Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness

2014-08-21T10:25:29Z

202.123.130.53:

{{Infobox protected area
| name = Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness
| iucn_category = Ib
| photo = Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness NPS1.jpg
| map = USA
| map_caption =
| location = [[Montana]] / [[Wyoming]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Red Lodge, Montana|Red Lodge, MT]]
| lat_d = 45
| lat_m = 6
| lat_s = 0
| lat_NS = N
| long_d = 109
| long_m = 56
| long_s = 0
| long_EW = W
| area = {{convert|944,000|acre|km2}}
| established = 1978
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = [[United States Forest Service|U.S. Forest Service]]
}}
'''Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness''' was created from existing [[United States National Forest|National Forest]] lands in 1978 <ref>Aarstad, Rich, et al. "Montana Place Names from Alzada to Zortman: A Montana Historical Society Guide". Montana Historical Society Press. Helena, Montana, 2009, p. 2</ref><ref>"Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness". Wilderness.net. Retrieved 2012-02-19.</ref> and is located in [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]], [[United States]]. The [[wilderness]] is partly in [[Gallatin National Forest|Gallatin]], [[Custer National Forest|Custer]] and [[Shoshone National Forest]]s and is composed of {{convert|944,000|acre|km2}}. The wilderness encompasses two distinct mountain ranges, namely the [[Beartooth Mountains|Beartooth]] and [[Absaroka Mountains|Absaroka]] ranges. These ranges are completely distinct geologically speaking with the Absarokas composed primarily of [[volcanic]] (or [[extrusive]]) and [[metamorphic rock]], while the Beartooths are made up almost entirely of [[granite|granitic]] rocks. The Absarokas are noted for their dark and craggy appearance, lush and heavily forested valleys and abundant wildlife. The highest peak in the range, located in Wyoming, is [[Francs Peak]] at {{convert|13,153|ft}}. The Beartooths are more [[:wikt:alpine|alpine]] with huge treeless plateaus and the highest peak in the state of Montana ([[Granite Peak (Montana)|Granite Peak]] {{convert|12,799|ft}}). The wilderness contains 30 peaks over {{convert|12,000|ft}}.<ref>Aarstad, Rich, Ellie Arguimbau, Ellen Baumler, Charlene Porsild, and Brian Shovers. [http://mhs.mt.gov/pub/press/reference.asp#PlaceNames Montana Place Names from Alzada to Zortman]. Montana Historical Society Press.</ref> The wilderness is an integral part of the {{convert|20|e6acre|km2|adj=on}} [[Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]] and borders [[Yellowstone National Park]].

Wilderness areas do not allow [[motor vehicle|motorized]] or [[machine|mechanical]] equipment including [[bicycle]]s. Although [[camping]] and [[fishing]] are allowed with proper permit, no roads or buildings are constructed and there is also no [[forestry|logging]] or [[mining]], in compliance with the 1964 [[Wilderness Act]]. [[U.S. Wilderness Area|Wilderness areas]] within National Forests and [[Bureau of Land Management]] areas also allow [[hunting]] in season.

There are {{convert|700|mi}} of trails in the wilderness, hundreds of [[lake]]s, a few dozen streams and a similar number of small [[glacier]]s can be found in the wilderness. The forests are dominated by various species of [[spruce]], [[fir]] and [[pine]] while in the Beartooth Mountains, due to the altitude, [[tundra]] conditions often prevail. The Beartooths have the largest unbroken area of land in excess of {{convert|10,000|ft}} in [[altitude]] in the U.S. outside of [[Alaska]]. Animals found in the wilderness include [[bald eagle]]s and [[yellowstone cutthroat trout]] and the [[threatened species|threatened]] [[grizzly bear]] and [[lynx]] as well as the [[endangered species|endangered]] [[gray wolf]].

Access to the wilderness is difficult but can be achieved via the [[Beartooth Highway]] US 212 from [[Red Lodge, Montana]]. There are also some forest access roads from the west off of US 89 south from [[Livingston, Montana]].
__NOTOC__
== Highlights ==
The '''Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness''' is full of beautiful landscapes. Below are some of the highlights:
* '''[[East Rosebud]]-''' Many avid hikers say that "[[East Rosebud]] is the most scenic [[valley]] of all."{{who|date=June 2014}} It is filled with [[lake]]s and [[waterfalls]] that would be major [[tourism]] draws anywhere else. In fact, there are so many different waterfalls and lakes within this valley that many of them haven't been named.<ref>Schneider, Bill. Best Easy Day Hikes: Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness. 2nd ed. Guilford: Falcon Publishing, 2003. 21-23</ref> [[Slough Lake]] is found within the [[East Rosebud]] valley and is not only beautiful, but great for fishing as it fills from [[Slough Creek (Wyoming)|Slough Creek]] which connects all the way to [[Yellowstone National Park]]. [[Slough Creek (Wyoming)|Slough Creek]] is known to connect to other lakes within the area that have large and stable [[populations]] of [[cutthroat trout]], [[cutbow trout]] and the well-known [[rainbow trout]].<ref>Marcuson, Pat. Fishing the Beartooths: An Angler's Guide to More Than 400 Prime Fishing Spots. 2nd ed. Guilford: Morris Book Publishing, LLC, 2008. 143-150</ref> [[Slough Lake]] is accessed by following the [[Phantom Creek Trail]], which can also be used to access [[Granite Peak]], which has an [[elevation]] of {{convert|12,799|ft}} above sea level, and is the highest peak in [[Montana]].<ref>"Phantom Creek Trail to Slough Lake." REI, 2008. Web. 12 Nov. 2012. <http://www.rei.com/guidepost/detail/montana/hiking/phantom-creek-trail-to-slough-lake/40628>. </ref>
[[File:PhantomCreekTrailheadSignPosted.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|[[Phantom Creek Trail]] Trailhead in Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness]]
*'''[[Mystic Lake (Stillwater County, Montana)|Mystic Lake]]-'''the deepest [[lake]] in the [[Beartooth Mountains]]. It has the largest sandy [[beach]] in the Beartooths and is a wonderful destination for a day [[hiking|hike]]. The [[Montana Power Company]] does utilize the power of this large lake, and they do have a [[dam]] present, but they do as much as possible to maintain the [[wilderness]].<ref>Schneider, Bill. Best Easy Day Hikes: Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness. 2nd ed. Guilford: Falcon Publishing, 2003. 21-23</ref> [[Mystic Lake (Stillwater County, Montana)|Mystic Lake]] supports a [[rainbow trout]] fishery, and the fishing is usually great when the fish are feeding. Hiking the trail up {{convert|3|mi}} to [[Mystic Lake (Stillwater County, Montana)|Mystic Lake]] provides great views of [[West Rosebud Valley]] and a few other lakes.

==See also==
*[[List of U.S. Wilderness Areas]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Silkwood, J.T. and G.N. Green. (2000). ''Generalized geologic map of the Absaroka-Beartooth study area, south-central Montana'' [U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies; Map MF-2338]. Reston, VA: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.

==External links==
* {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS&sec=wildView&wname=Absaroka-Beartooth | title = Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness | format = | work = The National Wilderness Preservation System | publisher = Wilderness.net | accessdate = 2007-09-16 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20071011143649/http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS&sec=wildView&wname=Absaroka-Beartooth| archivedate= 11 October 2007 | deadurl= no}}
* {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.topoquest.com/map.asp?z=12&n=4994932&e=584468&s=100&size=l&u=3&layer=DRG25 | title = USGS Cooke City (MT,WY) Topo Map Quad | format = | work = | publisher = TopoQuest | accessdate = 2008-06-29 }}
* {{cite web | last = | first = | authorlink = | coauthors = | year = | url = http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS&sec=legisAct | title = Wilderness Legislation: The Wilderness Act of 1964 | format = | work = The National Wilderness Preservation System | publisher = Wilderness.net | accessdate = 2006-08-16 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20060911145801/http://www.wilderness.net/index.cfm?fuse=NWPS&sec=legisAct| archivedate= 11 September 2006 | deadurl= no}}

{{Protected Areas of Wyoming}}
{{Protected Areas of Montana}}

[[Category:Protected areas of Carbon County, Montana]]
[[Category:Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem]]
[[Category:IUCN Category Ib]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Park County, Montana]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Park County, Wyoming]]
[[Category:Shoshone National Forest]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Stillwater County, Montana]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Sweet Grass County, Montana]]
[[Category:Wilderness Areas of Montana]]
[[Category:Wilderness Areas of Wyoming]]
[[Category:Gallatin National Forest]]
[[Category:Custer National Forest]]

Selbstkannibalismus

2014-08-06T05:00:05Z

202.123.130.53:

{{For|the cellular phenomenon|Autophagy (cellular)}}
'''Self-cannibalism''' is the practice of eating oneself, also called '''autocannibalism''',<ref>[http://www.meish.org/012951.php#_ftnref4 "Man-eaters: The Evidence for Coastal Tupi Cannibalism" ''mei(sh) dot org'']</ref> or '''autosarcophagy'''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mikellides AP |title=Two cases of self-cannibalism (autosarcophagy) |journal=Cyprus Med J |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=498–500 |date=October 1950 |pmid=14849189 }}</ref> A similar term which is applied differently is ''[[autophagy (cellular)|autophagy]]'', which specifically denotes the normal process of self-degradation by [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. While almost an exclusive term for this process, autophagy nonetheless has occasionally made its way into more common usage.<ref>[http://www.benecke.com/bodmod2.html Benecke, Mark "First report of non-psychotic self-cannibalism (autophagy), tongue splicing and scar patterns (scarification) as an extreme form of cultural body modification in a Western civilization"]</ref>

==Among humans==
===As a natural occurrence===
A certain amount of self-cannibalism occurs unwillingly, as the body consumes dead cells from the tongue and cheeks.
Ingesting one's own blood from an unintentional lesion such as a nose-bleed or an ulcer is clearly not intentional harvesting and consequently not considered cannibalistic.

[[Catabolisis]] is also sometimes described as "self-cannibalism." {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

===As a disorder or symptom thereof===
{{Main|Autophagia}}
[[Nail-biting|Fingernail-biting]] that develops into fingernail-eating is a form of [[pica (disorder)|pica]], although many do not consider nail biting as a true form of cannibalism.{{fact|date=December 2012}} Other forms of pica include the [[Trichotillomania|compulsion of eating one's own hair]], which can form a [[Trichobezoar|hairball]] in the [[stomach]].{{fact|date=December 2012}}

===As a choice===
Some people will engage in self-cannibalism as an extreme form of [[body modification]], for example eating their own skin.<ref>See Benecke above.</ref> Others will drink their own blood, a practice called autovampirism,<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=883741&dopt=Abstract NCBI PubMed]</ref> but [[Blood sucking#Human hematophagy|sucking blood]] from wounds is generally not considered cannibalism.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}} [[Placentophagy]] may be a form of self-cannibalism.

==As a crime==
Forced self-cannibalism as a form of [[torture]] or [[war crime]] has been reported. [[Erzsébet Báthory]] allegedly forced some of her servants to eat their own flesh in the early 17th century.<ref>[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/431/did-dracula-really-exist Adams, Cecil "Did Dracula really exist?" ''[[The Straight Dope]]'']</ref> In the 16th century, Spanish colonizers forced [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|natives]] to eat their own testicles.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/delatorre/articles/macho.html [[Miguel A. De La Torre]], "Beyond Machismo: A Cuban Case Study" (citing Diana Iznaga, "Introduction" to Fernando Ortise, ''Los negros curros'' (La Habana: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales, 1986) xviii-xix.)]</ref> Incidents were reported in the years following the [[1991 Haitian coup d'état]].<ref>[http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/045.html Chin, Pat. "Behind the Rockwood case" ''Workers World'', April 6, 1996]</ref> In the 1990s young people in [[Sudan]] were forced to eat their own ears.<ref>[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/Lambeth1998/Lambeth-Daily/06/humanrights.html ''Lambeth Daily News'' 6 August 1998]</ref>

==Among other animals==
The short-tailed [[Cricket (insect)|cricket]] is known to eat its own wings.<ref>Taber, Stephen Welton (2005) ''Invertebrates Of Central Texas Wetlands'', page 200.</ref> There is evidence of certain animals digesting their own nervous tissue when they transition to a new phase of life. The [[sea squirt]] (with a tadpole-like shape) contains a ganglion 'brain' in its head, which it digests after attaching itself to a rock and becoming stationary, forming an [[sea anemone|anemone]]-like organism. This has been used as evidence that the purpose of brain and nervous tissue is primarily to produce movement. Self-cannibalism behavior has been documented in [[North America]]n [[rat snake]]s: one captive snake attempted to consume itself twice, dying in the second attempt. Another wild rat snake was found having swallowed about two-thirds of its body.<ref>{{cite book |author=Mattison, Chris |title=The New Encyclopedia of Snakes |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J. |year=2007 |isbn=0-691-13295-X |oclc= |doi= |accessdate= |page=105}}</ref>

==Cultural references==
[[Image:Ouroboros 1.jpg|thumb|The ancient [[symbol]] [[Ouroboros]] depicts a [[Snake|serpent]] biting its own [[tail]].]]
*[[Erysichthon of Thessaly|Erysichthon]] from Greek mythology ate himself in insatiable hunger, given him, as a punishment, by [[Demeter]].
*In an Arthurian tale, King [[Agrestes]] of [[Camelot]] goes mad after massacring the Christian disciples of [[Josephus of Arimathea|Josephus]] within his city, and eats his own hands.
*Stephen King's short story "[[Survivor Type]]", about a man trapped on a small island.
*In the novel ''[[Hannibal (novel)|Hannibal]]'', [[Hannibal Lecter]] recalls psychologically manipulating [[Mason Verger]] into eating his own nose and feeding his face to his dog. Lecter also feeds Paul Krendler part of his own brain.
*[[Autopsy (band)|Autopsy's]] song "Severed Survival" is about resorting to self-cannibalism after being stranded on a barren island.
*The short story "The Savage Mouth" by Japanese [[science fiction]] writer [[Sakyo Komatsu]] deals with self-cannibalism.
*In the Japanese horror movie ''[[Naked Blood]]'', a woman eats herself with a knife and fork, after taking pain dulling drugs.
*Banika Conchita from Evillious Chronicles series eats herself in the music video ''Evil Eater Conchita'' after she develops a 'taste' for the servants and chef.
*The Norse creature Midguard Serpent is said to be biting its own tail, surrounding the world.
*The December 31, 2011 [[guest comic]] for the comic strip ''[[Bizarro (comic strip)|Bizarro]]'' featured a man about to eat a hand sandwich. It is titled "Radical [[Locavore]]".<ref>{{cite web|title=Radical Locavore|url=http://www.thecomicstrips.com/store/add_strip.php?iid=74368|work=thecomicstrips.com|accessdate=14 January 2012}}</ref>
*Self-cannibalism is the base of the plot of a science fiction horror short story ''The Boneless One'' by Alec Nevala-Lee, in "[[The Year's Best Science Fiction: Twenty-Ninth Annual Collection]]" (called "autophagy" there).
*In the [[Mel Brooks]] parodic film ''[[Spaceballs]]'', the character Pizza the Hutt is said to have eaten himself "to death" after getting locked in his car.
* In the show [[ Friends ]] , Monica is said to have eaten small portions of her right upper arm.
*In [[George R. R. Martin|George R. R. Martin's]] novel ''[[A Clash of Kings]]'', following her forced marriage to Ramsay Snow and being locked away, Lady Hornwood is found dead of hunger after presumably eating her own fingers.
*In the horror novel ''Ritual'' by Graham Masterton, an exclusive dining club exists wherein the members remove and cook their own body parts before eating them.
*In the manga series [[One Piece]], after being stranded on an island, Zeff ate his own, previously severed leg to avoid starving to death.
* In the show [[ Firefly ]] , Reavers eat themselves, as well as doing numerous other extreme body modifications.
* In the game [[ The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind ]] a sickness called Corprus causes some victims' bodies to grow tumorous tissue on the extremities, which they cut off and consume. Found pieces called Corprus Flesh can be consumed by the player.

==See also==
*[[Vorarephilia]]
*[[Ouroboros]], a depiction of a snake swallowing itself
*[[Eating mucus]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{feeding}}

[[Category:Cannibalism]]
[[Category:Eating behaviors]]
[[Category:Pica (disorder)]]

Schimpansenkrieg von Gombe

2014-08-04T11:09:06Z

202.123.130.53:

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Gombe Chimpanzee War
|date=January 7,1974-1978
|place=[[Gombe Stream National Park]],[[Tanzania]],[[Africa]] 4.6667° S, 29.6333° E
|result=[[Kasakela Chimpanzee Community]] victory
|combatant1=[[Kasakela Chimpanzee Community]]
|combatant2=Kahama Chimpanzees
|strength1=8 adult males,12 adult females
|strength2=6 adult males,3 adult females,1 adolescent male
|casualties1= unknown
|casualties2=all 6 adult males killed,1 female killed,2 females missing, and three were beaten, raped, and kidnapped by the Kasakela
}}

The '''Gombe Chimpanzee War''' (also known as the "'''Four-Year War'''" of Gombe), lasting from 1974 to 1978, was a violent conflict between two communities of [[chimpanzee]]s in [[Gombe Stream National Park]], in [[Tanzania]]. The belligerent groups were the [[Kasakela Chimpanzee Community|Kasakela]] and the [[Kahama Chimpanzee Community|Kahama]], which occupied territories in the northern and southern areas of the park, respectively.<ref name=goodall121>Goodall 2010, p. 121</ref> The two had previously been a single, unified community, but by 1974 researcher [[Jane Goodall]], who had been observing the community, first noticed the chimps dividing themselves into northern and southern sub-groups.<ref name=goodall120>Goodall 2010, p. 120</ref> Later [[computer-aided analysis]] of Goodall's notes would reveal that the social rift between the two groups had been present as early as 1971.<ref name="scientist">{{cite news | url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22229682.600-only-known-chimp-war-reveals-how-societies-splinter.html | title=Only known chimp war reveals how societies splinter | work=New Scientist | date=7 May 2014 | accessdate=11 June 2014 | author=Barras, Colin}}</ref>

The Kahama group, in the south, consisted of six adult males (among them the chimpanzees known to Goodall as "Hugh", "Charlie", and "Goliath"), three adult females and their young, and an adolescent male (known as "Sniff").<ref name=goodall120 /> The larger Kasakela group, meanwhile, consisted of twelve adult females and their young, and eight adult males.<ref name=goodall120 />

==The war==
The first outbreak of violence occurred on January 7, 1974,<ref name=morris288>Morris, p. 288</ref> when a party of six adult Kasakela males attacked and killed "Godi", a young Kahama male, which had been feeding in a tree.<ref name=goodall121 /> This was the first time that any of the chimpanzees had been seen to deliberately kill a fellow chimp.<ref name=morris288 />

Over the next four years, all six of the adult male members of the Kahama were killed by the Kasakela.<ref name=morris289>Morris, p. 289</ref> Of the female Kahama, one was killed, two went missing, and three were beaten, raped, and kidnapped by the Kasakela.<ref name=morris289 /> The Kasakela then succeeded in taking over the Kahama's former territory.<ref name=morris289 />

These territorial gains were not permanent, however; with the Kahama gone, the Kasakela's territory now butted up directly against the territory of another chimpanzee community, called the [[Kalande chimpanzee community|Kalande]].<ref name=goodall129-130>Goodall 2010, pp. 129–130</ref> Cowed by the superior strength and numbers of the Kalande, as well as a few violent skirmishes along their border, the Kasakela quickly gave up much of their new territory.<ref name=goodall129-130 />

==Effects on Goodall==
The outbreak of the war came as a disturbing shock to Goodall, who had previously considered chimpanzees to be, although similar to human beings, "rather 'nicer' " in their behavior.<ref name=goodall128>Goodall 2010, p. 128</ref> Coupled with the observation in 1975 of [[cannibalistic infanticide]] by a high-ranking female in the community, the violence of the Gombe war first revealed to Goodall the "dark side" of chimpanzee behavior.<ref name=goodall128 /> She was profoundly disturbed by this revelation; in her memoir ''Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe'', she wrote:
{{quote|For several years I struggled to come to terms with this new knowledge. Often when I woke in the night, horrific pictures sprang unbidden to my mind—Satan [one of the apes], cupping his hand below Sniff's chin to drink the blood that welled from a great wound on his face; old Rodolf, usually so benign, standing upright to hurl a four-pound rock at Godi's prostrate body; Jodeo tearing a strip of skin from Dé's thigh; Figan, charging and hitting, again and again, the stricken, quivering body of Goliath, one of his childhood heroes. ...<ref name=goodall128-129>Goodall 2010, pp. 128–129</ref>}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Gombe Stream NP Fuetterungsstation.jpg|thumb|Feeding station where Goodall used to feed the Gombe chimpanzees]]
When Goodall reported on the events of the Gombe War, her account of a naturally-occurring war between chimpanzees was not universally believed. At the time, scientific models of human and animal behavior virtually never overlapped.<ref name="elephants">{{cite book | title=Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us about Humanity | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Bradshaw, G. A. | year=2009 | pages=40 | isbn=9780300154917}}</ref> Some scientists accused her of excessive [[anthropomorphism]];<ref name="elephants" /> others suggested that her presence, and her practice of feeding the chimpanzees, had created violent conflict in a naturally peaceful society.<ref name=morris290>Morris, p. 290</ref> However, later research using less intrusive methods confirmed that chimpanzee societies in their natural state can and do go to war.<ref name=morris290 />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.il/books?id=qfNfMGW7eGEC| title=Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | last=Goodall|first=Jane|authorlink=Jane Goodall | year=2010 | isbn=9780547488387}}
* {{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.il/books?id=5BglAwAAQBAJ| title=War! What Is It Good For?: The Role of Conflict and the Progress of Civilisation from Primates to Robots | publisher=MacMillan | last=Morris|first=Ian |authorlink=Ian Morris (historian)| year=2014 | isbn=9781847654540}}

==Further Reading==
* {{cite book | title=The chimpanzees of Gombe: patterns of behavior | publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | author=Goodall, Jane | year=1986 | isbn=9780674116498}} 

[[Category:Chimpanzees]]
[[Category:Primatology]]
[[Category:Jane Goodall]]

Schimpansenkrieg von Gombe

2014-08-04T11:08:24Z

202.123.130.53:

{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Gombe Chimpanzee War
|date=January 7,1974-1978
|place=[[Gombe Stream National Park]],[[Tanzania]],[[Africa]] 4.6667° S, 29.6333° E
|result=[[Kasakela Chimpanzee Community]] victory
|combatant1=Kasakela Chimpanzee Community
|combatant2=Kahama Chimpanzees
|strength1=8 adult males,12 adult females
|strength2=6 adult males,3 adult females,1 adolescent male
|casualties1= unknown
|casualties2=all 6 adult males killed,1 female killed,2 females missing, and three were beaten, raped, and kidnapped by the Kasakela
}}

The '''Gombe Chimpanzee War''' (also known as the "'''Four-Year War'''" of Gombe), lasting from 1974 to 1978, was a violent conflict between two communities of [[chimpanzee]]s in [[Gombe Stream National Park]], in [[Tanzania]]. The belligerent groups were the [[Kasakela Chimpanzee Community|Kasakela]] and the [[Kahama Chimpanzee Community|Kahama]], which occupied territories in the northern and southern areas of the park, respectively.<ref name=goodall121>Goodall 2010, p. 121</ref> The two had previously been a single, unified community, but by 1974 researcher [[Jane Goodall]], who had been observing the community, first noticed the chimps dividing themselves into northern and southern sub-groups.<ref name=goodall120>Goodall 2010, p. 120</ref> Later [[computer-aided analysis]] of Goodall's notes would reveal that the social rift between the two groups had been present as early as 1971.<ref name="scientist">{{cite news | url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22229682.600-only-known-chimp-war-reveals-how-societies-splinter.html | title=Only known chimp war reveals how societies splinter | work=New Scientist | date=7 May 2014 | accessdate=11 June 2014 | author=Barras, Colin}}</ref>

The Kahama group, in the south, consisted of six adult males (among them the chimpanzees known to Goodall as "Hugh", "Charlie", and "Goliath"), three adult females and their young, and an adolescent male (known as "Sniff").<ref name=goodall120 /> The larger Kasakela group, meanwhile, consisted of twelve adult females and their young, and eight adult males.<ref name=goodall120 />

==The war==
The first outbreak of violence occurred on January 7, 1974,<ref name=morris288>Morris, p. 288</ref> when a party of six adult Kasakela males attacked and killed "Godi", a young Kahama male, which had been feeding in a tree.<ref name=goodall121 /> This was the first time that any of the chimpanzees had been seen to deliberately kill a fellow chimp.<ref name=morris288 />

Over the next four years, all six of the adult male members of the Kahama were killed by the Kasakela.<ref name=morris289>Morris, p. 289</ref> Of the female Kahama, one was killed, two went missing, and three were beaten, raped, and kidnapped by the Kasakela.<ref name=morris289 /> The Kasakela then succeeded in taking over the Kahama's former territory.<ref name=morris289 />

These territorial gains were not permanent, however; with the Kahama gone, the Kasakela's territory now butted up directly against the territory of another chimpanzee community, called the [[Kalande chimpanzee community|Kalande]].<ref name=goodall129-130>Goodall 2010, pp. 129–130</ref> Cowed by the superior strength and numbers of the Kalande, as well as a few violent skirmishes along their border, the Kasakela quickly gave up much of their new territory.<ref name=goodall129-130 />

==Effects on Goodall==
The outbreak of the war came as a disturbing shock to Goodall, who had previously considered chimpanzees to be, although similar to human beings, "rather 'nicer' " in their behavior.<ref name=goodall128>Goodall 2010, p. 128</ref> Coupled with the observation in 1975 of [[cannibalistic infanticide]] by a high-ranking female in the community, the violence of the Gombe war first revealed to Goodall the "dark side" of chimpanzee behavior.<ref name=goodall128 /> She was profoundly disturbed by this revelation; in her memoir ''Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe'', she wrote:
{{quote|For several years I struggled to come to terms with this new knowledge. Often when I woke in the night, horrific pictures sprang unbidden to my mind—Satan [one of the apes], cupping his hand below Sniff's chin to drink the blood that welled from a great wound on his face; old Rodolf, usually so benign, standing upright to hurl a four-pound rock at Godi's prostrate body; Jodeo tearing a strip of skin from Dé's thigh; Figan, charging and hitting, again and again, the stricken, quivering body of Goliath, one of his childhood heroes. ...<ref name=goodall128-129>Goodall 2010, pp. 128–129</ref>}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Gombe Stream NP Fuetterungsstation.jpg|thumb|Feeding station where Goodall used to feed the Gombe chimpanzees]]
When Goodall reported on the events of the Gombe War, her account of a naturally-occurring war between chimpanzees was not universally believed. At the time, scientific models of human and animal behavior virtually never overlapped.<ref name="elephants">{{cite book | title=Elephants on the Edge: What Animals Teach Us about Humanity | publisher=Yale University Press | author=Bradshaw, G. A. | year=2009 | pages=40 | isbn=9780300154917}}</ref> Some scientists accused her of excessive [[anthropomorphism]];<ref name="elephants" /> others suggested that her presence, and her practice of feeding the chimpanzees, had created violent conflict in a naturally peaceful society.<ref name=morris290>Morris, p. 290</ref> However, later research using less intrusive methods confirmed that chimpanzee societies in their natural state can and do go to war.<ref name=morris290 />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.il/books?id=qfNfMGW7eGEC| title=Through a Window: My Thirty Years with the Chimpanzees of Gombe | publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt | last=Goodall|first=Jane|authorlink=Jane Goodall | year=2010 | isbn=9780547488387}}
* {{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.il/books?id=5BglAwAAQBAJ| title=War! What Is It Good For?: The Role of Conflict and the Progress of Civilisation from Primates to Robots | publisher=MacMillan | last=Morris|first=Ian |authorlink=Ian Morris (historian)| year=2014 | isbn=9781847654540}}

==Further Reading==
* {{cite book | title=The chimpanzees of Gombe: patterns of behavior | publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press | author=Goodall, Jane | year=1986 | isbn=9780674116498}} 

[[Category:Chimpanzees]]
[[Category:Primatology]]
[[Category:Jane Goodall]]

Ursus arctos gyas

2014-07-18T07:24:01Z

202.123.130.53:

{{Taxobox
| name = Alaska Peninsula Brown Bear
| fossil range = [[Late Pleistocene]] – Recent
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref=<ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN2013.1|assessors=McLellan, B. N., Servheen, C. & Huber, D.|year=2008|id=41688|title=Ursus arctos|downloaded=2013-10-05}}</ref>
| image = Brown bear.jpg
| image_caption = Alaska Peninsula Brown Bear (''U. arctos horribilis'') in Hallo Bay, [[Katmai National Park]], [[Alaska]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Ursidae]]
| genus = ''[[Ursus (genus)|Ursus]]''
| species = '''''U. arctos'''''
| subspecies = '''''U. arctos horribilis'''''
}}

The '''Alaska Peninsula brown bear''' is any member of the [[grizzly bear]] (''Ursus arctos horribilis'') that lives in the coastal regions of southern [[Alaska]].<ref name="Brown Bear">{{cite web|title=Brown Bear|url=http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=brownbear.main|publisher=Alaska Department of Fish and Game}}</ref> Alaska Peninsula brown bears are a very large [[brown bear]] subspecies, usually ranging in weight from 800 to 1,200 pounds (363 to 544 kg).<ref>Whitaker, John O. (1980). ''The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mammals.'' ISBN 0-394-50762-2.</ref> They are found in high densities along the southern Alaskan coast due not only to the large amount of [[clam]]s and [[sedge grass]] but also to the annual [[salmon]] runs; this allows them to attain huge sizes, some of the biggest in the world.<ref name= Smith>{{cite web|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-439-01-0001.pdf |format=PDF |title=Mammalian Species- Ursus arctos |publisher=American Society of Mammalogists, Smith College |accessdate=2012-06-14}}</ref> They may gather in large numbers at feeding sites, such as [[Brooks Camp|Brooks Falls]] and [[McNeil River|McNeil Falls]], both in [[Katmai National Park]] near [[King Salmon, Alaska|King Salmon]].

There is debate as to if Alaska Peninsula brown bears should be referred to as "grizzlies" along with all other North American subspecies of the brown bear. There is confusion experienced when referring to inland and coastal ones separately, but biologists still maintain that coastal ones are truly brown bears. However, it is considered correct to place all North American members of ''U. arctos'' in the subspecies ''horribilis'' except the giant [[Kodiak bear]]s of [[Kodiak Island]].<ref name="Brown or Grizzly Bear">{{cite web|title=Brown or Grizzly Bear|url=http://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/brown-or-grizzly-bear.html|publisher=North American Bear Center}}</ref> To avoid confusion, many simply refer to all North American members, including Kodiaks, as "grizzly bears."<ref name="Grizzly Bear">{{cite web|title=Grizzly Bear|url=http://www.nwf.org/wildlife/wildlife-library/mammals/grizzly-bear.aspx|publisher=National Wildlife Federation}}</ref>

Prized by hunters for their skulls and hides, up to 500 of Alaska's 1,500 brown bears killed yearly by hunters come from the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. To hunt this great bear, hunters must follow a variety of regulations, including bear bag limits, hunting fees, and proper rifles.<ref name="Brown Bear Research in Alaska">{{cite web|title=Brown Bear Research in Alaska|url=http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wildlifenews.view_article&articles_id=551|publisher=ADFG}}</ref>

==Naming and etymology==
The Alaska Peninsula brown bear's name most likely arose because, until 1975, they were considered a different species from the inland grizzly bear. They were never considered closer to [[European brown bear]]s than inland grizzlies, but were given a different name, due to the size and color differences of coastal browns and inland grizzlies. From 1975 onward, they were considered to be the same species, but coastal ones retained the name "brown bear."<ref name="Brown or Grizzly Bear">{{cite web|title=Brown or Grizzly Bear|url=http://www.bear.org/website/bear-pages/brown-or-grizzly-bear.html|publisher=North American Bear Center}}</ref>

==Appearance==
Alaska Peninsula brown bears are the second largest type of brown bear in the world, only after the giant bears of Kodiak Island. They usually measure 8 feet (2.4 m) in length, usually have a shoulder height of about 4-4-1/2 feet (1.2-1.4 m), and a hindfoot length of 11 in (28 cm). One study found that the average weight for a coastal male was around 408 kilograms (900 lb). For a female, this average weight would be 227 kilograms (500 lb).<ref>{{cite web|title=Brown Bear|url=http://beartrust.org/brown-bear|publisher=Bear Trust International}}</ref> On the other hand, an occasional huge male brown has been recorded which greatly exceeds ordinary size, with weights reported up to {{convert|680|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref>Wood, G. ''The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats''. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9</ref> A large coastal male of this size may stand up to {{convert|3|m|ft}} tall on its hind legs and be up to {{convert|1.5|m|ft}} at the shoulder.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kodiak Bear Fact Sheet|url=http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=brownbear.trivia|publisher=Alaska Department of Fish and Game|accessdate=2008-10-27}}</ref> Although variable from blond to nearly black, grizzly bear fur is typically brown in color with white tips.<ref>[http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile.action?spcode=A001 Species Profile: Grizzly bear (''Ursus arctos horribilis'')]. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Ecos.fws.gov. Retrieved on 2012-08-17.</ref> A pronounced hump appears on their shoulders; the hump is a good way to distinguish a black bear from a grizzly bear, as black bears do not have this hump.

==Diet==
[[File:A054, Katmai National Park, Brooks Falls, Alaska, USA, bear and salmon, 2002.jpg|thumb|Brown bear in [[Katmai National Park and Preserve|Katmai National Park]] with salmon. Salmon make up the majority of the brown bear's diet during spring.]]
Brown bears on the Alaskan Peninsula usually feed on spawning [[salmon]], and use many different ways to catch them. These include waiting at the bottom of the falls for the fish to jump, or standing at the top of the falls waiting to catch the fish in midair (sometimes in their mouths). Bears also have much experience at chasing fish around and pinning the slippery animals with their claws. After the salmon runs, berries and grass make the mainstay of the bears' diets, after which they put on sufficient fat reserves and go into hibernation.<ref name="Grizzly Bear">{{cite web|title=Grizzly Bear|url=http://www.nps.gov/dena/naturescience/grizzlybear.htm|publisher=NPS}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}