Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Bierschaum

2014-03-02T18:09:57Z

204.10.132.7: /* Importance */

{{redirect|Kräusen|the conditioning method in which fermenting wort is added to the finished beer|Kräusening}}
{{Refimprove|date=November 2008}}
[[Image:Beer wuerzburger hofbraue.jpg|thumb|A glass of beer with a large head of foam]]

'''Beer head''' (also '''head''' or '''Kräusen''') is the [[froth]]y [[foam]] on top of [[beer]] which is produced by bubbles of gas, typically [[carbon dioxide]], rising to the surface. The elements that produce the head are [[wort]] protein, yeast and hop residue. The carbon dioxide that forms the bubbles in the head is produced during [[fermentation]]. The carbonation can occur before or after bottling the beer. If the beer continues fermenting in the bottle, then it naturally carbonates and the head is formed upon opening and/or pouring the beer. If the beer is pasteurized or filtered then the beer must be force carbonated using pressurized gas.

The density and longevity of the head will be determined by the type of malt and [[adjuncts|adjunct]] from which the beer was [[fermentation (food)|fermented]]. Different mash schedules and cereal sources influence head retention. In general, wheat tends to produce larger and longer-lasting heads than barley.

== Importance ==

Consumers tend to place a lot of importance on beer heads: too much of a head is undesirable because it detracts from the mass of the drink (similar to [[soda pop|carbonated soda drinks]]), but on the other hand, a beer drink is viewed as incomplete unless it has a head, and the specific form of head expected for the type of beer.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Some view beer heads as important because they give off the [[aroma]] of the beer.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} The head also reduces the amount of carbon dioxide in the beer, reducing the quantity and magnitude of [[eructation]] caused in the drinker. Another opinion is that it is important for the aesthetic look of the beer. The commercial significance of the head has led to extensive academic study, and sophisticated analysis techniques.<ref>{{cite doi|10.1021/jf00089a025}}</ref>

==Formation through carbon dioxide==

The carbon dioxide may be produced naturally through the activity of [[brewers yeast]], or artificially by [[solvation|dissolving]] carbon dioxide under pressure into the liquid. The beer head is created by the [[carbon dioxide]] produced as a byproduct of the metabolism of [[brewer's yeast]] acting upon starches and sugars found in the [[wort]].

==Chemical composition==

While the actual foam activity of beer depends on the presence of carbon dioxide, it is the surface-active materials like amphipathic polypeptides from malt that determine size, shape and length of the foam.

Beer foam consists of [[polypeptide]]s of five different classifications, divided by their relative [[hydrophobicity]]. As the hydrophobicity of the polypeptide groups increases, so does the stability of the foam.<ref>http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/113320605/abstract</ref>

Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water or an aqueous solution. This process is generally represented by the following reaction, where water and gaseous carbon dioxide react to form a dilute solution of carbonic acid.

==Importance of the glass==

Properties of the glass can also influence a beer head,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hospitalitymagazine.com.au/article/GLASS-TO-LAST/237215.aspx |title=Glass To Last |publisher=Hospitalitymagazine.com.au |date=2010-02-18 |accessdate=2010-02-24}}</ref> with a roughened surface at the base of glass known as a [[widget (beer)|widget]], providing for [[nucleation]] of carbon dioxide deep in the beverage rather than at the surface, resulting in a slower release of gas to the atmosphere.
While glass is completely nonporous, its surface can retain oil from the skin, aerosolized oil from nearby cooking, and traces of fat from food. When these oils come in contact with beer there is a significant reduction in the amount of head (foam)<ref>{{cite web|title=Food Physics|url=http://www.physics.org/food-physics/|publisher=www.physics.org|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Physics, lipstick, beer|url=http://physicsbuzz.physicscentral.com/2010/04/physics-lipstick-beer.html|publisher=APS|accessdate=23 October 2013}}</ref> that is found on the beer, and the bubbles will tend to stick to the side of the glass rather than rising to the surface as normal.

For proper foam formation, it is also important to dry the glass thoroughly after washing. Any water in the glass can prevent excitement of the gas by covering designs set in the bottom of the glass, thus making the beer flat.

Conversely, some styles such as Belgian witbier benefit from being poured into a wet glass to control the often profusive head.

==Formation of 'nitrogen head'==

The creamy head on beers such as [[Guinness]] is created by a [[widget (beer)|widget]] in cans or bottles using [[nitrogen]], or by the process of drawing [[keg beer]] from a keg using nitrogen or mixed gas (carbon dioxide and nitrogen). The use of nitrogen, which was pioneered by Guinness, creates a firm head with small bubbles while reducing the excessively acidic taste often produced by using carbon dioxide alone.

==References==

{{Reflist}}

==External links==

*[http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/may99/926363970.Ot.r.html There is plenty of physics involved in opening a bottle of beer - Richard Kingsley]
*[http://www.expasy.org/spotlight/back_issues/sptlt048.shtml One beer please - Vivienne Baillie Gerritsen]
*[http://www.physics.org/cheersphysics Cheers Physics! - physics.org]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Beer Head}}
[[Category:Brewing]]

Drop (Musik)

2013-07-12T15:13:00Z

204.10.132.7: Removed word for clarity

The '''drop''' is the point in a [[Song|music track]] where a switch of [[rhythm]] or [[bass line]] occurs and usually follows a recognizable build section and [[break (music)|break]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Walmsley|first=Derek|title=La guida alla musica moderna di Wire|year=2010|isbn=9788876381805|page=103|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=H9K7ZSvjFp4C&lpg=PA103&dq=%22bass%20drop%22%20dubstep&pg=PA103#v=onepage&q&f=false|chapter=Dubstep|language=Italian}}</ref> A drop (in electronic music) is characterised predominantly by a sudden build of textures as opposed to a slow build of them, and usually links a building section with the climax and following main theme and rhythm of a track.

* In [[hip-hop music|hip-hop]] and [[electronic music]], the reintroduction of the full bass line and drums is known as the drop.
* In [[dubstep]], the drop involves a heavy full bass line and commonly a "wobble" or "vowel" bass accompanied by a strong shuffling beat.
* In [[metalcore]] subgenres, bass drops are often utilized under the first [[chord (music)|chord]] of a breakdown, to emphasize the breakdown and give it a pronounced presence. A bass drop in this genre can be created by a upwards slide on the neck of a [[bass guitar]], or the drums, with an electronic pad.<ref>{{cite book|last=Peterson|first=Elaine|title=Maldynia: Multidisciplinary Perspectives on the Illness of Chronic Pain|year=2010|publisher=CRC Press|location=Hoboken|isbn=978-1-4398-3631-6|page=141|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=UzztyX5Eh8kC&lpg=PA141&dq=metalcore%20bass%20drop&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false|chapter=Musical Representations of Physical Pain}}</ref>
* Electronic music DJs sometimes perform what is called a "double drop": beat matching two tracks in such a way that the drop, and hence the respective climaxes of both tracks, occur at the same time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Steventon|first=John|title=DJing For Dummies|year=2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Chichester, West Sussex, England|isbn=978-0-470-66405-6|page=251|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4-NTw5huGT4C&lpg=PA251&dq=%22double%20drop%22&pg=PA251#v=onepage&q&f=false|edition=2nd}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Drop (Music)}}
[[Category:DJing]]
[[Category:Musical techniques]]

{{Music-stub}}

Chaim Ozer Grodzinski

2012-07-18T19:27:51Z

204.10.132.7: Added English calendar birth date

{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix = Rabbi
| name = Chaim Ozer Grodzinski
| image = Reb Chaim Ozer.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Rabbi Chaim Ozer Grodzinski (right) conversing with Rabbi [[Shimon Shkop]]
| birth_date = 24 August 1863 (9 [[Elul]] 5623)
| birth_place = [[Iwye]], [[Belarus]]
| death_date = 9 August 1940 (5 [[Av]] 5700)
| death_place = [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]]
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| residence =
| nationality =
| other_names =
| known_for = Leader of Lithuanian and European Jewry
| occupation =
}}
'''Chaim Ozer Grodzinski''' ({{lang-he|חיים עוזר גרוז'נסקי}}) (1863 – 9 August 1940) was a pre-eminent ''[[Beth din#Officers of a beth din|Av beis din]]'' (rabbinical judge), ''[[posek]]'' (halakhic authority), and [[Talmud]]ic scholar in [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. During his 55 years of community service, he was recognized as the leading ''posek'' and spiritual guide of his generation, fielding [[halakha|halakhic]] queries from all parts of the world and being consulted on every Jewish communal issue.<ref name="glimpses"></ref> He played an instrumental role in preserving Lithuanian yeshivas during the [[Soviet Union|Communist era]], and saved the yeshivas of Poland and Russia during the [[Nazism|Nazi]] [[invasion of Poland]] in 1939, when he arranged for these yeshivas to relocate to Lithuanian cities.

==Early years==
Grodzinski was born on 9 [[Elul]] 5623 (24 August, 1863)<ref name="glimpses">Rabbi Aharon Sorasky. ''Glimpses of Greatness: Reb Chaim Ozer ''Is'' Klal Yisrael''. [[Hamodia]] Features, 22 July 2010, p. C3.</ref> in [[Iwye]], [[Belarus]], a small town near Vilnius. His father, Rabbi David Shlomo Grodzinski, was Rav of Iwye for over 40 years,<ref name="glimpses"></ref> and his grandfather was also Rav of the town for 40 years before that.<ref name="observer"></ref>

From infancy, Chaim Ozer was weak and sickly. However, he was gifted with a tremendous memory, never forgetting anything he had ever read or heard. He was also a deep thinker who developed clear explanations for every Torah topic he studied. At the age of 9, he was tested by Rabbi [[Yisroel Salanter]], who asked the boy a question in halakha along with his own answer. Chaim Ozer refuted the Rav's thesis and cited a different one from the sources, astounding the Rav.<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

When he was 12 years old, his father sent him to learn with the ''peirushim'', a group of the finest Lithuanian Torah scholars assembled in [[Eishyshok]]. Chaim Ozer celebrated his [[Bar and Bat Mitzvah|bar mitzvah]] there. He declined to deliver the usual bar mitzvah ''[[pilpul]]'', but demonstrated his fluency in the ''[[Ketzos Hachoshen]]'' and the ''[[Yaakov Lorberbaum|Nesivos Hamishpat]]'' by asking his guests to recite a few words from these ''[[Sefer (Hebrew)|seforim]]'' and he continued for them, quoting entire pages word for word and clearly explaining each topic.<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

At the age of 15, he decided to learn at the [[Volozhin yeshiva]]. Despite his young age, he was accepted into Rabbi [[Chaim Soloveitchik]]'s [[Shiur (Torah)|shiur]] and became his close disciple for the rest of the latter's life.<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

By the age of 20, when he passed through Vilnius, his fame preceded him. Both Rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Grodnenski — the leading Rav of Vilna and the son-in-law of Rabbi Yisroel Salanter — and Rabbi Elinke Levinsohn of Kretinga desired the young Torah prodigy for their own son-in-law. The two went to Rabbi [[Yitzchak Elchanan Spektor]] of [[Kovno]] to decide which family would merit this honor. After hearing each one's position, Rabbi Spector asked to meet Rabbi Chaim Ozer, and spoke at length with him on various Torah topics. Afterward, Rabbi Spector told the two prospective fathers-in-law: "The truth is that if I had a daughter to marry off, I would take him and leave you both out in the cold. Since I have no such daughter, however, I have decided in favor of the Rav of Vilna".<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

Two years after his marriage, Rabbi Chaim Ozer's father-in-law died and the community of Vilnius asked him to take his place. Thus he became the leading Rav of Vilna at the age of 22. He was immediately accepted by all the older rabbis. When people remarked, "But he's so young for such a lofty position," Rabbi Chaim Ozer humorously replied, "Don't worry, it's only a temporary blemish. I'll get over it with time".<ref name="glimpses"></ref> Any lingering doubts about his fitness for the position were put to rest when Rabbi Chaim Soloveitchik and Rabbi [[Alexander Moshe Lapidos]] came to the city and first went to call on the Rav of Vilna, Rabbi Chaim Ozer.<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

==Leadership==
Rabbi Chaim Ozer dedicated his life to world Jewry for the next 55 years. In addition to his communal work, he maintained a strict schedule of Torah learning, producing his monumental, three-volume work ''Achiezer'' even as he was fully involved in communal affairs.<ref name="observer"></ref>

He did not have his own yeshiva per se, but assisted in the management of the Rameilles Yeshiva of Vilnius. He also established a ''kibbutz'' (group) of elite young Torah scholars, all known as ''iluyim'' (prodigies), and gave them profound ''[[Shiur (Torah)|shiurim]]'' on the most obscure Talmud topics. His students became future Torah leaders; they included Rabbi [[Yechezkel Abramsky]], Rabbi [[Eliezer Silver]], Rabbi [[Moshe Shatzkes]], and Rabbi [[Reuven Katz]].<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

With the death of Rabbi Yitzchak Elchonon Spector in 1896, Rabbi Chaim Ozer became the undisputed leader of European Jewry. He was consulted regularly in the fight for traditional Torah education in the Russian empire and to counteract the ban against [[shechitah]] (ritual slaughter) of kosher meat. Eventually his influence was so strong that no Rav or shochet could be appointed anywhere in Poland or Russia without his consent.<ref name="glimpses"></ref> Thanks to his phenomenal memory, he remembered names of people and places from all over the world, making him a valuable resource when communities far and wide sought to appoint a new Rav or rosh yeshiva.<ref name="observer"></ref>

Both the communities of [[Jerusalem]] and [[St. Petersburg]] offered him the position of [[chief rabbi]], but he declined, saying that he was needed desperately where he was. In gratitude for his dedication, the Jewish community of Vilnius wanted to name him the official chief rabbi of Vilnius, but he refused this honor, too, saying that he had not come to change the city's long-standing tradition not to have a central rav. When the community offered him a pay raise instead, he agreed, on condition that all the other rabbis in Vilnius would receive one, too.<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

Rabbi Chaim Ozer was an extremely dedicated public servant. When his daughter lay in the hospital on the verge of death, he ran to his office to answer all the halakhic correspondence waiting on his desk, since he knew that he would not be able to research and answer these pressing questions during the week of [[shivah]].<ref name="glimpses"></ref>

==Final years==
Rabbi Chaim Ozer succumbed to cancer<ref name="observer">{{cite web |url= http://www.tzemachdovid.org/gedolim/jo/tpersonality/achiezer.html |title=Ish HaEshkolos: He led world Jewry from Vilna |last=Brafman |first=Rabbi Aaron |accessdate=14 December 2010 |work=[[The Jewish Observer]]}}</ref> on 9 August 1940 (5 [[Av]] 5700). His death was part of a triple blow to world Jewry, as Rabbi Shimon Shkop, rosh yeshiva of the [[Grodno]] yeshiva, died on 22 October 1939 and Rabbi [[Boruch Ber Leibowitz]], rosh yeshiva, Yeshivas Kaminetz, died on 17 November 1939. All three Torah leaders left an orphaned generation to deal with the upheaval that followed the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.<ref name="observer"></ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Volozhin Yeshiva}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Grodzinski, Chaim Ozer
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1863
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Iwye]], [[Belarus]]
| DATE OF DEATH = 9 August 1940
| PLACE OF DEATH = Vilnius, Lithuania
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grodzinski, Chaim Ozer}}
[[Category:1863 births]]
[[Category:1940 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Iwye]]
[[Category:Belarusian Orthodox rabbis]]
[[Category:Haredi rabbis in Europe]]
[[Category:Lithuanian Orthodox rabbis]]
[[Category:Judaism in Vilnius]]
[[Category:19th-century rabbis]]
[[Category:20th-century rabbis]]

[[he:חיים עוזר גרודזנסקי]]
[[it:Chaim Ozer Grodzinski]]
[[ru:Гродзинский, Хаим Озер]]
[[yi:חיים עוזר גראדזענסקי]]