lasuén]] (1785–1803)
* Father [[Pedro Estévan Tápis]] (1803–1812)
* Father [[José Francisco de Paula Señan]] (1812–1815)
* Father [[Mariano Payéras]] (1815–1820)
* Father José Francisco de Paula Señan (1820–1823)
* Father [[Vicente Francisco de Sarría]] (1823–1824)
* Father [[Narciso Durán]] (1824–1827)
* Father [[José Bernardo Sánchez]] (1827–1831)
* Father Narciso Durán (1831–1838)
* Father [[José Joaquin Jimeno]] (1838–1844)
* Father Narciso Durán (1844–1846)

The "Father-Presidente" was the head of the Catholic missions in Alta and Baja California. He was appointed by the [[College of San Fernando de Mexico]] until 1812, when the position became known as the "Commissary Prefect" who was appointed by the Commissary General of the Indies (a Franciscan residing in Spain). Beginning in 1831, separate individuals were elected to oversee Upper and Lower California.<ref>Ruscin, p. 196</ref>

==Military Districts==
California during the Mission Period was divided into four military districts. Four ''presidios'', strategically placed along the California coast, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California.<ref>Engelhardt 1920, p. 228</ref> Each of these garrisons (''comandancias'') functioned as a base of military operations for a specific region. Although independent of one another, a sort of unison or connection existed among the missions of each district, which were organized as follows:

* [[Presidio of San Diego|El Presidio Real de San Diego]] founded on [[July 16]], [[1769]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''First Military District'' (San Diego, San Luis Rey, San Juan Capistrano, and San Gabriel);<ref>Leffingwell, p. 22</ref>
* [[Presidio of Santa Barbara|El Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara]] founded on [[April 12]], [[1782]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''Second Military District'' (San Fernando Rey, San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, Santa Inés, and La Purísima);<ref>Leffingwell, p. 68</ref>
* [[Presidio of Monterey, California|El Presidio Real de San Carlos de Monterey]] (''El Castillo'') founded on [[June 3]], [[1770]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''Third Military District'' (San Luis Obispo, San Miguel, San Antonio, Soledad, San Carlos, San Juan Bautista, Santa Cruz, and Santa Clara);<ref>Leffingwell, p. 119</ref> and
* [[Presidio of San Francisco|El Presidio Real de San Francisco]] founded on [[December 17]], [[1776]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''Fourth Military District'' (San José, San Francisco, San Rafael, and Solano).<ref>Leffingwell, p. 154</ref>

[[Presidio of Sonoma|El Presidio de Sonoma]], or "Sonoma Barracks" (a collection of guardhouses, storerooms, living quarters, and an [[observation tower]]) was established in 1836 by [[Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo]] (the "Commandante-General of the Northern Frontier of Alta California") as a part of [[Mexico]]'s strategy to halt [[Russia]]n incursions into the region.<ref>Leffingwell, p. 170</ref> The Sonoma Presidio became the new headquarters of the Mexican Army in California, while the remaining ''presidios'' were essentially abandoned and, in time, fell into ruins.

An ongoing power struggle between church and state grew increasingly heated and lasted for decades. Originating as a feud between Father Serra and [[Pedro Fages]] (the military governor of Alta California from 1770 to 1774, who regarded the Spanish installations in California as military institutions first and religious outposts second), the uneasy relationship persisted for more than sixty years.<ref>Paddison, p. 23</ref> Dependent upon one another for their very survival, military leaders and mission ''padres'' nevertheless adopted conflicting stances regarding everything from land rights, the allocation of supplies, protection of the missions, and in particular the status of the native populations.

==Controversy==
{{main|California mission clash of cultures}}
There is controversy over the California Department of Education's treatment of the missions in the Department's elementary curriculum. A number of parents have complained about the so-called "[[California 4th Grade Mission Project|mission projects]]" many children are assigned in the [[fourth grade]]; in the tradition of [[Historical revisionism#New World "discovery"|historical revisionism]], it has been alleged that the curriculum "waters down" the harsh treatment of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. For instance, the role of historical figures, such as Father Serra, can be interpreted as either one of [[cultural imperialism]] or as a noble cause, depending upon the context given. Modern [[anthropology|anthropologists]] cite a cultural bias on the part of the missionaries that blinded them to the natives' plight and caused them to develop strong negative opinions of the California Indians.<ref>McKanna, p. 15; also, per Hittell, p. 753: "''Boscana himself and his brother missionaries were men of narrow range of thought, continually seeking among the superstitions of the natives for resemblances of the true faith and ever ready to catch at the slightest hints and magnify them into complicated dogmas corresponding afar of those which they themselves taught''."</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book|author=[[Hubert Howe Bancroft|Bancroft, Hubert Howe]]|year=1886|title=History of California, Volume II (1801-1894)|publisher=The History Company, San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Bean, Lowell John and Harry Lawton|year=1976|title=Native Californians: A Theoretical Perspective|publisher=Ballena Press, Banning, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Zephyrin Engelhardt|Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M.]]|year=1908|title=The Missions and Missionaries of California, Volume One|publisher=The James H. Barry Co., San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M.|year=1920|title=San Diego Mission|publisher=James H. Barry Company, San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M.|year=1922|title=San Juan Capistrano Mission|publisher=Standard Printing Co., Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Maynard Geiger|Geiger, Maynard J., O.F.M., Ph.D.]]|year=1969|title=Franciscan Missionaries in Hispanic California, 1769-1848: A Biographical Dictionary|publisher=Huntington Library, San Marino, CA|id=}}
* {{cite web|author=Harley, R. Bruce|title=The San Bernardino Asistencias|year=1997-2003|work=California Mission Studies Association|url=http://www.ca-missions.org/harley.html|accessdate=November 21 |accessyear=2006}}
* {{cite book|author=Hittell, Theodore H.|year=1898|title=History of California, Volume I|publisher=N.J. Stone & Company, San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=[[George Wharton James|James, George Wharton]]|year=1913|title=The Old Franciscan Missions Of California|publisher=Little, Brown, and Co. Inc., Boston, MA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Jones, Roger W.|year=1997|title=California from the Conquistadores to the Legends of Laguna|publisher=Rockledge Enterprises, Laguna Hills, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Kelsey, H.|year=1993|title=Mission San Juan Capistrano: A Pocket History|publisher=Interdisciplinary Research, Inc., Altadena, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Krell, Dorothy (ed.)|year=1979|title=The California Missions: A Pictorial History|publisher=Sunset Publishing Corporation, Menlo Park, CA|id=ISBN 0-376-05172-8}}
* {{cite journal|last=Kroeber|first=Alfred L.|authorlink=Alfred L. Kroeber|title=A Mission Record of the California Indians|journal=University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1-27|date=1908}}
* {{cite book|author=Leffingwell, Randy|year=2005|title=California Missions and Presidios: The History & Beauty of the Spanish Missions|publisher=Voyageur Press, Inc., Stillwater, MN|id=ISBN 0-89658-492-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Markham, Edwin|year=1914|title=California the Wonderful: Her Romantic History, Her Picturesque People, Her Wild Shores...|publisher=Hearst's International Library Company, Inc., New York, NY|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=McKanna, Clare Vernon|year=2002|title=Race and Homicide in Nineteenth-Century California|publisher=University of Nevada Press, Reno, NV|id=ISBN 0-87417-515-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Milliken, Randall|year=1995|title=A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769-1910|publisher=Ballena Press, Menlo Park, CA|id=ISBN 0-87919-132-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Morrison, Hugh|year=1987|title=Early American Architecture: From the First Colonial Settlements to the National Period|publisher=Dover Publications, New York, NY|id=ISBN 0-48625-492-5}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Rexford Newcomb|Newcomb, Rexford]]|year=1973|title=The Franciscan Mission Architecture of Alta California|publisher=Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY|id=ISBN 0-486-21740-X}}
* {{cite book|author=Paddison, Joshua (ed.)|year=1999|title=A World Transformed: Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush|publisher=Heyday Books, Berkeley, CA|id=ISBN 1-890771-13-9}}
* {{cite web|title=Past Campaigns|year=2000|work=California Mission Studies Association|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5RUNIn7eN|accessdate=July 8|accessyear=2007}}
* {{cite web|title=The Pious Fund of the Californias|year=1911|work=Catholic Encyclopedia|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5RUMyEXm5|accessdate=July 8|accessyear=2007}}
* {{cite web|title=Pre-Mission History|year=2007|work=Old Mission Santa Inés|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5RUNO1SFf|accessdate=August 26|accessyear=2007}}
* {{cite book|author=Rawls, James J.|year=1984|title=Indians of California: The Changing Image|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK|id=ISBN 0-8061-2020-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Riesenberg, Felix|year=1962|title=The Golden Road: The Story of California's Spanish Mission Trail|publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York, NY|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Robinson, W.W.|year=1948|title=Land in California|publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Ruscin, Terry|year=1999|title=Mission Memoirs|publisher=Sunbelt Publications, San Diego, CA|id=ISBN 0-932653-30-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Stern, Jean and Gerald J. Miller|year=1995|title=Romance of the Bells: The California Missions in Art|publisher=The Irvine Museum, Irvine, CA|id=ISBN 0-9635468-5-6}}
* {{cite book|author=Thompson, Anthony W., Robert J. Church, and Bruce H. Jones|year=2000|title=Pacific Fruit Express|publisher=Signature Press, Wilton, CA|id=ISBN 1-930013-03-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Thompson, Mark|year=2001|title=American Character: The Curious Life of Charles Fletcher Lummis and the Rediscovery of the Southwest|publisher=Arcade Publishing, New York, NY|id=ISBN 1-55970-550-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Yenne, Bill|year=2004|title=The Missions of California|publisher=Advantage Publshers Group, San Diego, CA|id=ISBN 1-59223-319-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Young, S., and Levick, M.|year=1988|title=The Missions of California|publisher=Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, CA|id=ISBN 0-8118-1938-8}}
</div>

==Further reading==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book|author=Baer, Kurt|year=1958|title=Architecture of the California Missions|publisher=University of California Press, Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Carillo, J. M., O.F.M.|year=1967|title=The Story of Mission San Antonio de Padua|publisher=Paisano Press, Inc., Balboa Island, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Camphouse, M.|year=1974|title=Guidebook to the Missions of California|publisher=Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA|id=ISBN 0-378-03792-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Crump, S.|year=1975|title=California's Spanish Missions: Their Yesterdays and Todays |publisher=Trans-Anglo Books, Del Mar, CA|id=ISBN 0-87046-028-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Drager, K., and Fracchia, C.|year=1997|title=The Golden Dream: California from Gold Rush to Statehood|publisher=Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, Portland, OR|id=ISBN 1-55868-312-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Johnson, P., ed.|year=1964|title=The California Missions|publisher=Lane Book Company, Menlo Park, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Moorhead, Max L.|year=1991|title=The Presidio: Bastion Of The Spanish Borderlands|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK|id=ISBN 0-8061-2317-6}}
* {{cite book|author=Rawls, J. and Bean, W.|year=1997|title=California: An Interpretive History|publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York, NY|id=ISBN 0-07-052411-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Robinson, W.W.|year=1953|title=Panorama: A Picture History of Southern California|publisher=Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
*{{cite book|author=Weitze, Karen J.|year=1984|title=California's Mission Revival|publisher=Hennessy & Ingalls, Inc., Los Angeles, CA|id=ISBN 0-912158-89-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Wright, Ralph B., Ed.|year=1984|title=California's Missions|publisher=Lowman Publishing Company, Arroyo Grande, CA|id=}}
</div>

==See also==
* [[California 4th Grade Mission Project]]
* [[History of California to 1899]]
* [[History of Christian Missions]]
* [[History of the west coast of North America]]
* [[Indian Reductions]]
* [[Jesuit Asia missions]]
* [[Jesuit Reductions]]
* [[Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail]]
* [[Mission (station)]]
* [[Missionary]]
* [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]

==External links==
{{commons|California missions}}
* [http://www.ca-missions.org www.ca-missions.org] — Official website of the California Mission Studies Association
* [http://www.missionsofcalifornia.org www.missionsofcalifornia.org] — Official website of the California Missions Foundation
* [http://notfrisco.com/almanac/missions/ Almanac: California Missions]
* [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/anthony/missions.html Animated Map of Mission Formation in Alta California]
* [http://www.cahighways.org/elcamino.html/ California Highways - Trails and Roads: El Camino Real]
* [http://www.californiahistoricalsociety.org/ California Historical Society] official website
* [http://www.californias-missions.org/ Californias-Missions.org: A Resource Website for Students, Parents, and Teachers]
* [http://missions.bgmm.com/ California Missions]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03177b.htm California Missions] article at [[Catholic Encyclopedia|''The Catholic Encyclopedia'']]
* [http://www.catcorman.com/missions01.html California Missions Photo Portfolio] Photographs of the California Missions taken by Catherine Corman.
* [http://www.thecaliforniamissions.com/ The California Missions]
* [http://www.californiamissions.com/ California Missions: A Virtual Tour]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/cbhtml/cbmissio.html Early California History: The Missions]
* [http://www.huntington.org/Information/ECPPmain.htm Early California Population Project (ECPP)] — provides public access to all the information contained in California's historic mission registers
* [http://www.ismpress.com/junipero_serra.html ''Junipero Serra, the Vatican, & Enslavement Theology''] offers a critical perspective on the missions' impact on California's Indians
* [http://missiontour.org/ Mission Tour Home]
* [http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/ National Register of Historic Places] official website
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/8/5/13854/13854-h/13854-h.htm ''The Old Franciscan Missions of California'' eText] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.earlysandiego.org/ The San Diego Founders Trail] official website

{{missions-by-country}}
[[Category:Archaeological sites in California]]
[[Category:California missions| ]]
[[Category:Colonial Mexico]]
[[Category:History of California]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in the United States]]
[[Category:Spanish missions in the Americas|California]]

[[fr:Missions espagnoles de Californie]]

Spanische Missionen in Kalifornien

2007-10-29T18:27:36Z

207.193.136.7: /* Prehistory */

{{SpanishMissions}}
The '''Spanish missions in California''' (more simply referred to as the '''California Missions''') comprise a series of [[religious]] outposts established by [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Catholics]] of the [[Franciscan]] Order between 1769 and 1823 to spread the [[Catholic]] faith among the local [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The missions represented the first major effort by [[Europe]]ans to colonize the [[Pacific Coast]] region, and gave Spain a valuable toehold in the frontier land. The settlers introduced European [[livestock]], [[fruit]]s, [[vegetables]], and [[industry]] into the [[California]] region; however, the Spanish occupation of California also brought with it serious, though unintended, negative consequences to the Native American populations with whom the missionaries came in contact. Today, the missions are among the state's oldest structures and the most-visited historic monuments.

[[Image:Mission San Juan Capistrano 4-5-05 100 6588.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A view of [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]] in April of 2005. At left is the façade of the first adobe church with its added ''espadaña''; behind the ''campanario'', or "bell wall" is the "Sacred Garden." The Mission has earned a reputation as the "''Loveliest of the Franciscan Ruins''."]]
[[Image:Wikiup.jpg|thumb|300px|Many native cultures built cone-shaped huts (''[[Wigwam|wikiups]]'') made of [[willow]] branches covered with brush or mats made of [[tule]] leaves. The shelters were utilized primarily for sleeping or as refuge in cases of inclement weather. Europeans generally regarded such contrivances as "''...evidence of the Indians' inability to fashion more sophisticated structures''." <ref>Rawls, p. 29: In the late 1780s, [[France|French]] naval officer and explorer [[Jean-François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse]] described the native dwellings in and around [[Monterey, California|Monterey]]—consisting of long poles stuck in the ground and drawn together to form arches, then covered with thatch—as "''...the most miserable that are to be met with among any people''." [[England|British]] naval officer and explorer [[George Vancouver]] documented similar conditions as observed during his 1792 visit to the [[San Francisco Bay]] area in [[Vancouver Expedition|''A Voyage of Discovery to the North Pacific Ocean'']] (Paddison, pp. 81-82).</ref>]]

==Prehistory==
The current prevailing theory postulates that [[Paleo-Indians]] entered the Americas from [[Asia]] via a land bridge called "[[Beringia]]" that connected eastern [[Siberia]] with present-day [[Alaska]] (when sea levels were significantly lower, due to widespread glaciation) between about 15,000 to 35,000 years ago. The remains of [[Arlington Springs Man]] on [[Santa Rosa Island, California|Santa Rosa Island]] are among the traces of a very early habitation in California, dated to the last [[ice age]] ([[Wisconsin glaciation]]) about 13,000 years ago. The first humans are therefore thought to have made their homes among the southern valleys of California's coastal mountain ranges some 10,000 to 12,000 years ago; the earliest of these people are known only from archaeological evidence.<ref>Paddison, p. 333: The first undisputable archaeological evidence of human presence in California dates back to ''circa'' 8,000 [[BCE]].</ref> i need a website to california fires?<br />#REDIRECT [[
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==History==
===Early exploration and contact===
[[Image:Franciscan missionaries in California.jpg|thumb|300px|righ|Franciscans of the California missions donned gray [[Religious habit|habits]], in contrast to the brown [[cassock]]s that are typically worn today.<ref>Kelsey, p. 18</ref>]]

As early as the voyages of [[Christopher Columbus]], the Kingdom of [[Spain]] sought to establish missions to convert [[Paganism|Pagans]] to [[Roman Catholicism]] in ''Nueva España'' ([[New Spain]], consisting of the [[Caribbean]], [[Mexico]] and most of what today is the [[Southwestern United States]]), in order to facilitate [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonization]] of these lands [[Inter caetera|awarded]] to Spain by the [[Catholic Church]]. The modern region "California" in this context refers to the Spanish territory formerly known as [[Alta California]]. It was not until 1741 (the time of the [[Vitus Bering]] expedition) that the territorial ambitions of [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] towards North America became known, however, that the King felt such installations were necessary in Upper ("Alta") California.<ref>Morrison, p. 214: During his voyage of exploration along the [[Pacific Coast]] of [[North America]] in 1579, [[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]] claimed the region (which he dubbed ''[[Nova Albion]]'', [[Latin]] for "New Britain") in the name of [[England]], a full generation before the first landing in [[Jamestown, Virginia]]. However, in order to preserve an uneasy peace with Spain, and to avoid having Spain threaten England's claims in the New World, the discovery of, and claim on, New Albion was ordered by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] to be treated as a state secret.</ref> Between 1774 and 1791, the Spanish Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to explore the [[Pacific Northwest]].

The Spanish mission system arose in part from the need to control Spain's ever-expanding holdings in the New World. Realizing that the colonies would require a literate population base that the mother country could not supply, the Spanish Crown (with the cooperation of the Church) established a network of missions with the goal of converting the natives to Christianity; the aim was to make converts and tax paying citizens of the [[indigenous peoples]] they conquered. In order to become Spanish citizens and productive inhabitants, the native Americans were required to learn Spanish language and vocational skills along with Christian teachings.<ref>"Old Mission Santa Inés:" In the words of clerical historian [[Maynard Geiger]], "''This was to be a cooperative effort, imperial in origin, protective in purpose, but primarily spiritual in execution''."</ref> With the [[Suppression of the Jesuits|expulsion]] of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] from Baja California in 1768, ''Visitador General'' [[José de Gálvez]] engaged the Franciscan Order to take over the administration of the missions there. This plan, however, was changed within a few months after Gálvez received the following orders: "''Occupy and fortify San Diego and Monterey for God and the King of Spain.''" <ref>James, p. 11</ref> It thereupon was decided to call upon the priests of the [[Dominican Order]] to take charge of the Baja California missions in order to allow the Franciscans to concentrate on founding new missions in Alta California.

===Mission Period (1769 – 1833)===
[[Image:Canyon of the Little Christians.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The first recorded baptisms in Alta California were performed in "The Canyon of the Little Christians." <ref name="engelhardtSJCM258">Engelhardt 1922, p. 258</ref>]]
On [[July 14]], 1769 Gálvez sent the expedition of Junípero Serra and [[Gaspar de Portolà]] to found a mission at San Diego and presidio at Monterey, respectively.<ref>Yenne, p. 10</ref> En route, Fathers [[Francisco Gómez]] and [[Juan Crespí]] came across a native settlement wherein two young girls were dying: one, a baby said to be "dying at its mother's breast," the other a small girl suffering of burns. On [[July 22]], Father Gómez baptized the baby, giving her the name "Maria Magdalena," while Father Crespí baptized the older child, naming her "Margarita;" these were the first recorded baptisms in Alta California.<ref>Leffingwell, p. 25</ref> The expedition's soldiers dubbed the spot ''Los Cristianos''.<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 258: Today, the site (located at {{Coor dms|33|25|41.58|N|117|36|34.92|W}} on [[Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton]] in [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]]) is referred to more commonly as ''La Cañada de los Bautismos'', literally "The Gorge of the Baptisms," or simply ''Los Christianitos'', "The Little Christians" and is designated as [[California Historical Landmark]] [http://ohp.parks.ca.gov/default.asp?page_id=21478 #562].</ref> The group continued northward but missed Monterey Harbor and returned to San Diego on [[January 24]], [[1770]]. Near the end of 1771 the Portolà Expedition arrived at [[San Francisco Bay]]. Arguably "''the worst epidemic of the Spanish Era in California''" was known to be the [[measles]] epidemic of 1806, wherein one-quarter of the mission Indian population of the [[San Francisco Bay Area|San Francisco Bay area]] died of the measles or related complications between March and May of that year.<ref>Milliken, pp. 172-173, 193</ref>

[[Image:Luiseno drawing early 1800s.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Pablo Tac]], who lived at Mission San Luis Rey in the 1820s and 1830s, penned this drawing depicting two young men wearing skirts of twine and feathers with feather decorations on their heads, rattles in their hands, and (perhaps) painted decorations on their bodies.<ref>Kelsey, p. 4</ref>]]
Each mission was to be turned over to a [[secular clergy]] and all the common mission lands distributed amongst the native population within ten years after its founding, a policy that was based upon Spain's experience with the more advanced tribes in [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and [[Peru]].<ref>Robinson, p. 28</ref> In time, it became apparent to Father Serra and his associates that the [[Indian tribes]] on the northern frontier in Alta California would require a much longer period of acclimatization.<ref name="engelhardtMAM3-18">Engelhardt 1908, pp. 3-18</ref> None of the California missions ever attained complete [[self-sufficiency]], and required continued (albeit modest) financial support from mother Spain, out of what was often referred to as ''El Fondo Piadoso de las Californias'' ("The Pious Fund of the Californias," which had its origin in 1697 and consisted of voluntary donations made by individuals and religious bodies in Mexico to members of the [[Society of Jesus]]) to enable them to propagate the Catholic Faith in the area then known as California.<ref>"The Pious Fund of the Californias"</ref> Starting with the onset of the [[Mexican War of Independence]] in 1810, this support largely disappeared and the missions and their converts were left on their own (as of 1800, native labor had made up the backbone of the colonial economy).<ref>Rawls, p. 106</ref> In 1811, the Spanish Viceroy in Mexico sent an ''interrogatorio'' (questionnaire) to all of the missions in Alta California regarding the customs, disposition, and condition of the Mission Indians.<ref>Kroeber, p. 1</ref> The replies, which varied greatly in the length, spirit, and even the value of the information contained therein, were collected and prefaced by the Father-Presidente with a short general statement or abstract; the compilation was thereupon forwarded to the viceregal government.<ref>Kroeber, p. 2: "''Some of the missionaries evidently regarded compliance with the instructions of the questionnaire as an official requirement which was perfunctorily performed. In many cases no answers were given various questions at certain of the missions''."</ref> The contemporary nature of the responses, no matter how incomplete or biased some may be, are nonetheless of considerable value to modern [[ethnology|ethnologists]].

In November and December of 1818, several of the missions were attacked by [[Hippolyte de Bouchard|Hipólito Bouchard]], "''California's only pirate''." <ref>There is a great contrast between the legacy of Bouchard in Argentina versus his reputation in the United States. In Buenos Aires, Bouchard is honored as a brave patriot, while in California he is most often remembered as a pirate, and not a privateer. See [[Hippolyte de Bouchard#California and Central America|Hippolyte de Bouchard]].</ref> A [[France|French]] [[privateer]] sailing under the flag of [[Argentina]], ''Pirata Buchar'' (as he was known to the locals) worked his way down the California coast, conducting raids on the installations at Monterey, [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]], and San Juan Capistrano, with limited success.<ref>Jones, p. 170</ref> Upon hearing of the attacks, many mission priests (along with a few government officials) sought refuge at Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, the mission chain's most isolated outpost. Ironically, Mission Santa Cruz (though ultimately ignored by the marauders) was ignominiously sacked and vandalized by local residents who were entrusted with securing the church's valuables.<ref>Young, p. 102</ref> By 1819, Spain decided to limit its "reach" in the New World to [[Northern California]] due to the costs involved in sustaining these remote outposts; the northernmost settlement therefore is Mission San Francisco Solano, founded in [[Sonoma, California|Sonoma]] in 1823 (an attempt to found a twenty-second mission in [[Santa Rosa, California|Santa Rosa]] in 1827 was aborted).<ref>Hittell, p. 499</ref>

===Rancho Period (1834 – 1849)===
As the Mexican republic matured, calls for the [[secularization]] ("disestablishment") of the missions increased.<ref>Robinson, p. 29: The Spanish ''cortes'', or legislature, issued a decree in 1813 for at least partial secularization affecting all missions in America that was to apply to all outposts which had been operating for ten years or more; however, the decree was never enforced in California.</ref> [[José María de Echeandía]], the first native Mexican to be elected Governor of Alta California, issued his "Proclamation of Emancipation" (or "''Prevenciónes de Emancipacion''") on [[July 25]], [[1826]].<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 80</ref> All Indians within the military districts of San Diego, Santa Barbara, and [[Monterey]] who were found qualified were freed from missionary rule and made eligible to become Mexican citizens. Those who wished to remain under mission tutelage were exempted from most forms of corporal punishment.<ref>Bancroft, vol. i, pp. 100-101: Bancroft postulated that the motives behind the issuance of Echeandía's premature decree had more to do with the his desire to appease "''...some prominent Californians who had already had their eyes on the mission lands...''" than they did with concerns regarding the welfare of the natives.</ref><ref>Stern and Miller, pp. 51-52: Catholic historian Zephyrin Engelhardt referred to Echeandía as "''...an avowed enemy of the religious orders''."</ref> Despite the fact that Echeandía's emancipation plan met was met with little encouragement from the neophytes who populated the southern missions, he was nonetheless determined to test the scheme on a large scale at Mission San Juan Capistrano. To that end, he appointed a number of ''comisianados'' (commissioners) to oversee the emancipation of the Indians.<ref>Bancroft, vol. iii, pp. 322; 626</ref> Although Governor [[José Figueroa]] (who took office in 1833) initially attempted to keep the mission system intact, the [[Congress of Mexico|Mexican Congress]] nevertheless passed ''An Act for the Secularization of the Missions of California'' on [[August 17]], [[1833]].<ref>Yenne, p. 19</ref> The Act also provided for the colonization of both Alta and Baja California, the expenses of this latter move to be borne by the proceeds gained from the sale of the mission property to private interests. Mission San Juan Capistrano was the very first to feel the effects of this legislation the following year when, on [[August 9]], 1834 Governor Figueroa issued his "Decree of Confiscation." <ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 114</ref> Nine other settlements quickly followed, with six more in 1835; [[San Buenaventura]] and San Francisco de Asís were among the last to succumb, in June and December of 1836, respectively.<ref>Yenne, pp. 83, 93</ref> The [[Franciscan]]s soon thereafter abandoned most of the missions, taking with them most everything of value, after which the locals typically plundered the mission buildings for construction materials. In spite of this neglect, the Indian towns at [[Mission San Juan Capistrano|San Juan Capistrano]], [[San Dieguito Complex|San Dieguito]], and [[Las Flores Estancia|Las Flores]] did continue on for some time under a provision in ''Gobernador'' Echeandía's 1826 Proclamation that allowed for the partial conversion of missions to ''pueblos''.<ref>Robinson, p. 42</ref>

[[Image:Choir missals at Mission San Luis Rey.jpg|thumb|300px|Illuminated choir [[missal]]s on display at [[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia]] in 1913.<ref>James, p. 215</ref>]]
[[Pío Pico|Pío de Jesus Pico IV]], the last Mexican Governor of Alta California, found upon taking office that there were few funds available with which to carry on the affairs of the province. He prevailed upon the assembly to pass a decree authorizing the renting or the sale of all mission property, reserving only the church, a curate's house, and a building for a courthouse. The expenses of conducting the services of the church were to be provided from the proceeds, but there was no disposition made as to what should be done to secure the funds for that purpose. After secularization, Father Presidente Narciso Durán transferred the missions' headquarters to Santa Barbara, thereby making Mission Santa Barbara the repository of some 3,000 original documents that had been scattered through the California missions. The Mission archive is the oldest library in the State of California that still remains in the hands of its founders, the Franciscans (it is the only mission in which they have maintained an uninterrupted presence). Beginning with the writings of [[Hubert Howe Bancroft]], the library has served as a center for historical study of the missions for more than a century. In 1895 journalist and historian [[Charles Fletcher Lummis]] criticized the Act and its results, saying:

<blockquote>''Disestablishment—a polite term for robbery—by Mexico (rather than by native Californians misrepresenting the Mexican government) in 1834, was the death blow of the mission system. The lands were confiscated; the buildings were sold for beggarly sums, and often for beggarly purposes. The Indian converts were scattered and starved out; the noble buildings were pillaged for their tiles and adobes...''" <ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 248</ref>
</blockquote>

===California Statehood (1850 and beyond)===
[[Image:Hugo Reid at Rancho Santa Anita.png|thumb|250px|[[Hugo Reid]], an outspoken critic of the mission system and its effects on ther native populations, at [[Rancho Santa Anita]] ''circa'' 1850.]]
By way of confiscation of the missions between 1834 and 1838 the approximately 15,000 resident ''neophytes'' lost the protection of the mission system, along with their stock and other movable property; by the transfer of California to the United States, they were left without legal title to their land. Via the Act of [[September 30]], [[1850]], [[United States Congress|Congress]] appropriated funds to allow the [[President of the United States|President]] to appoint three Commissioners to study the California situation and "''...negotiate treaties with the various Indian tribes of California''." Treaty negotiations ensued during the period between [[March 19]], [[1851]] and [[January 7]], [[1852]], during which time the Commission interacted with 402 Indian chiefs and headmen (representing approximately one-third to one-half of the California tribes) and entered into eighteen treaties.<ref>Robinson, p. 14</ref> California Senator [[William M. Gwin|William M. Gwin's]] Act of [[March 3]], [[1851]] created the [[Public Land Commission]], whose purpose was to determine the validity of [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[land grant]]s in California.<ref>Robinson, p. 100</ref> On [[February 19]], [[1853]] [[Archbishop]] [[Joseph Sadoc Alemany|J.S. Alemany]] filed petitions for the return of all former mission lands in the state. Ownership of 1,051.44 [[acre]]s (for all practical intents being the exact area of land occupied by the original mission buildings, cemeteries, and gardens) was subsequently conveyed to the Church, along with the ''Cañada de los Pinos'' (or College Rancho) in [[Santa Barbara County]] comprising 35,499.73 acres, and ''La Laguna'' in [[San Luis Obispo County]], consisting of 4,157.02 acres.<ref>Robinson, pp. 31-32: The area shown is that stated in the ''Corrected Reports of Spanish and Mexican Grants in California Complete to February 25, 1886'' as a supplement to the Official Report of 1883-1884. Patents for each mission were issued to [[Archbishop]] [[Joseph Sadoc Alemany|J.S. Alemany]] based on his claim filed with the [[Public Land Commission]] on [[February 19]], [[1853]].</ref> As the result of a [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. government]] investigation in 1873, a number of [[Indian reservation]]s were assigned by executive proclamation in 1875. According to one estimate, the original population in and around the missions proper was approximately 80,000 at the time of the confiscation. The "pre-colonization" native population in Alta California (which may have numbered as high as 300,000, divided into more than 100 separate tribes or nations)<ref>Rawls, p. 6; Estimates for the pre-contact populations of most native groups in California have been based on a number of different sources, and therefore vary substantially. See [[Population of Native California]].</ref> had dwindled to approximately 100,000 by the early 1840s, due in large part to the natives' exposure to European diseases for which they lacked immunity, and from the Franciscan practice of cloistering women in the ''convento'' and controlling sexuality during the child-bearing age; Baja California experienced a similar reduction in native population resulting from Spanish colonization efforts there. The commissioner of Indian affairs reported in 1879 that the number of [[Mission Indians]] in the state was down to around 3,000.<ref>Rawls, pp. 112-113</ref>

==Site selection and layout==
{{main|Architecture of the California missions}}

In addition to the ''presidio'' (royal fort) and ''pueblo'' (town), the ''misión'' was one of the three major agencies employed by the Spanish crown to extend its borders and consolidate its [[colonial]] territories. ''Asistencias'' ("satellite" or "sub" missions, sometimes referred to as "contributing chapels") were small-scale missions that regularly conducted [[Service of worship|Divine service]] on days of obligation but lacked a resident priest;<ref>Harley</ref> as with the missions, these settlements were typically established in areas with high concentrations of potential native converts.<ref>Ruscin, p. 61</ref> Since 1493, the Kingdom of [[Spain]] had maintained a number of missions throughout ''Nueva España'' ([[New Spain]], consisting of [[Mexico]] and portions of what today are the [[Southwestern United States|Southwestern]] [[United States]]) in order to facilitate colonization of these lands. In this context, the term "California" is used to refer to the territory that comprises [[Alta California]] (chiefly the current U.S. state of [[California]]) and the Mexican states of [[Baja California]] and [[Baja California Sur]]. It was not until the threat of invasion by [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]], in 1765, however, that the King felt such installations were necessary in Upper ("Alta") California. Between 1774 and 1791, the Crown sent forth a number of expeditions to explore the [[Pacific Northwest]], but, by 1819, chose to limit its "reach" to [[Northern California]] due to the costs involved in sustaining such remote outposts. Each [[frontier]] station was forced to be self-supporting, as existing means of supply were inadequate to maintain a colony of any size. California was literally months away from the nearest base in colonized Mexico, and the cargo [[ship]]s of the day were too small to carry more than a few months’ [[ration]]s in their holds. In order to sustain a mission, the ''padres'' required the help of [[colonist]]s or converted [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], called ''neophytes'', to cultivate [[agriculture|crops]] and tend [[livestock]] in the volume needed to support a fair-sized establishment. The scarcity of imported materials, together with a lack of skilled laborers, compelled the Fathers to employ simple [[building material]]s and methods in the construction of mission structures.

[[Image:San Luis Rey de Francia circa 1910 William Amos Haines.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia]], ''circa'' 1910. This mission is architecturally distinctive because of the strong [[Islamic architecture|Moorish]] lines exhibited.]]
Although the missions were considered temporary ventures by the Spanish [[hierarchy]], the development of an individual settlement was not simply a matter of "priestly whim." The founding of a mission followed longstanding rules and procedures; the paperwork involved required months, sometimes years of correspondence, and demanded the attention of virtually every level of the bureaucracy. Once empowered to erect a mission in a given area, the men assigned to it chose a specific site that featured a good water supply, plenty of wood for fires and building material, and ample fields for grazing [[herds]] and raising [[agriculture|crops]]. The padres blessed the site, and with the aid of their [[military]] escort fashioned temporary shelters out of tree limbs or driven stakes, roofed with [[thatch]] or [[Phragmites|reed]]s (''cañas''). It was these simple huts that would ultimately give way to the stone and adobe buildings which exist to this day.

The first priority when beginning a settlement was the location and construction of the [[church]] (''iglesia''). The majority of mission sanctuaries were oriented on a roughly east-west axis to take the best advantage of the sun's position for interior [[illumination (lighting)|illumination]]; the exact alignment depended on the geographic features of the particular site. Once the spot for the church was selected, its position would be marked and the remainder of the mission complex would be laid out. The [[workshop]]s, [[kitchen]]s, living quarters, storerooms, and other ancillary chambers were usually grouped in the form of a [[quadrangle (architecture)|quadrangle]], inside which religious celebrations and other festive events often took place. The ''cuadrángulo'' was rarely a perfect square because the Fathers had no [[surveying]] instruments at their disposal and simply measured off all dimensions by foot.

==Mission life==
[[Image:Death of Father Jayme.jpg|thumb|300px|An illustration depicts the brutal death of Father Luís Jayme by the hands of angry natives at Mission San Diego de Alcalá, [[November 4]], [[1775]].<ref>Ruscin, p. 12</ref> The uprising was the first of a dozen similar incidents that took place in Alta California during the Mission Period; however, most rebellions tended to be localized and short-lived due to the Spaniards' superior weaponry (native resistance more often took the form of non-cooperation, desertion, and raids on mission livestock).<ref>Paddison, p. 48</ref>]]
The Alta California missions were of a type known as ''reduccíones'' (reductions) or ''congregacíones'' (congregations), a concept developed in the late [[16th century]] to be employed wherever the indigenous populations were not already concentrated in native ''pueblos''; Indians were congregated around the mission proper through the use of various means, whereupon they were "reduced" from their "free, undisciplined" state and ultimately converted into civilized members of colonial society.<ref>Rawls, pp. 14-16</ref> A total of 146 [[Franciscan#Name|Friars Minor]], all of whom were ordained as priests (and mostly Spaniards by birth) served in California between 1769–1845. 67 missionaries died at their posts (two as [[martyr]]s: ''Padres'' [[Luís Jayme]] and [[Andrés Quintana]]), while the remainder returned to Europe due to illness, or upon completing their ten-year service commitment.<ref>Leffingwell, pp. 19, 132</ref> As the rules of the Franciscan Order forbade friars to live alone, two missionaries were assigned to each settlement, sequestered in the mission's ''convento''. To these the governor assigned a guard of five or six soldiers under the command of a corporal, who generally acted as steward of the mission's temporal affairs, subject to the fathers' direction.<ref name="engelhardtMAM3-18">Engelhardt 1908, pp. 3-18</ref>

Life at the California missions varied slightly throughout the entire system. Once a "[[gentile]]" was baptized, he or she became a ''[[neophyte]]'', or new believer. This happened only after a brief period during which the initiates were instructed in the most basic aspects of the Catholic faith. But, while many natives were lured to join the missions out of curiosity and sincere desire to participate and engage in trade, many found themselves trapped once they received the sacrament of [[baptism]]. To the ''padres'', a baptized Indian was no longer free to move about the country, but had to labor and worship at the mission under the strict observance of the fathers and overseers, who herded them to daily masses and labors. If an Indian did not report for their duties for a period of a few days, they were searched for, and if it was discovered that they left without permission, they were considered runaways.

[[Image:Mission San Jose natives.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Georg von Langsdorff, an early visitor to California, sketched a group of ''[[Ohlone|Costeño]]'' dancers at [[Mission San José]] in 1806. "''The hair of these people is very coarse, thick, and stands erect; in some it is powdered with down feathers''," Langsdorff noted. "''Their bodies are fantastically painted with charcoal dust, red clay, and chalk. The foremost dancer is ornamented all over with down feathers, which gives him a monkey-like appearance; the hindermost has had the whimsical idea of painting his body to imitate the uniform of a Spanish soldier, with his boots, stockings, breeches, and upper garments''." <ref>Paddison, p. 130</ref>]]
Young native women were required to reside in the ''monjério'' (or "nunnery") under the supervision of a trusted Indian matron who bore the responsibility for their welfare and education. Women only left the convent after they had been "won" by an Indian suitor and were deemed ready for marriage. Following Spanish custom, courtship took place on either side of a barred window. After the marriage ceremony the woman moved out of the mission compound and into one of the family huts.<ref>Newcomb, p. viii</ref> These "nunneries" were considered a necessity by the priests, who felt the women needed to be protected from the men, both Indian and ''de razón''. The cramped and unsanitary conditions the girls lived in contributed to the fast spread of disease and [[population decline]]. So many died at times that many of the Indian residents of the missions urged the fathers to raid new villages to supply them with more women. As of [[December 31]], [[1832]] (the peak of the mission system's development) the mission ''padres'' had performed a combined total of 87,787 baptisms and 24,529 marriages, and recorded 63,789 deaths.<ref>Krell, p. 316</ref>

Bells were vitally important to daily life at any mission. The bells were rung at mealtimes, to call the Mission residents to work and to religious services, during births and funerals, to signal the approach of a ship or returning missionary, and at other times; novices were instructed in the intricate rituals associated with the ringing the mission bells. The daily routine began with sunrise [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and morning [[prayers]], followed by instruction of the natives in the teachings of the [[Roman Catholic]] faith. After a generous (by era standards) breakfast of ''[[atole]]'', the able-bodied men and women were assigned their tasks for the day. The women were committed to dressmaking, knitting, weaving, embroidering, laundering, and cooking, while some of the stronger girls would grind flour or carry adobe bricks (weighing 55 [[Kilogram|lb]], or 25 [[Kilogram|kg]] each) to the men engaged in building. The men were tasked with a variety of jobs, having learned from the missionaries how to plow, sow, irrigate, cultivate, reap, thresh, and glean. In addition, they were taught to build adobe houses, tan leather hides, shear sheep, weave rugs and clothing from wool, make ropes, soap, paint, and other useful duties.

[[Image:Spanish Morning Hymn.png|thumb|300px|"''Ya Viene El Alba''" ("The Dawn Already Comes"), typical of the hymns sung at the missions.<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 30</ref>]]
The work day was six hours, interrupted by dinner (lunch) around 11:00 a.m. and a two-hour ''siesta'', and ended with evening prayers and the [[rosary]], supper, and social activities. About 90 days out of each year were designated as religious or civil holidays, free from [[Manual labour|manual labor]]. The labor organization of the missions resembled a slave plantation in many respects. Foreigners who visited the missions remarked at how the priests' control over the Indians appeared excessive, but necessary given the white men's isolation and numeric disadvantage. Indians were not paid wages as they were not considered free laborers and, as a result, the missions were able to extract [[surplus value]] for the goods produced by the [[Mission Indians]] to the detriment of the other Spanish and Mexican settlers of the time who could not compete economically with the advantage of the mission system. In recent years, much debate has arisen as to the actual treatment of the Indians during the Mission period, and many claim that the California mission system is directly responsible for the decline of the native cultures. Evidence has now been brought to light that puts the Indians' experiences in a very different context.

==Mission industries==
[[Image:Mission San Juan Capistrano 4-5-05 100 6559.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A view of the [[Catalan forge]]s at Mission San Juan Capistrano, the oldest existing facilities (''circa'' 1790s) of their kind in the State of California. The sign at the lower right-hand corner proclaims the site as being "''...part of Orange County's first industrial complex.''"]]

The goal of the missions was, above all, to become self-sufficient in relatively short order. [[Farming]], therefore, was the most important [[industry]] of any mission. [[Barley]], [[maize]], and [[wheat]] were among the most common crops grown. [[Cereal]] grains were dried and ground by stone into [[flour]]. Even today, California is well-known for the abundance and many varieties of [[fruit tree]]s that are cultivated throughout the state. The only fruits indigenous to the region, however, consisted of wild [[berry|berries]] or grew on small bushes. [[Spain|Spanish]] [[missionary|missionaries]] brought fruit seeds over from [[Europe]], many of which had been introduced to the [[Old World]] from [[Asia]] following earlier expeditions to the continent; [[orange (fruit)|orange]], [[grape]], [[apple]], [[peach]], [[pear]], and [[fig]] seeds were among the most prolific of the imports. [[Grape]]s were also grown and [[fermentation (food)|ferment]]ed into [[wine]] for [[sacramental]] use and again, for trading. The specific variety, called the ''Criolla'' or "[[Mission (grape)|Mission grape]]," was first planted at Mission San Juan Capistrano in 1779; in 1783, the first wine produced in Alta California emerged from the mission's winery. Mission San Gabriel Arcángel would unknowingly witness the origin of the California [[citrus]] industry with the planting of the region’s first significant orchard in 1804, though the commercial potential of citrus would not be realized until 1841.<ref>A. Thompson, p. 341</ref> [[Olive]]s (first cultivated at Mission San Diego de Alcalá) were grown, cured, and pressed under large stone [[wheel]]s to extract their [[Vegetable oil|oil]], both for use at the mission and to trade for other goods. Father Serra set aside a portion of the Mission Carmel gardens in 1774 for [[tobacco]] plants, a practice which soon spread throughout the mission system.<ref>Bean and Lawson, p. 37: "''Serra's decision to plant tobacco at the missions was prompted by the fact that from San Diego to Monterey the natives invariably begged him for Spanish tobacco''."</ref>

It was also the missions' responsibility to provide the Spanish forts, or "presidios", with the necessary foodstuffs, and manufactured goods to sustain operations. It was a constant point of contention between missionaries and the soldiers as to how many ''fanegas'' <ref>A ''fanega'' is equal to 100 [[Pound (mass)|pound]]s.</ref> of barley, or how many shirts or blankets the mission had to provide the garrisons on any given year. At times these requirements were hard to meet, especially during years of drought, or when the much anticipated shipments from the port of [[San Blas, Nayarit|San Blas]] failed to arrive. The Spaniards kept meticulous records of mission activities, and each year reports submitted to the Father-Presidente summarizing both the material and spiritual status at each of the settlements.

[[Image:Primitive plow.jpg|thumb|300px|Natives utilize a primitive [[plough|plow]] to prepare a field for planting near Mission San Diego de Alcalá.]]
Livestock was raised, not only for the purpose of obtaining meat, but also for wool, leather, and tallow, and for cultivating the land. In 1832, at the height of their prosperity, the missions collectively owned:
* 151,180 head of cattle;
* 137,969 sheep;
* 14,522 horses;
* 1,575 mules or burros;
* 1,711 goats; and
* 1,164 swine.<ref>Krell, p. 316: As of December 31, 1832.</ref>

All of these animals were originally brought up from Mexico. A great many Indians were required to guard the herds and flocks, which created the need for "''...a class of horsemen scarcely surpassed anywhere.''" <ref name="engelhardtMAM3-18">Engelhardt 1908, pp. 3-18</ref> These animals multiplied beyond the settler's expectations, often overrunning pastures and extending well-beyond the domains of the missions. The giant herds of horses and cows took well to the climate and the extensive pastures of the Coastal California region, but at a heavy price for the Native inhabitants. The uncontrolled spread of these new species quickly exhausted the grasslands and hillsides the Indians depended on for their seed harvests. This problem was also recognized by the Spaniards themselves, who at times sent out extermination parties to kill thousands of excess livestock, when the populations grew beyond their control. Mission [[kitchen]]s and [[bakery|bakeries]] prepared and served thousands of meals each day. [[Candles]], [[soap]], [[Grease (lubricant)|grease]], and [[ointment]]s were all made from [[tallow]] ([[kitchen rendering|rendered]] [[animal]] [[fat]]) in large [[vat]]s located just outside the west wing. Also situated in this general area were vats for dyeing [[wool]] and [[tanning]] [[leather]], and primitive [[loom]]s for [[weaving]]s. Large ''bodegas'' (warehouses) provided long-term storage for preserved foodstuffs and other treated materials.

[[Image:Mission sb lavanderia.jpg|left|thumb|300px|right|Mission Santa Barbara's ''lavanderia'' was constructed by the [[Chumash (tribe)|Chumash]] Indians around 1806.]]
Each mission had to fabricate virtually all of its construction materials from local materials. Workers in the ''carpintería'' ([[carpentry]] shop) used crude methods to shape beams, lintels, and other structural elements; more skilled artisans carved doors, furniture, and wooden implements. For certain applications bricks (''ladrillos'') were fired in [[oven]]s ([[kilns]]) to strengthen them and make them more resistant to the elements; when ''tejas'' (roof tiles) eventually replaced the conventional ''jacal'' roofing (densely-packed reeds) they were placed in the kilns to harden them as well. Glazed ceramic pots, dishes, and canisters were also made in mission kilns. Prior to the establishment of the missions, the native peoples knew only how to utilize bone, seashells, stone, and wood for building, tool making, weapons, and so forth. The missionaries discovered that the Indians, who regarded labor as degrading to the masculine sex, had to be taught industry in order to learn how to be self-supportive. The result was the establishment of a great manual training school that comprised agriculture, the mechanical arts, and the raising and care of livestock. Everything consumed and otherwise utilized by the natives was produced at the missions under the supervision of the padres; thus, the neophytes not only supported themselves, but after 1811 sustained the entire military and civil government of California.<ref>Engelhardt 1922, p. 211</ref> The [[foundry]] at Mission San Juan Capistrano was the first to introduce the Indians to the [[Iron Age]]. The [[blacksmith]] used the mission’s [[Catalan forge|Catalan furnaces]] (California’s first) to [[smelt]] and fashion [[iron]] into everything from basic tools and hardware (such as [[nail (fastener)|nails]]) to crosses, gates, hinges, even [[cannon]] for mission defense. Iron was one commodity in particular that the mission relied solely on trade to acquire, as the missionaries had neither the know-how nor the technology to [[mining|mine]] and process [[metal]] [[ore]]s.

No study of the missions would be complete without mention of their extensive [[water supply]] systems. Stone ''zanjas'' ([[aqueducts]]), sometimes spanning miles, brought [[fresh water]] from a nearby river or spring to the mission site. Baked clay pipes, joined together with [[lime mortar]] or [[bitumen]], deposited the water into large [[cistern]]s and gravity-fed fountains, and emptied into waterways where the force of the water was used to turn grinding wheels and other simple machinery, or dispensed for use in cleaning. Water used for drinking and cooking was allowed to trickle through alternate layers of sand and charcoal to remove the impurities.

==Missions in present–day California (U.S.)==
[[Image:Mission San Juan Bautista.JPG|thumb|300px|right|A view of the restored [[Mission San Juan Bautista]] and its three-bell ''campanario'' ("bell wall") in 2004.]]
===Founding===
The 21 Alta California missions were established along the northernmost section of California's [[El Camino Real (California)|El Camino Real]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for "The Royal Highway," though often referred to as "The King's Highway"), christened in honor of King [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]]), much of which is now [[U.S. Route 101]] and several [[Mission Street]]s. The mission planning was begun in 1767 under the leadership of Fray [[Junípero Serra]], O.F.M. (who, in 1767, along with his fellow [[priest]]s, had taken control over a group of missions in [[Baja California]] previously administered by the Jesuits). Father [[Pedro Estévan Tápis]] proposed the establishment of a mission on one of [[Channel Islands of California|California's Channel Islands]] in 1784, with either [[Santa Catalina Island, California|Santa Catalina]] or [[Santa Cruz Island|Santa Cruz]] (known as ''Limú'' to the inhabitants) being the most likely locations; an offshore mission might have attracted potential converts who were not disposed to associate with a mainland oupost, and would have been an effective measure to restrict smuggling operations.<ref>Bancroft, pp. 33-34</ref> Though Governor [[José Joaquín de Arrillaga|Arrillaga]] approved the plan the following year, an outbreak of ''sarampion'' ([[measles]]) that left some 200 natives dead, coupled with a scarcity of good lands and water, left the success of such a venture in doubt, and no attempt to found an island mission was ever made. In September, 1821 Father Mariano Payeras, "''Comisario Prefecto''" of the California missions, visited Cañada de Santa Ysabel as part of a plan to establish an entire chain of inland missions, with the Santa Ysabel Asistencia as the "mother" mission. The plan never came to fruition, however. Work on the mission chain was concluded in 1823, even though Serra had died in 1784. Father [[Fermin Lasuen|Fermín Francisco de Lasuén]] took up Serra's work and established nine more mission sites, from 1786 through 1798; others established the last three compounds, along with at least ''asistencias''.<ref>Young, p. 17</ref> At the peak of its development in 1832, the mission system controlled an area equal to approximately one-sixth of Alta California.<ref>Robinson, p. 25</ref> Two short-lived settlements, [[Mission Puerto de Purísima Concepción]] and [[Mission San Pedro y San Pablo de Bicuñer]], though located on the California side of the [[Colorado River]], were founded under the authority of the [[Spanish missions in Arizona|Arizona mission]] hierarchy and are therefore not included herein.

===Restoration===
No group of structures in the United States elicits the intense interest that the missions of California inspire (California is home to the greatest number of well-preserved missions than any other U.S. state).<ref>Morrison, p. 214: That the buildings in the California mission chain are in large part intact is due in no small measure to their relatively recent construction; Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded more than two centuries after the establishment of the [[Spanish missions in Florida|Mission of Nombre de Dios]] in [[St. Augustine, Florida]] in 1565 and 170 years following the founding of [[Spanish missions in New Mexico|Mission San Gabriel del Yunque]] in present-day [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]] in 1598.</ref> The missions are collectively the best-known [[historic]] element of the coastal regions of California. Four of the twenty-one missions have been designated [[minor basilica]]s by the [[Holy See]] due to their cultural, historic, architectural, and religious importance. Seven are designated [[National Historic Landmark]]s, fourteen are listed in the [[National Register of Historic Places]], and all are designated as [[California Historical Landmark]]s for their historic, architectural, and archaeological significance. Because virtually all of the artwork at the missions served either a devotional or didactic purpose, there was no underlying reason for the mission residents to record their surroundings graphically; visitors, however, found them to be objects of curiosity.<ref>Stern and Miller, p. 85</ref> During the 1850s a number of artists found gainful employment as draftsmen attached to expeditions sent to map the [[Pacific]] coastline and the border between California and Mexico (as well as plot practical railroad routes); many of the drawings were reproduced as [[lithograph]]s in the expedition reports. In 1875 American [[illustrator]] [[Henry Ford (illustrator)|Henry Chapman Ford]] began visiting each of the twenty-one mission sites, where he created a historically-important portfolio of watercolors, oils, and etchings. His depictions of the missions were (in part) responsible for the revival of interest in the state's Spanish heritage, and indirectly for the restoration of the missions. The 1880s saw the appearance of a number of articles on the missions in national publications and the first books on the subject; as a result, a large number of artists did one or more mission paintings, though few attempted series.<ref>Stern and Neuerburg, p. 95</ref> The popularity of the missions also stems largely from [[Helen Hunt Jackson]]'s 1884 novel ''[[Ramona]]'' and the subsequent efforts of [[Charles Fletcher Lummis]], [[William Randolph Hearst]], and other members of the "Landmarks Club of Southern California" to restore the missions in the early 20th century.<ref>Thompson, Mark, pp. 185-186: In the words of Charles Lummis, the historic structures "''...were falling to ruin with frightful rapidity, their roofs being breached or gone, the adobe walls melting under the winter rains''."</ref> Lummis wrote in 1895,
<blockquote>''In ten years from now—unless our intelligence shall awaken at once—"there will remain of these noble piles nothing but a few indeterminable heaps of adobe. We shall deserve and shall have the contempt of all thoughtful people if we suffer our noble missions to fall.''" <ref>"Past Campaigns"</ref></blockquote>
In 1911 author [[John Steven McGroarty]] penned ''The Mission Play'', a three-hour pageant describing the California missions from their founding in 1769 through secularization in 1834, and ending with their "final ruin" in 1847.

[[Image:San Juan Capistrano 1880 painting.jpg|thumb|300px|left|''Misión San Juan de Capistrano'' by Henry Chapman Ford, 1880. The work depicts the rear of the "Great Stone Church" and part of the mission's [[Cemetery|''campo santos'']].]]
Today, the missions exist in varying degrees of architectural integrity and structural soundness. The most common extant features at the mission grounds include the church building and an ancillary ''convento'' ([[convent]]) wing. In some cases (in [[San Rafael, California|San Rafael]], [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]], and [[Soledad, California|Soledad]], for example), the current buildings are replicas constructed on or near the original site. Other mission compounds remain relatively intact and true to their original, Mission Era construction. A notable example of an intact complex is the now-threatened Mission San Miguel Arcángel: its chapel retains the original interior [[mural]]s created by [[Salinan]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] under the direction of [[Esteban Munras]], a Spanish artist and last Spanish diplomat to California. This structure was closed to the public in 2003 due to severe damage from the [[San Simeon, California|San Simeon]] [[Earthquake]]. Many missions have preserved (or in some cases reconstructed) historic features in addition to chapel buildings. The missions have earned a prominent place in California's historic consciousness, and a steady stream of tourists from all over the world visit them. In recognition of that fact, on [[November 30]], [[2004]] President [[George W. Bush]] signed HR 1446, the "California Mission Preservation Act," into law. The measure will fund $10 million over a five-year period to the California Missions Foundation for projects related to the physical preservation of the missions, including structural rehabilitation, stabilization, and conservation of mission art and artifacts.<ref>[http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=108_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ420.108.pdf California Missions Preservation Act]</ref>

==Mission Trail==
In order to facilitate overland travel, the mission settlements were situated approximately 30 miles (48 kilometers) apart, so that they were separated by one day's long ride on horseback (or three days on foot) along the 600-mile (966-kilometer) long "California Mission Trail." Father Lasuén is credited for having brought the concept to life in 1798 when he successfully argued that filling in the "spaces" along [[El Camino Real (California)|El Camino Real]] with additional outposts would provide much-needed rest stops, where travelers could take lodging in relative safety and comfort.<ref>Yenne, p. 132</ref> Heavy freight movement was practical only via water. Tradition has it that the padres sprinkled [[mustard plant|mustard]] seeds along the trail in order to mark it with bright yellow flowers.<ref>Markham, p. 79; Riesenberg, p. 260</ref>

===In geographical order, north to south===
[[Image:1920 Alta California mission trail.jpg|thumb|250px|right|An early map illustrating the route of "El Camino Real" in 1821, along with the 21 Franciscan missions in Alta California. The road at this time was merely a horse and mule trail.]]
* [[Mission San Francisco Solano]], in [[Sonoma, California|Sonoma]]
* [[Mission San Rafael Arcángel]], in [[San Rafael, California|San Rafael]]
* [[Mission San Francisco de Asís]] (Mission Dolores), in [[San Francisco]]
* [[Mission San José]], in [[Fremont, California|Fremont]]
* [[Mission Santa Clara de Asís]], in [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]]
* [[Mission Santa Cruz]], in [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]]
* [[Mission San Juan Bautista]], in [[San Juan Bautista, California|San Juan Bautista]]
* [[Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo]], south of [[Carmel, California|Carmel]]
* [[Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad]], south of [[Soledad, California|Soledad]]
* [[Mission San Antonio de Padua]], northwest of [[Jolon, California|Jolon]]
* [[Mission San Miguel Arcángel]], north of [[Paso Robles, California|Paso Robles]]
* [[Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa]], in [[San Luis Obispo, California|San Luis Obispo]]
* [[Mission La Purísima Concepción]], northeast of [[Lompoc, California|Lompoc]]
* [[Mission Santa Inés]], in [[Solvang, California|Solvang]]
* [[Mission Santa Barbara]], in [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]]
* [[Mission San Buenaventura]], in [[Ventura, California|Ventura]]
* [[Mission San Fernando Rey de España]], in [[Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California|Mission Hills (Los Angeles)]]
* [[Mission San Gabriel Arcángel]], in [[San Gabriel, California|San Gabriel]]
* [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]], in [[San Juan Capistrano, California|San Juan Capistrano]]
* [[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia|Mission San Luís Rey de Francia]], in [[Oceanside, California|Oceanside]]
* [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]], in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]

===In chronological order===
====Franciscan Establishments (1769–1823)====
* [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]] founded in 1769
* [[Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo]] founded in 1770
* [[Mission San Antonio de Padua]] founded in 1771
* [[Mission San Gabriel Arcángel]] founded in 1771
* [[Mission San Luis Obispo de Tolosa]] founded in 1772
* [[Mission San Francisco de Asís]] (Mission Dolores) founded in 1776
* [[Mission San Juan Capistrano]] founded in 1776
* [[Mission Santa Clara de Asís]] founded in 1777
* [[Mission San Buenaventura]] founded in 1782
* [[Mission Santa Barbara]] founded in 1786
* [[Mission La Purísima Concepción]] founded in 1787
* [[Mission Santa Cruz]] founded in 1791
* [[Mission Nuestra Señora de la Soledad]] founded in 1791
* [[Mission San José]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Juan Bautista]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Miguel Arcángel]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Fernando Rey de España]] founded in 1797
* [[Mission San Luis Rey de Francia]] founded in 1798
* [[Mission Santa Inés]] founded in 1804
* [[Mission San Rafael Arcángel]] founded in 1817 — originally planned as an ''asistencia'' to Mission San Francisco de Asís
* [[Mission San Francisco Solano]] founded in 1823 — originally planned as an ''asistencia'' to Mission San Rafael Arcángel

===''Asistencias'' in geographical order, north to south===
* [[San Pedro y San Pablo Asistencia]], founded in 1786 in [[Pacifica, California|Pacifica]]
* [[Santa Margarita de Cortona Asistencia]], founded in 1787 in [[Santa Margarita, California|Santa Margarita]]
* [[Nuestra Señora Reina de los Angeles Asistencia]], founded in 1784 in [[Los Angeles]]
* [[Santa Ysabel Asistencia]], founded in 1818 in [[Santa Ysabel, California|Santa Ysabel]]
* [[San Antonio de Pala Asistencia]] (Pala Mission), founded in 1816 in eastern [[San Diego County]]

===''Estancias'' in geographical order, north to south===
* [[San Bernardino de Sena Estancia]], founded in 1819 in [[Redlands, California|Redlands]]
* [[Diego Sepúlveda Adobe|Santa Ana Estancia]], founded in 1817 in [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa]]
* [[Las Flores Estancia]] (Las Flores Asistencia), founded in 1823 in [[Camp Pendleton, California|Camp Pendleton]]

==Headquarters of the Alta California Mission System==
* Mission San Diego de Alcalá (1769–1771)
* Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1771–1815)
* Mission La Purísima Concepción* (1815–1819)
* Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1819–1824)
* Mission San José* (1824–1827)
* Mission San Carlos Borromeo de Carmelo (1827–1830)
* Mission San José* (1830–1833)
* Mission Santa Barbara (1833–1846)

<nowiki>*</nowiki> Fathers Payeras and Durán remained at their resident missions during their terms as "Father-Presidente," therefore those settlements became the ''[[de facto]]'' headquarters (until 1833, when all mission records were permanently relocated to Santa Barbara).<ref>Yenne, p. 186</ref>

==Father-Presidents of the Alta California Mission System==
* Father [[Junípero Serra]] (1769–1784)
* Father [[Francisco Palóu]] (acting) (1784–1785)
* Father [[Fermín Francisco de Lasuén]] (1785–1803)
* Father [[Pedro Estévan Tápis]] (1803–1812)
* Father [[José Francisco de Paula Señan]] (1812–1815)
* Father [[Mariano Payéras]] (1815–1820)
* Father José Francisco de Paula Señan (1820–1823)
* Father [[Vicente Francisco de Sarría]] (1823–1824)
* Father [[Narciso Durán]] (1824–1827)
* Father [[José Bernardo Sánchez]] (1827–1831)
* Father Narciso Durán (1831–1838)
* Father [[José Joaquin Jimeno]] (1838–1844)
* Father Narciso Durán (1844–1846)

The "Father-Presidente" was the head of the Catholic missions in Alta and Baja California. He was appointed by the [[College of San Fernando de Mexico]] until 1812, when the position became known as the "Commissary Prefect" who was appointed by the Commissary General of the Indies (a Franciscan residing in Spain). Beginning in 1831, separate individuals were elected to oversee Upper and Lower California.<ref>Ruscin, p. 196</ref>

==Military Districts==
California during the Mission Period was divided into four military districts. Four ''presidios'', strategically placed along the California coast, served to protect the missions and other Spanish settlements in Upper California.<ref>Engelhardt 1920, p. 228</ref> Each of these garrisons (''comandancias'') functioned as a base of military operations for a specific region. Although independent of one another, a sort of unison or connection existed among the missions of each district, which were organized as follows:

* [[Presidio of San Diego|El Presidio Real de San Diego]] founded on [[July 16]], [[1769]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''First Military District'' (San Diego, San Luis Rey, San Juan Capistrano, and San Gabriel);<ref>Leffingwell, p. 22</ref>
* [[Presidio of Santa Barbara|El Presidio Real de Santa Bárbara]] founded on [[April 12]], [[1782]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''Second Military District'' (San Fernando Rey, San Buenaventura, Santa Barbara, Santa Inés, and La Purísima);<ref>Leffingwell, p. 68</ref>
* [[Presidio of Monterey, California|El Presidio Real de San Carlos de Monterey]] (''El Castillo'') founded on [[June 3]], [[1770]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''Third Military District'' (San Luis Obispo, San Miguel, San Antonio, Soledad, San Carlos, San Juan Bautista, Santa Cruz, and Santa Clara);<ref>Leffingwell, p. 119</ref> and
* [[Presidio of San Francisco|El Presidio Real de San Francisco]] founded on [[December 17]], [[1776]] — responsible for the defense of all installations within the ''Fourth Military District'' (San José, San Francisco, San Rafael, and Solano).<ref>Leffingwell, p. 154</ref>

[[Presidio of Sonoma|El Presidio de Sonoma]], or "Sonoma Barracks" (a collection of guardhouses, storerooms, living quarters, and an [[observation tower]]) was established in 1836 by [[Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo]] (the "Commandante-General of the Northern Frontier of Alta California") as a part of [[Mexico]]'s strategy to halt [[Russia]]n incursions into the region.<ref>Leffingwell, p. 170</ref> The Sonoma Presidio became the new headquarters of the Mexican Army in California, while the remaining ''presidios'' were essentially abandoned and, in time, fell into ruins.

An ongoing power struggle between church and state grew increasingly heated and lasted for decades. Originating as a feud between Father Serra and [[Pedro Fages]] (the military governor of Alta California from 1770 to 1774, who regarded the Spanish installations in California as military institutions first and religious outposts second), the uneasy relationship persisted for more than sixty years.<ref>Paddison, p. 23</ref> Dependent upon one another for their very survival, military leaders and mission ''padres'' nevertheless adopted conflicting stances regarding everything from land rights, the allocation of supplies, protection of the missions, and in particular the status of the native populations.

==Controversy==
{{main|California mission clash of cultures}}
There is controversy over the California Department of Education's treatment of the missions in the Department's elementary curriculum. A number of parents have complained about the so-called "[[California 4th Grade Mission Project|mission projects]]" many children are assigned in the [[fourth grade]]; in the tradition of [[Historical revisionism#New World "discovery"|historical revisionism]], it has been alleged that the curriculum "waters down" the harsh treatment of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. For instance, the role of historical figures, such as Father Serra, can be interpreted as either one of [[cultural imperialism]] or as a noble cause, depending upon the context given. Modern [[anthropology|anthropologists]] cite a cultural bias on the part of the missionaries that blinded them to the natives' plight and caused them to develop strong negative opinions of the California Indians.<ref>McKanna, p. 15; also, per Hittell, p. 753: "''Boscana himself and his brother missionaries were men of narrow range of thought, continually seeking among the superstitions of the natives for resemblances of the true faith and ever ready to catch at the slightest hints and magnify them into complicated dogmas corresponding afar of those which they themselves taught''."</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book|author=[[Hubert Howe Bancroft|Bancroft, Hubert Howe]]|year=1886|title=History of California, Volume II (1801-1894)|publisher=The History Company, San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Bean, Lowell John and Harry Lawton|year=1976|title=Native Californians: A Theoretical Perspective|publisher=Ballena Press, Banning, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Zephyrin Engelhardt|Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M.]]|year=1908|title=The Missions and Missionaries of California, Volume One|publisher=The James H. Barry Co., San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M.|year=1920|title=San Diego Mission|publisher=James H. Barry Company, San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Engelhardt, Zephyrin, O.F.M.|year=1922|title=San Juan Capistrano Mission|publisher=Standard Printing Co., Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Maynard Geiger|Geiger, Maynard J., O.F.M., Ph.D.]]|year=1969|title=Franciscan Missionaries in Hispanic California, 1769-1848: A Biographical Dictionary|publisher=Huntington Library, San Marino, CA|id=}}
* {{cite web|author=Harley, R. Bruce|title=The San Bernardino Asistencias|year=1997-2003|work=California Mission Studies Association|url=http://www.ca-missions.org/harley.html|accessdate=November 21 |accessyear=2006}}
* {{cite book|author=Hittell, Theodore H.|year=1898|title=History of California, Volume I|publisher=N.J. Stone & Company, San Francisco, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=[[George Wharton James|James, George Wharton]]|year=1913|title=The Old Franciscan Missions Of California|publisher=Little, Brown, and Co. Inc., Boston, MA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Jones, Roger W.|year=1997|title=California from the Conquistadores to the Legends of Laguna|publisher=Rockledge Enterprises, Laguna Hills, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Kelsey, H.|year=1993|title=Mission San Juan Capistrano: A Pocket History|publisher=Interdisciplinary Research, Inc., Altadena, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Krell, Dorothy (ed.)|year=1979|title=The California Missions: A Pictorial History|publisher=Sunset Publishing Corporation, Menlo Park, CA|id=ISBN 0-376-05172-8}}
* {{cite journal|last=Kroeber|first=Alfred L.|authorlink=Alfred L. Kroeber|title=A Mission Record of the California Indians|journal=University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology|volume=8|issue=1|pages=1-27|date=1908}}
* {{cite book|author=Leffingwell, Randy|year=2005|title=California Missions and Presidios: The History & Beauty of the Spanish Missions|publisher=Voyageur Press, Inc., Stillwater, MN|id=ISBN 0-89658-492-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Markham, Edwin|year=1914|title=California the Wonderful: Her Romantic History, Her Picturesque People, Her Wild Shores...|publisher=Hearst's International Library Company, Inc., New York, NY|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=McKanna, Clare Vernon|year=2002|title=Race and Homicide in Nineteenth-Century California|publisher=University of Nevada Press, Reno, NV|id=ISBN 0-87417-515-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Milliken, Randall|year=1995|title=A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area 1769-1910|publisher=Ballena Press, Menlo Park, CA|id=ISBN 0-87919-132-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Morrison, Hugh|year=1987|title=Early American Architecture: From the First Colonial Settlements to the National Period|publisher=Dover Publications, New York, NY|id=ISBN 0-48625-492-5}}
* {{cite book|author=[[Rexford Newcomb|Newcomb, Rexford]]|year=1973|title=The Franciscan Mission Architecture of Alta California|publisher=Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY|id=ISBN 0-486-21740-X}}
* {{cite book|author=Paddison, Joshua (ed.)|year=1999|title=A World Transformed: Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush|publisher=Heyday Books, Berkeley, CA|id=ISBN 1-890771-13-9}}
* {{cite web|title=Past Campaigns|year=2000|work=California Mission Studies Association|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5RUNIn7eN|accessdate=July 8|accessyear=2007}}
* {{cite web|title=The Pious Fund of the Californias|year=1911|work=Catholic Encyclopedia|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5RUMyEXm5|accessdate=July 8|accessyear=2007}}
* {{cite web|title=Pre-Mission History|year=2007|work=Old Mission Santa Inés|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5RUNO1SFf|accessdate=August 26|accessyear=2007}}
* {{cite book|author=Rawls, James J.|year=1984|title=Indians of California: The Changing Image|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK|id=ISBN 0-8061-2020-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Riesenberg, Felix|year=1962|title=The Golden Road: The Story of California's Spanish Mission Trail|publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York, NY|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Robinson, W.W.|year=1948|title=Land in California|publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Ruscin, Terry|year=1999|title=Mission Memoirs|publisher=Sunbelt Publications, San Diego, CA|id=ISBN 0-932653-30-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Stern, Jean and Gerald J. Miller|year=1995|title=Romance of the Bells: The California Missions in Art|publisher=The Irvine Museum, Irvine, CA|id=ISBN 0-9635468-5-6}}
* {{cite book|author=Thompson, Anthony W., Robert J. Church, and Bruce H. Jones|year=2000|title=Pacific Fruit Express|publisher=Signature Press, Wilton, CA|id=ISBN 1-930013-03-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Thompson, Mark|year=2001|title=American Character: The Curious Life of Charles Fletcher Lummis and the Rediscovery of the Southwest|publisher=Arcade Publishing, New York, NY|id=ISBN 1-55970-550-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Yenne, Bill|year=2004|title=The Missions of California|publisher=Advantage Publshers Group, San Diego, CA|id=ISBN 1-59223-319-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Young, S., and Levick, M.|year=1988|title=The Missions of California|publisher=Chronicle Books LLC, San Francisco, CA|id=ISBN 0-8118-1938-8}}
</div>

==Further reading==
<div class="references-small">
* {{cite book|author=Baer, Kurt|year=1958|title=Architecture of the California Missions|publisher=University of California Press, Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Carillo, J. M., O.F.M.|year=1967|title=The Story of Mission San Antonio de Padua|publisher=Paisano Press, Inc., Balboa Island, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Camphouse, M.|year=1974|title=Guidebook to the Missions of California|publisher=Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA|id=ISBN 0-378-03792-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Crump, S.|year=1975|title=California's Spanish Missions: Their Yesterdays and Todays |publisher=Trans-Anglo Books, Del Mar, CA|id=ISBN 0-87046-028-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Drager, K., and Fracchia, C.|year=1997|title=The Golden Dream: California from Gold Rush to Statehood|publisher=Graphic Arts Center Publishing Company, Portland, OR|id=ISBN 1-55868-312-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Johnson, P., ed.|year=1964|title=The California Missions|publisher=Lane Book Company, Menlo Park, CA|id=}}
* {{cite book|author=Moorhead, Max L.|year=1991|title=The Presidio: Bastion Of The Spanish Borderlands|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK|id=ISBN 0-8061-2317-6}}
* {{cite book|author=Rawls, J. and Bean, W.|year=1997|title=California: An Interpretive History|publisher=McGraw-Hill, New York, NY|id=ISBN 0-07-052411-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Robinson, W.W.|year=1953|title=Panorama: A Picture History of Southern California|publisher=Anderson, Ritchie & Simon, Los Angeles, CA|id=}}
*{{cite book|author=Weitze, Karen J.|year=1984|title=California's Mission Revival|publisher=Hennessy & Ingalls, Inc., Los Angeles, CA|id=ISBN 0-912158-89-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Wright, Ralph B., Ed.|year=1984|title=California's Missions|publisher=Lowman Publishing Company, Arroyo Grande, CA|id=}}
</div>

==See also==
* [[California 4th Grade Mission Project]]
* [[History of California to 1899]]
* [[History of Christian Missions]]
* [[History of the west coast of North America]]
* [[Indian Reductions]]
* [[Jesuit Asia missions]]
* [[Jesuit Reductions]]
* [[Juan Bautista de Anza National Historic Trail]]
* [[Mission (station)]]
* [[Missionary]]
* [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]

==External links==
{{commons|California missions}}
* [http://www.ca-missions.org www.ca-missions.org] — Official website of the California Mission Studies Association
* [http://www.missionsofcalifornia.org www.missionsofcalifornia.org] — Official website of the California Missions Foundation
* [http://notfrisco.com/almanac/missions/ Almanac: California Missions]
* [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/anthony/missions.html Animated Map of Mission Formation in Alta California]
* [http://www.cahighways.org/elcamino.html/ California Highways - Trails and Roads: El Camino Real]
* [http://www.californiahistoricalsociety.org/ California Historical Society] official website
* [http://www.californias-missions.org/ Californias-Missions.org: A Resource Website for Students, Parents, and Teachers]
* [http://missions.bgmm.com/ California Missions]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03177b.htm California Missions] article at [[Catholic Encyclopedia|''The Catholic Encyclopedia'']]
* [http://www.catcorman.com/missions01.html California Missions Photo Portfolio] Photographs of the California Missions taken by Catherine Corman.
* [http://www.thecaliforniamissions.com/ The California Missions]
* [http://www.californiamissions.com/ California Missions: A Virtual Tour]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/cbhtml/cbmissio.html Early California History: The Missions]
* [http://www.huntington.org/Information/ECPPmain.htm Early California Population Project (ECPP)] — provides public access to all the information contained in California's historic mission registers
* [http://www.ismpress.com/junipero_serra.html ''Junipero Serra, the Vatican, & Enslavement Theology''] offers a critical perspective on the missions' impact on California's Indians
* [http://missiontour.org/ Mission Tour Home]
* [http://www.cr.nps.gov/nr/ National Register of Historic Places] official website
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/3/8/5/13854/13854-h/13854-h.htm ''The Old Franciscan Missions of California'' eText] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.earlysandiego.org/ The San Diego Founders Trail] official website

{{missions-by-country}}
[[Category:Archaeological sites in California]]
[[Category:California missions| ]]
[[Category:Colonial Mexico]]
[[Category:History of California]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in the United States]]
[[Category:Spanish missions in the Americas|California]]

[[fr:Missions espagnoles de Californie]]

Pueblo de Taos

2007-10-05T14:35:40Z

207.193.136.7:

kimberly {{Infobox_nrhp | name =Taos Pueblo
| nrhp_type =nhl
| image =NMtrip-05-042.jpg
| caption =Taos Pueblo today
| nearest_city= [[Taos, New Mexico]]
| area =
| added = [[October 15]], [[1966]]
| governing_body = Private
| refnum=66000496 <ref name="nris">{{cite web|url=http://www.nr.nps.gov/|title=National Register Information System|date=2006-03-15|work=National Register of Historic Places|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref>
}}
{{Infobox World Heritage Site
| WHS = Pueblo de Taos
| Image =
| State Party = [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px]] [[United States of America]]
| Type = Cultural
| Criteria = iv
| ID = 492
| Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Americas|Europe and North America]]
| Year = 1992
| Session = 16th
| Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/492
}}

'''Taos Pueblo''' (or '''Pueblo de Taos'''), continuously inhabited for more than 1,000 years, is the ancient [[pueblo]] of a [[Tiwa languages|Northern Tiwa]] speaking [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribe of [[Pueblo people]]. It lies about 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the modern city of [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]], [[New Mexico]], [[United States|USA]], on Red Willow Creek or [[Rio Pueblo]], a small stream which flows from the [[Sangre de Cristo Range]]. 95,000 acres (384 km²) are attached to the pueblo, and about 2,000 people live there. In the Northern Tiwa language, the name of Taos is ''Tua-tah'', which means "our village." Taos Pueblo is a member of the [[Eight Northern Pueblos]].

Taos Pueblo's most prominent architectural feature is a multi-storied residential complex of reddish-brown [[adobe]] divided into two parts by the [[Rio Pueblo]]. According to [http://taospueblo.com/ the Pueblo's Web site], it was probably built between 1000 and 1450 A.D. It was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] on [[October 9]], [[1960]], and later became a [[World Heritage Site]]. As of 2006, about 150 people live in it full-time.

The history of Taos Pueblo include the plotting of the [[Pueblo Revolt]] in [[1680]], a [[Siege of Pueblo de Taos|siege]] by U.S. forces in [[1847]], and the return by [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] in [[1970]] of the Pueblo's 48,000 acres (194 km²) of mountain land taken by President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and designated as the [[Carson National Forest]] early in the twentieth century. Blue Lake, which the people of the Pueblo traditionally consider sacred, was included in this return of Taos land. The Pueblo's web site names the acquisition of the sacred Blue Lake as the most important event in its history due to the spiritual belief that the Taos natives originated from the lake itself.

The North-Side Pueblo is said to be one of the most photographed and painted buildings in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. It is the largest multistoried Pueblo structure still existent and continuously inhabited. It is made of adobe walls that are often several feet thick. Its primary purpose was for defense. Up to as late as 1900, access to the rooms on lower floors was by ladders on the outside to the roof, and then down an inside ladder. In case of an attack, outside ladders could easily be pulled up.

The homes in this structure usually consist of two rooms, one of which is for general living and sleeping, and the second of which is for cooking, eating, and storage. Each home is self-contained; there are no passageways between the houses. Taos Indians made little use of furniture in the past, but today they have [[table]]s, [[chair]]s, and [[bed]]s. In the Pueblo, [[electricity]], [[running water]], and indoor [[plumbing]] are prohibited.

The pueblo wall completely encloses the village except at the entrance as a symbol of the village boundaries. Now rather short, the wall used to be much taller for protection against surrounding tribes. The river running through the pueblo serves as the primary source for drinking and cooking water for the residents of the village. In the winter, the river never completely freezes although it does form a heavy layer of ice. Because the river moves so swiftly, the ice can be broken to obtain the fresh water beneath.

Three religions are represented in the Pueblo: [[Christianity]], the [[aboriginal religion]], and the [[Native American Church]]. Most of the Indians are [[Roman Catholic]]. [[Saint Jerome]], or [[San Geronimo]], is the [[patron saint]] of the pueblo.

Most archeologists believe that the Taos Indians along with other Pueblo Indians settled along the [[Rio Grande]] migrated from the [[Four Corners]] region. The dwellings of that region were inhabited by the [[Anasazi]], and a long drought in the area in the late 1200s, may have caused them to move to the Rio Grande where the water supply was more dependable.

The deep feeling of belonging to a community, summed up in their phrase, “we are in one nest,” has held the Taos people together. Both men and women are expected to offer their services or “community duties,” when needed. One should be cooperative and never allow his own desires to be destructive of the community’s interest. One of Taos’s strongest institutions is the [[family]]. Descent on both the father and the mother’s side of the family is equally recognized. Each primary family lives in a separate dwelling so when a couple gets married, they move to their own home. With relatives so near by, everyone is available to help care for the children. The elderly teach the young the values and traditions that have been handed down, which protects the integrity of the Taos culture.

==Additional Images==
<gallery>
|Taos Pueblo today
Image:Taospueblo001.jpg|Taos Pueblo, 1893 illustration
Image:Taospueblo002.jpg|Taos Pueblo, circa 1920
Image:Taospueblo003.jpg|Detail of Taos Pueblo
Image:NMtrip-05-047.jpg|Taos Pueblo with Rio Pueblo in foreground
Image:taos-pueblo-church.JPG|The remains of the original San Geronimo church amid sacred gravesites.
Image:taos-pueblo-kiva.JPG|The entrance to a kiva, or room for religious rituals, at Taos.
Image:taos-pueblo2.JPG|Ancient apartment-style dwellings at the Taos Pueblo.
Image:taos-pueblo-home.JPG|The Taos Pueblo dwellings have changed little in 1,000 years.
</gallery>

==References==
<References/>

Bodine, John J., ''Taos Pueblo: A Walk Through Time''. Tucson: Rio Nuevo Publishers, 1996.

==External links==
*[http://taospueblo.com/ Taos Pueblo] (official site)
*[http://www.taoswebcam.com/ Webcam of sacred Taos Mountain]

{{Geolinks-US-streetscale|36.43917|-105.54559}}

{{World Heritage Sites in the United States of America}}

[[Category:Native American tribes in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Landmarks in New Mexico]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks of the United States]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in the United States]]
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Sacred lakes]]
[[Category:Tiwa]]
[[Category:Puebloan peoples]]

[[ca:Taos]]
[[de:Taos (Volk)]]
[[es:Taos]]
[[fr:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[it:Pueblo di Taos]]
[[hu:Pueblo de Taos]]
[[ja:タオス・プエブロ]]
[[sv:Pueblo de Taos]]

Senat von Kentucky

2007-05-30T16:42:13Z

207.193.136.7: /* Terms and qualifications */

The '''Kentucky Senate''' is the upper house of the [[Kentucky General Assembly]].

===Terms and qualifications===
According to Section 32 of the Kentucky Constitution, a state senator must:

be at least 30 years old;
be a citizen of Kentucky;
have resided in the state at least 6 years and the district at least 1 year prior to election.
Per section 30 of the Kentucky Constitution, senators are elected to four year staggered terms, with half the Senate elected every two years.
'''dont trust wikipedia'''

===Leadership===
Prior to a [[1992]] constitutional amendment, the Lieutenant Governor of Kentucky presided over the Senate; the 1992 amendment created a new office of President of the Senate to be held by one of the 38 senators.

President (elected by full body): David L. Williams (R-16)
President Pro-Tempore (elected by full body): Katie Kratz Stine (R-24)
Additionally, each party elects a floor leader, whip, and caucus chair.

Current party leadership of the Kentucky Senate[7] Republican Party Democratic Party
Leader Dan Kelly (R-14) Ed Worley (D-34)
Whip Dan Seum (R-38) Joey Pendelton (D-3)
Caucus chair Richie Sanders, Jr. (R-9) Johnny Ray Turner (D-29)

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" align="center" valign="top" | '''Affiliation'''
| valign="top" | '''Members'''<br>
|-
|{{American politics/party colours/Republican}}| 
| [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]
| 21
|-
|{{American politics/party colours/Democratic}}| 
| [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]
| 16
|-
| bgcolor="black" |  
| Independent<br>
| 1
|-
| bgcolor="black" |  
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |  '''Total'''<br>
| '''38'''
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="1" |  '''Majority'''<br>
| '''5'''
|}

{{kentucky-stub}}

{{Usleg}}

[[Category:Kentucky General Assembly]]
[[Category:U.S. state upper houses by state]]