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Radverkehr in Kopenhagen

2013-01-09T23:56:18Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}
[[File:Cyclists at red 2.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|Rush hour in Copenhagen, where 36% of the population commute to their work or study places each day]]

'''[[Cycling]]''' in '''[[Copenhagen]]''' is - as with most [[cycling in Denmark]] - an important means of transportation and a dominating feature of the cityscape, often noticed by visitors.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/holiday_type/breaks/article5370597.ece The Top 10 cities to visit in 2009], TimesOnline</ref> The city offers a variety of favorable cycling conditions — dense urban proximities, short distances and flat terrain — along with an extensive and well-designed system of [[Segregated cycle facilities|cycle tracks]]. This has earned it a reputation as one of the most—possibly ''the'' most—[[bicycle-friendly]] city in the world.<ref>{{cite news|last=Richard|first=Michael Graham|title=Best of Green — Best City for Cyclists: Copenhagen|url=http://www.treehugger.com/slideshows/cars/best-of-green-cars-transportation-1/page/12/|accessdate=29 September 2012|newspaper=Treehugger|date=8 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Brûlé|first=Tyler|title=Metropolis now|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/27e43fe8-741c-11df-87f5-00144feabdc0.html|accessdate=29 September 2012|newspaper=Financial Times|date=11 June 2010}}</ref> Every day 1.2 million kilometres (745.000 mi) are cycled in Copenhagen, with 36% of all citizens commuting to work, school or university by bicycle,<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" /> in fact more people commute by bicycle in greater Copenhagen, than cycle to work in the entire United States.<ref>{{cite book|last=Grescoe|first=Taras|title=Straphanger|year=2012|publisher=Holt, Henry & Company, Inc.|isbn=9780805091731|url=http://spacingottawa.ca/2012/04/25/straphanger-the-copenhagen-syndrome/}}</ref> Cycling is generally perceived as a healthier, [[environmentally friendly]], cheaper and often quicker way around town than by public transport or car and it is therefore municipal policy for the number of commuters by bike to go up to 50% by 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kk.dk/Borger/ByOgTrafik/CyklernesBy/KonkreteProjekter/OevrigeProjekter/GroenneCykelruter.aspx|title=Grønne cykelruter|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=5 January 2009}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Noerrebrogade 1953 stadsingenioerenes direktorat kbh.jpg|thumbnail|upright|left|Hundreds of cyclists on Nørrebrogade in 1953]]
Bicycles became common in Copenhagen at the beginning of the 20th century. The city's first bicycle path was established on [[Esplanaden, Copenhagen|Esplanaden]] in 1892,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Schønberg|first=Mette|title=Danmarks Cyklister kræver Cykelstier langs Vejende|journal=Trafik og Veje|year=2009|month=September|pages=32|url=http://issuu.com/trafikogveje/docs/tv_09_2009|language=Danish}}</ref> another early example are the paths established around [[the Lakes, Copenhagen|The Lakes]] in 1910, when the existing [[bridle path]]s were converted into isolated cycleways to accommodate the heavy growth in cycling at the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.copenhagenet.dk/CPH-History.htm|title=Brief History about Copenhagen|publisher=Copenhagen Portal|accessdate=18 November 2009}}</ref> In 1890 there were 2500 bicycles in the city, just 17 years later that figure had increased to 80.000, and Copenhagen were already at that time considered the top cycling city in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Janssen|first=Jan E.|title=Cyklerne kom til København|journal=Stræderne i København|year=2012|volume=2|language=Danish}}</ref> In the 1920s and 1930s the popularity increased even further. As a spectator sport, [[six-day racing]] became popular in the 1930s. The first race was held in 1934 in the original [[Forum Copenhagen]] and its popularity topped in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite web|last=Elmgreens|first=Henrik|title=Seksdagesløb|url=http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Livsstil,_sport_og_fritid/Sport/Cykelsport/seksdagesl%C3%B8b|work=[[Den Store Danske Encyklopædi{{!}}The Great Danish Encyclopedia]]|publisher=Gyldendal|accessdate=29 September 2012|language=Danish}}</ref> During World War II, petrol was strictly rationed, making cycling the dominant form of transportation in Copenhagen. Also during the 1940s, the first recreational bicycle routes were developed through green spaces in the periphery of the municipality.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bech|first1=Lotte|last2=Gätke|first2=Thomas|last3=Wolstrup|first3=Finn|title=Grønne Cykelruter i København|url=http://www.trafikdage.dk/td/papers/papers00/Dag2/papers/2710.pdf|work=Trafikdage, 2010|publisher=University of Aalborg|accessdate=29 September 2012|language=Danish}}</ref>

Starting in the 1950s, Copenhagen experienced a decline in [[utility cycling]] due to increasing wealth and affordability of motor vehicles. While no bike paths was actually removed at the time, new road construction omitted bicycle infrastructure,<ref name=Livable_Copenhagen>{{cite thesis|type=M.Sc.|last=Nelson|first=Alyse|title=Livable Copenhagen: The Design of a Bicycle City|publisher=University of Washington, Department of Landscape Architecture|year=2006|url=http://greenfutures.washington.edu/pdf/Livable_Copenhagen_reduced.pdf|accessdate=29 September 2012}}</ref> and many bike lanes were curtailed at intersections to increase the throughput of cars by adding turn pockets and other car related infrastructure in its place. At the same time car traffic increased dramatically on existing streets without bicycle infrastructure, decreasing the cyclists sense of safety on those streets. During the late 60s and early 70s the [[modal share]] of bicycles fell to an all time low of 10%.<ref>{{cite news|last=Goodyear|first=Sarah|title=Why the Streets of Copenhagen and Amsterdam Look So Different From Ours|url=http://www.theatlanticcities.com/commute/2012/04/why-streets-copenhagen-and-amsterdam-look-so-different-ours/1849/|accessdate=29 September 2012|newspaper=Atlantic Cities|date=25 April 2012}}</ref>

With the [[1970s energy crisis|energy crisis]] which hit Denmark harder than most countries, and the growing [[environmental movement]] in the 1970s, cycling experienced a renaissance. The Government was forced to introduce car-free Sundays to conserve oil reserves. Many city dwellers thought it was the best day of the week,<ref>{{cite news|last=Greenfield|first=John|title=Danish History: How Copenhagen became bike-friendly again|url=http://gridchicago.com/2012/danish-history-how-copenhagen-became-bike-friendly-again/|newspaper=Grid Chicago|date=9 December 2012}}</ref> and the [[Danish Cyclists Federation]] which had been on life support for years and were nearly in a coma, experienced a rapid and massive increase in membership during the 1970s and 1980s. Bolstered by the increasing membership and new enthusiastic younger grassroots, it organised massive demonstrations in Copenhagen and other major cities, demanding better infrastructure and safety for the city's cyclists.<ref name=speciale>{{cite thesis|type=M.Sc.|last=Jeppesen|first=Jon Gade|title=Cyklen og byen|publisher=University of Aarhus, Department of History and Area studies|year=2011|url=http://www.dendigitalebyport.byhistorie.dk/bibliografi/dokumenter/Cykel-speciale.pdf|accessdate=29 September 2012|language=Danish}}</ref> Another grassroots action cited for helping cycling infrastructure on the political agenda was operation "White Crosses" where white crosses were painted on the streets where a cyclist had been killed in traffic.<ref>{{cite web|last=Parby|first=Jakob|title=På cykel i København|year=2011|url=http://www.copenhagen.dk/files/exhibitions/pdf/VEKO.pdf|publisher=Museum of Copenhagen|accessdate=15 July 2012|language=Danish}}</ref> These protests and actions came at the same time as a number of planning reforms were initiated nationally, which gave individual citizens the opportunity to have direct influence on new planning and zoning laws in their communities, and with that came a clear demand for segregated cycle paths.<ref name=speciale />

Although the first separate cycle tracks were constructed much earlier, they did not become the norm until the early 1980s. As in many other cities planners suggested to avoid interfering with car traffic on the main roads, by using a 'back streets strategy' of cycling routes on quite residential streets, but uptake was low<ref>{{cite book|last=Schwedler|first=Hanns-Uve|title=Urban transport in central and eastern Europe|year=1997|publisher=European academy for the urban environment}}</ref> and the vast majority of cyclists refused to deviate from the more direct routes.<ref>{{cite book|last=Harris|first=Mike|title=Urban Adaptation - The bicycle as urban transport - learning from cycle cities|year=2010|publisher=AECOM|url=http://www.planning.org.nz/Folder?Action=View%20File&Folder_id=185&File=Harris.pdf}}</ref> Protests continued and on 4 June 1983 the Danish Cycling Federation, at a large bicycle demonstration, gave a "Cyclist Award" to [[Jens Kramer Mikkelsen]] in the form of a two metre long curb. Mikkelsen was the head of the traffic department and later [[List of mayors of Copenhagen|Lord Mayor]]. The curb was placed on the bike lane on Amagerbrogade at the corner of Hollænderdybet. The gift was a symbol of the bicycle federations desire to have segregated bicycle facilities build on direct corridors, which happened to be along major streets,<ref>{{cite web|last=Colville-Andersen|first=Mikael|date=5 June 2008|url=http://www.copenhagenize.com/2008/06/copenhagen-lanes-celebrate-25-years.html|title=Copenhagen Lanes Celebrate 25 Years|publisher=Copenhagenize|accessdate=31 October 2009}}</ref> in order to make bicycle journeys competitive in time and effort. Politicians, although not very eager, gradually took up building cycle tracks on main roads <ref>{{cite web|last=Jensen|first=Niels|title=Copenhagen: Encouraging the use of bicycles|url=http://www.eaue.de/winuwd/175.htm|publisher=The European Academy of the Urban Environment|accessdate=29 September 2012|date=1 December 1998}}</ref> and also began to develop its first coordinated strategies for increasing cycling in the municipality.<ref name=speciale />

Since 1995, when the city started its monitoring system, cycling has constantly risen reaching 41% by 2004.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2004">{{cite web|url=http://www.walkandbikeforlife.org/Articles/Copenhagen%20City%20Of%20Cyclists.pdf|title=Bicycle Account 2004|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=30 October 2009}}</ref> and 50% by 2010, for residents living within the city of Copenhagen.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010">{{cite web|title=Bicycle Account 2010|url=http://www.kk.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfCopenhagen/SubsiteFrontpage/LivingInCopenhagen/CityAndTraffic/~/media/439FAEB2B21F40D3A0C4B174941E72D3.ashx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=15 July 2012}}</ref> During the same period, from the 1980s until today, the network of cycle tracks and paths has almost doubled in length<ref>{{cite news|last=Iversen.|first=Jens Refsgaard|title=Cykelhøvdingen har vundet kampen om gaden|url=http://www.navisen.dk/node/737|accessdate=15 July 2012|newspaper=Avisen.dk|date=28. March 2012|language=Danish}}</ref> reaching 397 km (246 miles) in 2010 <ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" />

== Municipal bicycle policy ==
[[File:Copenhagen inner city cycle traffic peak hour.png|frameless|right|378px]]
The city of Copenhagen released its first bicycle account in 1996, where the city for the first time began measuring 10 [[Performance indicator|key indicators]], chosen by the city's traffic department and a group of regular cyclists. Aside from factual information such as the budget allocated to cycling infrastructure, the length of the bicycle network, modal share and the number of cyclists and [[Epidemiology of motor vehicle collisions|accident statistics]], it also contained [[Statistical survey|surveys]] where the city asked regular cyclists for their opinion on the infrastructure, maintenance and their perceived sense of safety. It also gives citizens an overview the city's plans for cycling and in later renditions, initiatives initiated since the last account was published.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stephansen|first=Maria Helledi|title=Københavns Kommunes cykelregnskab|url=http://projekt.hmskane.se.space2u.com/prodb/lista.asp?show=141|publisher=Hållbar Mobilitet Skåne|accessdate=29 September 2012|language=Danish|year=2001}}</ref> The city of Copenhagen has since released its bicycle account biannually, greatly increasing its scope in later editions.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" />

In the municipal development plan from 1997, the city introduced a new concept of green bicycle routes, envisioned to be a coherent network of cycle routes that to the extend possible will be off street routes through parks and other open green areas, or where this is not possible, to a limited extent along quite streets with low traffic volumes. As a supplement to the existing network centered around busy corridors with high volume vehicle traffic. In 2000 the city released a proposal for a network of 22 green bicycle routes with a total length of 110 km at a total estimated cost of 500 million DKK.<ref name=greenroutes>{{cite web|title=Forslag til Grønne Cykelruter|year=2000|url=http://www.kk.dk/Borger/ByOgTrafik/CyklernesBy/CykelstierOgRuterIKoebenhavn/GroenneCykelruter/~/media/209D8C90A8E9488B8E01D6EC8F0CD454.ashx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=19 July 2012|language=Danish}}</ref> As of 2012 around 40 km of network has been completed and the city is committed to completing the network in the coming years.<ref>{{cite web|title=Grønne cykelruter|url=http://www.kk.dk/Borger/ByOgTrafik/CyklernesBy/CykelstierOgRuterIKoebenhavn/GroenneCykelruter.aspx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=19 July 2012|language=Danish}}</ref> The city hopes that the recreational and enchanted safety qualities of this network will attract certain groups of the population that currently uses cars on trips to and from work, especially those with a 5–10 km commute.<ref name=greenroutes />

In 2001 Copenhagen formulated its first bicycle strategy with the publishing of "''Cycle policy 2002 - 2012''" as a way to prioritize cycling in [[Urban planning|city planning]], signal its importance to the city and to coordinate initiatives for improvements of cycling conditions. The city also vowed to use bicycle accounts to follow up on the goals set forth the cycle policy.
<ref>{{cite web|last=Jensen|first=Niels|title=Cycle Policy 2002-2012|url=http://kk.sites.itera.dk/apps/kk_publikationer/pdf/413_cykelpolitik_uk.pdf|publisher=City of Copenhagen|month=July|year=2002}}</ref> Among these goals were an increase in modal share from 34% to 40%, a 50% decrease serious injuries or death as well as targets for safety, comfort and speed measured in the surveys for the bicycle account.

The next development of the municipal bicycle policy came with the release of the "''Cycle Track Priority Plan 2006-2016''" which states the order in which almost 70 kilometres of new cycle tracks and cycle lanes will be established in the 10 years covered by plan. The expansion of the bicycle network are prioritized by a number of indicators; The number of cyclists, accidents, sense of safety, coherence in the network and coordination with other projects done by the city. In 2009 the estimated cost of implementing the plan amounted to DKK 400 million.

In 2007, following a report on the effects of cycle tracks and bicycle lanes that identified a number of problems with the safety of the network, particularly in intersections, the city approved and released a "''Action plan for safe bicycle traffic 2007-2012''" to aid the city with the goal of reducing the number of accidents by 50% compared to 1996. The plan called for rebuilding streets and intersections throughout the city and identified 20 especially dangerous intersections in the city that would be rebuild at a rate 3 per year. It also called for safety and behavioural campaigns and strengthening the city's traffic department.<ref name="safetyplan">{{cite web|title=Indsatsplan for sikker cykeltrafik 2007 - 2012|url=http://www.kk.dk/Borger/ByOgTrafik/ByensTrafik/Sikkerhed/~/media/A6EFB51C522748C1BD8C90B2E1A7C0DB.ashx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=29 September 2012|language=Danish|month=2007|year=August}}</ref>

=== Current bicycle strategy (2011-2025) ===
On 1 December 2011 the [[Municipal council]] unanimously adopted the new cycling strategy, "good, better, best – The City of Copenhagen’s Bicycle Strategy 2011-2025" which aims to make Copenhagen the worlds best city to cycle in. The strategy replaces the previous cycling policy covering the years 2002 to 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=Astrup|first=Søren|title=København vil slå verdensrekord i cyklisme|url=http://politiken.dk/indland/ECE1252779/koebenhavn-vil-slaa-verdensrekord-i-cyklisme/|date=16 April 2011|publisher=Politiken|accessdate=23 July 2012|language=Danish}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Copenhagen's Bicycle Strategy & Policies|year=2011|url=http://www.kk.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfCopenhagen/SubsiteFrontpage/LivingInCopenhagen/CityAndTraffic/CityOfCyclists/CopenhagenCyclePolicy.aspx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=23 July 2012}}</ref> To reach its goal, the city has chosen to focus on four core areas; city life, comfort, speed and safety <ref>{{cite web|last=Kærup|first=Simon|title=Københavns nye cykelstrategi for 2011-2025|url=http://nyhedsbrev.transport.dtu.dk/Default.aspx?id=409|date=June 2011|publisher=Technical University of Denmark|accessdate=23 July 2012|language=danish}}</ref>

The main goal of the strategy is to increase the modal share of the bicycle to 50% of commuter trips, and make Copenhagen the best cycling city in the world. The city has used the bi-annual bicycle accounts to identify key problems which needs to be addressed in order to increase the modal share, and plans employing a number of tools to reach its target. These includes widening cycle tracks to 3 lanes to allow for conversational cycling and increase the sense of safety on the cycle tracks, while at the same time allowing for higher speeds among commuters. The city further plans to decrease travel times by expanding the use of green waves adjusted to cycling speeds, and building additional bicycle and pedestrian only bridges across busy streets and over the harbour and canals. The city also plans to increase safety by redesigning a number of intersections with a high number of accidents, and rebuilding school routes with safer infrastructure, and speed decreasing measures. Finally the strategy also aims to improve the chaotic bicycle parking conditions, by greatly expanding the number of parking spaces, especially in and around stations.<ref name=CycleStrategy2012>{{cite web|title=Good, Better, Best – The City of Copenhagen’s Bicycle Strategy 2011-2025|url=https://www.kk.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfCopenhagen/SubsiteFrontpage/LivingInCopenhagen/CityAndTraffic/CityOfCyclists/~/media/A6581E08C2EF4275BD3CA1DB951215C3.ashx|publisher=City of Copenhagen}}</ref>

==== Targets: ====
* Relative to 2010, cyclists’ travel time is reduced by 15%
* 50% of all trips to work and school in Copenhagen is done on bicycles (2010: 35%)
* Relative to 2005, the number of seriously injured cyclists will fall by 70%
* 80% of cyclists find the cycle tracks well maintained (2010: 50%)
* 80% of Copenhageners think that bicycle culture positively affects the city’s atmosphere (2010: 67%)
* 90% of cyclists feel safe cycling in traffic (2010: 67%)

[[File:Copenhagen Bicycle modalshares.png|642px|frameless|center]]

== Economic impact ==
The bicycle culture of Copenhagen brings both direct and derived economic benefits to the city. The city has estimated that every kilometre cycled brings a net gain for society of 1.22 DKK (0,34 cents per mile), compared to a net loss of 0.69 DKK for every kilometer driven in a car (0,19 cents per mile). These numbers include both savings in the public sector, and additional economic activity in the private sector.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" />

Since the [[Health system|health care system]] in Denmark is both [[Universal health care|universal]] and tax payer funded, a major driver in the economics of bicycle promotion and investments, comes from savings in the health care system. One study have shown a decrease in [[Mortality rate|mortality]] of 30% among adults who commute by bicycle daily. And the city estimates that for each kilometre cycled society saves 1.21 DKK in the health care system, added up that amounts to approximately DKK 534 million (USD 93 million) of savings per year,<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" /> in addition society gains from increased productivity of a healthier work force.<ref>{{cite news|last=Cameron|first=Scott|title=Biking boosts worker productivity|url=http://blog.sfgate.com/green/2011/08/22/biking-boosts-worker-productivity/|newspaper=SFGate|date=22 August 2011}}</ref> Other savings comes from reduced congestion. lower maintenance cost on road infrastructure and a reduced.<ref>{{cite book|title=CBA of Cycling|year=2005|publisher=Nordic Council of Ministers|isbn=92-893-1209-2|pages=8|url=http://www.thepep.org/ClearingHouse/docfiles/CBA%20on%20cycling%20nordic%20council%20report%202005.pdf}}</ref>

In the private sector there are 289 [[Local bike shop|bicycle shops]] and [[wholesale]] dealers in greater Copenhagen, as well as 20 companies that design and sell bicycles, mainly the city's signature [[Freight bicycle|cargo bikes]], such as Christiania Bikes (Boxcycles in the U.S.), Nihola and Larry vs Harry, and luxury bike brands as [[Biomega (bicycles)|Biomega]] and Velorbis. These firms generate 650 full-time jobs and a total estimated annual [[Revenue|turnover]] of DKK 1.3 billion (USD 226 million).<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" /> Add to this the various forms of [[#Utility cycling|utility cycling]] in the city and specialized [[Consultant|consultancy services]], provided both partly by the public sector though the city itself and the [[Cycling Embassy of Denmark|cycling embassy]] to promote private sector solutions internationally, but also directly by private sector consultants, most notably Copenhagenize Consulting and [[Gehl Architects]]. The [[Tourism]] sector is also regarded to both receive and provide additional economic benefits to the city. There are many [[Bike rental|bicycle rental shops]] which mainly caters to visitors and there are also a number of agencies providing bicycle tours of Copenhagen, creating additional jobs and economic activity. In addition the positive branding effect of Copenhagen's bicycle culture is estimated to attract international conferences and hotel guests, although the city finds it difficult difficult to assign a precise economic value to the positive branding of Copenhagen as a cycling city.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" />

=== Utility cycling ===
[[File:Danish Postal Serivces.jpg|thumbnail|left|The Danish postal service delivers virtually all mail in Copenhagen by bicycle]]
Several companies operate [[bicycle rickshaw]]s and velo taxis in Copenhagen.,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aok.dk/byen-rundt/guide/gennem-byen-paa-miljoevenlige-hjul|title=Gennem byen på miljøvenlige hjul|publisher=AOK|accessdate=30 October 2009|date=23 July 2009|language=Danish}}</ref> while the business is currently unregulated, it is estimated that there were around 130 cycle taxis in Copenhagen in 2012.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jakobsen.|first=Sanne|title=Ulovlige cykeltaxaer har frie tøjler i København|url=http://www.navisen.dk/node/807|newspaper=NetAvisen|date=11. April 2012}}</ref> Recently the city has proposed organising the system in the inner medieval city with 26 designated bicycle [[Taxicab stand|taxi stands]] and require [[Work permit#Work permits in the industry|permits]] for their operation in order to address some of the problems created by their popularity.<ref>{{cite web|last=Roitmann|first=Katia Cerisier|title=Cykeltaxiholdepladser i Indre By|url=http://www.blivhoert.kk.dk/sites/default/files/forslag/Notat%20-%20Cykeltaxaparkering-%20placering.pdf|publisher=City of Copenhagen}}</ref> They offer similar advantages to taxis for passengers travelling a mile or three, and their novelty attracts tourists including those seeking a guided tour of the city centre.

Following a [[liberalization]] in 2007, several entrepreneurs have jumped the opportunity and started to sell goods from custom build cargo bikes. Walking through the city you will find [[Hawker (trade)|vendors]] selling hot coffee, chocolate, soup and pancakes from cargo bikes with [[Portable stove|gas stoves]] installed, cooled sushi and cocktails or pedal blended smoothies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aok.dk/byen-rundt/guide/de-5-gadekoekkener|date=1 January 2009|title=De 5 gadekøkkener|publisher=AOK|accessdate=30 October 2009|language=Danish}}</ref> As with the cycle taxis, there are now so many vendors that the city has started limit their access to some parts of the city, where they along with the bicycle taxis have created access problems for pedestrians.

As in many other cities, another common phenomenon is [[Bicycle messenger]]s. A unique Copenhagen twist on the business that has been making rounds in the news and [[blogosphere]], is the famous custom build semen delivery bike from a local [[sperm bank]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Seinfeld|first=Keith|title=Custom Cycle Ferries Sperm To Fertility Clinics|url=http://www.npr.org/2011/11/06/142037660/custom-cycle-ferries-sperm-to-fertility-clinics|newspaper=NPR|date=6 November 2011}}</ref> In addition, virtually all mail delivered by the [[Post Danmark|Danish postal service]] is done on custom build bicycles, recently the company has introduced larger and more efficient [[Electric bicycle|electric cargo bikes]], which won the 'Innovation of the Year' prize at the annual post expo in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|title=nihola Bikes and the Danish Post have won the category Last Mile Delivery Innovation of the Year|url=http://www.nihola.com/news-article/artiklen//nihola-bikes-and-the-danish-post-have-won-the-category-last-mile-delivery-innovation-of-the-year-awa.html|publisher=Nihola press release}}</ref>

Since 1 March 2009, Copenhagen has had [[police]] patrolling on [[Police bicycle|bicycles]]. Besides being a quick and efficient means of transportation, it has been found to increase visibility and to improve contact with citizens.<ref>{{cite news|last=Scheelsbeck|first=Mia Qvist|title=Betjente på jernhest er en succes|url=http://jp.dk/indland/kbh/article1842963.ece|newspaper=Jyllandsposten|date=7 October 2009|language=Danish}}</ref> Other professions using cycling in their everyday work in Copenhagen include municipal [[home care|supportive home caretaker]]s who are required to be proficient bicyclists to be hired,<ref>{{cite news|last=Falkenstrøm|first=Gry Waagner|title=Flere indvandrere lærer at cykle for at få praktik|url=http://www.navisen.dk/node/753|newspaper=NetAvisen|date=29 March 2012|language=Danish}}</ref> the city also employs a large number of [[Street sweeper]]s on specially build cargo bikes,<ref>{{cite web|title=Fremtidig anvendelse af kælder under Hauser Plads|url=http://www.kk.dk/eDoc/Borgerrepr%C3%A6sentationen/27-08-2009%2017.30.00/Referat/02-10-2009%2010.30.49/4808968.PDF|publisher=City of Copenhagen|date=October 2009|language=Danish}}</ref> and certain departments of the municipal administration requires certain trips, e.g. between meetings to be done by bicycle or foot, in accordance with the city's climate plan.<ref name="Copenhagen climate plan">{{cite web|title=Copenhagen Climate Plan|url=http://www.kk.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfCopenhagen/SubsiteFrontpage/LivingInCopenhagen/~/media/558FF07CE64041AE85437BB71D9EDF49.ashx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|date=August 2009}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==
[[File:Family bike.jpg|thumb|Typical design of bicycle facilities in Copenhagen; The cycle track runs next to the sidewalk and is separated from traffic by a curb and parked cars]]
Bicycle infrastructure in Copenhagen currently includes approximately 350 kilometres of curb [[Segregated cycle facilities|segregated cycle tracks]], 23 kilometres of on street cycle lanes and 43 km of off street green bicycle routes running through parks and other green areas. According to the cycle track priority plan, the city plans to expand this by 70 kilometres of cycle tracks and 67 kilometres of green bicycle routes by 2026, before it deems the network complete. The city allocated some DKK 75 million (approx. US$13M) to new or improved bike specific infrastructure and DKK 17 million (approx. US$2.3M) on operation and maintenance of the network in the 2013 budget.<ref>{{cite web|title=Faktark Kommunens budget 2013 - Klima og Infrastruktur|url=http://kk.dk/PolitikOgIndflydelse/OekonomiOgBudget/Budgetter/~/media/03A8C61E76C8482BBF875732644B186F.ashx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|date|September 2012|language=Danish}}</ref>

It is worth noting that the contiguous [[Urban area of Copenhagen|urban area]] releases no unified statistics, and hence the size of network is considerably larger than most statistics show, since they cover only Copenhagen municipality itself, rather than the 18 municipalities that constitute the urban core of the capital region. The city of Frederiksberg for example includes an additional 55 km of cycle track and paths and actually has the highest modal share in the country, exceeding that of the city of Copenhagen which surrounds it,<ref>{{cite web|title=Cykelregnskab 2009|url=http://www.frederiksberg.dk/Borgerservice/TrafikOgParkering/Komrundtibyen/Cyklister/~/media/NYTD/VejOgPark/Cyklister/Cykelpolitik/Frederiksberg_29112010_web.ashx|publisher=Frederiksberg Municipality|year=2010|language=Danish}}</ref> and the suburban [[Albertslund Municipality]] have a unique network of 83 km separated alignments with level-free crossings through around 130 bridges and tunnels.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Frost|fist1=Jens|last2=Jørgensen|first2=Lars Kamp|title=Bicycle Strategy 2009|url=http://www.albertslund.dk/Borger/ByTrafikOgMiljoe/TrafikOgVeje/AlbertslundCykler/~/media/albertslund%20-%20filer/ByTrafikOgMiljo/TrafikOgNatur/TrafikOgVeje/Cykelstrategi_EnglishVersion.ashx|publisher=Albertslund Municipality|year=2009}}</ref>

=== Cycle tracks ===
The main type of infrastructure in Copenhagen is the cycle track, unlike those commonly seen elsewhere, cycle tracks in Copenhagen are one directional, with one cycle track on each side of street flowing the same direction as vehicular traffic. Legally the minimum width is 1.7 meters, but in practice most cycle tracks are at least 2.2 meters, preferably 2.5 meters, and very busy stretches of cycle tracks can be 3–4 meters wide.<ref name=Livable_Copenhagen /> Cycle tracks in Copenhagen are separated from car lanes by a 7-9 centimetre high stone [[Curb (road)|curb]] and the [[sidewalk]] by another 5–9 cm curb <ref>{{cite web|title=Designmanual for Byrum og Parker|url=http://www.kk.dk/Erhverv/TilladelserOgBevillinger/VejeOgPladser/AendringerAfVeje/Designmanual.aspx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|date=23 May 2007|language=Danish}}</ref> and are by and large of a uniform design, since it's considered an important component to give cyclists a good idea of what any particular route will look like.<ref name=speciale /> Where roadside parking is available cycle tracks runs on the inside of the row of parked cars, between parking and the sidewalk, essentially using parked cars as a separation barrier between bicycles and vehicle traffic, as most cars are single occupancy, this also aids to prevent [[Door zone|dooring]] accidents as the driver exits the car on the opposite side of the cycle track.

==== Safety ====
While installation of a new cycle track in the city decreases the number of accidents along the cycle track itself, a study of newly installed bicycle tracks in Copenhagen actually showed that the number of accidents increased by 9% as there were a significant increase of accidents in intersections following the installation of cycle tracks.<ref>{{cite web|last=Jensen|first=Søren Underlien|title=Effekter af cykelstier og cykelbaner|url=http://www.kk.dk/Borger/ByOgTrafik/ByensTrafik/Sikkerhed/~/media/EB0E8FA263124929B7516A7272F901DF.ashx|publisher=Trafitec|date=October 2006|language=Danish}}</ref> However since the number of bicyclists increased by 18-20% following installation of the cycle tracks, individual accident rates actually dropped when bicycle infrastructure was added.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Jensen|first=Søren Underlien|title=Presentation to AGM of European Cyclist Federation|year=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Roberts|first=Jason|title=Ask the Experts: Søren Underlien Jensen and Dr. Lon D. Roberts, PhD.|url=http://bikefriendlyoc.wordpress.com/2009/07/08/ask-the-experts-s%C3%B8ren-underlien-jensen-and-dr-lon-d-roberts-phd/|date=8 July 2009|accessdate=30 December 2011}}</ref> Since its publication, the city has used the conclusions of the report to improve safety in intersections, for example by rebuilding dangerous intersections, pulling back stop lines for cars to improve visibility of cyclists and expanding the use of bicycle traffic lights, to give pre greens for cyclists.<ref name=safetyplan /> Over all there were 92 cyclists involved serious injury and 3 deaths in 2010, down from 252 incidents in 1996 where the city began a concerted effort to bring down the number of injuries. A cyclist will now on average cycle 4.4 million kilometres (2.7 million miles) before being involved in a serious accident.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" />

==== Super bikeways ====
{{main|Copenhagen Super Bikeways}}

Since [[Transportation planning|traffic planners]] believe it will be very difficult to raise the modal share substantially beyond the current 50% for its own residents,<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" /> the city has begun targeting commuters entering the city from surrounding municipalities on trips in the 5-15 kilometre (3-9 mile) range, aiming to increase the number of bicycle commuters by 30% throughout the capital region. The project is joint effort of 20 municipalities, [[Capital Region of Denmark|the regional council]] and the central government, and involves a 500 kilometre network of 26 named and signposted routes following a uniform standard with high maintenance and good services such as automatic air-pumps and prioritized snow removal. While international media has created some hyperbole around the concept, labelling the network as bicycle superhighways,<ref>{{cite news|last=Beadsley|first=Eleanor|title=In Bike-Friendly Copenhagen, Highways For Cyclists|url=http://www.npr.org/2012/09/01/160386904/in-bike-friendly-copenhagen-highways-for-cyclists|newspaper=NPR|date=1 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=McGrane|first=Sally|title=Commuters Pedal to Work on Their Very Own Superhighway|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/world/europe/in-denmark-pedaling-to-work-on-a-superhighway.html|newspaper=New York Times|date=17 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Dockterman|first=Eliana|title=Who Needs Bike Trails? Denmark Has a Bicycle Superhighway|url=http://science.time.com/2012/07/23/who-needs-bike-trails-denmark-has-a-bicycle-superhighway/|newspaper=Time Magazine|date=23 July 2012}}</ref> they are largely not grade separated. Rather the routes are regular cycle tracks receiving smaller targeted upgrades. Within Copenhagen boundaries, the city aims to widen cycle tracks along the routes to a 3 meter (roughly 10 feet) standard and install upgraded green waves and ITS solutions such as lane lights along its own sections of the network.<ref name=CycleStrategy2012 /><ref>{{cite web|title=FAQ|url=http://www.cykelsuperstier.dk/content/faq|publisher=Sekretariatet for Cykelsuperstier|language=Danish}}</ref>

=== Cycle parking ===
Although visitors may be surprised by the apparently large number of cycle parking facilities in Copenhagen, there is in fact a severe lack of available cycle stands, and among the subjective indicators measured by the city, bicycle parking fares worst, with only 37% being satisfied with the facilities.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" /> There are approximately 560.000 bicycles in the city of Copenhagen, in fact there are more bicycles than people,<ref>{{cite web|title=Copenhageners love their bikes|url=http://denmark.dk/en/green-living/bicycle-culture/copenhageners-love-their-bikes/|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark}}</ref> yet they share only 48.000 bicycle stands.<ref name="Bicycle Account 2010" /> With a view to remedying the situation, in 2008 the Danish Cyclists Federation published a "Bicycling Parking Manual" with a number of guidelines. They are of immediate practical use to today's users but they also offer advice for city planners wishing to improve facilities in the future.<ref>[http://www.celis.dk/Bicycle_Parking_Manual_Screenversion.pdf "Bicycle Parking Manual"], Danish Cyclists Federation, 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2010</ref> A number of projects have been launched to ease Copenhagen's notorious shortage of bicycle parking spaces, particularly at [[transport hub]]s. While the city expects there will always be more bicycles in Copenhagen than parking spots, it hopes to increase satisfaction with bicycle parking significantly by 2025, through a coordinated effort to improve conditions and facilities.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cykelparkering|url=http://www.kk.dk/Borger/ByOgTrafik/CyklernesBy/CykelAnlaegsProjekter/OevrigeProjekter/Cykelparkering.aspx|publisher=City of Copenhagen|accessdate=20 July 2012}}</ref>

=== Integration ===
[[File:Copenhagen biketrain collage.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Bicycle integration in the S-train system]]
Bicycles has been admitted on the city's [[S-train|S-train network]] for some time to facilitate [[mixed-mode commuting]], but in 2010, the [[DSB (railway company)|state railways]] (DSB), which operates the system, made it free to bring bicycles on the train. Since then the number of passengers bringing their bicycle on the train have more than tripled, growing from 2.1 million to 7.3 million in 2012. To accommodate the growing number of bikes, DSB will rebuild all their S-trains by adding an extra carriage specifically for bikes by summer 2013, while keeping the flexible compartments at each end of the train to accommodate bicycles as well as prams and wheel chairs, thus increasing bicycle capacity from 22 to 46 bicycles per train.<ref>{{cite web|title=Press release: Ekstra plads til cykler i S-toget|date:24 April 2012|url=http://www.dsb.dk/om-dsb/presse/nyheder/ekstra-plads-til-cykler-i-s-toget/|publisher=DSB|language=Danish}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Gram|first=Helene|title=X-tra bikes on the S-train|url=http://www.cycling-embassy.dk/2011/06/29/x-tra-bikes-on-the-s-train/|date:29 June 2011|publisher=Cycling Embassy of Denmark}}</ref> Building on the success, DSB has launched additional bicycle initiatives such as opening bike shops in 10 stations, where customers can deliver bikes for repair on their morning commute and retrieve it on their way home, the company has also introduced various bicycle discounts in their [[Loyalty program|loyalty programme]], wowed to install ramps on all stairs and drastically expand bicycle parking at stations.<ref>{{cite web|title=Service announcement: s-tog og cykler|url=http://www.dsb.dk/s-tog/kampagner/s-tog-og-cykler/|publisher=DSB|language=Danish}}</ref>

Other trains serving the metropolitan area, including the [[Copenhagen Metro|metro]], also accepts bikes. Bicycles are also permitted on the city's [[water taxi|water bus]]es, known as the [[Copenhagen Harbour Buses]], and since 2011 it has also possible to bring bicycles on the city's network of commuter express buses, labelled S-Buses, but unlike the s-train they all levy a fee of DKK 12 (aprox. USD 2), and only commuter trains — along with the s-trains — are exempt from a rush hour [[curfew]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Press release: Bussen giver cyklen et lift|date:|url=http://www.moviatrafik.dk/presse/meddelelser/2011/Pages/Bussen-giver-cyklen-et-lift.aspx|publisher=Movia|language=Danish}}</ref> In addition 15% of train passengers in the metropolitan region cycles to the station.<ref>{{cite book|title=Idékatalog for bedre samspil mellem cyklen og den kollektive trafik|date=August 2009|url=http://www.trafikstyrelsen.dk/DA/Kollektiv-Trafik/Trafikale-analyser/~/media/71D96BC54CAB4223807B827F36546CA2.ashx|publisher=Danish Transport Authority|isbn=978-87-91726-48-4|language=Danish}}</ref> [[Taxicab|Taxis]] are required by law to carry a [[Bicycle carrier|bike rack]], and passengers can demand the driver to bring a bicycle for a small fee.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bekendtgørelse om særlige krav til taxier mv. § 10, Stk. 6.|url=https://www.retsinformation.dk/Forms/R0710.aspx?id=22551|publisher=The Danish Parliament|language=Danish}}</ref>

==== Public Bicycles ====
{{Main|Copenhagen City Bikes}}

While the current system is considered one of the first examples of modern bike share systems, it is also of little or no use to commuters, and is mainly seen as serving tourists and casual users since it was primarily designed to prevent bike theft.<ref>{{cite web|title=Bycyklens Historie|url=http://www.bycyklen.dk/dansk/nyhederhistorie/bycyklenshistorie.aspx|publisher=Fonden Bycyklen I København|language=Danish}}</ref> This is set to change with the city's new bike share system opening in 2013, which will be designed specifically for commuters to function as a range extender for the public transit system. With that in mind, the cities of Copenhagen and [[Frederiksberg Municipality|Frederiksberg]] have appointed the operator of the S-train system, [[DSB (railway company)|DSB]] to both [[Call for bids|tender]] and subsequently run the system. It is hoped that other municipalities in the capital region will eventually join the system, but the core network formed by the two municipalities, will include approximately 3500 bicycles and 7000 docking points at the time of opening.<ref>{{cite web|last=Maya|first=Tuyen Le|title=Cykelkæden - bringer kollektiv trafik tættere på dig|url=http://www.cyklistforbundet.dk/Aktuelt/Nyhedsbreve/Nyhedsbrevet-Cykelviden/Artikler-Cykelviden/~/media/Files/Aktuelt/Cykelkonference%202012/Maya%20Tuyen%20Le%20DSB%20Stog.ashx|publisher=DSB|language=Danish}}</ref>

== Influence ==
[[File:Copenhagen cycle chic.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Cycle chic]] in Copenhagen]]
Copenhagen's well-developed [[bicycle culture]] has given rise to the term ''[[Copenhagenization (bicycling)|copenhagenization]]''. This is the practice where other cities follow Copenhagen's example of trying to greatly increase the number of journeys by bicycle by similarly radically improving bicycle infrastructure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.legislation.vic.gov.au/domino/Web_Notes/newmedia.nsf/b0222c68d27626e2ca256c8c001a3d2d/6755f8108f4ff605ca2570700001e087!OpenDocument|title=Media Release: Copenhagen Comes To Swanston Street|publisher=Minister for Health, Victorian Government|accessdate=5 January 2009}}</ref> An example of a city which has introduced bike lanes with inspiration from Copenhagen is [[Melbourne]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bicyclenetwork.com.au/general/change-the-world/11629/|title=Inner: Swanston RMIT to Melbourne University|publisher=Bicycle Victoria|accessdate=23 June 2009}}</ref> where they are referred to as 'Copenhagen lanes'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bv.com.au/change-the-world/40269/|title=Copenhagen Lanes - FAQ's|publisher=Bicycle Victoria|accessdate=31 October 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> The concept has been featured by [[CNN]]s [[Richard Quest]] in the Futures Cities series<ref name=CNN>{{cite web|title='Copenhagenization' in the Danish Capital|url=http://business.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/07/tackling-copenhagens-traffic-with-bicycles/|publisher=CNN|accessdate=23 July 2012}}</ref> and on [[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]s Earthrise series.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cycle City|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/earthrise/2011/11/20111117153115771132.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|accessdate=23 July 2012}}</ref>

In 2007 Copenhagen-based Danish [[urban design]] consultant [[Jan Gehl]] was hired by the [[New York City Department of Transportation]] to re-imagine [[New York City]] streets by introducing designs to improve life for pedestrians and cyclists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Penge/2007/10/05/064448.htm |title=Danske cykelstier i New York|publisher=DR Online|accessdate=5 January 2009}}</ref> In this connection, Gehl took NYC planning chief Amanda Burden and transportation czar [[Janette Sadik-Khan]] on a bike trip around Copenhagen to show them what could be done for New York.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/news/intelligencer/40345/|title=Gehl on Wheels|publisher=New York News & Features|accessdate=23 June 2009}}</ref> Former British transport minister [[Andrew Adonis]] has also cycled the streets of Copenhagen in search of inspiration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.copenhagenize.com/2009/09/british-transport-minister-in.html|title=British Transport Minister in Copenhagen|publisher=copenhagenize.com|accessdate=23 June 2009}}</ref> As a result of Russian president [[Dmitri Medvedev]]'s favorable impressions of Copenhagen's biking system during his visit to Denmark, 14 city bikes were sent to [[St Petersburg]] at the beginning of June 2010 where they will be available to citizens on an experimental basis. Medvedev believes the city bike approach could reduce traffic congestion in the city.<ref>[http://www.dr.dk/Regioner/Kbh/Nyheder/Koebenhavn/2010/06/01/115107.htm "Bycykler sendes til Rusland",] ''Danmarks Radio P4''. {{Da icon}} Retrieved 8 June 2010.</ref> The Danish pavilion at the [[Expo 2010|2010 World Expo in Shanghai]] had been specially designed by [[Bjarke Ingels|BIG Architects]]. It allowed visitors to gain experience of cycling in Copenhagen by taking one of its 300 city bikes along the cycle paths which were incorporated throughout the structure.<ref>[http://www.inhabitat.com/2010/05/03/big-unveils-spiraling-cycling-pavilion-in-shanghai/ Mike Chino, "BIG Unveils Spiraling Cycling Pavilion in Shanghai"], ''Inhabitat''. Retrieved 8 June 2010.</ref> and city has since signed its first [[sister cities]] agreement with [[Beijing]] with a major goal of the cooperation being to provide inspiration to Beijing on how it can reintroduce the bicycle as a major mode of transport in the city.<ref>{{cite web|last=Wetherhold|first=Sherley|title=The Bicycle as Symbol of China's Transformation|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/06/the-bicycle-as-symbol-of-chinas-transformation/259177/|publisher=The Atlantic}}</ref>

Another influence on bicycle culture from Copenhagen is the ''[[Cycle chic]]'' movement. It grow from reactions to a photo of a girl wearing her regular clothes on a bike, which inspired the photographer, Michael Colville-Andersen, to start the blog Copenhagen Cycle Chic featuring mainly female subjects riding their bikes in fashionable everyday clothes. Its popularity have spawned a global movement with over 100 Cycle Chic blogs featuring similarly themed photography from other cities and areas around the world. Most of them are associated with the original blog, the Copenhagen Cycle Chic.

== Criticism ==
[[File:Nørreport Station 10.JPG|thumb|right|Parking facilities are currently inadequate]]
In 2009 blogger David Hembrow, a British national living in the Netherlands, published a post titled "''The truth about Copenhagen''" in his blog "''A view from the cycle path''" where he gives critique to the concept of Copenhagenization, since, he argues, most Dutch cites are far ahead of Copenhagen. The blog post received attention from among others the head of Copenhagens cycling programme Andreas Røhl conceding many of the points raised by David Hembrow.<ref>{{cite web|last=Røhl|first=Andreas|title=Røhls response to David Hembrow|url=http://www.aviewfromthecyclepath.com/2009/12/truth-about-copenhagen.html?showComment=1260788875810#c6831482446244882362}}</ref> Key criticisms included that Copenhagen lanes have no real separation from the street but a small curb giving very close proximity to motor vehicles, as opposed to the 1.5 m separation standard in the Netherlands. That the paths are very narrow, many just two or 2.2 metres which much narrower than the 2.5 standard in the Netherlands. Road junctions generally don't separate cyclists from motorists as they do in the Netherlands and that Copenhagen statistics conveniently omits the "all trips" figures and only talk about the more impressive figures for commuting<ref>{{cite web|last=Hembrow|first=David|title=The truth about Copenhagen|url=http://www.aviewfromthecyclepath.com/2009/12/truth-about-copenhagen.html|accessdate=20 July 2012}}</ref>

Another criticism directed towards the cycling culture of Copenhagen is that the city's singular focus on bicycles has nourished a culture of bad behavior among the city's cyclists, Mr Mikael le Dous, chairman of the small Danish Pedestrian Association went so far as to call cyclists the 'Plague of the pavement' while another member claimed that the 'Cyclist has taken over everything'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tagliabue|first=John|title=In City of Cyclists, Pedestrians Feel the Squeeze|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/world/europe/in-copenhagen-pedestrians-feel-squeezed-out-by-cyclists.html|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=23 July 2012}}</ref> In an article series on the subject run by Danish tabloid [[Ekstra Bladet]], an operative leader in the Danish traffic police called Copenhagen cyclists 'egoistic' and called for a change in the cycle culture.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rohde-Brøndum|first=Jakob|title=Politi: Cyklister lever deres eget liv|url=http://ekstrabladet.dk/nyheder/samfund/article1786117.ece|publisher=Ekstrabladet}}</ref> Contrary a number of international observers have noted that when comparing to other countries, Copenhagen cyclists are very well behaved<ref>{{cite web|last=Larsen|first=Jesper Braarud|title=Cykel-lobbyen: Cyklisterne er civiliserede|url=http://ekstrabladet.dk/nyheder/samfund/article1786173.ece|publisher=Ekstrabladet}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Colville-Andersen|first=Mikael|title=Desire Lines of 16536 Bicycle Users|url=http://www.copenhagenize.com/2012/09/desire-lines-of-16536-bicycle-users.html|publisher=Copenhagenize Consulting}}</ref> and in a survey done by the [[Dutch National Bicycle Council]] the council noted that "cyclists obey traffic regulations quite well. In Copenhagen people do not feel this way, as other road users complain in considerable and increasing numbers about cyclists’ behaviour. But compared to cycling in the Netherlands, everything is extremely tidy and disciplined. Over 90% of cyclists stop at a red light. Riding three abreast, with passengers on the back, (and using) mobile phone (are) rare occurrences" <ref>{{cite web|title=The Fietsberaad - Bicycle policies of the European principals: continuous and integral|url=http://www.fietsberaad.nl/library/repository/bestanden/Fietsberaad_publicatie7_Engels.pdf|publisher=Fietsberaad}}</ref>

Some observers such as British daily ''[[The Guardian]]'' and CNNs Richard Quest, as well as the city administration itself, has linked the issue of cyclist behavior to
the city's novel problem of bike congestion; there are simply too many bicycles, relative to the infrastructure provided. During the morning and afternoon rush hour, it is not uncommon that there are too many cyclists for all to cross during green light cycles at intersections along the busy corridors. Another rush hour issue is lack of space on busy sections of the bicycle path network, with cyclists moving at different speeds without much leeway, creating an intimidating atmosphere for kids, the elderly and inexperienced cyclists.<ref name=CNN /><ref>{{cite web|last=Hill|first=Amelia|title=Copenhagen's novel problem: too many cyclists|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/bike-blog/2011/sep/09/copenhagen-cycling-congestion|publisher=The Guardian|accessdate=23 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Guldagger|first=Mette|title=Trængsel skaber ny cykelkultur i storbyen|url=http://politiken.dk/tjek/sundhedogmotion/livsstil/ECE1628742/traengsel-skaber-ny-cykelkultur-i-storbyen/|publisher=Politiken}}</ref> This in turn has created a conflict of space allocation, where cycling advocates claim that too little is done to accommodate the majority of cyclists and pedestrians since only 29.1% of the city's population own a car,<ref>{{cite web|last=Barfred|first=Lars|title=The State of Copenhagen Congestion|url=http://www.copenhagenize.com/2012/08/the-state-of-copenhagen-congestion.html|publisher=Copenhagenize}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Astrup|first=Søren|title=Berømt cykelblog skoser Københavns trafikpolitik|url=http://ibyen.dk/gadeplan/ECE1737705/beroemt-cykelblog-skoser-koebenhavns-trafikpolitik/|publisher=Politiken}}</ref> while some motorists, including the Danish motoring association, feels that the capital hate cars, and that the city's accommodation of bicycles have already gone too far <ref>{{cite web|last=Iversen|first=jens|title=København får 1.700 nye p-pladser|url=http://www.fdm.dk/nyheder/koebenhavn-faar-1700-nye-p-pladser|publisher=FDM - Forenede Danske Motorejere}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Editorial|title=Berlingske Mener: Hovedstaden hader bilister|url=http://www.b.dk/berlingske-mener/berlingske-mener-hovedstaden-hader-bilister|newspaper=Berlingske|date=2. september 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Cycling in Denmark]]
* [[Cycling in Amsterdam]]
* [[Utility cycling]]
* [[Segregated cycle facilities]]
* [[Modal share]]
* [[Danish Cyclists Federation]]
* [[Cycling Embassy of Denmark]]
* [[Cycling advocacy]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Cycling in Copenhagen}}
* [http://www.copenhagencyclechic.com/ CopenhagenCycleChic.com]
* [http://www.copenhagenize.com/ Copenhagenize.com]
* [http://www.kk.dk/cityofcyclists.aspx Copenhagen: City of Cyclists]
* [http://www.cycling-embassy.dk/ Cycling-Embassy.dk] Cycling Embassy of Denmark
* [http://www.kk.dk/Borger/ByOgTrafik/cyklernesby/~/media/3F414DE5F4314B49898A559A79A99AAD.ashx Cycling map of Copenhagen]

==== Films ====
* Street Films: [http://www.streetfilms.org/cycling-copenhagen-through-north-american-eyes/ Cycling Copenhagen through North American] eyes by Clarence Eckerson, Jr.
* CNN Future Cities: [http://business.blogs.cnn.com/2011/06/07/tackling-copenhagens-traffic-with-bicycles/ Copenhagenization in the Danish Capital]
* Al Jazeera, Earthrise episode 8: [http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/earthrise/2011/11/20111117142513860868.html Cycling in Copenhagen]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cycling In Copenhagen}}
[[Category:Cycling in Copenhagen| ]]
[[Category:Cycling by city|Copenhagen]]
[[Category:Urban planning in Denmark]]

[[hu:Koppenhága kerékpáros közlekedése]]

Edward McMillan-Scott

2012-12-26T23:04:26Z

1exec1: 30em

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox MEP
| image = Edward McMillan-Scott speaking at Transatlantic dialogue meeting held in the European Parliament.jpg
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Edward McMillan-Scott
| honorific-suffix =[[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]
| party = [[Liberal Democrats]] (2010-)
[[Conservative]] (to 2009)
| constituency_MP = [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]]
| term_start = 10 June 1999
| term_end =
| parliament = European
| majority =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1949|8|15|df=y}}
| birth_place =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| nationality = British
| spouse = Henrietta McMillan-Scott
| relations =
| children = }}

'''Edward Hugh Christian McMillan-Scott''' (born 15 August 1949) is a British [[Member of the European Parliament]] (MEP) for [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber constituency]]. He has been elected four times as [[Vice President of the European Parliament|European Parliament Vice-President]] since 2004. His main portfolio remains Human Rights and Democracy. He was first elected as an MEP in 1984. McMillan-Scott was a Conservative until a dispute with David Cameron over the British premier's controversial new EU alliance: he joined the Liberal Democrats in 2010.

On 25 September McMillan-Scott won the top award, for ‘Outstanding Contribution’ in the 2012 MEP Awards<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/latest-news/article/newsarticle/mep-awards-2012-winners-announced/#.UGxWzpjMh8E</ref> presented by the [[The Parliament Magazine|Parliament magazine]], Brussels sister publication of Westminster’s House magazine. The citation referred to his achievements in democracy and human rights, especially his active involvement in the Arab Spring, as well as his leadership of the [http://singleseat.eu/ Single Seat] campaign to end MEPs’ monthly trek from their base in Brussels to their official ‘seat’ in Strasbourg.

McMillan-Scott was leader of the Conservative MEPs 1997 – 2001. He was re-elected top of the Yorkshire & Humber regional list in the [[European Parliament election, 2009 (United Kingdom)|2009 election]]. McMillan-Scott is a life-long pro-European.<ref>http://www.emcmillanscott.com/7.html</ref> Following the withdrawal of the Conservative Party from the centrist [[European People's Party]] in order to form the [[European Conservatives and Reformists|European Conservative and Reformist's Group]], described by Liberal Democrat leader [[Nick Clegg]] as “a bunch of nutters, homophobes, anti-Semites and climate-change deniers’,<ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/apr/22/tv-leaders-debate-nick-clegg</ref> McMillan-Scott protested.<ref>http://www.eureporter.co/story/new-conservative-group-united</ref> He successfully stood as an independent Vice-President against the nominee of the ECR Group, Polish MEP Michal Kaminski, criticising Kaminski's alleged past links to extremism, confirmed inter alia by the Daily Telegraph.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5837378/Tory-MEPs-led-by-Pole-with-extremist-past.html</ref> He is the only Vice-President to have been elected without an official party candidature.<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/eu-parliament-elects-vice-presidents-after-marathon-vote/</ref> As a result of this protest, he had the [[whip (politics)|whip]] withdrawn and was subsequently expelled from the Conservative Party without notice or reason.

In March 2010, he joined the [[Liberal Democrats]] with whom he had usually worked closely on democracy and human rights issues. In May 2010 he became a member of the [[Group of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] in the European Parliament.<ref name="Joins Lib-Dems">{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8564914.stm|title=Ex-Tory MEP Edward McMillan-Scott joins Lib Dems |date=12 March 2010|work=BBC News Online|publisher=BBC|accessdate=12 March 2010}}</ref> On 17 May he joined the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE) group in the European Parliament. He sits as ALDE Vice-President of the European Parliament.<ref>{{cite book|title=The faces of the European Parliament 2009–2011|month=April|year=2010|publisher=Publications Office of the European Union|isbn=978-92-823-3043-2}}</ref> In January 2012, he was re-elected as Vice-President for the fourth time.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/pressroom/content/20120117IPR35542/html/14-Vice-Presidents-and-5-Quaestors-elected|title=14 Vice-Presidents and 5 Quaestors of the European Parliament elected|date=18 January 2012|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=31 January 2012}}</ref> He once again received the portfolio for Democracy and Human Rights as well as additionally gaining the [[Sakharov Prize]] Network, which underpins the parliament's annual prize for freedom of expression and responsibility for transatlantic relations.

==Early life==
McMillan-Scott was born 15 August 1949 in [[Cambridge]], England,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/members/public/geoSearch/view.do?country=GB&partNumber=1&zone=Yorkshire+and+the+Humber&language=EN&id=1405|title=MEP profile – Edward McMILLAN-SCOTT|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="Doncaster"/> one of seven children of the late Walter, an architect, and Elisabeth McMillan-Scott, nee Hudson, a Yorkshire family. He was educated privately by [[Dominican friar]]s.<ref name="Profile">{{Cite web|url=http://emcmillanscott.com/7.html|title=Profile of Edward McMillan-Scott|publisher=Edward McMillan-Scott|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref> He worked across the continent, the USSR and Africa as a tour director for a US company for several years. He speaks French, Italian, some German and Spanish. From 1973 he worked in public affairs and in 1982 set up his own Whitehall consultancy. His clients included the Falkland Islands Government. He became a member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in 1967<ref name="Doncaster"/><ref name="Profile"/> and joined the [[European Movement UK|European Movement]] in 1973. He was one of the joint regional coordinators for the Yes to Europe campaign in the 1975 referendum on EC membership.

==European Parliament==

McMillan-Scott was elected as the MEP for [[York (European Parliament constituency)|York]] from 1984 to 1994,<ref name="Elections1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.election.demon.co.uk/epe2.html|title=Elections to the European Parliament 1979–99 – Constituencies in England part 2 (Merseyside East – Z) |work=United Kingdom Election Results|publisher=David Boothroyd|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref> the MEP for [[North Yorkshire (European Parliament constituency)|North Yorkshire]] from 1994 to 1999,<ref name="Elections1"/> and an MEP for [[Yorkshire and the Humber (European Parliament constituency)|Yorkshire and the Humber]] from 1999 onwards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.org.uk/section/1999/1999-election-results#yorkshirehumber|title=1999 Election Results – Yorkshire and Humber|publisher=UK Office of the European Parliament|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.org.uk/section/2004/2004-election-results#yorkshirehumber|title=2004 Election Results – Yorkshire and Humber|publisher=UK Office of the European Parliament|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.org.uk/section/european-elections/results-2009-european-elections-uk#yorkshirehumber|title=Results of 2009 European elections in the UK|publisher=UK Office of the European Parliament|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref>

===Roles and responsibilities===
McMillan-Scott was re-elected Vice-President of the European Parliament in January 2012. He was leader of the British Conservative MEPs between September 1997 and December 2001.<ref name="Doncaster"/> On 23 July 2004 he was elected fourth of the 14 [[President of the European Parliament|Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament]].<ref name="Doncaster">{{Cite web|url=http://www.doncasterconservatives.org.uk/index.php?sectionid=2&pagenumber=22|title=Edward McMillan-Scott|publisher=Doncaster Conservatives|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="VP">{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?language=EN&type=IM-PRESS&reference=20070109BKG01804#title3|title=Election of the President of the European Parliament|date=5 December 2007|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref> He was re-elected a Vice-President in 2007.<ref name="VP"/> McMillan-Scott's special responsibilities as Vice-President included relations with national EU parliaments<ref name="Doncaster"/> and the [[Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly]],<ref name="EMPA">{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/intcoop/empa/epdelegation/ep_members_en.htm|title=EP Delegation to the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly|date=1 September 2008|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=30 July 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> which brings together 280 MPs from [[European Union|the EU]], North Africa and the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/intcoop/empa/assembly/default_en.htm|title=The Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary Assembly (EMPA)|date=18 May 2009|publisher=European Parliament|accessdate=30 July 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> After re-election as Vice-President in 2009, his responsibilities as Vice-President are Democracy and Human Rights, relations with national parliaments, and chairing the European Parliament's Audit Panel.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} After re-election in 2012 he has continued with the democracy and human rights portfolio and additionally the Sakharov Prize Network and transatlantic relations.

He co-chairs the [http://www.hrdn.eu/index.php#content Human Rights and Democracy Network], which brings together more than 40 Brussels-based NGOs and whose aim is to maximise EU attention to these topics.

He sits on the Supervisory Group which oversees all the European Parliament’s democracy and human rights activities, including election observation. He has participated in numerous such missions since 1990. He was elected chairman of the European Parliament's largest-ever [[Election monitoring|election observer]] missions, 30 MEPs, to the [[Palestinian territories]] in January 2005 and January 2006. These observers monitored the [[Palestinian National Authority]]'s [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|presidential]] and [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|parliamentary]] elections.<ref name="Doncaster"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.violethudson.com/democracy.html|title=Edward chairs two largest Palestine MEP poll missions|publisher=Edward McMillan-Scott|accessdate=31 July 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

===Campaigning===
In 1992, McMillan-Scott founded the European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights (EIDHR),<ref>http://ec.europa.eu/europeaid/how/finance/eidhr_en.htm</ref> to facilitate the development of democracy and civil society in the ex-Soviet bloc<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.itssd.org/Publications/Ducking%20the%20Truth%20About%20EU%20GM%20Policy.pdf|title=Europe Needs an Office of Democracy|date=22 October 2004|publisher=EU Reporter|page=3|format=PDF|accessdate=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kiconservatives.com/index.php?sectionid=2&pagenumber=22|title=Member of the European Parliament – Edward McMillan-Scott MEP|publisher=Keighley & Ilkley Conservatives|accessdate=31 July 2009}}</ref> countries, and which is now directed towards the reforming [[Arab world]] and countries resisting reform such as China, Cuba and Russia.<ref name="Profile"/> The instrument makes €150 million available to those promoting human rights and democracy, often without the applicant's host country consent.

As a frequent visitor to countries of the former Soviet Bloc and its satellites after his election in 1984, where he had contacts with dissidents, McMillan-Scott was arrested and fined in Leningrad (now St Petersburg) in 1972 for visiting former religious institutions while working as a tour guide. He was present during the October 1993 attempted coup d’etat by old guard communists against [[Boris Yeltsin|President Boris Yeltsin]] and was the only outside politician to speak at [[Garry Kasparov|Gary Kasparov]]’s July 2006 ‘Other Russia’ rally. He was the first outside politician to visit Belgrade towards the end of the Milosevic regime, where he reviewed more than 30 reformist and social projects being funded by the EIDHR.

From 2004 – 2012 he chaired the European Parliament’s informal, cross-party Democracy Caucus,<ref>http://www.democracycaucus.org/42904.html?sessionidkey=sessionidval</ref> which was set up to campaign for a European Endowment for Democracy and Human Rights (EED). The ambition was to have an equivalent to Washington’s National Endowment for Democracy, to work at arms’-length from the EU and to be deniable, expert and flexible. The EED was set up in 2012.<ref>http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+TA+P7-TA-2012-0113+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN</ref>

McMillan-Scott is one of the foremost campaigners for reform in China. After his last visit to Beijing, in May 2006, all the dissidents and former prisoners-of-conscience with whom he had contact were arrested, imprisoned and in some cases tortured. These included the Christian human rights lawyer [[Gao Zhisheng]] and environmental activist [[Hu Jia (activist)|Hu Jia]]. McMillan-Scott successfully nominated Hu Jia for the 2008 Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Expression, awarded annually by the European Parliament. He has sponsored numerous activities, hearings and resolutions focussed on reform in China. In November 2010 he met the dissident artist [[Ai Weiwei]], co-designer of Beijing’s [[Beijing National Stadium|‘Birds Nest’]] stadium, who made a highly-critical series of comments for McMillan-Scott’s YouTube channel.<ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yZIWSJPq3vY&list=UUPx6ZqHBnqZBcDiP2zUx8MQ&index=20&feature=plcp</ref> Ai Weiwei later spent some months under house arrest in Beijing.

Although he has no religious beliefs, McMillan-Scott has championed the [[Falun Gong]] Buddha-school spiritual movement, brutally persecuted after 1999 by the Beijing regime because of its popularity. He has met many former prisoners and published accounts of their torture.<ref>http://www.emcmillanscott.com/resources/50+torture+steps.pdf</ref> He has campaigned against the organ harvesting by the Chinese Peoples’ Army, in which thousands of Falun Gong prisoners (they neither smoke nor drink) have been killed for body parts for the lucrative transplant business.<ref>http://organharvestinvestigation.net/index.html</ref>

He has argued for an Impunity Index to be maintained by the International Criminal Court, based on the West German Salzgitter process during the Cold War, where denunciations of crimes against humanity in totalitarian states may later lead to prosecutions.

He wrote a key report for the European Parliament's [[Foreign Affairs Select Committee|foreign affairs select committee]], of which he was at one time the longest-serving member, on a new EU–China strategy in 1997.<ref>{{Cite press release|url=http://www.eppgroup.eu/Press/showpr.asp?PRControlDocTypeID=1&PRControlID=6853&PRContentID=12006&PRContentLG=en|title=MEPs demand IOC assessment on China's human rights record on eve of Olympic year. Edward McMillan-Scott MEP|date=13 December 2007|publisher=EPP Group in the European Parliament|accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.emcmillanscott.com/14.html|title=Reform in China – the world's biggest country|publisher=Edward McMillan-Scott|accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> Following subsequent visits to China and pre-Olympic crackdowns he initiated a campaign aimed at an EU political boycott of the [[2008 Summer Olympics|August 2008]] Beijing Olympic Games.<ref name="Boycott">{{Cite web|url=http://www.boycottbeijing.eu/|title=Welcome to BoycottBeijing.eu homepage|publisher=BoycottBeijing.eu |accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> In the event, the Presidents of the [[European Parliament]] and [[European Commission]] boycotted the Games, as did the EU's external affairs Commissioner.<ref name="Boycott" />

McMillan-Scott was the first politician to visit Tibet after a three-year blackout, in 1996. He has subsequently championed the cause of Tibetan independence, taking part in numerous activities to highlight oppression in Tibet. He and his staff have made many speeches and taken part in pro-democracy activities with Tibetan exiles.<ref>http://www.chithu.org/mp3/pdf/mangtso2011.pdf</ref>

In October 2006, McMillan-Scott visited Cuba, where he met Sakharov prize winners [[Ladies in White|‘The Ladies in White’]] and the late Oswaldo Payá as well as other dissidents and has since encouraged their campaign for political freedoms.

McMillan-Scott, a relation of T E Lawrence [[T. E. Lawrence|(‘of Arabia’)]] through the latter’s father, Sir Thomas Chapman Bt, has campaigned for reform across the Arab world since a visit to Jordan in 1993. He championed Egypt’s liberal [[El-Ghad Party|El Ghad party]] from 2003, and secured the release of its leader, [[Ayman Nour|Dr Ayman Nour]], after he was imprisoned for standing against former President Mubarak in 2005. He was the first outside politician to get to Cairo at the end of the revolution in March 2012 and made a series of visits to the region in the following months.<ref>http://www.theparliament.com/latest-news/article/newsarticle/arab-spring-one-year-on-edward-mcmillan-scott/</ref> In September 2012, jointly with the leader of the ALDE group in the European Parliament, [[Guy Verhofstadt]], he was present at the launch of the Arab Leaders for Freedom and Democracy. The meetings were attended among others by Dr Ayman Nour, Mr [[Amr Moussa|Amre Moussa]] and interim Libyan premier [[Mahmoud Jibril|Mahmud Gibril]].<ref>http://www.alde.eu/press/press-and-release-news/press-release/article/guy-verhofstadt-a-historic-alliance-of-secular-arab-leaders-is-launched-in-cairo-39770/</ref>

McMillan-Scott campaigns for improved children's rights across the EU and has dealt with a number of cross-frontier [[child abduction]] cases.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.emcmillanscott.com/14.html|title=Children's champion|publisher=Edward McMillan-Scott|accessdate=31 July 2009}}</ref> He began campaigning for an EU-wide missing child alert, similar to the [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] system in the USA, with Kate and Gerry McCann, parents of missing [[Madeleine McCann|Madeleine]].<ref name="Sun">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/maddie/1022581/Kate-McCann-Trip-to-Brussels-Launch-child-alert-system.html|title=McCanns launch child alert|date=10 April 2008|work=The Sun|publisher=News Group Newspapers Limited|accessdate=31 July 2009}}</ref> A resolution to this effect, in the summer of 2008, was sponsored by McMillan-Scott and gained the support of a majority of MEPs. In the USA, the Department of Justice's [[AMBER Alert|Amber Alert]] has recovered over 500 abducted children since 2003, 80% within the crucial first 72 hours.<ref name="Sun"/> France has an identical system but other countries, including the UK, rely on a patchwork of police schemes and children's charities.

In 1999 McMillan-Scott was singled out by ‘whistleblower’ [[Paul van Buitenen]] for his role in the 1999 fall of the European Commission. After McMillan-Scott’s discovery of fraud in the EU Commission’s tourism unit during the 1990 European Year of Tourism, which McMillan-Scott had initiated, he campaigned for reform and in 1995 caused the first-ever raid by Belgium’s fraud squad on the Commission. After a report by a panel of independent Wise Men, the Commission was later accused of serious irregularities, nepotism and allegations of fraud leading to the [[Santer Commission#Resignation|resignation of President Jacques Santer]] and all his commissioners in 1999.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/democracylive/hi/historic_moments/newsid_8207000/8207105.stm|title=Downfall of the Commission|publisher=BBC|work=Democracy Live|date=31 October 2009|accessdate=29 September 2010}}</ref>

His 'Golden Fleece' campaign against fraud and malpractice in the Costa villa and [[timeshare]] market won wide support, leading to the EU Timeshare Directive in 1994.<ref name="Property">{{Cite web|url=http://www.emcmillanscott.com/14.html|title=Property Rights|publisher=Edward McMillan Scott|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31994L0047:EN:HTML|title=Directive 94/47/EC of the European Parliament and the Council|date=26 October 1994|work=EUR-Lex|publisher=Publications Office of the European Union|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref> He has continued to campaign for more secure [[Property|property rights]] in the EU's neighbouring states, as buyers move into the Balkans, Turkey and North Africa, where the legal framework is less secure.<ref name="Property"/>

McMillan-Scott has been a member of every initiative aimed at ending the European Parliament’s wasteful monthly four-day sessions in Strasbourg since his election in 1984. In October 2010 he set up the [http://www.brusselsstrasbourgstudy.eu/ Brussels-Strasbourg Study Group] of senior MEPs to provide objective information. Its February 2011 report [http://www.brusselsstrasbourgstudy.eu/resources/A+Tale+of+Two+Cities.pdf ‘A Tale of Two Cities]’ stated that the additional cost is €180 million and 19,000 tonnes of CO2 a year. The Single Seat campaign,<ref>http://www.singleseat.eu/</ref> co-chaired with [[Alexander Nuno Alvaro|Alexander Alvaro MEP]] (FDP, Germany), aims at moving all the European Parliament’s activities to Brussels. McMillan-Scott was awarded the Parliament magazine’s 2012 Award for [http://www.theparliament.com/latest-news/article/newsarticle/mep-awards-2012-winners-announced/ 'Outstanding Contribution'] partly for his leadership of the campaign.

Since 2008 McMillan-Scott has eaten no meat<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/ethicallivingblog/2009/mar/12/boris-meat-free-vegetarian-carbon-emissions|title=Why I'm challenging Boris to go meat-free|last=McMillan-Scott|first=Edward|date=12 March 2009|work=The Guardian |location=London|publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited|accessdate=22 January 2011}}</ref> because of its effect on climate change and in December 2009 invited Sir Paul McCartney to a conference ‘Less Meat = Less Heat’,<ref>http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/sir-paul-to-tell-eu-less-meat-means-less-heat-1830669.html</ref> jointly with Dr Rajendra Pachauri, chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.<ref>http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+IM-PRESS+20091130IPR65643+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN</ref> McCartney campaigns for less meat consumption as Meat Free Mondays. A long-term campaigner for reform of the EU’s Common Fisheries Policy, in June 2011 McMillan-Scott invited Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall to Brussels to internationalise the super-chef’s [http://www.fishfight.net/ Fish Fight] against discards.

He is a well-known supporter of [[European integration]]. In 2010, he signed the [[Spinelli Group]] manifesto. Throughout his career he has advocated fair taxation, better civil liberties, improved human rights and better democracy in the UK through electoral reform. He argues for radical reform of the Common Agricultural Policy and Common Fisheries Policy.

==Joining the Liberal Democrats==
Prior to the [[European Parliament election, 1999 (United Kingdom)|European Elections of June 1999]], the British Conservative MEPs were allied members of the [[European People's Party]] (EPP).<ref name="Federal Trust">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fedtrust.co.uk/admin/uploads/PolicyBrief25.pdf|title=To leave or not to leave?The Conservatives and the European People's Party in the European Parliament|last=Wagner|first=Markus|month=March|year=2006|work=European Policy Brief|publisher=The Ferdeal Trust|format=PDF|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref> After the election, jointly with the then leader of the Conservative Party [[William Hague]], McMillan-Scott negotiated the 'Malaga Agreement' which provided for a more detached relationship between the 36 British Conservative MEPs and the newly formed [[European People's Party–European Democrats]] (EPP-ED) coalition.<ref name="Federal Trust"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eureporter.co.uk/story/new-conservative-group-united|title=New Conservative group united|last=White|first=Chris|date=24 June 2009|publisher=EU Reporter|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref> This agreement remained in force until the [[European Parliament election, 2009|2009 elections]] when the Conservatives broke links with the EPP and formed part of the new [[European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR) group.<ref>{{Cite press release|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/16665126/ECR-formation-Press-release-june-22-2009|title=European Conservatives and Reformists form New Grouping in the European Parliament|date=22 June 2009|work=Scribd|publisher=European Conservatives and Reformists|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8112581.stm|title=Conservative MEPs form new group |date=22 June 2009|work=[[BBC News Online]]|publisher=BBC|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref>

Following his re-election to the European Parliament, McMillan-Scott left the EPP group and joined the new ECR group in accordance with the Conservative manifesto for the election.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.conservatives.com/~/media/Files/Downloadable%20Files/Euro%20Election%202009/euro-manifesto.ashx|title=Vote ForChange – European Election Manifesto|year=2009|publisher=Conservative Party|format=PDF|accessdate=2 August 2009}}</ref> He attended the inaugural meeting of the new group, in [[Brussels]] on 24 June, where he expressed the view that he was uncomfortable with some members of the group having possible links with extremist groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.emcmillanscott.com/8.html|title=Edward McMillan-Scott "uncomfortable" with new group (June 25)|publisher=Edward McMillan-Scott|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/5626057/Tory-MEP-voices-real-concern-over-new-European-grouping.html|title=Tory MEP voices 'real concern' over new European grouping|last=Banks |first=Martin |date=25 June 2009|work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London|publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref>

In July 2009 he successfully stood for re-election as [[Vice-Presidents of the European Parliament|Vice-President of the European Parliament]] against the nominee of the new ECR group, [[Michał Kamiński]] a [[Poles|Polish]] MEP from the [[Law and Justice|Law and Justice Party]],<ref name="BBC">{{Cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8150922.stm|title=Defiant Tory MEP loses party whip |date=15 July 2009|work=[[BBC News Online]]|publisher=BBC|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref><ref name="Times">{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6711063.ece|title=Tories expel MEP Edward McMillan-Scott in row over Cameron reforms|last=Charter |first=David|date=15 July 2009|work=TimesOnline|publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd|accessdate=5 August 2009 | location=London}}</ref> after discovering Kaminski's past links to an extemist group in Poland.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> As a result the Conservative [[whip (politics)|whip]] was withdrawn by [[Timothy Kirkhope]], the leader of the British Conservative delegation.<ref name="BBC"/><ref name="Times" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://euobserver.com/9/28457 |title=New European Conservatives group in disarray over renegade MEP |accessdate=15 July 2009 |date=14 July 2009 }}</ref> McMillan-Scott was then seated as a non-attached ([[Non-Inscrit]]) MEP in the European Parliament,<ref name="DODs">{{Cite web|url=http://www.theparliament.com/no_cache/latestnews/news-article/newsarticle/suspended-tory-mep-hits-back-at-allegations-of-disloyalty/|title=McMillan-Scott hits back at allegations of disloyalty|last=Banks|first=Martin |date=15 July 2009|work=The Parliament.com|publisher=Dod's Parliamentary Communications Ltd|accessdate=1 August 2009}}</ref> though he remained a member of the British Conservative Party.<ref name="DODs" />

On 10 August 2009, [[William Hague]] wrote a letter to McMillan-Scott, described by the Conservative Home website as ‘humiliating’.<ref>http://conservativehome.blogs.com/thetorydiary/2009/08/hague-accuses-mcmillanscott-of-recklessly-using-smears-for-individual-glorification.html</ref> On 15 September 2009, he was expelled from the Conservative Party without notice or reason. The doyen of the [[Yorkshire Post]] wrote a stinging attack entitled “Own goal as Tories force out a decent man”.<ref>http://www.yorkshirepost.co.uk/news/letters-and-columnists/bernard-dineen-own-goal-as-tories-force-out-a-decent-man-1-2568291</ref> McMillan-Scott appealed and issued a series of open letters to his constituents but, after his lawyers declared that he could not expect a fair hearing from the Conservative Party, he wrote to David Cameron on 12 March 2010 outlining his reasons for resigning his appeal.<ref name="EMS joins LDs">http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2010/mar/12/edward-mcmillan-scott-defects-to-lib-dems</ref> During a prolonged media war involving up to six Conservative Party press officers, the Party’s decision to leave the EU mainstream was almost universally condemned.<ref>http://www.economist.com/node/14744042?story_id=14744042</ref> The vilification of McMillan-Scott by the Conservative Party included the alteration of Wikipedia pages, in an attempt to "to airbrush the embarrassing past" of Michał Kamiński, chairman of the ECR. McMillan-Scott also stated, quite correctly, that his own article had also been edited in this way.An article published in The [[The Observer|Observer]] newspaper reports edits to the articles made on 25 June 2009 from [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|IP addresses]] originating in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom House of Commons]].<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Micha%C5%82_Kami%C5%84ski&action=historysubmit&diff=298531981&oldid=267881365</ref><ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/oct/18/conservatives-hid-past-european-ally</ref>

On 12 March 2010 McMillan-Scott joined the [[Liberal Democrats]], as they provided a more suitable home with a focus on human rights and democracy, and an internationalist, rather than nationalist agenda.<ref name="Joins Lib-Dems" /> The Liberal Democrats are a member of the [[Group of the Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] in the European Parliament, which McMillan-Scott formally joined on 17 May. He was nominated by the Liberal Democrat MEPs, and then the ALDE group, as a candidate for Vice-President in January 2012 and was then successfully re-elected.

==Family==
McMillan-Scott married a child rights lawyer Henrietta in 1972. They have two daughters Lucinda born 1973 and Arabella born 1976 and three granddaughters Edie born 1999, Esme born 2001 and Sylvia born 2012.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://emcmillanscott.com Official website]
*[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/1405/mep.html Profile at European Parliament website]

{{Members of the European Parliament 2004–2009}}
{{Members of the European Parliament 2009–2014}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Henry Plumb, Baron Plumb|The Lord Plumb]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] Delegation in the [[European Parliament]]|years=1997–2001}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Jonathan Evans (politician)|Jonathan Evans]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata
| NAME =McMillan-Scott, Edward
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British politician
| DATE OF BIRTH =1949-08-15
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:McMillan-Scott, Edward}}
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:English vegetarians]]
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) MEPs]]
[[Category:Liberal Democrat (UK) MEPs]]
[[Category:Members of the European Parliament for English constituencies]]
[[Category:People from Cambridge]]
[[Category:People from Yorkshire]]
[[Category:MEPs for the United Kingdom 1984–1989]]
[[Category:MEPs for the United Kingdom 1989–1994]]
[[Category:MEPs for the United Kingdom 1994–1999]]
[[Category:MEPs for the United Kingdom 1999–2004]]
[[Category:MEPs for the United Kingdom 2009–2014]]

[[da:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[de:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[fr:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
[[pl:Edward McMillan-Scott]]
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[[sv:Edward McMillan-Scott]]

Chilcot-Bericht

2012-12-23T16:33:11Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Iraq Inquiry
|AKA = Chilcot Inquiry
|Participants = [[John Chilcot|Sir John Chilcot]], [[Lawrence Freedman|Sir Lawrence Freedman]], [[Martin Gilbert|Sir Martin Gilbert]], [[Roderic Lyne|Sir Roderic Lyne]], [[Usha Prashar, Baroness Prashar|Baroness Prashar]]
|Location = [[London]], [[England]]
|Date = {{Start date|df=yes|2009|11|24}} – {{End date|df=yes|2011|2|2}}
|URL =
}}

The '''Iraq Inquiry''', also referred to as the '''Chilcot Inquiry''' after its chairman, [[John Chilcot|Sir John Chilcot]],<ref name=Guardian1>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/jul/31/iraq-inquiry-fourth-plinth-chilcot My alternative to another round of Iraq whitewashing] [[The Guardian]], 31 July 2009</ref><ref name=Guardian2>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/aug/14/british-army-abuses-iraq-chilcot-inquiry Investigate UK abuses in Iraq] The Guardian, 14 August 2009</ref> was a British public inquiry into the nation's role in the [[Iraq War]]. The inquiry was announced on 15 June 2009 by [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Gordon Brown]], with an initial announcement that proceedings would take place in private, a decision which was subsequently reversed after receiving criticism in the media and the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]].<ref name=BBC1>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8100432.stm Iraq war inquiry to be in private] BBC News, 15 June 2009</ref><ref name=AlJ1>[http://english.aljazeera.net/news/europe/2009/06/200961514301331360.html UK PM announces Iraq war inquiry] [[Al Jazeera]], 15 June 2009</ref><ref name=Guardian3>{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/jun/22/iraq-war-inquiry |title=Public Iraq war inquiry 'essential', says chairman |publisher=The Guardian |date= 22 June 2009|accessdate=24 November 2009| first=Haroon | last=Siddique |location=London}}</ref>

The Inquiry was pursued by a committee of Privy Counsellors with broad [[terms of reference]] to consider the Britain's involvement in Iraq between mid-2001 and July 2009. It covered the run-up to the conflict, the subsequent military action and its aftermath with the purpose to establish the way decisions were made, to determine what happened and to identify lessons to ensure that in a similar situation in future, the British government is equipped to respond in the most effective manner in the best interests of the country.<ref name=BBC6>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/7312757.stm |title=The key points of the Iraq war inquiry explained |publisher=BBC News |date=5 March 2010}}</ref> The open sessions of the inquiry commenced on 24 November 2009 and concluded on 2 February 2011.

In July 2012, the government vetoed the release of the documents to the Inquiry detailing minutes of Cabinet meetings in the days leading up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. Concurrently, the British Foreign Office successfully appealed against a judge's ruling which had ordered disclosure of extracts of a conversation between [[George W. Bush]] and [[Tony Blair]] days before the invasion. The government stated that revealing a phone call conversation between Bush and Blair before the invasion would present a "significant danger" to [[United Kingdom–United States relations|British-American relations]].<ref>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-2182924/Chilcot-inquiry-Hypocrisy-insidious-culture-secrecy.html</ref>

==Build up==
It was initially announced by Prime Minister [[Gordon Brown]] that the Iraq Inquiry would be held [[in camera]], excluding the public and press. However, the decision was later deferred to Sir [[John Chilcot]], the inquiry chairman, who said that it was "essential to hold as much of the proceedings of the inquiry as possible in public".<ref name="NS">{{cite news|url=http://www.newstatesman.com/2009/06/hold-public-inquiry-iraq|title=Chilcot calls for public Iraq inquiry|date=23 June 2009|work=[[New Statesman]]|accessdate=15 February 2010}}</ref><ref name="Tele 1">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/5604841/Large-parts-of-Iraq-inquiry-to-be-heard-in-public.html|title=Large parts of Iraq inquiry to be heard in public|last=Whitehead|first=Tom|date=23 June 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=15 February 2010|location=London}}</ref> Brown was criticised by opposition politicians, who called the decision "a climb-down of massive proportions".<ref name="Tele 1"/> In July 2009, when the inquiry commenced, it was announced that the committee would be able to request any British document and call any British citizen to give evidence.<ref name="BBC 30/7">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8176698.stm|title=Will Iraq probe worry ministers?|last=Chakrabarti |first=Reeta|date=30 July 2009|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=15 February 2010}}</ref> In the week before the inquiry began hearing witnesses, a series of documents including military reports were leaked to a newspaper which appeared to show poor post-war planning and lack of provisions.<ref name="Tele 2">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/defence/6625415/Iraq-report-Secret-papers-reveal-blunders-and-concealment.html|title=Iraq report: Secret papers reveal blunders and concealment|last=Gilligan|first=Andrew |date=21 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group Limited]]|accessdate=15 February 2010 |location=London}}</ref>

==Committee members==
The committee of inquiry, the members of which were chosen by Gordon Brown,<ref>[http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/faq.aspx#I03 About the Iraq Inquiry: questions and answers] The Iraq Inquiry</ref> comprises:<ref name=BBC1/><ref>"[http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/about.aspx About the Inquiry]" The Iraq Inquiry</ref>

*[[John Chilcot|Sir John Chilcot]] (chairman), a career diplomat and senior civil servant who was previously a member of the [[Butler Review]]
*[[Lawrence Freedman|Sir Lawrence Freedman]], a military historian, and Professor of War Studies at [[King's College London]]. His memo outlining five tests for liberal military intervention was used by [[Tony Blair]] in drafting his Chicago foreign policy speech
*[[Martin Gilbert|Sir Martin Gilbert]], a historian who supported the invasion of Iraq and claimed in 2004 that [[George W. Bush]] and Blair may one day "join the ranks of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]]"<ref name=Observer1>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1379819,00.html Statesmen for these times] [[The Observer]], 26 December 2004</ref>
*[[Roderic Lyne|Sir Roderic Lyne]], former Ambassador to [[Russia]] and to the [[United Nations]] in [[Geneva]], previously served as private secretary to Prime Minister [[John Major]]
*[[Usha Prashar, Baroness Prashar|Baroness Prashar]], a [[crossbencher]], member of the [[Joint Committee on Human Rights]], and the current chairwoman of the [[Judicial Appointments Commission]]

The committee also takes secretarial support during proceedings from Margaret Aldred.<ref name="opening statement">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6929445.ece?print=yes&randnum=1151003209000|title=Sir John Chilcot's opening statement to Iraq Inquiry|date=24 November 2009|work=Times Online|publisher=[[Times Newspapers Ltd]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London|first1=Anushka|last1=Asthana|first2=Jill|last2=Sherman}}</ref>

===Advisors to the committee===

[[Roger Wheeler (British Army officer)|General Sir Roger Wheeler]] Ex Chief of the General Staff, and Commander in Chief Land Forces <ref>http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/36690/roger_wheelercv1.pdf</ref>.

[[Rosalyn Higgins|Dame Rosalyn Higgins]] former President of the International Court of Justice <ref> http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/36687/dame_rosalyn_cv.pdf</ref>.

==Proceedings==
The inquiry commenced in July 2009, with public hearings commencing on 24 November 2009 with [[Peter Ricketts]], chairman of the [[Joint Intelligence Committee (United Kingdom)|Joint Intelligence Committee]] at the time of the invasion of Iraq, as the first witness. Opening the proceedings, Sir John Chilcot announced that the inquiry was not seeking to apportion blame, but to "get to the heart of what happened" but that it would not "shy away" from making criticism where it was justified.<ref name="Telegraph 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/6645689/Iraq-Inquiry-British-officials-discussed-regime-change-two-years-before-war.html|title=Iraq Inquiry: British officials discussed regime change two years before war|date=25 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London}}</ref> The commission resumed its hearings in January 2011 with the former prime minister, [[Tony Blair]], as its prime witness. ''[[The Independent]]'' on 21 January 2011 published an article <ref name="Independent 1/11">{{cite new|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/the-case-against-blair-15-charges-that-have-yet-to-be-answered-2190375.html|title=The case against Blair: 15 charges that have yet to be answered|date=21 January 2011|work=[[The Independent]]|publisher=[[The Independent]]|accessdata=21 January 2011}}</ref> with 15 charges that have yet to be answered by the inquiry.

===29 October Protocol===
On 29 October 2009, the UK Government published a Protocol in agreement with the Iraq Inquiry on the treatment of sensitive written and electronic information.<ref>[http://www.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/media/306669/protocol.pdf Iraq Inquiry Protocol] Cabinet Office</ref> Evidence which will not be made available to the public includes anything likely to:

*a) cause harm or damage to the public interest, guided by the normal and established principles under which the balance of public interest is determined on grounds of [[Public Interest Immunity]] in proceedings in England and Wales, including, but not limited to,
** i) national security, defence interests or international relations;
** ii) the economic interests of the United Kingdom or of any part of the United Kingdom;
*b) endanger the life of an individual or otherwise risk serious harm to an individual;
*c) make public commercially sensitive information;
*d) breach the principle of [[legal professional privilege]] (LPP);
*e) prejudice, in the case of legal advice (following any voluntary waiver of LPP) rather than material facts, the position of HMG in relation to ongoing legal proceedings;
*f) breach the rules of law which would apply in proceedings in England and Wales under the provisions of Section 17 of the [[Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000]];
*g) breach the rules of law applicable to the disclosure of information by the Security Service, SIS or GCHQ, the third party rule governing non-disclosure of intelligence material or other commitments or understandings governing the release of sensitive information;
*h) breach the [[Data Protection Act 1998]]; or
*i) prejudice the course or outcome of any ongoing statutory or criminal inquiry into matters relating to the information proposed for release

==Witnesses==
{{main|List of witnesses of The Iraq Inquiry}}
The inquiry will hear evidence from a variety of witnesses, such as politicians, including several cabinet ministers at the time of the invasion; senior civil servants, including lawyers and intelligence chiefs; diplomats, mostly composed of British ambassadors to Iraq and the United States; and high-ranking military officers including former Chiefs of the General Staff and Chiefs of the Defence Staff as well as senior operational commanders.<ref name="Telegraph 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/6645689/Iraq-Inquiry-British-officials-discussed-regime-change-two-years-before-war.html|title=Iraq Inquiry: British officials discussed regime change two years before war|date=25 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London}}</ref>

The inquiry heard mostly from civil servants, intelligence and security officials, diplomats and military officers from the first public hearings up until it recessed for Christmas. Key witnesses included [[Christopher Meyer|Sir Christopher Meyer]], former ambassador to the United States who gave evidence on [[List of witnesses of The Iraq Inquiry#26 November|26 November]]; [[Michael Boyce, Baron Boyce|Admiral Lord Boyce]], former [[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Defence Staff]]; [[John Scarlett|Sir John Scarlett]], Chief of the [[Secret Intelligence Service]]; [[Tim Cross|Major-General Tim Cross]], the most senior British officer on the ground in the aftermath of the invasion; and [[Brian Burridge|Air Chief Marshall Sir Brian Burridge]], overall commander of British forces in the invasion.

Former Prime Minister Tony Blair was publicly questioned by the enquiry on the 29th of January 2010, and again on the 21st of January 2011.<ref>http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/hearings/timetable.aspx</ref> On both of these occasions protests took place outside the conference centre.<ref name="Tele 3">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/tony-blair/8274202/Chilcot-Inquiry-Tony-Blair-heckled-as-he-expresses-regret-for-this-loss-of-life-in-the-Iraq-war.html|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=Telegraph Media Group|accessdate=19 June 2011|location=London|first=Rosa|last=Prince|title=Chilcot Inquiry: Tony Blair heckled as he expresses regret for this loss of life in the Iraq war|date=21 January 2011}}</ref> Because of widespread public interest in Blair’s evidence, public access to the hearings had to be allocated by lottery.<ref>http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/news/20101208-ballot.aspx</ref> Special dispensations to attend where allocated to those whose close family where casualties of the war, some of whom shouted angry accusations at Blair during his second appearance.<ref name="Tele 3"/>

From the inquiry's resumption in January 2010, it heard predominantly from politicians and former government officials, including [[Alastair Campbell]], Tony Blair's director of communications.

Gordon Brown had to retract his claim that spending on defence rose every year during the Iraq war, as this was found not to have been the case.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8573664.stm Brown misled Iraq inquiry over defence budget - Cameron] BBC News, 17 March 2010</ref>

After a recess to avoid influencing the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|general election]], the inquiry resumed public hearings on 29 June 2010. The first witness was [[Douglas Brand]], chief police adviser to the Iraqi Interior Ministry from 2003-2005.<ref name="BBC IV">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/politics/10437254.stm|title=Iraq inquiry told of post-war police training errors|date=29 June 2010|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=29 June 2010}}</ref>

The final witness in the public hearings, heard on 2 February 2011, was [[Jack Straw]], Foreign Secretary from 2001-2006.<ref name="BBC-evidencetimeline">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12224606|title=Iraq inquiry - day by day timeline of evidence given|date=2 February 2011|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=5 February 2011}}</ref>

==Criticism==
The timing and nature of the inquiry generated a certain political controversy as it would not report back until after the [[United Kingdom general election, 2010|general election]].<ref name="Tele 1"/> [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] leader [[David Cameron]], dismissed the inquiry as "an [[The Establishment|establishment]] stitch-up", and the [[Liberal Democrats]] threatened a boycott.<ref name=BBC2>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8102203.stm Anger over 'secret Iraq inquiry'] BBC News, 16 June 2009</ref> In a Parliamentary debate over the establishment of the inquiry, [[Member of Parliament|MPs]] from all the major parties criticised the government’s selection of its members.<ref name=TWFY1>{{cite web|url=http://www.theyworkforyou.com/debates/?id=2009-06-24c.800.1#g808.1|date=24 June 2009|title=Iraq Inquiry|publisher=They Work For You}}</ref> MPs drew attention to the absence of anyone with first hand military expertise, the absence of members with acknowledged or proven inquisitorial skills, and the absence of any elected representatives.
Gilbert’s appointment to the enquiry was criticised on the basis that he had once compared Bush and Blair to Roosevelt and Churchill.<ref name=Observer1/> Several MPs drew attention to the fact that Chilcot would be unable to receive evidence under oath.

The criticism by the Liberal Democrats continued with the start of public hearings, with party leader [[Nick Clegg]] accusing the government of "suffocating" the inquiry, referring to the power given to government departments to veto sections of the final report. Meanwhile, a group of anti-war protestors staged a demonstration outside the conference centre.<ref name="Times 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6931594.ece?print=yes&randnum=1151003209000|title=Gordon Brown accused of suffocating the Chilcot Iraq Inquiry|coauthors=Hines, Nico; Brown, David|date=25 November 2009|work=Times Online|publisher=[[Times Newspapers Ltd]]|accessdate=12 February 2010|location=London|first1=Anushka|last1=Asthana|first2=Jill|last2=Sherman}}</ref><ref name="BBC 25/11">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/low/uk_politics/8375439.stm|title=Iraq inquiry being 'suffocated' - Lib Dem leader Clegg|date=25 November 2009|work=[[BBC News]]|accessdate=12 February 2010}}</ref> Concerns were also raised about the expertise of the panel, particularly with regard to issues of legality by senior judges.<ref name="Telegraph II">{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/6637328/Iraq-inquiry-civil-servant-Sir-John-Chilcot-incapable-of-addressing-legal-issues.html|title=Iraq inquiry: civil servant Sir John Chilcot 'incapable of addressing legal issues'|last=Laing |first=Aislinn|date=24 November 2009|work=[[Daily Telegraph]]|publisher=[[Telegraph Media Group]]|accessdate=12 February 2010 |location=London}}</ref> On 22 November 2009, former British Ambassador Oliver Miles published an article in the ''[[Independent on Sunday]]'',<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/oliver-miles-the-key-question-ndash-is-blair-a-war-criminal-1825374.html
|title=The key question – is Blair a war criminal?
|accessdate=12 January 2010
| work=The Independent
| date=22 November 2009
|location=London
}}</ref> in which he questioned the appointment to the inquiry panel of two British historians on the basis of their Jewish background and previous support for [[Israel]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Britain's affair with antisemitism |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2010/jan/29/chilcot-inquiry-oliver-miles |accessdate=25 March 2010 | work=The Guardian | first=David | last=Cesarani | date=29 January 2010 | location=London}}{{cite web |title=Oliver Miles: ex-Ambassador Arab Lobbyist who wants no Jews on the Iraq Enquiry |url=http://adloyada.typepad.com/adloyada/2009/11/oliver-miles-is-chairman-of-mec-international-a-lobbying-group-which-is-mainly-focused-on-lobbying-on-behalf-of-arab-and-oth.html |accessdate=25 March 2010 }}</ref> In a diplomatic cable from the US embassy in London, released as part of [[Cablegate]], Jon Day, director general for security policy at the British Ministry of Defence is cited having promised the US to have "put measures in place to protect your interests" regarding the inquiry.<ref>{{cite web || title=09LONDON2198, U/S TAUSCHER’S MEETINGS WITH FS MILIBAND AND OTHER|| url=http://www.cablegatesearch.net/cable.php?id=09LONDON2198&version=1291138620 | accessdate=11 November 2011}}</ref> This has been interpreted as an indication that the inquiry is restricted "to minimize embarrassment for the United States.".<ref>{{ cite news | title=WikiLeaks cable reveals secret pledge to protect US at Iraq inquiry | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/30/wikileaks-chilcot-iraq-war-inquiry | work=The Guardian | first=Robert | last=Booth| accessdate=30 November 2010 | location=London | date=30 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web || url=http://www.salon.com/news/wikileaks/index.html?story=/politics/war_room/2010/11/30/wikileaks_uk_iraq_inquiry || title=Is Britain's Iraq war inquiry compromised? || work=www.salon.com || first=Justin || last=Elliott | accessdate=30 November 2010 }}</ref>

In July 2012, the British [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] [[Dominic Grieve]] was criticized when he vetoed the release of documents to the Inquiry detailing minutes of Cabinet meetings in the days leading up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]]. Concurrently, the Foreign Office successfully appealed against a judge’s ruling and blocked the disclosure of extracts of a conversations between Bush and Blair days before the invasion. The British government alleged that revealing the content of a phone call between Bush and Blair before the invasion, would present a "significant danger" to [[United Kingdom–United States relations|British-American relations]]. <ref>http://www.dailymail.co.uk/debate/article-2182924/Chilcot-inquiry-Hypocrisy-insidious-culture-secrecy.html</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/ The Iraq Inquiry] ''Official government site''
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/iraq-war-inquiry Iraq war inquiry] Ongoing coverage from ''[[The Guardian]]''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/8378559.stm Iraq inquiry] Ongoing coverage from ''[[BBC News]]''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/7312757.stm The key points of the Iraq war inquiry explained] BBC News, 5 March 2010
{{Members of the Iraq Inquiry}}
{{British Inquiries into the Iraq War}}
{{Iraq War}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iraq Inquiry, The}}
[[Category:Political controversies]]
[[Category:Public inquiries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Iraq Inquiry| ]]
[[Category:2009 in British politics]]
[[Category:2010 in British politics]]

[[ar:لجنة تشيلكوت]]
[[ms:Siasatan Pencerobohan Amerika Syarikat dan Britain di Iraq 2003]]

Palästinensische Vertreibung aus Lydda und Ramle 1948

2012-12-23T15:36:30Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox historical event
| Image_Name = Israeli fighter accepts cigarette from an Arab resident, Lydda, July 1948.png
| Imagesize = 300
| Image_Alt = Photograph
| Image_Caption = An Israeli soldier accepts a cigarette from an Arab resident in Lydda after the fall of the city
| AKA = Lydda death march
| Participants = [[Israel Defense Forces]], [[Arab Legion]], Arab residents of [[Lod|Lydda]] and [[Ramle]]
| Location = Lydda, Ramle, and surrounding villages, then part of the [[Mandate for Palestine]], now part of [[Israel]]
| Date = July 1948
| Result = 50,000–70,000 residents fled from, or were expelled by, the IDF
| URL =
}}
The '''1948 Palestinian exodus from Lydda and Ramle''' was the expulsion of 50,000–70,000 Palestinian Arabs when [[Israel]]i troops captured the towns in July that year. The military action occurred within the context of the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. The towns, which were predominately Arab areas in [[Palestine]] at the time, and which the UN partition resolution had designated to be in the Arab nation, became predominantly Jewish areas in the new State of Israel, known as [[Lod]] and [[Ramla]].<ref>For population figures, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 434]. He writes that, in July 1948 before the invasion, Lydda and Ramle had a population of 50,000–70,000, 20,000 of whom were refugees from Jaffa and the surrounding area (p. 425). All were expelled, except for a few elderly or sick people, some Christians, and some who were retained to work; others managed to sneak back in, so that by mid-October 1948 there were around 2,000 Arabs living in both towns (p. 434).
*For the name change, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA29 Yacobi 2009, p. 29]. Yacobi writes that Lod was Lydda's biblical name.
*The Arabs called Lydda al-Ludd. Lydda was the Latin form of its name, which it was widely known by. See [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 798].
*Ramle can also be written as Ramleh; it known as Ramla by the Israelis, and should not be confused with [[Ramallah]], the administrative center of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].</ref>

The decision of the Arab governments to renew the fighting and ignore the UN call for a truce prompted Israel to try to improve its control over the Jerusalem road and its coastal route which were under pressure from the Jordanian Arab Legion, Egyptian and Palestinian forces. From the Israeli perspective, the conquest of the towns averted an Arab threat to [[Tel Aviv]], thwarted an Arab Legion advance by clogging the roads with refugees, and helped demoralize nearby Arab cities.<ref name="case"/>

Ramle surrendered immediately, but the conquest of Lydda took longer and led to an unknown number of deaths; Israeli historian [[Benny Morris]] suggests up to 450 Arabs and 9–10 Israeli soldiers died.<ref>The death toll in Lydda:
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426]: '''11 July'''—Six dead and 21 wounded on the Israeli side, and "dozens of Arabs (perhaps as many as 200)".
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68: Third Battalion intelligence puts the figure at 40 Arabs dead, but perhaps referring only to the numbers they had killed themselves.
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 428]: '''12 July'''—Israeli troops were ordered to shoot at anyone seen on the streets: during that incident, 3–4 Israelis were killed and around a dozen wounded. On the Arab side, 250 dead and many wounded, according to the IDF.</ref> Once the Israelis were in control of the towns, an expulsion order signed by [[Yitzhak Rabin]] was issued to the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) stating, "1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age.…",<ref>{{Cite book
| last = Morris
| first = Benny
| authorlink = Benny Morris
| title = The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949
| publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
| series = Cambridge Middle East Library
| year = 1987
| location = Cambridge, United Kingdom
| page = 207
| isbn = 0 521 33889 }}
</ref>
Ramle's residents were bussed out, while the people of Lydda were forced to walk miles during a summer heat wave to the Arab front lines, where the [[Arab Legion]], [[Transjordan]]'s British-led army, tried to provide shelter and supplies.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, pp. 432–434].
*Also see Gilbert 2008, pp. 218–219.</ref> Quite a few of the refugees died from exhaustion and dehydration. Estimates ranged from a handful to a figure of 350 based on hearsay reason why the events are also referred as the ''Lydda death march''.<ref>For the use of the term "Lydda death march," see, for example, [http://www.google.com/books?id=ro8YAAAAIAAJ&q=%22Lydda+death+march%22&dq=%22Lydda+death+march%22&ei=XJICSou0KaP2yAS1zdHeAg&pgis=1 Fraser 2001], p. 64.
*For the number of refugees who died during the march:
*Morris 1989, pp. 204–211: "Quite a few refugees died – from exhaustion, dehydration and disease."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177]: "a handful, and perhaps dozens, died of dehydration and exhaustion."
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, p. 433]: "Quite a few refugees died on the road east," attributing a figure of 335 dead to [[Nimr al-Khatib|Muhammad Nimr al Khatib]], who Morris writes was working from hearsay.
*[http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf Khalidi 1998], pp. 80–98: 350 dead, citing an estimate from [[Aref al-Aref]].
*[http://books.google.com/books?ei=oa_tTNj_C82NnQfNivn8CQ&ct=result&id=aIJtAAAAMAAJ&dq=The+Politics+of+Denial%3A+Israel+and+the+Palestinian+Refugee+Problem&q=350#search_anchor Nur Masalha 2003, p. 47] writes that 350 died.
*For the IDF and Ben-Gurion's analysis of the effect of the conquest of the towns and the expulsions, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–434].</ref>

The events in Lydda and Ramle accounted for one-tenth of the overall Arab [[1948 Palestinian exodus|exodus from Palestine]], known in the Arab world as ''al-Nakba'' ("the catastrophe"). Many Jews who came to Israel between 1948 and 1951 settled in the refugees' empty homes, both because of a housing shortage and as a matter of policy to prevent former residents from reclaiming them. One of the key issues of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] is whether the refugees and their descendants ought to have either compensation for their loses or the [[Palestinian right of return|right of return]], a concession that would threaten Israel's identity as a [[Jewish state]].<ref>That it was one-tenth of the overall exodus, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 82.
*That most of the immigrants to Lydda and Ramle were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*That refugees were settled in the empty homes to stop them from being reclaimed, see Morris 2008, p. 308, and [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45].</ref>

==Background==

===1948 Arab-Israeli War===
[[File:Palestine-20-48.png|right|thumb|160px|[[Palestine]] in 1947, showing Lydda and Ramle|alt=map]]
Palestine was under [[British Mandate of Palestine|British rule]] from 1917 to 1948. After 30 years of conflict between the country's Jews and Arabs, the British decided to pull out of the area and on 30 November 1947 the United Nations [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|voted to divide it]] into a Jewish and an Arab state, with Lydda and Ramle to form part of the latter.

The proposal was welcomed by Palestine's Jewish community but rejected by the Arabs and [[1947–1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] broke out between the communities triggering the [[1948 Palestinian exodus]]. The British rule ended on 14 May 1948, the State of Israel [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared its independence]].<ref>Morris 2008, p. 37ff.</ref> Arab League intervened and Egypt, Iraq, Syria and Transjordan forces invaded Palestine and engaged Israeli troops. The [[1948 Arab-Israeli war]] started.

===Strategic importance of Lydda and Ramle===
Lydda (Arabic: Al-Ludd اَلْلُدّْ) dates back to at least 5600–5250 BCE. Ramle (ar-Ramlah الرملة), three kilometers away, was founded in the 8th century CE. Both towns were strategically important because they sat at the intersection of Palestine's main north–south and east–west roads. Palestine's main railway junction and its airport (now [[Ben Gurion International Airport]]) were in Lydda, and the main source of Jerusalem's water supply was 15 kilometers away.<ref>For Lydda's age, see Schwartz 1991, p. 39.
*According to Christian legend, Lydda was the birth place and burial ground of [[Saint George]] (ca. 270–303 CE), the patron saint of England; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=jJY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA801&lpg=PA798 Sharon 1983, p. 799]. Sharon (p. 798) writes that the town may date back to King Thutmos III of Egypt. Also see [http://books.google.com/books?ei=6OLuTOf0IYiynwff9qDYCg&ct=result&id=RltCAAAAIAAJ&dq=saint+george+born+lydda&q=born+at+lydda#search_anchor Gordon 1907, p. 3].
*For Ramle, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].</ref> Jewish and Arab fighters had been attacking each other on roads near the towns since hostilities broke out in December 1947. Israeli geographer Arnon Golan writes that the Arabs had [[Siege of Jerusalem (1948)|blocked Jewish transport to Jerusalem]] at Ramle, forcing the Israelis to build a bypass called the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]]. Israel had launched several ground or air attacks on Ramle and Latrun in May 1948, and Israel's prime minister, David Ben-Gurion, developed what Benny Morris calls an obsession with the towns; he wrote in his diary that they had to be destroyed, and on 16 June referred to them during an Israeli cabinet meeting as the "two thorns".<ref>For Golan's article about Ramle being a focal point, see [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-111203784.html Golan 2003].
*For the siege of Jerusalem, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=UcSUgrDsD_sC&pg=PA145 Gelber 2006, p. 145].
*See [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D1EFD3D54157B93C0A8178DD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Jerusalem+siege&st=p Schmidt, 12 June 1948] for the temporary lifting of the siege. The siege was also broken by the opening in June of the [[Burma Road (Israel)|Burma Road]].
*For the attacks on Ramle and Lydda, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, p. 424].
*For Ben-Gurion and the two thorns, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA424 Morris 2004, pp. 424–425], and [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/php/art.php?aid=94940&showEventsBefore=2450729 Segev 2000]. Segev writes that, just after Ben-Gurion's "two thorns" statement to the cabinet, six lines have been erased from the transcript. Segev interprets this to mean that expulsions were discussed.
*For the primary source, see Ben-Gurion 1982, "16 June 1948," p. 525.</ref>
Lydda's local Arab authority that was officially subordinated to the Arab Higher Committee assumed local civic and military powers. The records of Lydda's military command discuss military training, constructing obstacles and trenches, requisitioning vehicles and assembling armored cars armed with machine-guns, and attempts at arms procurement. In April 1948, Lydda had become an arms supply center, and a provided military training and security coordination for the neighboring villagers.<ref name="case">{{cite web|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM|title=Myths and historiography of the 1948 Palestine War revisited: the case of Lydda|year=2005|author=Kadish, Alon, and Sela, Avraham}}</ref>

===Operation Dani===
Israel subsequently launched [[Operation Dani]] to secure the Tel Aviv-Jerusalem road and neutralize any threat to Tel Aviv from the Arab Legion, which was stationed in Ramallah and Latrun, with a number of men in Lydda.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA423 Morris 2004, pp. 423–424].</ref> On 7 July the IDF appointed [[Yigal Allon]] to head the operation, and [[Yitzhak Rabin]], who became Israel's prime minister in 1974, as his operations officer; both had served in the [[Palmach]], an elite fighting force of the pre-Israel [[Yishuv|Jewish community]] in Palestine. The operation was carried out between 9 July 1948, the end of the first truce in the Arab-Israeli war, and 18 July, the start of the second truce, a period known in Israeli historiography as the Ten Days. Morris writes that the IDF assembled its largest force ever: the [[Yiftah]] brigade; the [[8th Armored Brigade (Israel)|Eighth Armored Brigade]]'s 82nd and 89th Battalions; three battalions of Kiryati and Alexandroni infantry men; an estimated 6,000 men with around 30 artillery pieces.<ref>Kimche, Jon and David (1960) ''A Clash of Destinies. The Arab-Jewish War and the Founding of the State of Israel.'' Frederick A. Praeger. Library of Congress number 60-6996. Page 225. (number of men).</ref><ref>For the launching of Operation Dani and the forces assembled, see Morris 2008, p. 286.
*For the hiring of Allon and Rabin, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].
*For the period known as the Ten Days, see Morris 2008, p. 273ff.</ref>

===Lydda's defenses===
[[File:St Georges Church Lydda.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Lydda in 1920 with St. George's Church in the background|alt=Ancient buildings, several with domed roofs, a church in the background, and palm trees.]]
In July 1948 Lydda and Ramle had a joint population of 50,000–70,000 Arabs, 20,000 of them refugees from [[Jaffa]] and elsewhere.<ref name=Morris2004p425/> Several Arab towns had already fallen to Jewish or Israeli advances since April, but Lydda and Ramle had held out. There are differing views as to how well-defended the towns were. In January 1948, [[John Bagot Glubb]], the British commander of Transjordan's Arab Legion, had toured Arab towns, including Lydda and Ramle, urging them to prepare to defend themselves. The Legion had distributed barbed wire and as many weapons as could be spared.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA118 Morris 2003, p. 118].</ref> Lydda had an outer line of defense and prepared positions, an antitank ditch and field artillery as well as a heavily fortified and armed line northeast of central Lydda.<ref name="case"/>

Israeli historians Alon Kadish and [[Avraham Sela]] write that the Arab National Committee—a local emergency Arab authority that answered to the [[Arab Higher Committee]] run by the [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]—had assumed civic and military control of Lydda, and had acquired arms, conducted training, constructed trenches, requisitioned vehicles, and organized medical services. By the time of the Israeli attack, they say the militia in Lydda numbered 1,000 men equipped with rifles, submachine guns, 15 machine guns, five heavy machine guns, 25 anti-tank launchers, six or seven light field-guns, two or three heavy ones, and armored cars with machine guns. The IDF estimated that there was an Arab Legion force of around 200-300 men. Lydda contained several hundred Bedouin volunteers and a large-sized force of the Arab Legion. They argue that the deaths in Lydda occurred during a military battle for the town, not because of a massacre.<ref name=KadishSela>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

[[File:King Abdullah of Jordan and John Glubb Bagot.jpg|right|thumb|210px|alt=photograph|King Abdullah of Jordan (1882–1951) with [[John Bagot Glubb]] (1897–1986), the British commander of the [[Arab Legion]]]]
Against this view, Palestinian historian [[Walid Khalidi]] writes that just 125 Legionnaires from the Fifth Infantry Company were in Lydda—the Arab Legion numbered 6,000 in all—and that the rest of the town's defense consisted of civilian residents acting under the command of a retired Arab Legion sergeant.<ref name=Khalidi>{{Cite web |url=http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf |title=The Fall of Lydda |last=Khalidi |first=Walid |year=1998 |page=81 |accessdate=27 August 2012.}}</ref> According to Morris, a number of Arab Legion soldiers, including 200–300 Bedouin volunteers, had arrived in Lydda and Ramle in April, and a company-sized force had set itself up in the old British police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road, with armored cars and other weapons. He writes that there were 150 Legionnaires in the town in June, though the Israelis believed there were up to 1,500. An Arab Legion officer was appointed military governor of both towns, signaling the desire of [[Abdullah I of Jordan]] to stake a claim in the parts of Palestine allotted by the UN to an Arab-Palestinian state, but Glubb advised him that the Legion was overstretched and could not hold the towns. As a result, Abdullah ordered the Legion to assume a defensive position only, and most of the Legionnaires in Lydda withdrew during the night of 11–12 July.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 286, 289.
*That the IDF ignored that the Legion was "on a defensive footing," see Gelber 2006, p. 158.</ref>

Kadish and Sela write that the National Committee stopped women and children from leaving, because their departure had acted elsewhere as a catalyst for the men to leave too. They say it was common for Arabs to leave their homes under threat of Israeli invasion, in part because they feared atrocities, particularly rape, and in part because of a reluctance to live under Jewish rule. In Lydda's case, they argue, the fears were more particular: a few days before the city fell, a Jew found in Lydda's train station had been publicly executed and his body mutilated by residents, who, according to Kadish and Sela, now feared Jewish reprisals.<ref name=KadishSela/>

==Fall of the cities==

===Air attacks and surrender of Ramle===
[[File:Capture of Lydda airport, July 1948.JPG|thumb|left|230px|alt=photograph|The IDF took control of Lydda airport on 10 July.]]
The Israeli air force began bombing the towns on the night of 9–10 July, intending to induce civilian flight, and it seemed to work in Ramle: at 11:30 hours on 10 July, Operation Dani headquarters (Dani HQ) told the IDF that there was a "general and serious flight from Ramla." That afternoon, Dani HQ told one of its brigades to facilitate the flight from Ramle of women, children, and the elderly, but to detain men of military age.<ref name=Morris2004p425>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA425 Morris 2004, p. 425].</ref> On the same day, the IDF took control of Lydda airport.<ref name="gelber">[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA159 Gelber 2006, p. 159].</ref> The Israeli air force dropped leaflets over both towns on 11 July telling residents to surrender.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 86: The leaflets said: "You have no chance of receiving help. We intend to conquer the towns. We have no intention of harming persons or property. [But] whoever attempts to oppose us—will die. He who prefers to live must surrender.</ref> Ramle's community leaders, along with three prominent Arab family representatives, agreed to surrender, after which the Israelis mortared the city and imposed a curfew. ''The New York Times'' reported at the time that the capture of the city was seen as the high point of Israel's brief existence.<ref>Formal surrender discussed in a telephone message from Dani HQ, 12 July 1948, 10:30 am, cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the ''New York Times'' account of the surrender, see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

Two different images emerged of Ramle under occupation. [[Khalil Wazir]], who later joined the [[PLO]] and became known as Abu Jihad, was evicted from the town with his family, who owned a grocer's store there, when he was 12 years old. He said there was fear of a massacre, as there had been at [[Deir Yassin massacre|Deir Yassin]], and that there were bodies scattered in the streets and between the houses, including the bodies of women and children.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=DjDuTMXIO8SknQfUmOCyCw&ct=result&id=4Qm7AAAAIAAJ&dq=The+Palestinians&q=terribly+frightened#search_anchor Dimbleby and McCullin 1980, pp. 88–89]. He said: "The whole village went to the church. ... I remember the archbishop standing in front of the church. He was holding a white flag. ... Afterwards we came out and the picture will never be erased from my mind. There were bodies scattered on the road and between the houses and the side streets. No one, not even women or children, had been spared if they were out in the street. ..."</ref> Against this, the writer [[Arthur Koestler]] (1905–1983), working for ''The Times'', visited Ramle a few hours after the invasion, and said people were hanging around in the streets as usual. A few hundred young men had been placed in a barbed wire cage, and were being taken in lorries to an internment camp. Women were bringing them food and water, he wrote, arguing with the Jewish guards and seemingly unafraid. He said the prevailing feeling seemed to be relief that the war was over.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=XEqTMSzQYUIC&pg=PA270 Koestler 1949, pp. 270–271]. He wrote: "The Arabs were hanging about in the streets much as usual, except for a few hundred youths of military age who have been put into a barbed wire cage and were taken off in lorries to an internment camp. Their veiled mothers and wives were carrying food and water to the cage, arguing with the Jewish sentries and pulling their sleeves, obviously quite unafraid. ... Groups of Arabs came marching down the main street with their arms above their heads, grinning broadly, without any guards, to give themselves up. The one prevailing feeling among all seemed to be that as far as Ramleh was concerned the war was over, and thank God for it."</ref>

===Moshe Dayan raid on Lydda===
[[File:Mosche Dajan.jpg|right|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[Moshe Dayan]] (1915–1981) led a raid on Lydda "blasting at everything that moved."<ref name=Bilby43/>]]
During the afternoon of 11 July, Israel's 89th (armored) Battalion, led by Lt. Col. [[Moshe Dayan]], moved into Lydda. Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] writes that the raid was carried out on Dayan's initiative without coordinating it with his commander. Using a column of jeeps led by a Marmon Harrington armored vehicle with a cannon—taken from the Arab Legion the day before—he launched the attack in daylight,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA225 Shapira 2007, p. 225].</ref> driving through the town from east to west machine-gunning anything that moved, according to Morris, then along the Lydda-Ramle road firing at militia posts until they reached the train station in Ramle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426].</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the troops faced heavy fire from the Arab Legion in the police stations in Lydda and on the Lydda-Ramle road and Dayan described "The town's [southern] entrance was awash with Arab combatants ... Hand grenades were thrown from all directions. There was a tremendous confusion."<ref name=KadishSela/> A contemporaneous account from Gene Currivan for ''The New York Times'' also said the firing met with heavy resistance. Dayan's men advanced until the train station where the wounded were treated, and returned to Bet Shemen under continued enemy fire from the police stations. Six of his men were killed and 21 were wounded.<ref name=case/><ref name=Currivan>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30713FA385F167B93C1A8178CD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=&st=p Currivan, ''The New York Times'', 12 July 1948].</ref>

[[Kenneth Bilby]], a correspondent for the ''New York Herald Tribune'' was in the city at the time. He wrote: "[The Israeli jeep column] raced into Lydda with rifles, Stens, and sub-machine guns blazing. It coursed through the main streets, blasting at everything that moved ... the corpses of Arab men, women, and even children were strewn about the streets in the wake of this ruthlessly brilliant charge."<ref name=Bilby43>[http://books.google.com/books?ei=PSnuTIuAL8TMngfJmYXyCg&ct=result&id=-gkcAAAAMAAJ&dq=New+Star+in+the+Near+East&q=coursed#search_anchor Bilby 1950, p. 43].</ref> The raid lasted 47 minutes, leaving 100–150 Arabs dead, according to Dayan's 89th Battalion. Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side.<ref>The casualty figures vary widely. The figure from Dayan is cited in [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*There were dozens dead and wounded, "perhaps as many as 200," according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426] and [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 p. 452], footnote 68, citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.
*"[A]bout 40 dead and a large number of wounded," according to Third Battalion intelligence, though it is not clear whether they meant 40 killed by the Third Battalion alone; see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA452 Morris 2004, p. 452], footnote 68.
*Six died and 21 were wounded on the Israeli side, according to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, p. 426], again citing Kadish, Sela, and Golan 2000, p. 36.</ref> Kadish and Sela write that the high casualty rate was caused by confusion over who Dayan's troops were. The IDF were wearing ''[[keffiyeh]]''s and were led by an armored car seized from the Arab Legion. Residents may have believed the Arab Legion had arrived, only to encounter Dayan's forces shooting at everything as they ran from their homes.<ref name=KadishSela/>

===Surrender and unexpected shooting in Lydda by Arab legionnaires===
[[File:RuinsOfLydda.png|thumb|250px|Ruins of Lydda after Israeli offensive]]
Although no formal surrender was announced in Lydda, people gathered in the streets waving white flags. On the evening of 11 July, 300–400 Israeli soldiers entered the town. Not long afterwards, the Arab Legion forces on the Lydda–Ramle road withdrew, though a small number of Legionnaires remained in the Lydda police station. More Israeli troops arrived at dawn on 12 July. According to a contemporaneous IDF account: "Groups of old and young, women and children streamed down the streets in a great display of submissiveness, bearing white flags, and entered of their own free will the detention compounds we arranged in the mosque and church—Muslims and Christians separately." The buildings soon filled up, and women and children were released, leaving several thousand men inside, including 4,000 in one of the mosque compounds.<ref>For the IDF quote, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].
*For the 4,000 in the Great Mosque, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref>

The Israeli government set up a committee to handle the Arab refugees and their abandoned property. The committee issued an explicit order that forbade "to destroy, burn or demolish Arab towns and villages, to expel the inhabitants of Arab villages, neighborhoods and towns, or to uproot the Arab population from their place of residence" without having previously received, a specific and direct order from the Minister of Defense. Regulations ordered the sealing sealing off of Arab areas to prevent looting and acts of revenge and stated that captured men were to be treated as POWs with the Red Cross notified. Arabs who wished to remain were allowed to do so and the confiscation of their property was prohibited.<ref name="case"/>

The town dignitaries were assembled and after discussion, decided to surrender. Lydda's inhabitants were instructed leave their weapons on the doorsteps to be collected by soldiers but did not do so. A curfew for that evening was announced over loudspeakers. A delegation of town dignitaries, including Lydda's Mayor left for the police station to prevail upon the Legionnaires's there to also surrender. They refused and fired upon the party killing the Mayor and wounding several others. Despite this, the third battalion decided to accept the town's surrender. Israeli historian [[Yoav Gelber]] writes that the Legionnaires still in the police station were panicking, and had been sending frantic messages to their HQ in Ramallah: "Have you no God in your hearts? Don't you feel any compassion? Hasten aid!"<ref name="gelber"/> They were about to surrender, but were told by HQ to wait to be rescued.<ref name="case"/><ref>Gelber 2004, p. 23.</ref>

On 12 July, at 11:30 hours, two or three Arab Legion armored cars entered the city, led by Lt. Hamadallah al-Abdullah from the Jordanian 1st Brigade. The Arab Legion armored cars opened fire on the Israeli soldiers combing the old city which created the impression that the Jordanians had staged counterattack. The exchange of gunfire led residents and Arab fighters to believe the Legion had arrived in force, and those still armed started firing at the Israelis too. Local militia once again renewed hostilities and an Israeli patrol were set upon by a rioting mob in the market place. The Israeli military sustained many casualties, and viewing the renewed resistance as a surrender agreement violation, quickly quelled it, and many civilians died.<ref name="case"/><ref name="AG">{{cite web | title=Lydda and Ramle: From Palestinian-Arab to Israeli Towns, 1948-67 | publisher=Middle Eastern Studies, | work=Vol. 39 No. 4 | date=(Oct. 2003 | author=Arnon Golan | pages=121–139}}</ref> Kadish and Sela write that, according to the Third Battalion's commander, [[Moshe Kelman]], the Israelis came under heavy fire from thousands of weapons from every house, roof and window. Morris argues against this that only a few dozen townspeople took part in what turned out to be a brief firefight. Brief or not, the Israeli soldiers were unnerved by it: there were only 300–400 of them to quell tens of thousands of residents, and they had been under the impression the locals had surrendered, albeit informally.<ref>[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, footnote 78, p. 453].</ref>

===Alleged Massacre in Lydda===
[[File:LyddaDahmashMosque.png|200px|thumb|alt=photograph|The Dahmash mosque just after occupation]]
Gelber describes what followed as probably the bloodiest massacre of the Arab–Israeli war. Shapira writes that the Israelis had no experience of governing civilians and panicked.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, p. 162].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA227 Shapira 2007, p. 227].
*{{Cite web |url=http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf |title=The Fall of Lydda |last=Khalidi |first=Walid |year=1998 |page=81 |accessdate=27 August 2012.}} calls it "an orgy of indiscriminate killing."
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005] call it "an intense battle where the demarcation between civilians, irregular combatants and regular army units hardly existed."</ref> Kelman ordered troops to shoot at any clear target, including at anyone seen on the streets.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Morris 2004, p. 427].</ref> He said he had no choice; there was no chance of immediate reinforcements, and no indication of where the attacks were coming from.<ref name=KadishSela/> Israeli soldiers threw grenades into houses they suspected snipers were hiding in. Residents ran out of their homes in panic and were shot. Yeruham Cohen, an IDF intelligence officer, said around 250 died between 11:30 and 14:00 hours.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 87.</ref>

However, Kadish and Sela state that there is no direct first-hand evidence that a massacre took place, other than a few dubious Arab sources. They say that a reconstruction of the battle suggests a "better, albeit more complex, explanation of the Arab losses" which also "casts severe doubt on, if it does not completely refute, the argument for the massacre in the al-'Umari Mosque."<ref name="case"/>

Palestinian historian [[Aref al-Aref]] placed the death toll at 426, including 179 he said were later killed in one of the mosques, during a confusing incident that sources variously refer to as a massacre or a battle.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 453, footnote 81]. For more casualty figures, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Thousands of male Muslim detainees had been taken to two of the mosques the day before. Christian detainees had been taken to the church or a nearby Greek Orthodox monastery, leaving the Muslims in fear of a massacre.<ref name="Khalidi">page=93–4.</ref> Morris writes that some of them tried to break out, thinking they were about to be killed, and in response the IDF threw grenades and fired anti-tank rockets into one of the mosque compounds. Kadish and Sela say it was a firefight that broke out between armed militiamen inside the mosque and Israeli soldiers outside and responding to attacks originating from the mosque, the Israelis fired an anti-tank shell into it, then stormed it, killing 30 militia men inside.<ref name="case"/> According to Morris, dozens died, including unarmed men, women and children; an eyewitness published a memoir in 1998 saying he had removed 95 bodies from one of the mosques.<ref>For a discussion about which mosque this happened in, and for the 95 bodies, see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005], particularly footnote 40.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA428 Morris 2004, p. 428]: "dozens" were shot and killed
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA453 Morris 2004, p. 453], footnote 81, cites Kadish, Sela and Golan's ''The Conquest'', who say it was a battle that took place in the mosque, not a massacre. He adds that Kadish et al acknowledge that women, children, and unarmed older men were among the dead.
*An eyewitness, Fayeq Abu Mana, 20 years old at the time, told an Israeli group in 2003 that he had been involved in removing the bodies; see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/en Zochrot 2003].</ref>

When the shooting was over, bodies lay in the streets and houses in Lydda, and on the Lydda–Ramle road; Morris writes that there were hundreds. The Red Cross was due to visit the area, but the new Israeli military governor of Ramle issued an order to have the visit delayed. The visit was rescheduled for 14 July; Dani HQ ordered Israeli troops to remove the bodies by then, but the order seems not to have been carried out. Dr. Klaus Dreyer of the IDF Medical Corps complained on 15 July that there were still corpses lying in and around Lydda, which constituted a health hazard and a "moral and aesthetic issue." He asked that trucks and Arab residents be organized to deal with them.<ref name=Morris2004p434>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].</ref>

==Exodus==

===Expulsion orders===
Benny Morris writes that David Ben-Gurion and the IDF were largely left to their own devices to decide how Arab residents were to be treated, without the involvement of the Cabinet and other ministers. As a result, their policy was haphazard and circumstantial, depending in part on the location, but also on the religion and ethnicity of the town. The Arabs of Western and Lower [[Galilee]], mainly Christian and Druze, were allowed to stay in place, but Lydda and Ramle, mainly Muslim, were almost completely emptied.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA415 Morris 2004, p. 415].</ref> There was no official policy to expel the Palestinian population, he writes, but the idea of [[Transfer Committee|transfer]] was "in the air", and the leadership understood this.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080515210330/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=380986&contrassID=2 Shavit 2004].</ref>

[[File:Yitzhak Rabin (1986) cropped.jpg|thumb|left|130px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]] (1922–95) signed the expulsion order.<ref name=Morris2004p429/>]]
As the shooting in Lydda continued, a meeting was held on 12 July at Operation Dani headquarters between Ben-Gurion, [[Yigael Yadin]] and Zvi Ayalon, generals in the IDF, and [[Yisrael Galili]], formerly of the [[Haganah]], the pre-IDF army. Also present were Yigal Allon, commanding officer of Operation Dani, and Yitzhak Rabin.<ref name=Shipler1>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979].</ref> At one point Ben-Gurion, Allon, and Rabin left the room. Rabin has offered two accounts of what happened next. In a 1977 interview with [[Michael Bar-Zohar]], Rabin said Allon asked what was to be done with the residents; in response, Ben-Gurion had waved his hand and said, "''garesh otam''"—"expel them."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 90, footnote 31.]</ref> In the manuscript of his memoirs in 1979, Rabin wrote that Ben-Gurion had not spoken, but had only waved his hand, and that Rabin had understand this to mean "drive them out."<ref name=Shipler1/> The expulsion order for Lydda was issued at 13:30 hours on 12 July, signed by Rabin.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*The orders for Lydda were from Dani HQ to Yiftah Brigade HQ and 8th Brigade HQ, and to Kiryati Brigade at around the same time.
*"1. The inhabitants of Lydda must be expelled quickly without attention to age. They should be directed towards Beit Nabala. Yiftah [Brigade HQ] must determined the method and inform Dani HQ and 8th Brigade HQ.
*"2. Implement immediately (Prior 1999, p. 205).
*The IDF archives holds two nearly identical copies of the expulsion order. According to [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89, Yigal Allon denied in 1979 that there had been such an order, or an expulsion, saying that the order to evacuate the civilian population of Lydda and Ramle came from the Arab Legion.
*A telegram from Kiryati Brigade HQ to Zvi Aurback, its officer in charge of Ramle, read:
*1. In light of the deployment of 42nd Battalion out of Ramle – you must take [over responsibility] for the defence of the town, the transfer of prisoners [to PoW camps] and the emptying of the town of its inhabitants.
*2. You must continue the sorting out of the inhabitants, and send the army-age males to a prisoner of war camp. The old, women and children will be transported by vehicle to al Qubab and will be moved across the lines – [and] from there continue on foot.." (Kiryati HQ to Aurbach, Tel Aviv District HQ (Mishmar) etc., 14:50 hours, 13 July 1948, Haganah Archive, Tel Aviv), cited in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

In his memoirs Rabin wrote: "'Driving out' is a term with a harsh ring. Psychologically, this was one of the most difficult actions we undertook. The population of Lod did not leave willingly. There was no way of avoiding the use of force and warning shots in order to make the inhabitants march the 10 to 15 miles to the point where they met up with the legion." An [[Censorship in Israel|Israeli censorship board]] removed this section from his manuscript, but Peretz Kidron, the Israeli journalist who translated the memoirs into English, passed the censored text to David Shipler of ''The New York Times'', who published it on 23 October 1979.<ref name=Shipler1/>

In an interview with ''The New York Times'' two days later, Yigal Allon took issue with Rabin's version of events. "With all my high esteem for Rabin during the war of independence, I was his commander and my knowledge of the facts is therefore more accurate," he told Shipler. "I did not ask the late Ben-Gurion for permission to expel the population of Lydda. I did not receive such permission and did not give such orders." He said the residents left in part because they were told to by the Arab Legion, so the latter could recapture Lydda at a later date, and in part because they were panic-stricken.<ref name=Shipler2>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B12FE3C5C12728DDDAC0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=2&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 25 October 1979].
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=iogKjVDKRW4C&pg=PA232 Shapira 2007, p. 232]: Allon gave a lecture on the war in 1950, during which [[Anita Shapira]] writes that he was uncharacteristically frank. He said he blamed the Palestinian exodus on three factors. First, they fled because they were [[Psychological projection|projecting]]: the Arabs imagined that the Jews would do to them what they would do to the Jews if positions were reversed. Second, Arab and British leaders encouraged people to leave their towns so as not to be taken hostage, so they could return to fight another day. Third, there were some cases of expulsion, though these were not the norm. In Lydda and Ramle, the Arab Legion continued to attack Israeli outposts in the hope of reconnecting with their troops in Lydda, he said. When the expulsions started, the attacks died down. To leave the towns' hostile populations in place would be to risk their use by the Legion to coordinate further attacks. Allon said he had no regrets: "War is war." Allon described it elsewhere as a "provoked exodus," rather than an expulsion; see [http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 89.</ref> Yoav Gelber also takes issue with Rabin's account. He writes that Ben-Gurion was in the habit of expressing his orders clearly, whether verbally or in writing, and would not have issued an order by waving his hand; he adds that there is no record of any meetings before the invasion that indicate expulsion was discussed. He attributes the expulsions to Allon, who he says was known for his [[scorched earth]] policy. Wherever Allon was in charge of Israeli troops, Gelber writes, no Palestinians remained.<ref name=Gelber2006p162>[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA162 Gelber 2006, pp. 162–163].</ref>

===Shitrit/Shertok intervention===
The Israeli cabinet reportedly knew nothing about the expulsion plan until [[Bechor Shitrit]], Minister for Minority Affairs, appeared unannounced in Ramle on 12 July. He was shocked when he realized troops were organizing expulsions. He returned to Tel Aviv for a meeting with Foreign Minister [[Moshe Shertok]], who met with Ben Gurion to agree on guidelines for the treatment of the residents, though Morris writes that Ben Gurion apparently failed to tell Shitrit or Shertok that he himself was the source of the expulsion orders. Gelber disagrees with Morris's analysis, arguing that Ben-Gurion's agreement with Shitrit and Shertok is evidence that expulsion was not his intention, rather than evidence of his duplicity, as Morris implies.<ref name=Gelber2006p162/> The men agreed the townspeople should be told that anyone who wanted to leave could do so, but that anyone who stayed was responsible for himself and would not be given food. Women, children, the old, and the sick were not to be forced to leave, and the monasteries and churches must not be damaged, though no mention was made of the mosques. Ben-Gurion passed the order to the IDF General Staff, who passed it to Dani HQ at 23:30 hours on 12 July, ten hours after the expulsion orders were issued; Morris writes that there was an ambiguity in the instruction that women, children and the sick were not to be forced to go: the word "''lalechet''" can mean either "go" or "walk". Satisfied that the order had been passed on, Shertok believed he had managed to avert the expulsions, not realizing that, even as he was discussing them in Tel Aviv, they had already begun.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA430 Morris 2004, p. 430].
*Also see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 92.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=0_buePy517UC&pg=PA161 Gelber 2006, pp. 161–162], also says the residents were already on their way out when this order was given.</ref>

===The exodus===
[[File:RefugeesEscortedFromRamlaOperationDanny.jpg|left|thumb|230px|Refugees being escorted from Ramle]]
Thousands of Ramle residents began moving out of the town on foot, or in trucks and buses, between 10 and 12 July. The IDF used its own vehicles and confiscated Arab ones to move them.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].
*That the Ramle residents were supplied buses by the Kiryati brigade, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> Morris writes that, by 13 July, the wishes of the IDF and those of the residents in Lydda had dovetailed. Over the past three days, the townspeople had undergone aerial bombardment, ground invasion, had seen grenades thrown into their homes and hundreds of residents killed, had been living under a curfew, had been abandoned by the Arab Legion, and the able-bodied men had been rounded up. Morris writes they had concluded that living under Israeli rule was not sustainable.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA431 Morris 2004, p. 431].</ref> Spiro Munayyer, an eyewitness, wrote that the important thing was to get out of the city.<ref name="Khalidi"/> A deal was reached with an IDF intelligence officer, Shmarya Guttman, normally an archeologist, that the residents would leave in exchange for the release of the prisoners; according to Guttman, he went to the mosque himself and told the men they were free to join their families.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4. Morris finds Guttman's account subjective and impressionistic (p. 94, footnote 39). Guttman later wrote about Lydda under the pseudonym "Avi-Yiftah".</ref> Town criers and soldiers walked or drove around the town instructing residents where to gather for departure.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432].</ref>

Notwithstanding that an agreement may have been reached, Morris writes that the troops understood that what followed was an act of deportation, not a voluntary exodus. While the residents were still in the town, IDF radio traffic had already started calling them "refugees" (''plitim'').<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 96.</ref> Operation Dani HQ told the IDF General Staff/Operations at noon on 13 July that "[the troops in Lydda] are busy expelling the inhabitants [''oskim begeirush hatoshavim'']," and told the HQs of Kiryati, 8th and Yiftah brigades at the same time that, "enemy resistance in Ramle and Lydda has ended. The eviction [''pinui'']" of the inhabitants... has begun."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA432 Morris 2004, p. 432]: At 18:15 hours that day, Dani HQ asked Yiftah Brigade: "Has the removal of the population [''hotza'at ha'ochlosiah''] of Lydda been completed?"</ref>

===The march===
[[File:Refugees from Lydda.jpg|left|thumb|280px|alt=photograph||Refugees from Lydda and Ramle after the three-day exodus<ref>Glubb 1957, plate 8, between pp. 159 and 161. The caption says: "Arab refugee women and children from Lydda and Ramle, resting after their arrival in the Arab area."</ref>]]
Lydda's residents began moving out on the morning of 13 July. They were made to walk, perhaps because of their earlier resistance, or simply because there were no vehicles left. They walked six to seven kilometers to [[Beit Nabala]], then 10–12 more to [[Barfiliya]], along dusty roads in temperatures of 30–35°C, carrying their children and portable possessions in carts pulled by animals or on their backs.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], pp. 93–4; see p. 97 for the temperature.</ref> According to Shmarya Guttman, an IDF soldier, warning shots were occasionally fired.<ref name=Morris2004p433>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA433 Morris 2004, pp. 433–4].</ref> Some were stripped of their valuables en route by Israeli soldiers at checkpoints.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Another IDF soldier described how possessions and people were slowly abandoned as the refugees grew tired or collapsed: "To begin with [jettisoning] utensils and furniture, and in the end, bodies of men, women, and children, scattered along the way."<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

Haj As'ad Hassouneh, a survivor of the death march, shared his recollection in 1996: <blockquote>The Jews came and they called among the people: "You must go." "Where shall we go?" "Go to Barfilia." ... the spot you were standing on determined what if any family or possession you could get; any to the west of you could not be retrieved. You had to immediately begin walking and it had to be to the east. ... The people were fatigued even before they began their journey or could attempt to reach any destination. No one knew where Barfilia was or its distance from Jordan. ... The people were also fasting due to [[Ramadan]] because they were people of serious belief. There was no water. People began to die of thirst. Some women died and their babies nursed from their dead bodies. Many of the elderly died on the way. ... Many buried their dead in the leaves of corn.<ref name=Jawadp71>[http://books.google.ca/books?id=bWCN0OUiTJkC&pg=PA100&dq=lydda+%22death+march%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HEVTT-bJBcKY8gOXuo3wBQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=lydda%20%22death%20march%22&f=false Abdel Jawad in Benvenisti et al. 2007]</ref></blockquote>

After three days of walking, the refugees were picked up by the Arab Legion and driven to Ramallah.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Reports vary regarding how many died. Many were elderly people and young children who died from the heat and exhaustion.<ref name =Shipler1/> Morris has written that it was a "handful and perhaps dozens."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=zL_1icJwNP0C&pg=PA177 Morris 2003, p. 177].</ref> Glubb wrote that "nobody will ever know how many children died."<ref name=Morris2004p433/> [[Nimr al Khatib]] estimated that 335 died based on hearsay.<ref name=Morris2004p433/> Walid Khalidi gives a figure of 350, citing Palestinian historian Aref al-Aref.<ref name="Khalidi">page=80–98.</ref> The expulsions clogged the roads eastward. Morris writes that IDF thinking was simple and cogent. They had just taken two major objectives and were out of steam. The Arab Legion had been expected to counter-attack, but the expulsions thwarted it: the roads were now cluttered, and the Legion was suddenly responsible for the welfare of an additional tens of thousands of people.<ref name=Morris2004p433/>

===Looting of refugees and the towns===
[[File:George Habash.jpg|thumb|130px|alt=photograph|[[George Habash]] (1926–2008) who later led the [[PFLP]], was among those expelled from Lydda.]]
The Sharett-Ben Gurion guidelines to the IDF had specified there was to be no robbery, but numerous sources spoke of widespread looting. ''The Economist'' wrote on 21 August that year: "The Arab refugees were systematically stripped of all their belongings before they were sent on their trek to the frontier. Household belongings, stores, clothing, all had to be left behind."<ref>Pappé 2006, p. 168.</ref> Aharon Cohen, director of Mapam's Arab Department, complained to Yigal Allon months after the deportations that troops had been told to remove jewellery and money from residents so that they would arrive at the Arab Legion without resources, thereby increasing the burden of looking after them. Allon replied that he knew of no such order, but conceded it as a possibility.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 97.</ref>

[[George Habash]], who later founded the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]], was born in Lydda to a Greek Orthodox family. He was in his second year at medical school in Beirut at the time, but returned to Lydda when he heard the Israelis had arrived in Jaffa, and was subsequently one of those expelled. Recalling the events of 1948 in 1990, he said that the Israelis took watches, jewellery, gold, and wallets from the refugees, and that he witnessed a neighbor of his shot and killed because he refused to be searched; he said the man's sister, who also saw what happened, died during the march from the shock, exposure and thirst.<ref name=Brandabur>[http://www.peuplesmonde.com/spip.php?article680 Brandabur 1990]. Habash said: "The Israelis were rounding everyone up and searching us. People were driven from every quarter and subjected to complete and rough body searches. You can’t imagine the savagery with which people were treated. Everything was taken—watches, jewelery, wedding rings, wallets, gold. One young neighbor of ours, a man in his late twenties, not more, Amin Hanhan, had secreted some money in his shirt to care for his family on the journey. The soldier who searched him demanded that he surrender the money and he resisted. He was shot dead in front of us. One of his sisters, a young married woman, also a neighbor of our family, was present: she saw her brother shot dead before her eyes. She was so shocked that, as we made our way toward Birzeit, she died of shock, exposure, and lack of water on the way."</ref>

As the residents left, the sacking of the cities began. The Yiftah brigade commander, Lt. Col. Schmuel "Mula" Cohen, wrote of Lydda that, "the cruelty of the war here reached its zenith."<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986], p. 88.</ref> Bechor Sheetrit, the Minister for Minority Affairs, said the army removed 1,800 truckloads of property from Lydda alone. Dov Shafrir was appointed Israel's Custodian of Absentee Property, supposedly charged to protect and redistribute Palestinian property, but his staff were inexperienced and unable to control the situation.<ref>Segev 1986, pp. 69–71</ref> The looting was so extensive that the 3rd Battalion had to be withdrawn from Lydda during the night of 13–14 July, and sent for a day to [[Ben Shemen]] for ''kinus heshbon nefesh'', a conference to encourage soul-searching. Cohen forced them to hand over their loot, which was thrown onto a bonfire and destroyed, but the situation continued when they returned to town. Some were later prosecuted.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA454 Morris 2004, p. 454], footnote 86.</ref>

There were also allegations that Israeli soldiers had raped Palestinian women. Ben-Gurion referred to them in his diary entry for 15 July 1948: "The bitter question has arisen regarding acts of robbery and rape [''o'nes'' ("אונס")] in the conquered towns ..."<ref>Ben-Gurion, Volume 2, p. 589.</ref> Israeli writer [[Amos Kenan]], who served as a platoon commander of the 82d Regiment of the Israeli Army brigade that conquered Lydda told ''The Nation'' on 6 February 1989: "At night, those of us who couldn't restrain ourselves would go into the prison compounds to fuck Arab women. I want very much to assume, and perhaps even can, that those who couldn't restrain themselves did what they thought the Arabs would have done to them had they won the war."<ref name=Kenan>[http://www.thenation.com/archive/four-decades-blood-vengeance Kenan 1989]; [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0059831.html courtesy link].</ref> Kenan said he heard of only one woman who complained. A court-martial was arranged, he said, but in court, the accused ran the back of his hand across his throat, and the woman decided not to proceed.<ref name=Kenan/> The allegations were given little consideration by the Israeli government. Agriculture Minister [[Aharon Zisling]] told the Cabinet on 21 July: "It has been said that there were cases of rape in Ramle. I could forgive acts of rape but I won't forgive other deeds, which appear to me much graver. When a town is entered and rings are forcibly removed from fingers and jewellery from necks—that is a very grave matter."<ref name=Zisling>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 Morris 1986, p. 105].
*See also Segev 1986, pp. 71–72.
*For a discussion of Ben-Gurion's concern, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=dL29_RBATv0C&pg=PA313 Tal 2004, p. 311].</ref>

Stuart Cohen writes that central control over the Jewish fighters was weak. Only Yigal Allon, commander of the IDF, made it standard practice to issue written orders to commanders, including that violations of the laws of war would be punished. Otherwise, trust was placed, and sometimes misplaced, in what Cohen calls intuitive troop decency. He adds that, despite the alleged war crimes, the majority of the IDF behaved with decency and civility.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA139 Cohen 2008, p. 139].</ref> Yitzhak Rabin wrote in his memoirs that some refused to take part in the evictions.<ref>[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p Shipler, ''The New York Times'', 23 October 1979]. Rabin wrote: "Great suffering was inflicted upon the men taking part in the eviction action. Soldiers of the Yiftach brigade included youth movement graduates, who had been inculcated with values such as international fraternity and humaneness. The eviction action went beyond the concepts they were used to. There were some fellows who refused to take part in the expulsion action. Prolonged propaganda activities were required after the action, to remove the bitterness of these youth movement groups, and explain why we were obliged to undertake such harsh and cruel action."</ref>

==Aftermath==

===In Ramallah, Amman, and elsewhere===
[[File:Glubb Pasha 1940.jpg|right|thumb|220px|alt=photograph|[[John Bagot Glubb]], British commander of the Arab Legion, was spat on as he drove through the [[West Bank]] for having handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews.]]
Tens of thousands of Palestinians from Lydda and Ramle poured into Ramallah. For the most part, they had no money, property, food, or water, and represented a health risk, not only to themselves. The Ramallah city council asked King Abdullah to remove them.<ref>IDF Intelligence Service/Arab Department, 21 July 1948, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref> Some of the refugees reached Amman, the Gaza Strip, Lebanon, and the Upper Galilee, and all over the area there were angry demonstrations against Abdullah and the Arab Legion for their failure to defend the cities. People spat at Glubb, the British commander of the Arab Legion, as he drove through the [[West Bank]], and wives and parents of Arab Legion soldiers tried to break into King Abdullah's palace.<ref name=Morris2008p290>Morris 2008, pp. 290–291.</ref> [[Alec Kirkbride]], the British ambassador in Amman, described one protest in the city on 18 July:

<blockquote>A couple of thousand Palestinian men swept up the hill toward the main [palace] entrance ... screaming abuse and demanding that the lost towns should be reconquered at once ... The King appeared at the top of the main steps of the building; he was a short, dignified figure wearing white robes and headdress. He paused for a moment, surveying the seething mob before, [then walked] down the steps to push his way through the line of guardsmen into the thick of the demonstrators. He went up to a prominent individual, who was shouting at the top of his voice, and dealt him a violent blow to the side of the head with the flat of his hand. The recipient of the blow stopped yelling ... the King could be heard roaring: so, you want to fight the Jews, do you? Very well, there is a recruiting office for the army at the back of my house ... go there and enlist. The rest of you, get the hell down the hillside!" Most of the crowd got the hell down the hillside.<ref>Kirkbride 1976, p. 48, cited in Morris 2008, p. 291.</ref></blockquote>

Morris writes that, during a meeting in Amman on 12–13 July of the Political Committee of the [[Arab League]], delegates—particularly from Syria and Iraq—accused Glubb of serving British, or even Jewish, interests, with his excuses about troop and ammunition shortages. Egyptian journalists said he had handed Lydda and Ramle to the Jews. Perie-Gordon, Britain's acting minister in Amman, told the Foreign Office there was a suspicion that Glubb, on behalf of the British government, had lost Lydda and Ramle deliberately to ensure that Transjordan accept a truce. King Abdullah indicated that he wanted Glubb to leave, without actually asking him to—particularly after Iraqi officers alleged that the entire [[Hashemite]] house was in the pay of the British—but London asked him to stay on. Britain's popularity with the Arabs reached an all-time low.<ref>Morris 2008, pp. 291–292.
*For Perie-Gordon, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=D30D_GzUKfMC&pg=PA208 Abu Nowar 2002, p. 208].</ref> The United Nations Security Council called for a ceasefire to begin no later than 18 July, with sanctions to be levelled against transgressors. The Arabs were outraged: "No justice, no logic, no equity, no understanding, but blind submission to everything that is Zionist," ''Al-Hayat'' responded, though Morris writes that cooler heads in the Arab world were privately pleased that they were required not to fight, given Israel's obvious military superiority.<ref>Morris 2008, p. 295.</ref>

===Situation of the refugees===
Morris writes that the situation of the 400,000 Arabs who became refugees that summer—not only those from Lydda and Ramle—was dire, camping in public buildings, abandoned barracks, and under trees.<ref name=Morris2008p309>Morris 2008, p. 309ff.</ref> [[Count Folke Bernadotte]], the United Nations mediator in Palestine, visited a [[Palestinian refugee camps|refugee camp]] in Ramallah and said he had never seen a more ghastly sight.<ref>Sayigh 2007, p. 84.</ref> Morris writes that the Arab governments did little for them, and most of the aid that did reach them came from the West through the Red Cross and Quakers. A new UN body was set up to get things moving, which in December 1949 became the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] (UNRWA), which many of the refugees and their descendants, now standing at four million, still depend on.<ref name=Morris2008p309/> Bernadotte's mediation efforts—which resulted in a proposal to split Palestine between Israel and Jordan, and to hand Lydda and Ramle to King Abdullah—ended on 17 September 1948, when he was assassinated by four Israeli gunmen from [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], an extremist Zionist faction.<ref>[http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jfouAAAAIBAJ&sjid=HNwFAAAAIBAJ&pg=6344,4611106&dq=bernadotte+assassination&hl=en "Bernadotte Murder Stuns Whole World"], ''Ottawa Citizen'', 18 September 1948.</ref> The United Nations convened the [[Lausanne Conference, 1949|Lausanne Conference]] from April to September 1949 in part to resolve the refugee question. Israel offered to allow 100,000 to return in exchange for peace, including 25,000 who had already returned illegally. Ben-Gurion opposed it, and the Americans felt it too low: they wanted to see 250,000 refugees re-absorbed. The issue became moot because the Arabs rejected the proposal. They maintained that there were one million refugees overall, and that the Israeli offer was "less than token."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA573 Morris 2004, pp. 573–577].</ref>

===Resettlement of the cities===
{{further|Absentees' Property Laws|Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim lands}}
[[File:Transfer of control from the military governor to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, Lod, April 1949.jpg|right|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|Power is handed from the military governor of Lydda, now called Lod, to the first mayor, Pesach Lev, April 1949.]]
On 14 July 1948 the IDF told Ben-Gurion that "not one Arab inhabitant" remained in Ramla or Lod, as they were now called. In fact, several hundred remained, including the elderly, the ill and some Christians, and others managed to sneak back in over the following months. In October 1948 the Israeli military governor of Ramla-Lod reported that 960 Palestinians were living in Ramla, and 1,030 in Lod. Military rule in the towns ended in April 1949.<ref>For "not one inhabitant," and the hundreds remaining, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA434 Morris 2004, p. 434].
*For the numbers in October 1948, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA455 Morris 2004, p. 455], footnote 110.
*For military rule ending, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

Nearly 700,000 Jews [[Aliyah|immigrated to Israel]] between May 1948 and December 1951 from Europe, Asia and Africa, doubling the state's Jewish population; in 1950 Israel passed the [[Law of Return]], offering Jews automatic citizenship.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA42 Yacobi 2009, p. 42].</ref> The immigrants were assigned Palestinian homes—in part because of the inevitable housing shortage, but also as a matter of policy to make it harder for former residents to reclaim them—and could buy refugees' furniture from the Custodian for Absentees' Property.<ref name=MorrisYacobi>Morris 2008, p. 308, for a general discussion of the issue.
*[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA45 Yacobi 2009, p. 45], for specific mention of this in relation to Lydda.</ref> Jewish families were occasionally placed in houses belonging to Palestinians who still lived in Israel, the so-called "[[present absentees]]," regarded as physically present but legally absent, with no legal standing to reclaim their property.<ref name=Yacobi2009p42/> By March 1950 there were 8,600 Jews and 1,300 Palestinian Arabs living in Ramla, and 8,400 Jews and 1,000 Palestinians in Lod. Most of the Jews who settled in the towns were from Asia or North Africa.<ref>For the figures, and that most were from Asia and North Africa, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA427 Golan 2003].
*Also see [http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA39 Yacobi 2009, p. 39].</ref>

The Palestinian workers allowed to remain in the cities were confined to ghettos. The military administrator split the region into three zones—Ramla, Lod, and Rakevet, a neighborhood in Lod established by the British for rail workers—and declared the Arab areas within them "closed," with each closed zone run by a committee of three to five members.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA33 Yacobi 2009, p. 33.]</ref> Many of the town's essential workers were Palestinians. The military administrators did satisfy some of their needs, such as building a school, supplying medical aid, allocating them 50 dunams for growing vegetables, and renovating the interior of the Dahmash mosque, but it appears the refugees felt like prisoners; Palestinian train workers, for example, were subject to a curfew from evening until morning, with periodic searches to make sure they had no guns.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA34 Yacobi 2009, p. 34.]</ref> One wrote an open letter in March 1949 to the ''Al Youm'' newspaper on behalf of 460 Muslim and Christian train workers: "Since the occupation, we continued to work and our salaries have still not been paid to this day. Then our work was taken from us and now we are unemployed. The curfew is still valid ... [W]e are not allowed to go to Lod or Ramla, as we are prisoners. No one is allowed to look for a job but with the mediation of the members of the Local Committee ... we are like slaves. I am asking you to cancel the restrictions and to let us live freely in the state of Israel.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=CE0EFVnpuAMC&pg=PA35 Yacobi 2009, pp. 35–36].</ref>

===Artistic reception===
[[File:Ismail Shammout's Where to ....JPG|right|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|[[Ismail Shammout]]'s ''Where to ..?'' (1953)]]
The [[Palestinian art]]ist [[Ismail Shammout]] (1930–2006) was 19 years old when he was expelled from Lydda. He created a series of oil paintings about the march, the best known of which is ''Where to ..?'' (1953), which enjoys iconic status among Palestinians. A life-size image of a man dressed in rags holds a walking stick in one hand, the wrist of a child in the other, a toddler on his shoulder, with a third child behind him, crying and alone. There is a withered tree behind him, and in the distance the skyline of an Arab town with a [[minaret]]. [[Gannit Ankori]] writes that the absent mother is the lost homeland, the children its orphans.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=X_Q6FX0YFVwC&pg=PA48 Ankori 2006, pp. 48–50].
*For the image on Shammout's website: [http://www.shammout.com/oilbig13.htm "Where to ..?"], shammout.com. Retrieved 26 November 2010.</ref>

By November 1948 the IDF had been accused of atrocities in a number of towns and villages, to the point where David Ben-Gurion had to appoint an investigator. Israeli poet [[Natan Alterman]] (1910–1970) wrote about the allegations in his poem ''Al Zot'' ("On This"), published in ''[[Davar]]'' on 19 November 1948, about a soldier on a jeep machine-gunning an Arab, referring to the events in Lydda, according to Morris. Two days later Ben-Gurion sought Alterman's permission for the Defence Ministry to distribute the poem throughout the IDF:<ref>For the atrocities in general, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA486 Morris 2004, p. 486ff]; for reference to the poem and Ben-Gurion writing to Alterman, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 p. 489].
*Morris writes that the poem is about Lydda in [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA426 Morris 2004, pp. 426], [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA489 489] (on p. 489 he writes it was "apparently" about Lydda), and Morris 2008, p. 473, footnote 85.</ref>

{{Quote box |quoted= |bgcolor=#FFFFF0 |qalign=left |width=370px |align=center
| quote =<poem>Let us sing then also about "delicate incidents"
For which the true name, incidentally, is murder
Let songs be composed about conversations with sympathetic interlocutors
who with collusive chuckles make concessions and grant forgiveness.<ref name=Cohenp140>[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVV4i-KbzoAC&pg=PA140 Cohen 2008, p. 140].
*[http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm ''Al Zot'' in Hebrew], www.education.gov.il, accessed 1 December 2010.</poem>}}

===Four figures after the exodus===
[[File:Bill Clinton, Yitzhak Rabin, Yasser Arafat at the White House 1993-09-13.jpg|thumb|230px|alt=photograph|[[Yitzhak Rabin]]'s historic handshake with [[Yasser Arafat]] at the White House, 1993]]
Yigal Allon, who led Operation Dani and may have ordered the expulsions, became Israel's deputy prime minister in 1967. He was a member of the war cabinet during the 1967 Arab Israeli [[Six-Day War]], and the architect of the post-war [[Allon Plan]], a proposal to end Israel's occupation of the [[West Bank]]. He died in 1980.<ref>Jewish Agency for Israel.[http://web.archive.org/web/20041210194811/http://www.jafi.org.il/education/100/people/BIOS/allon.html "Allon, Yigal (1918–1980)"]. Retrieved 25 September 2009.</ref>

Yitzhak Rabin, Allon's operations officer, who signed the Lydda expulsion order, became Chief of Staff of the IDF during the Six-Day War, and Israel's prime minister in 1974 and again in 1992. He was assassinated in 1995 by a right-wing Israeli radical opposed to making peace with the PLO.<ref name=Morris2004p429>For his having signed the order, see [http://books.google.com/books?id=uM_kFX6edX8C&pg=PA429 Morris 2004, p. 429].</ref>

Khalil al-Wazir, the grocer's son expelled from Ramle, became one of the founders of Yasser Arafat's ''[[Fatah]]'' faction within the PLO, and specifically of its armed wing, ''[[Al-Assifa]]''. He organized the PLO's guerrilla warfare and the ''Fatah'' youth movements that helped spark the [[First Intifada]] in 1987. He was assassinated by Israeli commandos in Tunis in 1988.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA529 As'ad Abu Khalil 2005, p. 529ff].</ref>

George Habash, the medical student expelled from Lydda, went on to lead one of the best-known of the Palestinian militant groups, the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. In September 1970 he masterminded the [[Dawson's Field hijackings|hijacking of four passenger jets]] bound for New York, an attack that put the Palestinian cause on the map. The PFLP was also behind the 1972 [[Lod Airport massacre]], in which 27 people died, and the 1976 hijacking of an Air France flight to Entebbe, which famously led to the IDF's [[Operation Entebbe|rescue of the hostages]]. Habash died of a heart attack in Amman in 2008.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html?bl&ex=1201582800&en=a0d7bd56323e1b26&ei=5087%0A Andrews and Kifner, ''The New York Times'', January 27, 2008].
*Habash spoke to [[Robert Fisk]] in 1993 about Lydda: "I will never rest until I can go back. The house is still there and a Jewish family lives in it now. Some of my friends tried to find it and some relatives actually went there and sent me a message that the trees are still standing in the garden, just as they were in 1948. ... It's my right to go directly to my house and live there." See [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/still-dreaming-of-his-homeland-robert-fisk-in-damascus-hears-george-habash-orator-fighter-and-refugee-spell-out-his-terms-for-a-settlement-with-israel-1509518.html Fisk 1993].</ref>

==Historiography==
[[File:Anita Shapira.jpg|left|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|Israeli historian [[Anita Shapira]] argues that the scholars who wrote the early history of 1948 censored themselves, because they saw the 1948 war as the tragic climax of the [[Holocaust]] and the Second World War.<ref name=Shapira1995p12/>]]
Benny Morris argues that Israeli historians from the 1950s throughout the 1970s—who wrote what he calls the "Old History"—were "less than honest" about what had happened in Lydda and Ramle.<ref name=Morris1988>[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].</ref> [[Anita Shapira]] calls them the Palmach generation: historians who had fought in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], and who thereafter went to work for the IDF's history branch, where they censored material other scholars had no access to. For them, Shapira writes, the Holocaust and the Second World War—including the experience of Jewish weakness in the face of persecution—made the fight for land between the Arabs and Jews a matter of life and death, the 1948 war the "tragic and heroic climax of all that had preceded it," and Israeli victory an "act of historical justice."<ref name=Shapira1995p12>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 12–13.</ref>

The IDF's official history of the 1948 war, ''Toldot Milhemet HaKomemiyut'' ("History of the War of Independence"), published in 1959, said that residents of Lydda had violated the terms of their surrender, and left because they were afraid of Israeli retribution. The head of the IDF history branch, Lt. Col Netanel Lorch, wrote in ''The Edge of the Sword'' (1961) that they had requested safe conduct from the IDF; American political scientist [[Ian Lustick]] writes that Lorch admitted in 1997 that he left his post because the censorship made it impossible to write good history.<ref>For Lorch's book, see [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988].
*For Lustick, see [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997].</ref> Another employee of the history branch, Lt. Col. Elhannan Orren, wrote a detailed history of Operation Dani in 1976 that made no mention of expulsions.<ref name=Morris1988/>

Arab historians published accounts, including [[Aref al-Aref]]'s ''Al Nakba, 1947–1952'' (1956–1960), [[Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib]]'s ''Min Athar al-Nakba'' (1951), and several papers by Walid Khalidi, but Morris writes that they suffered from a lack of archival material; Arab governments have been reluctant to open their archives, and the Israeli archives were at that point still closed.<ref>Morris 2004, pp. 1–2.</ref> The first person in Israel to acknowledge the Lydda and Ramle expulsions, writes Morris, was Yitzhak Rabin in his 1979 memoirs, though that part of his manuscript was removed by government censors.<ref name=Morris1988/> The 30-year rule of [[Israel State Archive|Israel's Archives Law]], passed in 1955, meant that hundreds of thousands of government documents were released throughout the 1980s, and a group calling itself the "New Historians" emerged, most of them born around 1948. They interpreted the history of the war, not in terms of European politics, the Holocaust, and Jewish history, but solely within the context of the Middle East. Shapira writes that they focused on the 700,000 Arabs who were uprooted by the war, not on the 6,000 Jews who died during it, and assessed the behavior of the Jewish state as they would that of any other.<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], pp. 9, 16–17.</ref> Between 1987 and 1993, four of these historians in particular—Morris himself, [[Simha Flapan]], [[Ilan Pappé]], and [[Avi Shlaim]]—three of them Oxbridge-trained, published a series of books that changed the historiography of the Palestinian exodus. According to Lustick, although it was known in academic circles that the Palestinians had left because of expulsions and intimidation, it was largely unknown to Israeli Jews until Morris's ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' appeared in 1987.<ref>
[http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf Morris 1988], and [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf Lustick 1997], pp. 157–158.
*Simha Flapan (1911–1987) is the exception to the rule that the New Historians were born around 1948.
*The key texts are:
*[[Simha Flapan]]'s ''The Birth of Israel'' (1987)
*[[Benny Morris]]'s ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949'' (1987), ''[[1948 and After|1948 and After: Israel and the Palestinians]]'' (1990), and ''[[Israel's Border Wars 1949–1956|Israel's Border Wars, 1949–1956]]'' (1993)
*[[Ilan Pappé]]'s ''Britain and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: 1948–1951'' (1988) and ''The Making of the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1947–1951'' (1992)
*[[Avi Shlaim]]'s ''Collusion across the Jordan'' (1988) and ''The Politics of Partition'' (1990)
*Other writers engaged in the "New History," according to Lustick (p. 157), include Uri Bar-Joseph, [[Mordechai Bar-On]], [[Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi]], Motti Golani, [[Uri Milstein]], and [[Tom Segev]].
*That the New Historians focus on the 700,000 uprooted, see [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 Shapira 1995], p. 13.</ref>

Their work is not without its critics, most notably Israeli historian [[Efraim Karsh]], who writes that there was more voluntary Palestinian flight than Morris and the others concede. He acknowledges that there were expulsions, particularly in Lydda, though he argues—as does Morris—that they resulted from decisions made in the heat of battle, and account for a small percentage of the overall exodus.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=6RRr_bf1ZhAC&pg=PA160 Karsh 2003, pp. 160–161].
*[http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-11881944_ITM Kadish and Sela 2005].</ref> Karsh argues that the New Historians have turned the story of the birth of Israel upside down, making victims of the Arab aggressors, though he acknowledges that the New History is now widely accepted.<ref>[http://www.meforum.org/466/benny-morris-and-the-reign-of-error Karsh 1999].</ref> The positions of Karsh and Morris, though they disagree, contrast in turn with those of Ilan Pappé and Walid Khalidi, who argue not only that there were widespread expulsions, but also that they were not the result of ''ad hoc'' decisions. Rather, they argue, the expulsions were part of a deliberate strategy, known as [[Plan Dalet]] and conceived before Israel's declaration of independence, to transfer the Arab population and seize their land.<ref>Pappé 2007.
*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi Khalidi 1961], and [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Khalidi,%20Plan%20Dalet%20Revisited.pdf Khalidi 1988].</ref>

==Lod and Ramla today==
[[File:RamleviewS.jpg|left|thumb|180px|alt=photograph|Ramla in 2006]]
As of 2009 around 66,000 people were living in Ramla, which became briefly known around the world in 1962, when former SS officer [[Adolf Eichmann]] was hanged in Ramla prison in May that year.<ref>For the population, see [http://www.cbs.gov.il/population/new_2010/table3.pdf Population figures], Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 26 November 2010.
*For Eichmann, see [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 Weitz 2007].</ref> The population in Lod as of 2010 was officially around 45,000 Jews and 20,000 Arabs; its main industry is its airport, renamed Ben Gurion International Airport in 1973.<ref name=Economist>[http://www.economist.com/node/17254422 "Pulled apart"], ''The Economist'', 14 October 2010.</ref> [[Aliyah from Ethiopia|Beth Israel immigrants from Ethiopia]] were housed there in the 1990s, increasing the ethnic tension in the city which, together with the economic deprivation, make the town "the most likely place to explode," according to Arnon Golan, an Israeli expert on ethnically-mixed cities. {{Citation needed|date=August 2011}} In 2010 a three-meter-high wall was built to separate the Jewish and Arab neighborhoods.<ref name=Economist/>

[[File:Zochrot at the former Lydda ghetto.JPG|thumb|200px|alt=photograph|Eitan Bronstein of [[Zochrot]] places a sign on the former Lydda ghetto.]]
The Arab community has complained that, when Arabs became a majority in Lod's Ramat Eshkol suburb, the local school was closed rather than turned into an Arab-sector school, and in September 2008 it was re-opened as a [[yeshiva]], a Jewish religious school. The local council acknowledges that it wants Lod to become a more Jewish city. In addition to the Arabs officially registered, a fifth of the overall population are [[Bedouin]], who arrived in Lod in the 1980s when they were moved off land in the Negev, according to Nathan Jeffay.They live in illegal dwellings on agricultural land, unregistered and with no municipal services.<ref name=Jeffay>[http://www.forward.com/articles/14435/ Jeffay 2008].</ref>

The refugees are occasionally able to visit their former homes. [[Zochrot]], an Israeli group that researches former Palestinian towns, visited Lod in 2003 and 2005, erecting signs in Hebrew and Arabic depicting its history, including a sign on the wall of the former Arab ghetto. The visits are met with a mixture of interest and hostility.<ref>[http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=221 "Remembering Al-Lydd 2005"], [http://www.zochrot.org/index.php?id=364 "Tour and signposting in Al-Lydd (Lod), 2003"].
*Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 "Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod"].
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/lydda.pdf Booklet about Lydda] in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot.
*[http://www.zochrot.org/images/al-Ramle.pdf Booklet about Ramla], also in Arabic and Hebrew, Zochrot, all accessed 28 November 2010.</ref> Father Oudeh Rantisi, a former mayor of Ramallah who was expelled from Lydda in 1948, visited his family's former home for the first time in 1967:

<blockquote>As the bus drew up in front of the house, I saw a young boy playing in the yard. I got off the bus and went over to him. "How long have you lived in this house?" I asked. "I was born here," he replied. "Me too," I said ...<ref>[http://www.ameu.org/printer.asp?iid=64&aid=95 Rantisi and Amash 2000].</ref></blockquote>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*Abu Khalil, As'ad (2005). [http://books.google.com/books?id=GkbzYoZtaJMC&pg=PA529 "al-Wazir, Khalil"], in Mattar, Philip. ''Encyclopedia Of The Palestinians'', Infobase Publishing.
*[[Lila Abu-Lughod|Abu Lughod, Lila]] and Allan, Diana Keown (2007). "Places of Memory" in Sa'di, Ahmad H. and Abu-Lughod, Lila (eds.). ''Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory''. Columbia University Press.
*Abu Nowar, Ma'an (2002). ''The Jordanian-Israeli War 1948-1951: A History of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan''. Garnet & Ithaca Press.
*Andrews, Edmund L. and Kifner, John (27 January 2008). [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/27/world/middleeast/27habash.html?bl&ex=1201582800&en=a0d7bd56323e1b26&ei=5087%0A "George Habash, Palestinian Terrorism Tactician, Dies at 82"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[Gannit Ankori|Ankori, Gannit]] (2006.) ''Palestinian Art''. Reaktion Books.
*[[David Ben-Gurion|Ben-Gurion, David]] (1982). ''The War Diary: The War of Independence, 5708–5709'', Volumes 1 and 2, Israel Defense Ministry Publications.
*[[Kenneth Bilby|Bilby, Kenneth]] (1951). ''New Star in the Near East''. Doubleday.
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*Karsh, Efraim (2003). ''Rethinking the Middle East''. Routledge.
*[[Amos Kenan|Kenan, Amos]] (8 February 1989). [http://www.thenation.com/archive/four-decades-blood-vengeance "The Legacy of Lydda: Four Decades of Blood Vengeance"], ''The Nation''; [http://cosmos.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0059831.html courtesy link], accessed 26 November 2010.
*[[Walid Khalidi|Khalidi, Walid]] (1961). [http://www.scribd.com/doc/19199199/Plan-Dalet-Master-Plan-for-the-Conquest-of-Palestine-by-Walid-Khalidi "Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine"], ''Middle East Forum'', Vol. 37, p. 11, accessed 23 November 2010.
*Khalidi, Walid (1988). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Khalidi,%20Plan%20Dalet%20Revisited.pdf "Plan Dalet Revisited"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol. 18: Nos. 1, 5, accessed 23 November 2010.
*Khalidi, Walid (1998). Introduction to Spiro Munayyer's [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf The fall of Lydda]. ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 80–98.
*[[Alec Kirkbride|Kirkbride, Alec]] (1976). ''From the Wings: Amman Memoirs, 1947–1951'', Routledge.
*[[Arthur Koestler|Koestler, Arthur]] (1949). ''Promise and Fulfilment – Palestine 1917–1949''. This edition Read Books 2007.
*[[Ian Lustick|Lustick, Ian S.]] (1997). [http://www.polisci.upenn.edu/faculty/bios/Pubs/survivalreview.pdf "Israeli history: Who is fabricating what?"], ''Survival'', Volume 39, Issue 3 Autumn 1997, pp. 156–166.
*[[Benny Morris|Morris, Benny]] (1986). [http://www.jstor.org/pss/4327250 "Operation Dani and the Palestinian Exodus from Lydda and Ramle in 1948"], ''Middle East Journal'', Vol 40, issue 1.
*Morris, Benny (1988). [http://www.press.umich.edu/pdf/9780472115419-ch1.pdf "The New Historiography: Israel confronts its Past"], in Morris, Benny (ed.). ''Making Israel''. University of Michigan Press, 2007.
*Morris, Benny (1995). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/history/Morris,%20Falsifying%20the%20Record.pdf "Falsifying the Record: A Fresh Look at Zionist Documentation of 1948"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Spring 1995, pp. 44–62.
*Morris, Benny (2001). ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001''. Vintage Books.
*Morris, Benny (2003). ''The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews''. Tauris. ISBN 1-86064-989-0
*Morris, Benny (2004). ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited''. Cambridge University Press.
*Morris, Benny (2008). ''1948: The First Arab-Israeli War''. Yale University Press.
*Munayyer, Spiro (1998). [http://www.palestine-studies.org/enakba/Memoirs/Munayyer,%20The%20Fall%20of%20Lydda.pdf "The Fall of Lydda"], ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', Vol 27, issue 4, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[Ilan Pappé|Pappé, Ilan]] (2006). ''[[The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (Book)|The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine]]'', Oneworld.
*Prior, Michael, P. (1999). ''Zionism and the State of Israel: A Moral Inquiry''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-20462-3
*Rantisi, Audeh G. and Amash, Charles (2000). [http://www.ameu.org/uploads/vol33_issue3_2000.pdf "Death March"], ''The Link'', July–August 2000, Vol 33, Issue 3, Americans for Middle East Understanding, accessed 14 December 2010.
*Sa'di, Ahmad H. and [[Lila Abu-Lughod|Abu-Lughod, Lila]] (2007). ''Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the claims of memory''. Columbia University Press.
*Sayigh, Rosemary. ''The Palestinians: From Peasants to Revolutionaries''. Zed Books, 2007.
*Schmidt, Dana Adams (12 June 1948). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30D1EFD3D54157B93C0A8178DD85F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Jerusalem+siege&st=p "Jerusalem Sees Uneasy Truce"], ''The New York Times.
*Schwartz, Joshua J. ''Lod (Lydda), Israel: From its origins through the Byzantine period, 5600 B.C.E.-640 C.E.'' Tempus Reparatum, 1991.
*[[Tom Segev|Segev, Tom]] (1986). ''1949, The First Israelis''. Henry Holt.
*Segev, Tom (2000). [http://lists.mcgill.ca/scripts/wa.exe?A2=ind0005b&L=fofognet&P=3632 "What really happened in the conquest of Lod?"] ''Haaretz'', 12 May 2000, accessed 14 December 2010.
*[[Anita Shapira|Shapira, Anita]] (1995). [http://www.jstor.org/pss/25618678 "Politics and Collective Memory: The Debate over the 'New Historians' in Israel"], ''History and Memory'', Vol 7, no 1, Spring/Summer 1995.
*Shapira, Anita. (2007). ''Yigal Allon, Native Son: A Biography''. University of Pennsylvania Press,
*Sharon, M. (1983). "Ludd" in Bosworth, C.E. et al. ''The Encyclopaedia of Islam''. E.J. Brill.
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*[[David K. Shipler|Shipler, David K.]] (23 October 1979). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70813FC3F5410728DDDAA0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=5&sq=&st=p "Israel Bars Rabin from Relating '48 Eviction of Arabs''], ''The New York Times''.
*Shipler, David (25 October 1979). [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10B12FE3C5C12728DDDAC0A94D8415B898BF1D3&scp=2&sq=&st=p "Allon Denies '48 Ouster of Arabs"], ''The New York Times''.
*[[David Tal (historian)|Tal, David]] (2004). ''War in Palestine, 1948: Strategy and Diplomacy''. Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-5275-X
*Weitz, Yechiam (2007). [http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/we-have-to-carry-out-the-sentence-1.226299 "We have to carry out the sentence"], ''Haaretz'', 2 August 2007.
*Yacobi, Haim (2009). ''The Jewish-Arab City: Spatio-politics in a Mixed Community''. Routledge.
*''[[Zochrot]]'' (2003). [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=365 Testimonies on the Nakba of Lod], 11 January 2003. Also see [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=364] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=221] [http://www.nakbainhebrew.org/index.php?id=349], all accessed 14 December 2010.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[[Nathan Alterman|Alterman, Nathan]] (1948). [http://www.education.gov.il/tochniyot_Limudim/shira/sh_42.htm "Al Zot"], www.education.gov.il, accessed 23 November 2010. {{he icon}}
*Abdel Jawad, Saleh (2007). ''Israel and the Palestinian refugees.'' Eyāl Benveniśtî, Chaim Gans, Sārī Ḥanafī, ed. Springer.
*[[Aref al-Aref|Aref al-'Aref]] (1959). ''Al-Nakba: Nakbat Filsatin wal-Firdaws al-Mafqud 1947–1952'' [''The Catastrophe: The Catastrophe of Palestine and the Lost Paradise 1947–1952'']. Sidon and Beirut, A1-Maktab al-'Sariyya lil-Tiba'a wal-Nashr.
*[[Moshe Dayan|Dayan, Moshe]] (1976). ''Moshe Dayan: story of my life.'' New York: William Morrow and Company. ISBN 0-688-03076-9.
*El-Asmar, Fouzi (1975). ''To be an Arab in Israel''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*Guttman, Shmarya ("Avi-Yiftah") (November 1948). "Lydda," ''Mibifnim''.
*Kadish, Alon; [[Avraham Sela|Sela, Avraham]]; and Golan, Arnon (2000). ''The Occupation of Lydda, July 1948''. Tel Aviv: Israel Ministry of Defense and Hagana Historical Archive. {{he icon}}
*[[Efraim Karsh|Karsh, Efraim]] (1997). ''Fabricating Israeli History: The 'New Historians'''. Routledge.
*Karsh, Efraim (2002). ''The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948'', Osprey Publishing, 2002.
*Kelman, Moshe (1972). "Ha-Hevdel bein Deir Yasin le-Lod" ["The Difference between Deir Yasin and Lydda"], ''Yedi'ot Aharonot'', 2 May 1972. {{he icon}}
*Khalidi, Walid (1992). "All That Remains: The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948". Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Ghassan Kanafani|Kanafani, Ghassan]] (1956). "Paper from Ramleh". "Palestine's Children. Short stories by Ghassan Kanafani". Three Continents Press. ISBN 0-89410-431-4.
*Lorch, Netanel (1997). "A Word from an Old Historian," ''Haaretz'', 23 June 1997.
*Monterescu, Daniel and Rabinowitz, Dan (2007). ''Mixed Towns, Trapped Communities''. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
*Morris, Benny (1986b). [http://books.google.com/books?id=OjuKhNEmFvoC&pg=PA169 "The Causes and Character of the Exodus from Palestine"] in Pappé, Ilan. ''The Israel/Palestine Question''. Routledge, 1999.
*Morris, Benny (1987). ''The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947–1949''. Cambridge University Press.
*Munayyer, Spiro (1997). ''Lydda During the Mandate and Occupation Periods''. Institute for Palestine Studies.
*[[Nur-eldeen Masalha|Masalha, Nur]] (2003). ''The Politics of Denial: Israel and the Palestinian Refugee Problem''. Pluto Press.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/1998/1948/362_rnts.htm Would I ever see my home again?], ''Al-Ahram'', accessed 14 December 2010.
*Rantisi, Audeh G. and Beebe, Ralph K. (1990). ''Blessed are the peacemakers: the story of a Palestinian Christian''. Eagle.
{{Refend}}
 
{{nakbaend}}
{{Palestinian Arab villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestine War}}
{{Arab-Israeli Conflict}}
{{Israeli-Palestinian Conflict}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Exodus From Lydda And Ramle}}
[[Category:1948 Palestinian exodus]]
[[Category:1948 Arab–Israeli War]]
[[Category:Forced marches]]
[[Category:Lod]]
[[Category:Ramla]]

[[fr:Exode palestinien de Lydda et Ramle]]

Shen Yun Performing Arts

2012-12-23T15:02:51Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Shen Yun Performing Arts
| logo = [[File:logo-shenyun.png|150px]]
| type = Dance company
| foundation = 2006
| founder =
| location_city = Cuddebackville, New York
| area_served = Worldwide
| key_people =
| industry =
| products =
| services =
| num_employees =
| revenue =
| divisions = New York Company, International Company, Touring Company
| subsid =
| homepage = {{URL|shenyunperformingarts.org}}
| intl = yes
}}
'''Shen Yun Performing Arts''', formerly known as '''Divine Performing Arts''', is a performing-arts and entertainment company based in New York.<ref name="mission">{{Cite web| url=http://shenyunperformingarts.org/mission | accessdate=15 November 2009 | title=Mission }} The Mission statement of Shen Yun Performing Arts</ref> It performs classical Chinese dance, ethnic and folk dance, and story-based dance,<ref name="pnwi" /> with orchestral accompaniment and solo performers.

The Shen Yun website translates the phrase ''shen yun'' as "the beauty of divine beings dancing".<ref>
{{cite web
|url = http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/frequently-asked-questions
|title = Frequently Asked Questions
|accessdate = 2 December 2012
|quote = Shen Yun literally translates as: The beauty of divine beings dancing.
}}
</ref>

Shen Yun was founded in 2006 with the mission of reviving "the essence of 5000 years of Chinese culture", which it asserts to have been nearly demolished by the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist government]].<ref>[http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/company/about-the-company About the company]</ref> The company's performers practice the [[Falun Gong]] (Falun Dafa) spiritual discipline,<ref name="sfgate">{{Cite web
| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/01/04/PKC014SEDQ.DTL
|work=San Francisco Chronicle
| last=Hunt
| first=Mary Ellen
| date=4 January 2009
| accessdate=4 September 2009
| title=Chinese New Year Spectacular in S.F., Cupertino}}</ref><ref name="denverpost">{{Cite web
| url=http://www.denverpost.com/entertainment_old/ci_7925231
| work=The Denver Post
| first=John
| last=Wenzel
| date=1 October 2007
| accessdate=5 September 2009
| title=Chinese New Year embracing tradition }}</ref> and performances around the world are hosted by local Falun Dafa Associations.

The group is composed of three performing arts companies: The New York Company, The Touring Company, and the International Company, with of a total of over 200 performers. For seven months a year, Shen Yun Performing Arts tours to over 130 cities across Europe, North America, Oceania, and Asia.<ref name=NYTimesHodara/> Shen Yun's shows have been staged in several leading theaters, including New York's [[Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts]],<ref name=Observer/> London’s [[Royal Festival Hall]], Washington DC's [[Kennedy Center]], and Paris' Le [[Palais des congrès de Paris|Palais de Congrès]]<ref name="denverpost" /><ref name="ET_WorldTour">{{Cite web| url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/features/dpa/ | work=[[Epoch Times]] | accessdate=5 September 2009 | title=Shen Yun Performing Arts 2009 World tour special coverage }}</ref> The show's acts and production staff are trained at Shen Yun’s headquarters in Cuddebackville, in [[Orange County, New York]].<ref name=NYTimesHodara/>

The company has performed in Taiwan.

==History==
Expatriate Chinese Falun Gong practitioners living in North America founded Shen Yun in 2006 in New York.<ref name="Wright"/> The company’s first tour took place in 2007, when the company comprised 90 dancers, musicians, soloists and production staff.<ref name=About/><ref name=hudsonreporter>Adriana Rambay Fernandez, [http://hudsonreporter.com/view/full_story/17252040/article-Dancing-around-the-world-Local-teen-performs-in-classical-Chinese-dance-company-?instance=secondary_stories_left_column Dancing around the world], Hudson Reporter, 22 January 2012.</ref> Shen Yun states that its underlying mission is to "revive the essence of 5000 years of Chinese culture", which it asserts to have been nearly demolished by the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist government]].<ref>[http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/company/about-the-company About the company]</ref> Initially the shows were titled "Chinese Spectacular",<ref name="sfgate"/><ref name="denverpost"/> "Holiday Wonders",<ref>{{Cite web
| url=http://broadwayworld.com/article/Holiday_Wonders_Chinese_Meets_West_Extravaganza_20071115
| work=Broadway World
| first=Beau
| last=Higgins
| date=15 November 2007
| accessdate=5 September 2009
| title='Holiday Wonders' Chinese Meets West Extravaganza }}</ref> Chinese New Year Splendor, and "Divine Performing Arts", but now the company performs under the name "Shen Yun." As of 2009, Shen Yun had expanded to three full companies and orchestras that tour the world simultaneously.<ref name=About>Shen Yun Performing Arts [http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/company/about-the-company About the Company]</ref> By the end of the 2010 season, approximately one million people had seen the troupe perform.<ref name=NYTimesHodara/>

==Content==
Each year, Shen Yun creates original productions lasting 2.5 hours and consisting of approximately 20 vignettes featuring classical Chinese dance and ethnic dance, as well as solo musicians and operatic singing.<ref name="concnet">{{Cite web| url=http://www.concertonet.com/scripts/review.php?ID_review=6204 | work=[[Concertonet.com]] | last=Sparacino | first=Micaele | date=19 January 2010 | accessdate=29 January 2010 | title=Deities, Dragons, Dancers, and Divas }}</ref><ref name=NYTimesHodara/> Before each act, bilingual MCs introduce the upcoming performance in Chinese and in local languages.<ref name=NYTimesHodara>SUSAN HODARA. [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/15/nyregion/15dancewe.html?scp=1&sq=shen%20yun&st=cse 5,000 Years of Chinese Music and Dance, in One Night]. New York Times. 13 August 2010.</ref><ref name="sfbaytimes"/>

===Dance===
[[File:ShenYun dance.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]
Each touring company consists of approximately 60 male and female dancers, and large-scale group dance is at the center of Shen Yun productions.<ref name="denverpost"/> The shows mainly feature what is described on the company’s website as "classical Chinese dance" – a comprehensive dance system passed down through thousands of years and which is recognizable in part for its extensive use of acrobatic and tumbling techniques, forms and postures.<ref name=hudsonreporter/><ref>Shen Yun, [http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/videos/index/play/6tD4ip5-OPs ‘Chinese Classical Dance Intro’]</ref>

Shen Yun’s repertoire draws on stories from Chinese history and legends, such as [[Hua Mulan|legend of Mulan]],<ref name="pnwi">{{Cite web| url=http://www.inlander.com/content/arts_culture_shen_yun_performing_arts_inb_center/ | work=[[The Pacific Northwest Inlander]] | accessdate=15 November 2009 | title=International Incident }}</ref><ref>Shen Yun Performing Arts, [http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/learn/category/index/level-one/ZiksLpcpL8A/level-two/gCmr9AehjYU “Tales from Chinese Literature”]</ref> [[Journey to the West]]<ref>[http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/learn/article/read/item/y3sCsCFkRu4/level-one/ZiksLpcpL8A/level-two/gCmr9AehjYU Journey to the West]</ref> and [[Outlaws of the Marsh]].<ref>[http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/learn/article/read/item/eHhra-x-odA/level-one/ZiksLpcpL8A/level-two/gCmr9AehjYU Outlaws of the Marsh]</ref> It also depicts “the story of Falun Gong today.”<ref name=About/><ref name=globeandmail/> During the 2010 production, for instance, at least two out of 16 scenes depicted the "persecution and murder of Falun Gong practitioners" in contemporary China, including the beating of a young mother to death, and the jailing of a Falun Gong protester. In addition to classical Chinese dance, Shen Yun also draws inspiration from the spirit of various ethnicities, including [[Yi people|Yi]], [[Miao people|Miao]], and [[Mongolian people|Mongolian]] dance.<ref>Shen Yun Performing Arts, [http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/learn/category/index/level-one/8i28clX-ln4/level-two/re8-V0nF9Vc Chinese Ethnic and Folk Dance].</ref>

Shen Yun describes classical Chinese dance as comprising three core components: bearing (yun), form, and technical skill.<ref name="sfgate"/> Technical skill describes the physical techniques of jumping, flipping, and leaping. Form encompasses the subtle expressive movements and postures that make up Chinese dance. Finally, bearing is described by Shen Yun are referring to the "inner spirit…something resembling cultural DNA or an ethnic flavor" that allows the dancer's emotional state to be conveyed.<ref>Shen Yun Performing Arts, [http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/learn/category/index/level-one/8i28clX-ln4/level-two/NYXRglHbKeU Classical Chinese Dance].</ref> Because the "bearing" (yun) of classical Chinese dance is related to a society's culture, some of what makes up the distinct Chinese bearing has been "lost in the process" since the cultural changes of the Communist revolution, according to Shen Yun choreographer Vina Lee.<ref name="sfgate"/> Lee relates that dancers must "refine their moral character" in order to "convey the transcendence and spiritual realm that is the very soul of Chinese culture."<ref>Maureen Scott, [http://goodlifemississauga.com/112-gl-2012/shen.html Shen Yun: 5,000 years of Chinese Culture and Civilization set to Song and Dance and the LAC], 23 January 2012.</ref>

===Music===
Shen Yun dances are accompanied by a Western philharmonic orchestra that integrates several traditional Chinese instruments, including the [[pipa]], [[suona]], [[dizi]], [[guzhen]], and a variety of Chinese percussion instruments.<ref name=NYTimesHodara/><ref>Elina Shatkin. [http://articles.latimes.com/2009/jan/01/entertainment/et-guideevent1 Vina leads Divine Performing Arts' Chinese New Year Spectacular]. ''Los Angeles Times''. 1 January 2009.</ref> There are solo performances featuring Chinese instruments such as the [[erhu]].<ref name="sfgate"/><ref name="concnet"/> Interspersed between dance sequences are operatic singers performing songs which sometimes invoke spiritual or religious themes, including references to the Falun Gong faith.<ref name=NYTimesHodara/><ref>{{cite news|last=Citron|first=Paula|title=A dazzling show with a clear message|url=http://ahdu88.blogspot.ca/2008_01_01_archive.html|accessdate=31 October 2012|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|date=22 January 2008}}</ref> A performance in 2007, for instance, included reference to the [[Chakravartin]], a figure in [[Buddhism]] who turns the wheel of [[Dharma]].<ref name=dctheatre/>

The company counts a number of noted musicians among its ranks. Three performers—flutist Ningfang Chen, erhuist Mei Xuan and tenor Guan Guimin—were recipients of the Chinese Ministry of Culture’s “National First Class Performer” awards. Prior to joining Shen Yun, Guan Guimin was well known in China for his work on soundtracks for over 50 movies and television shows.<ref>[http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/artists/biography/view/xoPVM4FkQng%7C Shen Yun Profile of Guan Guimin]</ref><ref>Zhao Jingyu,
[http://www.libertytimes.com.tw/2011/new/apr/13/today-art1.htm 傳遞真善與真美提升人類道德神韻藝術團台北加演] Liberty Times, 13 March 2011.</ref> Other notable performers include Erhu soloist Xiaochun Qi.<ref>Robert Baxter, "New Year show, old traditions preserve Chinese culture," Courier Post, 30 December 2007.</ref>

===Costume and backdrops===
Shen Yun’s dancers perform wearing intricate costumes, often accompanied by a variety of props.<ref name=sfgate/><ref name=NYTimesHodara/> Some costumes are intended to imitate the dress various ethnicities, while other depict ancient Chinese court dancers, soldiers, or characters from classic stories.<ref name=sfgate/> Props include colorful handkerchiefs, drums,<ref name=sfgate/> fans, chopsticks, or silk scarves.<ref name=globeandmail>Paula Citron. A dazzling show with a clear message. The Globe and Mail: Arts. 22 January 2008.</ref><ref name=chicagotribune>Sid Smith, [http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2008-01-28/features/0801270151_1_dance-chinese-traditional ‘Women flow like water in spectacle’], 28 January 2008.</ref>

Each Shen Yun piece is set against a digitally projected backdrop, usually depicting landscapes such as Mongolian grasslands, imperial courts, ancient villages, temples, or mountains.<ref name=NYTimesHodara/><ref name="sfbaytimes">{{Cite web| url=http://www.sfbaytimes.com/index.php?sec=article&article_id=5979 | work=[[San Francisco Bay Times]] | last=Goodwyn | first=Albert | date=11 January 2007 | accessdate=5 September 2009 | title=Chinese New Year Spectacular }}</ref><ref>Meredith Galante. [http://www.businessinsider.com/chinese-traditional-dance-shen-yun-performing-arts-at-lincoln-center-2012-1#this-years-sets-are-3-d-adding-21st-century-technology-to-the-show-about-traditions-13 A Day In The Life Of A Professional Dancer In A Traditional Chinese Company]. Business Insider. 11 January 2012.</ref> Not all the backdrops are static; some contain moving elements that integrate with the performance.<ref name=chicagotribune/>

==Artists==
===Principal dancers===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
*Angelia Wang
*Chelsea Cai
*Gu Yun
*Steven Wang
*Rocky Liao
*Hsiao-Hung Lin
*Melody Qin
*Jialin Chen
*Tony Xue
*Chad Chen
*Nancy Wang
*Madeline Lobjois
{{Col-3}}
*Michelle Ren
*Tim Wu
*Miranda Zhou-Galati
*Daoyong Zheng
*William Li
*[[Seongho Cha]]
*Alison Chen
*Kaidi Wu
*Faustina Quach
*Alvin Song
*[[Wang Xuejun]]
{{Col-3}}
*Yungchia Chen
*Golden Li
*Lily Wang
*Jim Chen
*Rachael Bastick
*Jason Shi
*Orphelia Wu
*Cindy Liu
*Taiwei Wang
*Yuxuan Liu
{{Col-end}}

===Orchestra ===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
*Yo-yo Fann (violin)
*I-Chen Huang (cello)
*Yu-Chen Lin (flute)
*Hui-Chih Tsai (violin)
*Peng Zhang (erhu)
*Miao Yin (pipa)
*Hsiao-Ch’un Wang (bassoon)
{{Col-3}}
*Jung-Wen Tsai (suona)
*Chia-Chi Lin (conductor)
*Nika Zhang (violin)
*Perry Lee (violin)
*Yi-Hsun T’ang (French horn)
*Chen-Pei Liao (bamboo flute)
*Jenny Ge (flute)
*Sheng Yang (oboe)
{{Col-3}}
*Pei-Ju Wang (violin)
*Ningfang Chen (flute)
*Jing Xuan (pipa)
*Yuen-Suo Yang (clarinet)
*James Zheng (cello)
*Hui-Ching Chen (bass)
*Weifeng Jiang (erhu)
{{Col-end}}

===Soloists===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
*Guan Guimin (tenor)
*[[Tashi Dorje | Yuan Qu]] (tenor)
*Tian Ge (tenor)
*Haolan Geng (soprano)
{{Col-3}}
*Pi-Ju Huang (soprano)
*Qu Yue (baritone)
*Min Jiang (soprano)
{{Col-3}}
*Feng Ming (soprano)
*Chia-Ning Hsu (soprano)
*Qi Xiaochun (erhu)
{{Col-end}}

===Choreographers===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
*Yungchia Chen
*Michelle Ren
{{Col-3}}
*Jinman Li
*[[Wang Xuejun]]
{{Col-3}}
*Si-Ya Yang
{{Col-end}}

===Composers===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
*Yuan Gao
{{Col-3}}
*Junyi Tan
{{Col-3}}
*Jing Xuan
{{Col-end}}

===Conductors===
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-3}}
*Keng-Wei Kuo
{{Col-3}}
*[[Antonia Joy Wilson]]
{{Col-3}}
*[[Milen Nachev]]
{{Col-end}}
<ref>http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/artists</ref>

==Billing and promotion==
Shen Yun promotes itself as "a presentation of traditional Chinese culture as it once was: a study in grace, wisdom, and virtues distilled from five millennia of Chinese civilization." The company is described in promotions as reviving Chinese culture following a period of assault and destruction under the Communist Party. Shen Yun is heavily promoted in major cities with commercials, billboards, and brochures displayed in the streets and in businesses, as well as in television and radio profiles.<ref>CNN (August 2010), [http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/news/_esj7RIH8_Z8/cnn-video-on-shen-yun-chinese-culture-alive-in-us.html Chinese Culture Alive in U.S.]</ref><ref>FOX 5 News, (13 January 2012), [http://www.shenyunperformingarts.org/news/_Eq8uHI1PlJE/fox-5-news-behind-the-scenes-at-shen-yun.html Behind the Scenes at Shen Yun].</ref>

Shen Yun performances are often produced or sponsored by regional Falun Dafa Associations, and are promoted by practitioners of the spiritual practice, which is persecuted in China.<ref name="Wright">{{Cite news|url=http://hudsonreporter.com/view/full_story/16862324/article-Shen-Yun-returns-%E2%80%98Divine%E2%80%99-Chinese-cultural-phenomenon-coming-to-NYC-area-?instance=entertainment_most_popular|title=Shen Yun returns|author=Wright, E. Assata|date=22 December 2011|accessdate=23 April 2012|publisher=[[Hudson Reporter]]}}</ref> Some journalists have raised objections about the show's promotion strategy, which does not always clearly note the religious-themed content of the performance.<ref name="nyt"/><ref name="buffallownews"/><ref name="AJC">{{Cite news|url=http://www.accessatlanta.com/AccessAtlanta-sharing_/many-atlantans-ok-with-277268.html|title=Many Atlantans OK with Chinese dance troupe's politics|first=Howard|last=Pousner|publisher=[[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]|date=17 January 2012|accessdate=23 April 2012}}</ref>

==Tour==
Shen Yun was established in 2006 as a company with approximately 30 dancers, as well as an orchestra, soloists, artistic directors and production staff. During its 2007 season, the company produced 32 performances, and was seen by an estimated 200,000 people. Since its inaugural season, the company has expanded to include three equally large companies with dozens of dancers, soloists, and orchestras. These companies tour the world simultaneously for seven months per year, performing in over 130 cities worldwide.<ref name=NYTimesHodara/> The company's productions have spanned North America, Europe, Asia, Australia, and Latin America. Notable venues include the [[London Colosseum]] in London, England; the Palaise de Congres in Paris; the Kennedy Center Opera House in Washington DC; and the David H. Koch theater at New York's Lincoln Center.<ref name=Koch>[http://www.davidhkochtheater.com/moreinfoSY.html "Shen Yun Performing Arts] David H. Koch Theater.</ref> By the conclusion of Shen Yun's 2010 performance, an estimated one million people had seen the performance worldwide.<ref name=NYTimesHodara/>

Despite touring to five continents, Shen Yun does not perform in mainland China. Moreover, the Chinese government has attempted to cancel Shen Yun performances internationally through political pressure via its foreign embassies and consulates.<ref name=USSTATE>US Department of State, BUREAU OF DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND LABOR,[http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010_5/168351.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2010 Report], 17 November 2010</ref><ref>Epoch Times Article, Hans Bengtsson, 28 March 2009, [http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/content/view/14392/ "Empty Threats From The Chinese Embassy Backfire"]</ref><ref>Epoch Times Article, Joshua Philipp, 4 June 2010, [http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/content/view/36639/99999999/1/1/ "Despite Chinese Regime Pressure, The Show Goes On"]</ref><ref>US Department of State, BUREAU OF DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND LABOR, [http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148963.htm Moldova country report], 17 November 2010</ref><ref>US Department of State, BUREAU OF DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND LABOR, [http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148975.htm Romania country report], 17 November 2010</ref><ref>US Department of State, BUREAU OF DEMOCRACY, HUMAN RIGHTS, AND LABOR, [http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2010/148993.htm Ukraine country report], 17 November 2010</ref> Chinese diplomats have also sent letters to elected officials in the West exhorting them not to attend or otherwise support the performance, which they describe as "propaganda" intended to "smear China's image."<ref>Keegan Hamilton, [http://blogs.seattleweekly.com/dailyweekly/2012/02/chinese_government_seattle_officials_evil_cult.php Chinese Government Kindly Reminds Seattle Officials About the 'Evil Cult' Coming to Town], Seattle Weekly, 6 February 2012.</ref><ref>Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ottawa/story/2007/01/17/chinese.html, 17 January 2007.</ref> Shen Yun representatives say the Chinese government’s opposition to the show stems from its depictions of modern-day political oppression in China, as well as the fact that it includes expressions of traditional Chinese cultural history that the Communist government has tried to erase.<ref>Regina Weinreich (24 June 2011), [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/regina-weinreich/beauty-and-the-beast-shen_b_884203.html Beauty and the Beast:Shen Yun at Lincoln Center]. New York, The Huffington Post.</ref>

Shen Yun was scheduled to perform in Hong Kong in January 2010, but the performance was cancelled after a controversial decision by the government of Hong Kong to refuse entry visas to Shen Yun's production crew.<ref>Agence-France Presse, [http://www.mysinchew.com/node/34582 Falungong decries HK as democracy row deepens], 27 January 2010.</ref> The decision was overturned in March of the same year.<ref>Sonya Bryskine, [http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/world/hong-kong-court-upholds-freedom-and-shen-yun-52693.htmlHong Kong Court Upholds Freedom and Shen Yun], ''The Epoch Times'', 10 March 2010.</ref>

===Special performances===
In October 2012, Shen Yun’s symphony orchestra made its debut performance at [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York. The performance featured conductors [[Milen Nachev]], Keng-Wei Kuo, and [[Antonia Joy Wilson]], and the program included both classical works such as [[Beethoven]]’s [[Egmont Overture]] and [[Antonio Vivaldi]]’s Concerto in C Major, as well as original compositions that fuse Chinese and Western instruments.<ref>Carnegie Hall, [http://www.carnegiehall.org/Calendar/2012/10/28/0200/PM/Shen-Yun-Symphony-Orchestra/ Shen Yun Symphony Orchestra - Sunday, October 28, 2012].</ref>

==Reception==
''The [[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' wrote that the performance "takes viewers on a visually dazzling tour of 5,000 years of Chinese history and culture via bravura displays of acrobatics and grand tales told through flourishes of Chinese classical dance."<ref name="sfgate"/> Paula Citron, theater critic for Canada's ''[[Globe and Mail]]'' said "the production values are grand in terms of costumes and scenic effects, and the performers are all very good-looking and meticulously disciplined."<ref name="globeandmail"/> A critic for ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' remarked that the female dancers were "as delicate as they are quick, and their skills include a nimble mastery of traditional talents, such as the classic fan dance."<ref name=chicagotribune/> Joel Markowitz of DC Theatre Scene described tenor Guan Guimin's voice as similar to that of [[Beniamino Gigli]], "with a glorious sweet upper range-and crystal clear diction, sung with great emotion."<ref name=dctheatre>
Joel Markowitz, [http://dctheatrescene.com/2007/01/28/january-pleasures/ ‘January Pleasures’], DC Theatre Scene, 28 January 2007.
</ref> A reviewer with the ''Philadelphia City Paper'' remarked on how "the orchestra's blend of Western and Chinese instrumentation and timbre works, its erhu players seamlessly mixing in with more traditional musicians."<ref name=philcitypaper>A.D. Amorosi, [http://archives.citypaper.net/articles/2008/12/18/divine-performing-arts ‘Divine Performing Arts’], ''Philadelphia City Paper'', 16 December 2008.
</ref> The ''New York Observer'' noted that the 2011 production at New York's Lincoln Center received "highly favorable reviews."<ref name=Observer>
Elise Knutsen, [http://www.observer.com/2011/07/shindigger-shen-yun-performance-brings-out-stars-and-awareness/ ‘Shen Yun Performance Brings out Stars and Awareness’], ''New York Observer'', 5 July 2011.
</ref> In 2008, by contrast, ''[[The Toronto Star]]'' gave the show 1 1/2 stars out of four, describing it as "spectacularly tacky" and noted the choreography was "consistently banal"<ref name=star20080120>
Susan Walker [http://www.thestar.com/entertainment/article/295651 (Falun) Gong New Year event mere propaganda], ''The Toronto Star'', 20 January 2008
</ref>

Shen Yun's depictions of religious content and political repression in China have also drawn mixed reviews from critics and audiences.<ref name="nyt">
{{Cite news| last =Konigsberg | first =Eric | title =A Glimpse of Chinese Culture That Some Find Hard to Watch | newspaper =[[The New York Times]] | date =6 February 2008| url =http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/06/nyregion/06splendor.html?_r=1&oref=slogin}}
</ref><ref name='buffallownews'>
{{Cite web|url=http://www.buffalonews.com/2010/05/30/1066022/songdance-spectacular-not-exactly.html#comment |title=Song & dance spectacular not exactly what it seems |first=Colin |last=Dabkowski |work= Buffalo News |date=30 May 2010 |accessdate=21 June 2010 }}
</ref> A Shen Yun production manager explained that while most of the performance does not deal with persecution, other acts nonetheless have "uplifting moral themes and extol virtues promoted by Falun Gong: truthfulness, compassion and forbearance."<ref name="WFP">
{{Cite news|url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/arts-and-life/entertainment/arts/the-politics-of-dancing-89826107.html?path=/entertainment/arts&id=89826107&sortBy=oldest&device=mobile&c=y|title=The politics of dancing|first=Alison|last=Mayes|publisher=[[Winnipeg Free Press]]|date=3 April 2010|accessdate=23 April 2012}}</ref> Although some reviewers have praised the artistry and message of these acts,<ref>Richard Connema, [http://www.talkinbroadway.com/regional/sanfran/s991.html Chinese New Year Spectacular Returns to San Francisco], Talkin' Broadway.
</ref><ref name=dctheatre/>
others have noted the political elements may lead to a "biased view of Chinese history and contemporary culture."<ref name="Wright"/>
''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' stated the show presented "a Disneyfied version of Chinese culture" and described the performance as "propaganda as entertainment."<ref name=telegr>{{Cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/dance/3671451/Shen-Yun-Propaganda-as-entertainment.html |title=Shen Yun: Propaganda as entertainment |work=The Daily Telegraph |first=Sue |last=Crompton |date=25 February 2008 |accessdate=1 April 2009 }}
</ref> ''[[The Guardian]]'' gave the show 2 stars out of 5, writing that whilst "the sinuous calligraphy of the dancers' bodies is elaborated with rippling silks and fans... [the show] ... is all too weird a mix of propaganda and bling."<ref>
{{Cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/stage/2008/feb/25/dance |title=Dance review: Shen Yun Royal Festival Hall, London |first=Judith |last=Mackrell |work=The Guardian |date=25 February 2008 |accessdate=1 April 2009 }}
</ref>
The ''[[St. Paul Pioneer Press]]'' wrote that the 2012 production had "plenty of grace, athleticism, lovely music and eye-poppingly colorful costuming and backdrops," but also noted that the performance touched on the contemporary political situation in China: "It's clear that the creators of these tradition-fueled dance works are acting as protectors of the past but also advocates for openness in the present."<ref>
Rob Hubbard, [http://www.twincities.com/entertainment/ci_20143859/shen-yun-troupe-offers-chinese-dance-twist Shen Yun troupe offers Chinese dance, with a twist], Pioneer Press, 9 March 2012.
</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Falun Gong}}
* [[Dance in the United States]]
* [[Falun Dafa]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ShenYunPerformingArts.org/ Shen Yun Performing Arts]

{{Falun Gong}}

[[Category:Falun Gong]]
[[Category:Dance in the United States]]
[[Category:Entertainment companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in New York]]
[[Category:Companies established in 2006]]

[[de:Shen Yun Performing Arts]]
[[ja:神韻]]
[[pl:Shen Yun Performing Arts]]
[[zh:神韵艺术团]]

Vernon Sturdee

2012-12-23T03:06:32Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Sir Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee
|image=Vernon Sturdee 093811.JPG
|caption= Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee, GOC First Army c.1945
|alt=Grey haired man in Army shirt with sleeves rolled up. He is wearing rank badges and ribbons but no tie or hat.
|birth_date= 16 April 1890
|death_date= {{Death date and age|1966|05|25|1890|04|16|df=yes}}
|birth_place= [[Frankston, Victoria|Frankston]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]]
|death_place= [[Heidelberg, Victoria|Heidelberg]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]]
|placeofburial=
|placeofburial_label=
|nickname=
|allegiance= {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Commonwealth of Australia]]
|branch= [[Australian Army]]
|serviceyears= 1908 – 1950
|rank= [[Lieutenant General (Australia)|Lieutenant General]]
|servicenumber=NX35000
|commands= [[Chief of Army (Australia)|Chief of the General Staff]] [[First Army (Australia)|First Army]] [[8th Division (Australia)|8th Division]] Eastern Command 4th Pioneer Battalion 8th Field Company
|battles= [[First World War]]:
*[[Gallipoli Campaign]]
*[[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]]
[[Second World War]]:
*[[Dutch East Indies campaign]]
*[[Aitape-Wewak campaign]]
*[[New Britain campaign]]
*[[Bougainville Campaign]]
|awards= [[Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] [[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] [[Distinguished Service Order (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Service Order]] [[Mentioned in Despatches]] (3)
|relations=[[Doveton Sturdee]] (uncle) [[Charles Merrett]] (uncle)
|laterwork=
}}
[[Lieutenant General (Australia)|Lieutenant General]] '''Sir Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]], [[Order of the Bath|CB]], [[Distinguished Service Order (United Kingdom)|DSO]] (16 April 1890 – 25 May 1966) was an [[Australian Army]] commander who served two terms as [[Chief of Army (Australia)|Chief of the General Staff]]. A regular officer of the [[Royal Australian Engineers]] who joined the [[Australian Army Reserve|Militia]] in 1908, he was one of the original [[Anzac]]s during the [[First World War]] who participated in the [[Landing at Anzac Cove|landing at Gallipoli]] on 25 April 1915. In the [[Gallipoli Campaign|campaign]] that followed, he commanded the 5th Field Company, before going to lead the 8th Field Company and 4th Pioneer Battalion on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]]. In 1918 he was seconded to General Headquarters (GHQ) [[British Expeditionary Force (World War I)|British Expeditionary Force]] as a staff officer.

Ranked [[colonel]] at the outbreak of the [[Second World War]], Sturdee was raised to [[lieutenant general]] in 1940 and became Chief of the General Staff. He proceeded to conduct a doomed defence of the islands to the north of Australia against the advancing [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] forces. In 1942, he successfully advised the government to divert the [[Second Australian Imperial Force]] troops returning from the [[Middle East]] to Australia. He then became head of the Australian Military Mission to [[Washington, DC]], where he represented Australia before the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]]. As commander of the [[First Army (Australia)|First Army]] in New Guinea in 1944–45, Sturdee directed the fighting at [[Aitape-Wewak campaign|Aitape]], and on [[New Britain campaign|New Britain]] and [[Bougainville Campaign|Bougainville]]. He was charged with destroying the enemy when opportunity presented itself, but had to do so with limited resources, and without committing his troops to battles that were beyond their strength.

When the war ended, Sturdee took the surrender of Japanese forces in the [[Rabaul]] area. Now one of the Army's most senior officers, he succeeded [[General (Australia)|General]] Sir [[Thomas Blamey]] as Commander in Chief of the [[Australian Military Forces]] in December 1945. He became the Chief of the General Staff a second time in 1946, serving in the post until his retirement in 1950. During this term, he had to demobilise the wartime Army while providing and supporting the Australian contingent of the [[British Commonwealth Occupation Force]] in Japan. He developed a structure for the post-war Army that included regular combat formations. As a result, the Australian Regular Army was formed, laying the foundations for the service as it exists today.

==Education and early life==
Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee was born in [[Frankston, Victoria]] on 16 April 1890, the son of Alfred Hobart Sturdee and his wife Laura Isabell, née Merrett.<ref name="adb">{{harvnb|Wood|2002|pp=340–342}}</ref> Alfred Sturdee, a medical practitioner from England, came from a prominent naval family and was the brother of Lieutenant [[Doveton Sturdee]], who later became an [[Admiral of the Fleet]]. Alfred emigrated to Australia in the 1880s, travelling as a ship's doctor.<ref name="Buckley, p. 32">{{harvnb|Buckley|1990|p=32}}</ref> He served in the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]], where he was [[mentioned in despatches]] for an incident where he rode under fire to a [[Donga (ditch)|donga]] near the enemy's position to come to the aid of wounded men.<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=27331|startpage=4554|date=1 July 1901|accessdate=9 December 2009}}</ref> Re-enlisting in the [[Australian Army Medical Corps]] as a [[Captain (land)|captain]] in January 1905, he was promoted to [[major]] in August 1908 and [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in December 1912.<ref name="Buckley, p. 32"/> He later commanded the 2nd Field Ambulance at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] and, with the rank of [[colonel]], was Assistant Director of Medical Services of the [[1st Division (Australia)|1st Division]] on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|Downes|Maguire|Cilento|1930|p=826}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Butler|1940|p=29}}</ref> His Australian-born wife Laura, known as Lil, was the sister of [[Charles Merrett]], a prominent businessman and [[Australian Army Reserve|Militia]] officer. Her half-brother, Colonel Harry Perrin, was another prominent Militia officer.<ref name="Buckley, p. 32"/>

Vernon Sturdee was educated at [[Melbourne Grammar School]], before being apprenticed to an engineer at Jaques Brothers, [[Richmond, Victoria]].<ref name="adb"/> Commissioned as a [[second lieutenant]] in the Corps of Engineers, the Militia's engineer component, on 19 October 1908, he was promoted to [[first lieutenant|lieutenant]] in the [[Royal Australian Engineers]], as the permanent component was then known, on 1 February 1911.<ref name="gradation list">''AMF Army List of Officers'', October 1950</ref><ref>{{harvnb|McNicoll|1979|pp=8–11}}</ref> He married Edith Georgina Robins on 4 February 1913 at St Luke's Church of England, [[Fitzroy North, Victoria|North Fitzroy]], Melbourne.<ref name="adb"/>

==First World War==

===Gallipoli===
[[File:Sturdee at Anzac.jpg|thumb|right|250px|alt=Soldier in peaked cap and puttees outside a sandbagged entrance.|Sturdee outside a dugout at Anzac.]]
Sturdee joined the [[First Australian Imperial Force|Australian Imperial Force]] (AIF) on 25 August 1914 with the rank of lieutenant. He was promoted to captain on 18 October,<ref name="gradation list"/> and appointed [[adjutant]] of the 1st Division Engineers.<ref>{{harvnb|McNicoll|1979|p=19}}</ref> He embarked from Melbourne for [[Egypt]] on the former [[Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company|P&O]] [[ocean liner]] [[RMS Orvieto|RMS ''Orvieto'']] on 21 October 1914.<ref>{{citation |title=First World War Embarkation Roll - Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/research/people/nominal_rolls/first_world_war_embarkation/person.asp?p=70903 |accessdate=12 December 2009}}</ref> He participated in the [[landing at Anzac Cove]] on [[Anzac Day|25 April 1915]],<ref name="DSO rec">{{citation |title=Honours and Awards - Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee - Distinguished Service Order |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/cms_images/AWM28/2/82/0065.pdf |accessdate=23 November 2009 |publisher=Australian War Memorial}}</ref> disembarking from the transport {{SS|Minnewaska|1909|6}} before 9:00.<ref name="Buckley, p. 44">{{harvnb|Buckley|1990|p=44}}</ref> His duties included supervising the engineer stores park on the beach at [[Anzac Cove]],<ref name="DSO rec"/> as well as the construction of [[Jam Tin Grenade]]s.<ref name="Buckley, p. 44" /> He was evacuated twice for hospital treatment for [[enteric fever]] and for serious damage to his stomach lining from internal burns as a result of too much "[[Condy's crystals]]" being put into drinking water. As a result, he was to suffer stomach problems for the rest of his life.<ref name="Buckley, p. 45">{{harvnb|Buckley|1990|p=45}}</ref> In July, Sturdee contracted [[influenza]] and was evacuated from Anzac Cove.<ref name="adb"/>

Sturdee was promoted to [[major]] on 28 August 1915,<ref name="gradation list"/> and in September assumed command of the 5th Field Company, a unit raised in [[Egypt]] to support the newly formed [[2nd Division (Australia)|2nd Division]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNicoll|1979|p=43}}</ref> From then until the end of the campaign, he was responsible for all [[Military engineer|engineering]] and [[Mining (military)|mining]] work at Steele's, Quinn's and Courtney's Posts,<ref name="DSO rec"/> three of the northernmost and most dangerous and exposed parts of the line.<ref>{{harvnb|Bean|1924|pp=46–47}}</ref> He departed Anzac Cove for the last time on 17 December 1915, two days before the final evacuation.<ref name="Buckley, p. 47">{{harvnb|Buckley|1990|p=47}}</ref>

===Western Front===
On returning to Egypt after the evacuation of Anzac, Sturdee assumed responsibility for the provision of hutting at the AIF reinforcement camp at [[Tall al Kabir|Tel el Kebir]].<ref name="DSO rec"/> There was already another 5th Field Company in Egypt, which had been raised in Australia. Accordingly, Sturdee's 5th Field Company was renumbered 8th, and assigned to the [[5th Division (Australia)|5th Division]] when it was formed in February 1916. This move gave the new division an experienced field company, but at the expense of items of the company's mail going to [[France]] for a time and arriving back in Egypt marked "Not Fifth, try Eighth."<ref>{{harvnb|McNicoll|1979|p=60}}</ref>

[[File:4th Pioneer Battalion E00468.jpeg|left|thumb|B Company, 4th Pioneer Battalion shifts camp from the Butte de Warlencourt to Fremicourt by light railway.]]
The 5th Division moved to France in June 1916, where it participated in the disastrous [[Battle of Fromelles]] in July. During the action, Sturdee's 8th Field Company supported the [[8th Brigade (Australia)|8th Infantry Brigade]]. A trench dug by the former facilitated the latter's withdrawal across [[No Man's Land]].<ref name="DSO rec"/> For his service at Gallipoli and Fromelles, he was [[mentioned in despatches]],<ref name="mid1">{{LondonGazette|issue=29890|supp=yes|startpage=254|date=4 January 1917|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref> and awarded the [[Distinguished Service Order (United Kingdom)|Distinguished Service Order]].<ref name="dso">{{LondonGazette|issue=29886|supp=yes|startpage=28|date=1 January 1917|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref> Heavy losses in the fighting at Fromelles prevented the 5th Division from participating in the [[Battle of the Somme]]. To free up another division to participate, [[II Anzac Corps]] organised "Franks Force" to take over a divisional frontage in the [[Houplines]] sector, and Sturdee became its Commander Royal Engineers (CRE).<ref>{{harvnb|McNicoll|1979|p=74}}</ref> When the 5th Division finally moved to the Somme sector in November, he became CRE in charge of the road from [[Albert, Somme|Albert]] to [[Montauban]].<ref>{{harvnb|McNicoll|1979|p=76}}</ref>

On 13 February 1917, Sturdee was appointed to command the 4th Pioneer Battalion, with the rank of [[lieutenant colonel]].<ref name="gradation list"/> [[Pioneer (military)|Pioneer]] battalions were organised as infantry but contained a high percentage of tradesmen and were employed on construction tasks under engineer supervision. Over the next nine months the 4th Pioneer Battalion maintained roads, built camps, laid cables and dug trenches and dugouts.<ref name="adb"/> By 1917, the Australian government was pushing strongly for [[British Army]] officers holding Australian commands and staff posts to be replaced by Australians. As part of this "Australianisation" of the [[Australian Corps]], Sturdee became CRE of the 5th Division on 25 November 1917, replacing a British Army officer.<ref>{{harvnb|Bean|1937|pp=14–16}}</ref> Ironically, on 27 March 1918, Sturdee was seconded to General Headquarters (GHQ) [[British Expeditionary Force (World War I)|British Expeditionary Force]] as a staff officer, remaining there until 22 October 1918.<ref name="gradation list"/> This provided a rare opportunity, for an Australian officer, of observing the workings of a major headquarters engaged in active operations.<ref name="adb"/> For his service on the Western Front, Sturdee was mentioned in despatches a second time,<ref name="mid2">{{LondonGazette|issue=31089|supp=yes|startpage=15225|date=31 December 1918|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref> and appointed an [[Order of the British Empire|Officer of the Order of the British Empire]] for his work at GHQ.<ref name="obe">{{LondonGazette|issue=31092|supp=yes|startpage=13|date=28 May 1918|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref>

==Between the wars==
Sturdee embarked for Australia on 16 November 1918,<ref>{{citation |title=First World War Nominal Roll Page - AWM133, 50-093 |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/research/people/nominal_rolls/first_world_war/page.asp?p=1656086 |accessdate=13 December 2009}}</ref> where his AIF appointment was terminated on 14 March 1919.<ref name="adb"/> He was entitled to his AIF rank of lieutenant colonel as an honorary rank, but his substantive rank was still only that of a captain. He was given the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1920, but this would not become substantive until 1 April 1932. Sturdee initially served as Senior Engineer Officer on the staff of the 3rd Military District at [[Victoria Barracks, Melbourne]]. In 1921, he attended the [[Command and Staff College|Staff College]] at [[Quetta]] in [[British India]]. Sturdee was an instructor in military engineering and surveying at the [[Royal Military College, Duntroon]] from 16 February to 31 December 1924, before returning to Melbourne to serve on the staff of the [[4th Division (Australia)|4th Division]] until 26 March 1929. Posted to the [[United Kingdom]], he served at the [[War Office]] and attended the [[Royal College of Defence Studies|Imperial Defence College]] in 1931. From 1 January 1931 to 31 December 1932, he was the military representative at the [[High Commission of Australia in London]].<ref name="gradation list"/>

Sturdee was Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at Army Headquarters in Melbourne from 14 February 1933 to 1 March 1938, a period "when the Army was at rock bottom",<ref>{{harvnb|Rowell|1974|p=30}}</ref> and was then the Director of Staff Duties until 12 October 1938. He was given the brevet rank of colonel on 1 July 1935. It became temporary on 1 July 1936 and finally substantive on 1 July 1937, over twenty years after he had become a lieutenant colonel in the AIF.<ref name="gradation list"/> He was appointed a [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] in the [[New Year Honours]] in 1939 for his services on the Army Headquarters staff.<ref name="cbe">{{LondonGazette|issue=34585|supp=yes|startpage=8|date=1 January 1939|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref>

Like his predecessor as Director of Military Operations and Intelligence, Colonel [[John Lavarack]], and many other officers, Sturdee had little faith in the government's "[[Singapore strategy]]", which aimed to deter Japanese aggression through the presence of a powerful British fleet based at [[Singapore]].<ref>{{harvnb|Buckley|1983|p=30}}</ref> In 1933, Sturdee told senior officers that the Japanese "would all be regulars, fully trained and equipped for the operations, and fanatics who like dying in battle, whilst our troops would consist mainly of civilians hastily thrown together on mobilisation with very little training, short of artillery and possibly of gun ammunition."<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1978|p=16}}</ref>

==Second World War==

===Defence of Australia===
In 1939, the [[Chief of Army (Australia)|Chief of the General Staff]], [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant General]] [[Ernest Squires]], implemented a reorganisation of the Army in which the old military districts were replaced by larger commands led by [[Lieutenant General (Australia)|lieutenant general]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Rowell|1974|p=40}},</ref> On 13 October 1939, Sturdee was promoted from colonel to lieutenant general and assumed control of the new Eastern Command.<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1984|p=145}}</ref> He had to supervise the raising, training and equipping of the new [[Second Australian Imperial Force]] units being formed in [[New South Wales]], as well as the now-conscript Militia.<ref name="adb"/>

On 1 July 1940, Sturdee accepted a demotion to [[Major General (Australia)|major general]] in order to become the commander of Second AIF's newly-raised [[8th Division (Australia)|8th Division]], receiving the Second AIF serial number NX35000.<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|p=28}}</ref> His period in this command was brief. On 13 August 1940, the Chief of the General Staff, [[General (Australia)|General]] Sir [[Brudenell White]], was killed in the [[Canberra air disaster, 1940|Canberra air disaster]]. Sturdee was restored to his rank of lieutenant general and appointed as Chief of the General Staff.<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|p=32}}</ref> As such, he was responsible for the training and maintenance of the AIF in the [[Middle East]] and the [[Far East]]—although not their operational control—and for the administration and training of the Militia.<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1978|p=24}}</ref>

As the prospect of war with Japan became more likely, so also did the need to make appropriate arrangements for leading the defence of Australia. In 1935, Lavarack had recommended that in the event of war, the Military Board be abolished and its powers vested in a [[Commander in Chief]]. In April 1941, the [[Minister for Defence (Australia)|Minister for the Army]], [[Percy Spender]], recommended that this now be done, with Sturdee becoming Commander in Chief of the [[Australian Military Forces]]. Instead, the government elected to adopt the British system, in which the Military Board (or [[Army Council (1904)|Army Council]] as it was called there) continued to operate, with a separate [[General Officer Commanding|GOC]] Home Forces. On 5 August 1941, Major General Sir [[Iven Mackay]] was appointed to this newly created post.<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1978|pp=24–25}}</ref> However, the idea of a Commander in Chief did not go away and editorials in the ''[[The Daily Telegraph (Australia)|Sunday Telegraph]]'' and the ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]'' advocated the appointment.<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1978|pp=54–55}}</ref>

===East Indies campaign===
Sturdee attempted to defend the islands to the north of Australia as best he could. With only one AIF infantry brigade available, [[23rd Infantry Brigade]], he could only afford to defend the islands most strategically important to the defence of Australia. He sent the 2/21st Infantry Battalion to [[Ambon Island|Ambon]],<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|pp=418–419}}</ref> the [[2/40th Battalion (Australia)|2/40th Infantry Battalion]] and [[2/2nd Commando Squadron (Australia)|2/2nd Independent Company]] to [[Timor]],<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|pp=467–468}}</ref> and the 2/22nd Infantry Battalion to [[Rabaul]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|pp=394–395}}</ref> Sturdee knew that their prospects were slim but expected them to "to put up the best possible defence" with what resources they had, and hopefully slow the Japanese advance to allow time for reinforcements to arrive in Australia. When there were doubts about the morale of one commander, Sturdee replaced him with a staff officer from Army Headquarters who volunteered for the position, well aware of the odds.<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1984|pp=152–153}}</ref> All the garrisons were overrun after a spirited defence, except for the 2/2nd Independent Company, which managed to hold on in [[East Timor]].<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|pp=493–494}}</ref>

In February 1942, on advice from Lavarack that the [[Dutch East Indies]] would soon fall, Sturdee urged the Australian government that its 17,800 troops returning from the Middle East, originally bound for [[Java]], be diverted to Australia, from which an offensive could be launched with American assistance, instead of to [[Burma]]. When [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[John Curtin]] backed his Chief of the General Staff, it brought him into conflict with [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] and [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. In the end, Curtin won his point, and subsequent events vindicated Sturdee's appreciation of the situation.<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|pp=444–452}}</ref> Official historian Lionel Wigmore concluded: {{quote|It is now evident that the [[7th Division (Australia)|7th Division]] would have arrived only in time to help in the extraction from [[Pegu]] and to take part in the long retreat to [[India]]. In that event it could not have been returned to Australia, rested and sent to [[New Guinea]] in time to perform the crucial role it was to carry out in the defeat of the Japanese offensive which would open there in July, 1942. The Allied cause therefore was well served in sound judgement and solid persistence of General Sturdee who maintained his advice against that of the Chiefs of Staff in London and Washington.<ref>{{harvnb|Wigmore|1957|p=45}}</ref>}}

===Island campaigns===
[[File:File-Sturdee accepts surrender in colour.jpg|thumb|right|alt=A group of soldiers and sailors parading in various uniforms. In the centre is a small wooden table on which a soldier is signing a document.|Sturdee accepts the Japanese surrender on the deck of the British [[aircraft carrier]] {{HMS|Glory|R62|6}} at Rabaul. Sturdee is wearing the peaked cap with the scarlet band.]]
In March 1942, the Military Board was abolished and General Sir [[Thomas Blamey]] was appointed Commander in Chief.<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1978|pp=55–57}}</ref> Blamey decided that after the hectic events of the previous months, Sturdee needed a rest and appointed him as Head of the Australian Military Mission to [[Washington, DC]], where the war's strategy was now being decided. Sturdee accepted on condition that after a year's duty in Washington he would be appointed to an important command.<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1978|p=99}}</ref> In Washington, Sturdee represented Australia before the [[Combined Chiefs of Staff]] and managed to obtain the right of direct access to the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]], [[General (United States)|General]] [[George Marshall]].<ref name="adb"/> For his services as Chief of the General Staff, Sturdee was made a [[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] on 1 January 1943.<ref name="cb">{{LondonGazette|issue=35841|startpage=3|date=1 January 1943|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref>

Sturdee returned to Australia and assumed command of the [[First Army (Australia)|First Army]] on 1 March 1944.<ref name="gradation list"/> His headquarters was initially located in [[Queensland]], but on 2 October 1944 it opened at [[Lae]] and Sturdee assumed command of the troops in [[New Guinea]]. These included Lieutenant General [[Stanley Savige]]'s [[II Corps (Australia)|II Corps]], with its headquarters at [[Torokina]] on [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]]; Major General [[Alan Ramsay]]'s [[5th Division (Australia)|5th Division]] on [[New Britain]]; Major General [[Jack Stevens]]' [[6th Division (Australia)|6th Division]] at [[Aitape]]; and the [[8th Brigade (Australia)|8th Infantry Brigade]] west of [[Madang]]. On 18 October, Blamey issued an operational instruction that defined the role of the First Army: "by offensive action to destroy enemy resistance as opportunity offers without committing major forces."<ref name="Long, p. 25">{{harvnb|Long|1963|p=25}}</ref> Sturdee was concerned by this order's ambiguity and sought clarification from Blamey. The Commander in Chief responded by stating that "my conception is that action must be of a gradual nature" involving the use of patrols to determine Japanese strengths and positions before large offensives were undertaken.<ref>{{harvnb|Charlton|1983|pp=42–43}}</ref> The situation on New Britain was straightforward enough; the enemy was known to be stronger that the Australian forces there—although it was not realised just how much stronger— and so the best that could be done was eliminate small numbers of Japanese troops by aggressive patrolling.<ref>{{harvnb|Long|1963|pp=240–241}}</ref> At Aitape, Stevens was tasked with pushing the Japanese back far enough to protect the airfields;<ref>{{harvnb|Long|1963|pp=271–272}}</ref> but the 6th Division might be required for use elsewhere.On Bougainville, Savige had the strength and ability to conduct a major campaign, but Blamey counselled caution.<ref name="Long, p. 25"/>

[[File:Bougainville 1945.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Five soldiers in peaked caps and shirtsleeves study a map on an improvised table in the bush.|Senior commanders on Bougainville. Sturdee is on the left.]]

Sturdee therefore had to conduct three widely separated campaigns, the [[Aitape-Wewak campaign]], the [[New Britain campaign]] and the [[Bougainville Campaign]], juggling a number of contradictory requirements, and doing so with limited resources. Shipping, which was controlled by [[General (United States)|General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]]'s GHQ [[South West Pacific Area (command)|South West Pacific Area]], was a source of "continual anxiety."<ref>{{harvnb|Long|1963|p=89}}</ref> On 18 July 1945, Sturdee wrote to Savige:
{{quote|We are on rather a hair trigger with operations in Bougainville and in 6 Division area in view of the political hostility of the [[Opposition (Australia)|Opposition]] and the Press criticism of the policy of operations being followed in these areas. The general policy is out of our hands, but we must conduct our operations in the spirit of the role given us by C. in C. [Blamey], the main essence of which is that we should attain our object with a minimum of Australian casualties. We have in no way been pressed on the time factor and to date have managed to defeat the Japs with very reasonable casualties considering the number of the Japs that have been eliminated.<ref>{{harvnb|Long|1963|p=218}}</ref>}}

On 6 September 1945, Sturdee received the surrender of Japanese forces in the First Army area from General [[Hitoshi Imamura]], the commander of the [[Japanese Eighth Area Army]], and Admiral [[Jinichi Kusaka]], the commander of the South East Area Fleet, in a ceremony held on the deck of the British [[aircraft carrier]] {{HMS|Glory|R62|6}} at Rabaul. The two Japanese swords handed over in the surrender ceremony, together with the sword worn by Sturdee, which was his father's, were presented to the [[Australian War Memorial]] by Lady Sturdee in 1982.<ref>{{harvnb|Buckley|1983|p=37}}</ref> For his service in the final campaigns, Blamey recommended Sturdee for a knighthood,<ref>{{harvnb|Horner|1998|p=559}}</ref> but this was reduced to a third mention in despatches.<ref name="mid3">{{LondonGazette|issue=37898|startpage=1091|supp=yes|date=6 March 1947|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref>

==Post war==
[[File:Military Board 1947.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Formal portrait of a group of nine men. Four are sitting at the front and five are standing at the back. Six are wearing uniforms without headgear, while the other three are wearing civilian suits.|[[Field Marshal (United Kingdom)|Field Marshal]] [[Bernard Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]], [[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]], meets with Sturdee and the other members of the Military Board.]]
In November 1945, the Minister for the Army, [[Frank Forde]], informed Blamey that the government had decided to re-establish the Military Board and he should vacate his office. Sturdee became Acting Commander in Chief on 1 December 1945. On 1 March 1946, the post of Commander in Chief was abolished and Sturdee became Chief of the General Staff again.<ref>{{harvnb|Long|1963|p=579}}</ref> There was much work to be done. The wartime Army had a strength of 383,000 in August 1945, of whom 177,000 were serving outside Australia.<ref>{{harvnb|Sligo|1997|pp=29–30}}</ref> These troops had to be demobilised, but what should replace the wartime Army had not yet been determined. Sturdee and his Vice Chief of the General Staff, Lieutenant General [[Sydney Rowell]], had to develop an appropriate structure. The proposal submitted to [[Cabinet of Australia|Cabinet]] called for [[national service]], a regular army of 33,000 and reserves of 42,000; but the government baulked at the £20m per annum price tag. A smaller force of 19,000 regulars and 50,000 reservists at a cost of £12.5m per annum was finally approved in 1947.<ref>{{harvnb|Sligo|1997|pp=34–35}}</ref> Conditions of service were also overhauled.<ref>{{harvnb|Sligo|1997|pp=40–42}}</ref> This laid the foundations for the Australian Army of the next fifty years, in which operations were conducted by regular troops rather than the Militia or specially enlisted expeditionary forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Sligo|1997|p=47}}</ref> At the same time, the Army still had to handle huge stockpiles of equipment, stores and supplies. Some were far in excess of the Army's needs and had to be deposed of. Hospitals still had to be run, although some were transferred to the [[Department of Veterans' Affairs|Department of Repatriation]]. The Army had to maintain its schools and training establishments, if only on a cadre basis. Moreover, the Army had to field and maintain part of the [[British Commonwealth Occupation Force]] in Japan.<ref>{{harvnb|Rowell|1974|pp=160–164}}</ref>

Sturdee retired on 17 April 1950. In recognition of his services, he was created a [[Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] on 1 January 1951.<ref name="kbe">{{LondonGazette|issue=39105|supp=yes|startpage=36|date=1 January 1951|accessdate=24 November 2009}}</ref> In retirement, he continued to live in [[Kooyong, Melbourne]]. He became a director of the Australian arm of [[Standard Telephones and Cables]] and was honorary colonel of the [[Royal Australian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers]] from 1951 to 1956. The Army named the [[Landing Ship Medium]] [[Australian landing ship medium Vernon Sturdee (AV 1355)|''Vernon Sturdee'']] after him.<ref name="adb"/> He died on 25 May 1966 at the [[Repatriation General Hospital, Heidelberg]], where he was accorded a funeral with full military honours, and cremated.<ref name="adb"/> Lieutenant General Sir [[Edmund Herring]], a boyhood friend from Melbourne Grammar, was Principal Pall Bearer.<ref>{{harvnb|Buckley|1990|p=50}}</ref> Sturdee was survived by his wife, their daughter and one of their two sons. Before he died, he burned all his private papers. "I have done the job," he said. "It is over."<ref name="adb"/>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
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| authorlink = Charles Bean
| title = Volume II - The Story of ANZAC from 4 May 1915, to the Evacuation of the Gallipoli Peninsula
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| location = Canberra
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| oclc = 9066797
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}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Buckley
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| publisher = [[Department of Defence (Australia)|Department of Defence]]
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| number = No. 41 July/August 1983
| pages = pp. 29–42
| year = 1983
| title = Lieutenant General Sir Vernon Sturdee, KBE, CB, DSO
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| issn = 1444-7150
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}}
* {{cite journal
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| number = No. 81 March/April 1990
| pages = pp. 30–53
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| format = PDF
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| series = [[Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918|Official History of the Australian Army Medical Services, 1914–1918]]
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*{{cite book
| last=Charlton
| first=Peter
| title=The Unnecessary War. Island Campaigns of the South-West Pacific 1944–45
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* {{cite book
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* {{cite book
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| title = Lieutenant-General Sir Vernon Sturdee: The Chief of the General Staff as Commander
| work = The Commanders: Australian Military Leadership in the Twentieth Century
| pages = 143–158
| publisher = [[Allen & Unwin]]
| location = [[Sydney]]
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-86861-496-3
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*{{cite book
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| isbn = 1-86448-734-8
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* {{cite book
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| title = The Final Campaigns
| series = [[Australia in the War of 1939–1945]]
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*{{cite book
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| oclc = 27630527
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*{{cite book
| last = Rowell
| first = Sydney
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| oclc = 1427892
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}}
* {{cite book
| last = Sligo
| first = David
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| editor2-last = Grey
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| title = The Development of the Australian Regular Army 1947–1952
| work = The Second Fifty Years: The Australian Army 1947–1997
| pages = 22–47
| publisher = University of New South Wales
| location = Canberra
| year = 1997
| isbn = 0-7317-0363-4
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}}
*{{cite book
| last = Wigmore
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| series = [[Australia in the War of 1939–1945]]
| publisher = [[Australian War Memorial]]
| location = Canberra
| year = 1957
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| ref = harv
}}
* {{Australian Dictionary of Biography
| last = Wood
| first = James
| id = A160406b
| accessdate = 30 October 2012
| title = Sturdee, Sir Vernon Ashton Hobart (1890 – 1966)
| year = 2002
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| ref = harv
}}
* {{cite journal
| journal = The Army List of Officers of the Australian Military Forces
| publisher = [[Australian Army]]
| location= Melbourne
| year = 1950
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Vernon Sturdee}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Chief of Army (Australia)|Chief of the General Staff]]|
before=Lieutenant General [[John Northcott]]|
after=Lieutenant General [[Sydney Rowell]]|
years=1946 – 1950|
}}
{{succession box|
title=GOC-in-C [[Australian Army|Australian Military Forces]]|
before=General [[Thomas Blamey|Sir Thomas Blamey]]|
after=Position abolished|
years=1945 – 1946|
}}
{{succession box|
title=GOC [[First Army (Australia)|First Army]]|
before=Lieutenant General [[John Lavarack|Sir John Lavarack]]|
after=Major General [[Horace Robertson]]|
years=1944 – 1945|
}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Chief of Army (Australia)|Chief of the General Staff]]|
before=General [[Brudenell White|Sir Brudenell White]]|
after=Lieutenant General [[John Northcott]]|
years=1940 – 1942|
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Chief of Army (Australia)}}
{{Australian Generals of World War II|state=collapsed}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=92467798}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Sturdee, Vernon
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Former Australian Chief of the General Staff
| DATE OF BIRTH = 16 April 1890
| PLACE OF BIRTH = Frankston, Victoria, Australia
| DATE OF DEATH = 25 May 1966
| PLACE OF DEATH = Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sturdee, Vernon}}
[[Category:1890 births]]
[[Category:1966 deaths]]
[[Category:Australian engineers]]
[[Category:Australian generals]]
[[Category:Australian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Australian military personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:People educated at Melbourne Grammar School]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:People from Victoria (Australia)]]

[[sl:Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee]]
[[vi:Vernon Sturdee]]

The Atheism Tapes

2012-12-12T22:05:59Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{italic title}}
'''''The Atheism Tapes''''' is a 2004 [[BBC]] television documentary series presented by [[Jonathan Miller]]. The material that makes up the series was originally filmed in 2003 for another, more general series, '' [[Atheism: A Rough History of Disbelief]]'', but was too lengthy for inclusion. Instead, the BBC agreed to create ''The Atheism Tapes'' as a supplementary series of six programmes, each consisting of an extended interview with one contributor.

== The programmes ==
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
All six programmes were conducted in the form of interviews; the synopses below are summaries of the interviewees' responses to Miller's questions.

===Colin McGinn===
English [[philosophy|philosopher]] [[Colin McGinn|McGinn]] speaks about the various reasons for not believing in God, and some of the reasons for. He gives a thorough treatment of the [[ontological argument]]. In addition, McGinn draws an important distinction between atheism (lack of belief in a deity) and antitheism (active opposition to theism); he identifies himself as both an atheist and an antitheist. Finally, he speculates about a post-theistic society.

===Steven Weinberg===
American [[physicist]] [[Steven Weinberg|Weinberg]] talks about the effectiveness of the [[Teleological argument|Design Argument]], both in the past and today. He also discusses the reasons that people become religious, including the varying influences of [[Physics|physical]] and biological arguments against religion. Miller connects this to a higher likelihood of biologists being non-believers than physicists, which Weinberg finds surprising.

Weinberg goes on to distinguish between harm done ''in the name of'' religion from that done ''by'' religion and states that both of these are very real and very dangerous. He goes on to discuss the difference between religious belief in America and Europe, and about how he doesn't like the "character" of the monotheistic God. He ends by saying that science is very definitely corrosive to religious belief, and that he considers this a good thing.

===Arthur Miller===
American [[playwright]] [[Arthur Miller]] talks about his atheism from a [[Jewish]] perspective. He discusses his view that some cases of [[antisemitism]] come from [[Christian]]s who believe Jewish people are disbelievers because they do not believe Christ was the son of God. They also discuss the overlay of religion and patriotism, particularly with American politics, but also on how many of the wars today come from the mixture of nationalism and religious beliefs. Lastly, he explains how he does not believe that there is an afterlife except in the sense that people are remembered by the material possessions that they leave behind or the deeds that they did during their life that still have an impact on the world.

===Richard Dawkins===
English biologist [[Richard Dawkins]] first talks about how the view that evil exists may come from a [[personification]] of some principle belief. Next, he explains the process by which he became an atheist despite being raised as an [[Anglican]]. They then discuss at length natural selection and how it acts as the guiding force for evolution. He also points out the fallacy in using a [[God of the gaps|God-of-the-gaps]] argument for explaining the world. Next, he goes over the importance of holding and defending an atheist world view.

===Denys Turner===
British theologian [[Denys Turner]] points out that being an atheist or theist depends largely upon what questions you ask yourself. He then shares his view that atheism can also suffer from its own sort of [[fundamentalism]]. They spend some time covering the issue of why or how something comes from nothing.

===Daniel Dennett===
American philosopher [[Daniel Dennett|Dennett]] explains why he called one of his books ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]'', and why many of Darwin's contemporaries, in particular, considered Darwin's theory of evolution to be dangerous. He goes on to deal with the question of consciousness (i.e., is the consciousness/soul distinct from the body), talking about Darwin's rejection of the soul and the possible origins and psychological purposes of a belief in an immaterial soul.

Next, he talks about his Christian upbringing and how he became an atheist. He goes on to ask why it is thought rude to criticise religious belief, and suggests that it is due to the influential status of the religions in question. He finishes by wondering whether we could live effectively in a post-theistic world.

== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/features/atheism-tapes.shtml The Atheism Tapes] The official BBC page for the series
*[http://mcginn.philospot.com/ Colin McGinn's blog]
{{Richard Dawkins}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Atheism Tapes, The}}
[[Category:Atheism publications]]
[[Category:BBC television documentaries on history]]
[[Category:2005 works]]
[[Category:Atheism in the United Kingdom]]

[[fa:نوارهای بی‌خدایی]]
[[fr:The Atheism Tapes]]
[[nl:The Atheism Tapes]]
[[pl:The Atheism Tapes]]
[[pt:The Atheism Tapes]]
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F*** Off, I’m a Hairy Woman

2012-12-12T21:11:52Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{unreferenced|date=April 2012}}
{{infobox television |
| show_name = F*** Off, I'm a Hairy Woman
| image =[[File:I'm a Hairy Woman.png|250px]]
| caption =
| format = [[Documentary film|Documentary]]
| runtime = 1 hour
| camera = [[Multiple-camera setup]]
| starring = [[Shazia Mirza]]
| country = United Kingdom
| network = [[BBC Three]]
| num_episodes = 1 (29 March 2007)
|}}
'''''F*** Off, I'm a Hairy Woman''''' was a [[BBC Three]] documentary about the body image and contrasting [[stereotype]]s surrounding women's [[Androgenic hair]], as part of a series including ''F*** Off, I'm Fat'' and ''[[F*** Off, I'm Ginger]]''. It first aired on 29 March 2007.

It was presented by comedienne [[Shazia Mirza]], and followed her as she grew all her body hair for six months.

Her introduction posed the question, "what would it be like if we lived in a world where beautiful women were allowed to be hairy? To find out, I've decided to take the plunge and grow out my body hair. Can I learn to love it, and can I convince the rest of the world to love it too?"

After six months, she advertised for other hairy women to put on a [[Runway (fashion)#Catwalk|catwalk]] show, wearing [[lingerie]] made of body hair designed and made by artist Tracey Moberly.

It was repeated on the [[Really (TV channel)|Really]] television channel in November 2011.

==External links==
*{{BBC programme|b0074gll}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:F*** Off, I'M A HAiry WoMAn}}
[[Category:BBC television documentaries]]
[[Category:Body image in popular culture]]

{{nonfiction-tv-prog-stub}}

Hyperland

2012-12-12T21:10:19Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{Infobox television
| show_name = Hyperland
| image =
| caption = ''The Virtual Revolution'' title
| show_name_2 =
| genre = Technology
| format = [[Documentary film|Documentary]]
| creator =
| developer =
| writer = Douglas Adams
| director =
| creative_director =
| presenter = [[Douglas Adams]] [[Tom Baker]]
| theme_music_composer =
| opentheme =
| endtheme =
| composer =
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| num_series = 1
| num_episodes = 1
| list_episodes =
| executive_producer =
| producer = [[Max Whitby]]
| editor =
| location =
| cinematography =
| camera =
| runtime = 50 minutes
| company = [[BBC]]
| distributor =
| channel = [[BBC Two]]
| picture_format =
| audio_format =
| first_run =
| first_aired = 1990
| last_aired =
| status =
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
| related =
| website =
| production_website =
}}
'''''Hyperland''''' is a 50-minute long [[documentary film]] about [[hypertext]] and surrounding technologies. It was written by [[Douglas Adams]] and produced and directed by [[Max Whitby]]<ref>[[Ted Nelson]]: ''Possiplex''. 2010, page 272f.</ref> for [[BBC Two]] in 1990. It stars Douglas Adams as a computer user and [[Tom Baker]], with whom Adams had already worked on ''[[Doctor Who]]'', as a personification of a [[software agent]].

In hindsight, what ''Hyperland'' describes and predicts is an approximation of today's [[World Wide Web]].

== Content ==

The self-proclaimed "fantasy documentary" begins with Adams asleep by the fireside with his television still on. In a dream that follows, Adams, fed up by game shows and generally passive, non-interactive linear content, takes his TV to a rubbish dump, where he meets Tom, played by Tom Baker. Tom is a [[software agent]], who shows him the future of TV: ''interactive multimedia''.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.douglasadams.com/creations/hype.html
|title=Hyperland
|accessdate= 1 May 2012
|publisher=douglasadams.com}}</ref>
[[Image:Hyperland-agent.jpg|thumb|left|Tom Baker plays a "software agent," whose appearance can be manipulated by Douglas Adams. Here, Adams has (temporarily) configured Tom to look like a stereotypical [[Neanderthal]].]]

Much like [[Apple Inc]]'s [[Knowledge Navigator]] concept, Tom acts as a butler within a virtual space populated with [[hypermedia]]: linked text, sound, pictures and movies represented by animated icons. The documentary is centered on Adams browsing these media and discovering their [[interconnectedness]]. This process leads him, for example, from the topic ''[[Atlantic Ocean]]'' to ''literature about the sea'' to ''[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]'' by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] to the poem ''[[Kubla Khan]]'' by the same author to ''[[Xanadu]]'' and back to the topic of hypertext via [[Ted Nelson]]'s ''[[Project Xanadu]]''. The references to Coleridge and to Kubla Khan are rather knowing nods to Adams' own book ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]'', where they play significant roles in the plot. ''Dirk Gently'' was published in 1987 and also touches on the themes of interconnectedness, suggesting that this was a subject Adams had thought about at some length and some time.

Many aspects of the documentary demonstrate Adams' noted enthusiasm for technology, and for [[Apple Inc|Apple]] computers in particular. At the beginning of the documentary a [[Macintosh Portable]] can be seen, and most of the projects presented run on Apple hardware. Even the general design of the animated icons and environments featured in his dream are inspired by pre-OS X era [[Mac OS]] icons and design cues.

While Adams is browsing, many people and projects related to the general theme of hypertext and [[multimedia]] are presented:

* [[Vannevar Bush]] and his [[Memex]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush
|title=As We May Think
|publisher=[[The Atlantic]]
|accessdate=1 May 2012
|date=July 1945
|author=[[Vannevar Bush]]}}</ref> concept of a theoretical proto-hypertext information system are shown.
* [[Ted Nelson]] explains [[hypertext]] and [[Project Xanadu]].
* [[Hans Peter Brøndmo]] talks about the concept of animated icons.
[[Image:Hyperland-micons.jpg|thumb|Adams navigates through the interviews and explanations in the documentary using animated icons. Playback controls shown in the bottom right corner during each interview convey an additional sense of interactivity.]]
* [[Robert Winter]] talks about an interactive version of [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Beethoven's 9th Symphony]].
* An idea from [[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s book [[Palm Sunday (book)|''Palm Sunday'']] is presented: stories and narrative structures have shapes that can be represented mathematically as graphs.
* [[Robert Abel (animator)|Robert Abel]] shows his multimedia version of [[Picasso]]'s ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]''.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1991-01-29/entertainment/ca-245_1_future-tense
|title='Future Tense': The New Link Between Arts and Technology
|author=Robert Epstein
|date=29 January 1991
|accessdate=1 May 2012
|publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref>
* [[Apple Multimedia Lab]] employees Steve Gano, Kristee Kreitman, Kristina Hooper, [[Michael Naimark]] and Fabrice Florin talk about a multimedia version of [[Life Story (TV film)|Life Story]], a [[BBC]] TV film dramatisation of the 1953 discovery of the structure of [[DNA]].
* Amanda Goodenough presents ''Inigo Gets Out'', an interactive story for children implemented with [[Hypercard]].
* [[Brad deGraf]] and [[Michael Wahrman]] talk about their [[Digital puppetry|digital puppet]] ''Mike Normal''.
* A [[NASA Ames Research Center]] scientist presents a prototype [[Virtual Reality]] helmet called ''Cyberiad''.
* [[Marc Canter]] makes a cameo (non-)appearance as an animated icon that isn't "clicked" by Adams; the audience never gets to see his interview.

The dream (and the documentary) ends with a vision of how information might be accessed in 2005. In hindsight, ''Hyperland'' does describe a number of features of the modern web and, apart from some underestimates of graphics and processing power available, the documentary paints a not inaccurate picture of hypermedia and [[hypertext]] and how they are used today. This is especially noteworthy considering that it predates the public release of the [[WorldWideWeb|first Web browser]] by about a year.

== References ==
{{refimprove|date=April 2010}}
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.douglasadams.com/creations/hype.html Douglas Adams Homepage about ''Hyperland'']
* [http://xanadu.com.au/AV/hypertext.mpg An excerpt from the documentary featuring Ted Nelson]
* {{IMDb title|id=0188677|title=Hyperland}}

[[Category:BBC television documentaries]]
[[Category:Hypertext]]
[[Category:Electronic literature]]
[[Category:Virtual reality]]
[[Category:Multimedia]]
[[Category:Screenplays by Douglas Adams]]
[[Category:1990 in British television]]

[[simple:Hyperland]]

Nice Guys Finish First

2012-12-12T20:47:51Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{italic title}}{{Unreferenced|date=January 2010}}
'''''Nice Guys Finish First''''' ([[BBC]] [[Horizon (BBC TV series)|''Horizon'' television series]]) is a 1986 documentary by [[Richard Dawkins]] which discusses selfishness and cooperation, arguing that evolution often favors co-operative behaviour, and focusing especially on the [[tit for tat]] strategy of the [[prisoner's dilemma]] [[game theory|game]]. The film is approximately 45 minutes long and was produced by Jeremy Taylor.

The twelfth chapter in Dawkins' book ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (added in the second edition, 1989) is also named ''Nice Guys Finish First'' and explores similar material.

== Overview ==

In the opening scene, [[Richard Dawkins]] responds very precisely to what he views as a misrepresentation of his first book [[The Selfish Gene]]. In particular, the response of the [[right wing]] for using it as justification for [[social darwinism]] and [[laissez-faire]] economics (free-market capitalism). Richard Dawkins has examined this issue throughout his whole career and focused much of the recent documentary, [[The Genius of Charles Darwin]] on this very issue.

The concept of [[reciprocal altruism]] is a central theme of this documentary. Dawkins also examines the [[tragedy of the commons]], and the dilemma that it presents. He uses the large area of common land [[Port Meadow]] in [[Oxford]], England which has been hurt by overgrazing as an example of the tragedy of the commons. Fourteen academics as well as experts in [[game theory]] submitted their own computer programs to compete in a tournament to see who would win in the [[prisoner's dilemma]]. The winner was [[tit for tat]], a program based on "equal retaliation", and Dawkins illustrates the four conditions of tit for tat.

# Unless provoked, the agent will always cooperate.
# If provoked, the agent will retaliate.
# The agent is quick to forgive.
# The agent must have a good chance of competing against the opponent more than once.

In a second trial, this time of over sixty applicants, [[tit for tat]] won again.

==See also==
* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[Ethology]]
* [[Evolutionarily stable strategy]]
* [[Evolutionary game theory]]
* [[Natural selection]]
* [[Prisoner's Dilemma]]
* [[Sociobiology]]
* ''[[The Selfish Gene]]''
* [[Tit for Tat]]
* [[Tragedy of the commons]]
* ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]''

== External links ==
* {{imdb title|0976550}}

{{Dawkins}}

[[Category:1986 films]]
[[Category:BBC television documentaries]]
[[Category:Documentary films about science]]
[[Category:Works by Richard Dawkins]]

{{documentary-stub}}

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Max Stahl (Journalist)

2012-12-12T01:20:16Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{BLP sources|date=May 2009}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Max Christopher Wenner
|birth_place =
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1954|12|6|df=yes}}
|death_place =
|birth_name = Max Christopher Wenner
|other_names = Max Stahl{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}
|known_for = ''[[Blue Peter]]'' and international war coverage.
|occupation = [[Television presenter]]
|nationality = British
}}

'''Christopher Wenner''' (born 6 December 1954) is a British [[journalist]] and former British [[presenter|television presenter]].

On 14 September 1978, Wenner joined the British children's television programme, ''[[Blue Peter]]''. However, he left on 23 June 1980 (on the same day as his co-presenter [[Tina Heath]]), after the production team decided not to renew his contract as he was "deeply unpopular with the viewers" <ref>Marson, Richard. "Blue Peter" 50th Anniversary Book: The Story of Television's Longest-running Children's Programme. Hamlyn Books 2008. ISBN 978-0-600-61793-8</ref> He returned to acting, taking a part in the 1984 Doctor Who adventure ''[[The Awakening (Doctor Who)|The Awakening]]'', although in the final cut, his role was reduced to that of a non-speaking character. He then focused on journalism.

In 1985, whilst working as a war correspondent in [[Beirut]], he went missing; he turned up again, safe and well, after 18 days. In 1991, he shot footage of a demonstration in [[Dili]], [[East Timor]], preceding a massacre and during the [[Santa Cruz massacre|massacre]] itself. He filmed inside the Santa Cruz cemetery among the dead and the dying, as soldiers advanced in a well-organised operation against a huge crowd of East Timorese engaged in peaceful protest. It was Wenner's footage that brought the plight of the East Timorese to world attention. In 1999 Wenner returned to East Timor and his reports from there. under the name of Max Stahl. won the 2000 [[Rory Peck Award]] for hard news war journalism.

Wenner was one of the first Western journalists to recognize the scope of tensions in [[Chechnya]], going in there with his cameraman, filmmaker and author [[Peter Vronsky]] in 1992 to report on the break-away republic and nuclear weapons materials smuggling for the Canadian produced television special [[The Hunt for Red Mercury]].

In 1998, whilst working as an [[ITN]] journalist for [[Channel 4]], Wenner was beaten by [[Serb]] civilians during a mass protest.

He returned to ''Blue Peter'' in 1983 and 1998 to celebrate the show's birthdays. He is now a father of two, and runs his own production company, as well as continuing his career in journalism.

In April 2012, it was reported that he was receiving treatment for throat cancer. Members of the East Timorese National Parliament wished him a speedy recovery.<ref>{{cite web|title=MP’s pray for journalist Max Stahl’s speedy recovery|url=http://www.thediliweekly.com/en/news/capital/1159-mp-reza-makaas-ba-kondisaun-saude-jornalista-max-stall|work=The Dili Weekly|accessdate=13 October 2012}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/classic/bluepeter/presenters/wenner.shtml BBC - I Love Blue Peter - Christopher Wenner presenter biography]

{{S-start}}
{{Succession box|
before= [[John Noakes]]|
title=''[[Blue Peter]]'' Presenter No. 9|
years=1978-80|
after= [[Peter Duncan (actor)|Peter Duncan]]
}}
{{S-end}}
{{Blue Peter presenters}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME =Wenner, Christopher
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British journalist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 6 December 1954
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wenner, Christopher}}
[[Category:Blue Peter presenters]]
[[Category:British journalists]]
[[Category:People educated at Stonyhurst College]]
[[Category:1954 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{UK-journalist-stub}}
{{UK-tv-bio-stub}}

[[pt:Christopher Wenner]]

Krieg und Frieden (1972)

2012-11-27T01:45:41Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{infobox television |
| show_name = War and Peace
| image = [[Image:WarAndPeace dvd.jpg|200px|War and Peace TV mini series DVD cover]]
| caption = DVD cover
| format = [[Historical fiction]]
| runtime = 15 hours
| creator = [[David Conroy]]
| starring = [[Anthony Hopkins]] [[Alan Dobie]] [[Morag Hood]] [[Angela Down]]
| country = United Kingdom
| network = [[BBC]]
| first_aired = 30 September 1972
| last_aired = 8 February 1973
| num_episodes = 20
}}
'''''War and Peace''''' is a television dramatization of the [[Leo Tolstoy]] novel of ''[[War and Peace]]''. This 20 episode series began on 28 September 1972.

The [[BBC]] dramatisation of Tolstoy's epic story of love and loss set against the backdrop of the Napoleonic Wars. [[Anthony Hopkins]] heads the cast as the soul-searching Pierre Bezukhov, [[Morag Hood]] is the impulsive and beautiful Natasha Rostova, [[Alan Dobie]] is the dour, heroic Andrei Bolkonsky and [[David Swift (actor)|David Swift]] is Napoleon, whose decision to [[French invasion of Russia|invade Russia in 1812]] has far-reaching consequences for Pierre and the Rostov and Bolkonsky families.

The twenty-part serial was produced by [[David Conroy]]. His aim was to transfer the characters and plot from Tolstoy's magnum opus to television drama to run for 15 hours (actually closer to 17). Scripted by [[Jack Pulman]] and directed by John Davies, Conroy's ''War and Peace'' had battle sequences which were filmed in [[SFRY|Yugoslavia]]. The production designer Don Homfray won a [[British Academy Television Awards|BAFTA]] for his work on the series.<ref>Gill Ducker [http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/2012/mar/23/don-homfray-obituary Other Lives: Don Homfray], ''The Guardian'', 23 March 2012</ref>

This dramatization differs from previous ones in that it preserves many of Tolstoy's "minor" characters — notably Platon Karataev, played by [[Harry Locke]].

==Cast List==
{{div col|cols=2}}
*[[Anthony Hopkins]]—[[Pierre Bezukhov]]
*[[Alan Dobie]]—[[Andrey Nikolayevich Bolkonsky]]
*[[Morag Hood]]—[[Natasha Rostova]]
*Angela Down—Maria Bolkonskaya
*[[Rupert Davies]]-Count Rostov
*[[Faith Brook]]—Countess Rostova
*[[David Swift (actor)|David Swift]]—[[Napoleon I|Napoleon Bonaparte]]
*[[Frank Middlemass]]—[[Mikhail Kutuzov]]
*[[Sylvester Morand]]—[[Nikolai Rostov]]
*[[Joanna David]]—[[Sonya Rostova]]
*[[Harry Locke]]—Platon Karataev
*[[Donald Douglas (Scottish actor)|Donald Douglas]]—[[Tsar Alexander I of Russia]]
*[[John Cazabon]]—[[Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly|Barclay de Tolly]]
*[[Fiona Gaunt]]—[[Helene Kuragin]], married to Pierre Bezukhov
*[[Anthony Jacobs (actor)|Anthony Jacobs]]—Prince Nikolay Bolkonsky, father of Andrey Bolkonsky
*Athene Fielding—Mademoiselle Bourienne
*Barnaby Shaw and Rufus Frampton—[[Petya Rostov]]
*[[Peter Bathurst]]—[[Karl Ludwig von Phull|Pfuhl]]
*[[Morris Perry]]—[[Joseph Fouché]]
*[[Geoffrey Morris (actor)|Geoffrey Morris]]—Napoleon's secretary
*[[Michael Gover]]—[[Alexander Balashov|General Balashev]]
*Toby Bridge—young Nikolenka Bolkonski
*[[Neil Stacy]]—Boris Drubetskoy
*Anne Blake—Princess Drubetskoya
*[[Gary Watson]]—Denisov
*[[Donald Burton]]—Dolokhov
*[[Tony Steedman]]—[[Louis-Nicolas Davout|Marshal Davout]]
*[[Joseph Wise]]—Russian officer
*[[Colin Baker]]—[[Anatole Vassilitch Kuragin|Anatole Kuragin]]
*[[Basil Henson]]—Prince Vasili Kuragin
*Josie Kidd—Katishe
*[[James Appleby]]—German adjutant
*Gerard Hely—[[Joachim Murat|Prince Murat]]
*[[Michael Billington (actor)|Michael Billington]]—Lt. Berg
*Will Leighton—Tikhon
*[[Patricia Shakesby]]—Vera Rostova, married to Berg
*Alison Frazer—Princess Lisa Bolkonskya
*[[Richard Hurndall]]—[[Feodor Rostopchin|Count Rostopchin]]
*[[John Breslin (actor)|John Breslin]]—[[Louis Alexandre Berthier|Marshal Berthier]]
*[[Pat Gorman]]—French Sergeant
*[[Philip Lowrie]]—French Captain
*[[Edmund Bailey]]—Prokofy
*[[Hugh Cross]]—Mitenka
*Richard Poore—French messenger
*[[Barbara Young (actor)|Barbara Young]]—Anna Scherer
*Karin MacCarthy—Julie Karagin
*[[Maurice Quick]]—Pavel
*[[Roy Spencer (actor)|Roy Spencer]]—Timohin
*Hubert Cross—[[Jean Rapp|General Rapp]]
*Geoffrey Denton—Host
*[[Tenniel Evans]]—[[Pyotr Bagration|Prince Bagration]]
*[[Gordon Faith]]—[[List of War and Peace characters#G|Galitsyn]]
*John Lawrence—Anna's guest
*Judith Pollard—Olga
*Edith Sharpe—Madame Scherer
*[[Tony Caunter]]—French Corporal
*[[Erik Chitty]]—Gerasim
{{div col end}}

==DVD release==
The series was released in a Region 2 4-DVD boxset by DD Home Entertainment in 2005. The set is accompanied by an illustrated booklet, written by Andy Priestner, which provides a detailed account of how the series was made.

==See also==
*[[War and Peace (1956 film)|''War and Peace'' (1956 film)]], version directed by [[King Vidor]]
*[[War and Peace (film series)|''War and Peace'' (1966-67 film)]], Soviet-produced version, directed by [[Sergei Bondarchuk]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0069654|War and Peace}}

{{War and Peace}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:War And Peace (Tv Series)}}
[[Category:1970s British television series]]
[[Category:1972 British television programme debuts]]
[[Category:1973 British television programme endings]]
[[Category:BBC television dramas]]
[[Category:Films based on War and Peace]]
[[Category:Period television series]]

{{BBC-tv-prog-stub}}

[[es:Guerra y paz (miniserie)]]

George Baillie-Hamilton, 12. Earl of Haddington

2012-11-19T18:28:19Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''George Baillie-Hamilton, 12th Earl of Haddington''' [[Military Cross|MC]], [[Territorial Decoration|TD]]<ref>[http://thepeerage.com/p4670.htm#i46697 thePeerage.com]</ref> (18 September 1894 – 17 April 1986),<ref>[[Who's Who|“Who was Who” 1897-2007]] London, [[A & C Black]], 2007 ISBN 978-0-19-954087-7</ref> was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Peerage of Scotland|Peer]] from 1917<ref>[[The Times]], Saturday, 27 January 1917; pg. 9; Issue 41387; col A ''Court Circular''</ref> to 1986.

Haddington was the son of [[Brigadier-General]] [[George Baillie-Hamilton, Lord Binning]]. Educated at [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Sandhurst]], he was awarded the [[Military Cross]] during the [[First World War]]. He succeeded his grandfather in the earldom in 1917. In the [[Second World War]] he was a [[Wing Commander (rank)|Wing Commander]] in the [[RAFVR]]. He was [[Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire]] from 1952 to 1969. In 1957 he became the first president of the Georgian Group of Edinburgh, later the [[Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ahss.org.uk/file_download/4/The+Story+of+the+Society.pdf |title=The Story of the Society |author=Robertson, Eleanor |year=1997 |publisher=Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland}}</ref> He lived at [[Tyninghame House]] in East Lothian, where he and his wife created and replanted several formal gardens.<ref name=garden>{{cite web |url=http://data.historic-scotland.gov.uk/pls/htmldb/f?p=2400:15:0::::GARDEN:GDL00380#history |title=Tyninghame: Site History |work=Inventory of Gardens and Designed Landscapes in Scotland |publisher=Historic Scotland |accessdate=16 November 2011}}</ref>

His daughter, Lady Mary, was one of [[Queen Elizabeth II]]’s [[Maids of Honour]] at the 1953 [[Coronation]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2089887/We-Queens-Coronation-Spice-Girls--A-disastrous-perm-fainting-fits-nightclubbing-Arab-sheiks.html | location=London | work=Daily Mail | first=Sarah | last=Oliver | title='We were the Queen's Coronation Spice Girls!': A disastrous perm, fainting fits and nightclubbing with Arab sheiks}}</ref>

==Military career==
He fought in the First World War, as a Captain in the service of the [[2nd Dragoons (Royal Scots Greys)]], where he was wounded.
He went on to gain the rank of Wing Commander in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve; and Major in the 19th [[Lothians and Border Horse]] Armoured Car Company [[Territorial Army (United Kingdom)|Territorial Army]], as well as Captain of the [[Royal Company of Archers]].

==Public office==
The Earl was a Representative Peer of [[Scotland]] between 1922 and 1958.
He was Deputy Lieutenant (D.L.) of East Lothian 1929-1946, Vice-Lord-Lieutenant of East Lothian 1946-1952, and Lord-Lieutenant of East Lothian 1952-1970.
He also served as a Justice of the Peace (J.P.) in East Lothian and Berwickshire.
He was invested as a Knight, [[Order of the Thistle]] in 1952.
He was awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Law (LL. D.) by [[Glasgow University]] in 1957.

==Marriage and family==
He married Sarah Cook, daughter of George William Cook, on 10 September 1923.

They had two children:
* Lady Mary Baillie-Hamilton b. 13 January 1934
* John George Baillie-Hamilton, 13th Earl of Haddington b. 21 December 1941.

The 12th Earl died in 1986.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Hansard-contribs | mr-george-baillie-hamilton | the Earl of Haddington }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hon}}
{{succession box | before=[[Charles Douglas-Home, 13th Earl of Home|The Earl of Home]] | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of Berwickshire]] | years=1952–1969 | after=[[William Bertram Swan|Sir William Bertram Swan]]}}
{{s-reg|sct}}
{{succession box | title=[[Earl of Haddington]] | before=[[George Baillie-Hamilton-Arden, 11th Earl of Haddington|George Baillie-Hamilton]] | after=[[John Baillie-Hamilton, 13th Earl of Haddington|John George Baillie-Hamilton]] | years=1917–1986}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=26596792}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Haddington, George Baillie-Hamilton, 12th Earl of
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 18 September 1894
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 17 April 1986
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Haddington, George Baillie-Hamilton, 12th Earl of}}
[[Category:1894 births]]
[[Category:Earls of Haddington]]
[[Category:People educated at Eton College]]
[[Category:Graduates of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]]
[[Category:Royal Scots Greys officers]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Knights of the Thistle]]
[[Category:Lord-Lieutenants of Berwickshire]]
[[Category:1986 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish representative peers]]

{{Scotland-noble-stub}}

George Makgill, 13. Viscount of Oxfuird

2012-11-19T17:22:56Z

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{{unsourced|date=April 2009}}
'''George Hubbard Makgill, 13th Viscount of Oxfuird''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (7 January 1934 – 3 January 2003) was a Scottish peer and Chief of the Makgill family. He inherited his titles from his uncle.

Oxfuird was a deputy speaker and deputy chair of committees in the [[House of Lords]]. He was one of the 92 hereditary peers who were elected in 1999 to continue as members of the Lords when most of the hereditary peers lost their seats.

==Family==
Lord Oxfuird married twice. His first wife, Alison Jensen, bore him four sons (including a set of twins), one of whom died two days after birth:

* Richard Mackgill (born and died 1967)
* Ian Alexander Arthur Makgill, 14th Viscount of Oxfuird (b. 1969)
* Hon. Robert Edward George Makgill (b. 1969)
* Hon. Hamish Max Alastair Makgill (b. 1972)

Makgill and his second wife, Venetia Steward, had one son:

* Hon. Edward Anthony Donald Makgill (b. 1983)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Hansard-contribs | mr-george-makgill | the Viscount of Oxfuird }}

{{start box}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of hereditary peers elected to sit in the House of Lords under the House of Lords Act 1999|Elected hereditary peer]]|before=''Position created''|after=[[Nicholas Lowther, 2nd Viscount Ullswater|The Viscount Ullswater]]|years=1999-2003}}
{{s-reg|uk}}
{{succession box | title=[[Viscount of Oxfuird]] | before=[[John Donald Arthur Alexander Makgill, 12th Viscount of Oxfuird|John Makgill]] | after=[[Ian Alexander Arthur Makgill, 14th Viscount of Oxfuird|Ian Makgill]] | years=1986 - 2003}}
{{end box}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Oxfuird, George Makgill, 13th Viscount of
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 7 January 1934
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 3 January 2003
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Oxfuird, George Makgill, 13th Viscount of}}
[[Category:1934 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Hereditary Peers elected under the House of Lords Act]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of Scotland]]

{{scotland-peer-stub}}

Alexander Leslie-Melville, 16. Earl of Leven

2012-11-19T17:22:46Z

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'''Alexander Robert Leslie-Melville, 14th Earl of Leven''' [[Deputy Lieutenant|DL]] (13 May 1924 – 7 April 2012)<ref>{{cite web | url = http://announcements.telegraph.co.uk/deaths/147831/leven-melville| title = Daily Telegraph Announcements| accessdate = 11 April 2012}}</ref>
was a Scottish peer and soldier.

He was educated at [[Eton College]]. A captain in the [[Coldstream Guards]], he fought in [[World War II]], and was wounded.

He was [[Aide-de-camp]] to the [[Governor-General of New Zealand]], from 1951 to 1952. He was Deputy Lieutenant of Nairn, from 1961 to 1969. He was [[Lord Lieutenant of Nairn]], from 1969 to 1999. He was Chairman of the Nairn County Council, from 1970 to 1974.
He was president of the British Ski and Snowboard Federation (BSSF).

==Family==
He married Susan Steuart-Menzies, on 30 April 1953, daughter of Lt Col Ronald Steuart-Menzies of Culdares; they had children:
*David Alexander Leslie Melville, Lord Balgonie (26 January 1954 – 14 February 2007),<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/earl-s-son-killed-in-accident-at-swiss-ski-resort-1.852838| title=Earl's son killed in accident at Swiss ski resort| author=CALUM MacDONALD| work=The Herald| date=16 February 2007 }}</ref>
*Lady Jane Catherine Leslie Melville (born 5 May 1956),
*Hon. Archibald Ronald Leslie Melville (born 15 September 1957).<ref>http://thepeerage.com/p3893.htm#i38922</ref><ref>http://www.cracroftspeerage.co.uk/online/content/Leven1641.htm</ref>

He was succeeded in the titles by his grandson, [[Alexander Ian Leslie-Melville]], Lord Balgonie (born 1984).

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Hansard-contribs | mr-alexander-melville | the Earl of Leven }}

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{{succession box | before=[[James Erskine Stirling]] | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of Nairn]] | years=1969–1999 | after=Ewen Brodie}}
{{s-reg|sct}}
{{succession box
|title=[[Earl of Leven]] [[Earl of Melville]]
|before=[[Archibald Leslie-Melville, 13th Earl of Leven|Archibald Leslie-Melville]]
|after=[[Alexander Ian Leslie-Melville, 15th Earl of Leven|Alexander Ian Leslie-Melville]]|years=1947–2012 }}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata
| NAME = Leven, Archibald Alexander Leslie-Melville, 14th Earl of
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 13 May 1924
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 7 April 2012
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Leven, Archibald Alexander Leslie-Melville, 14th Earl of}}
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:2012 deaths]]
[[Category:Earls of Leven]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:Lord-Lieutenants of Nairn]]
[[Category:Coldstream Guards officers]]
[[Category:People educated at Eton College]]

{{Scotland-earl-stub}}

John Douglas, 21. Earl of Morton

2012-11-19T17:06:19Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''John Charles Sholto Douglas, 21st Earl of Morton''' (born 19 March 1927)<ref name="debretts" /> is a Scottish peer and landowner.

Douglas was educated at [[Bryanston School]] and [[Canford School]].<ref name="burkes" /> He succeeded to the earldom in 1976, upon the death of his first cousin, the 20th Earl. Morton is a property consultant, a partner in Dalmahoy Farms and chairman of the Edinburgh Polo Club,<ref name="debretts" /> and was a director in Scotland of the [[Bristol & West]] Building Society. In 1982, he was appointed a [[deputy lieutenant]] of [[West Lothian]],<ref name="burkes" /> and he served as [[Lord Lieutenant of West Lothian]] from 1985 to 2002.<ref name="debretts">{{cite book | title=Debrett's Peerage & Baronetage 2008 | year=2008 | page=1017}}</ref>

He married Mary Sheila Gibbs in 1949, by whom he has three children:<ref name="burkes">{{cite book | title=Burke's Landed Gentry of Great Britain | first=Peter Beauclerk | last=Dewar | year=2001 | page=296}}</ref>
*Lady Mary Pamela Douglas (b. 1950), married Richard Callander and has issue
*John Stewart Sholto Douglas, Lord Aberdour (b. 1952), married Amanda Kirsten Mitchell and has issue
*Hon. Charles James Sholto Douglas (b. 1954), married Anne Morgan and has issue

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Hansard-contribs | mr-john-douglas-1 | the Earl of Morton }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hon}}
{{succession box | before=[[Charles Hope, 3rd Marquess of Linlithgow|The Marquess of Linlithgow]] | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of West Lothian]] | years=1985–2002 | after=[[Isobel Brydie]]}}
{{s-reg|sct}}
{{incumbent succession box | before=[[Sholto Douglas, 20th Earl of Morton|Sholto Douglas]] | title=[[Earl of Morton]] | start=1976}}
{{s-end}}
{{Earls}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Morton, John Douglas, 21st Earl of
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 19 March 1927
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Morton, John Douglas, 21st Earl Of}}
[[Category:1927 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Deputy Lieutenants of West Lothian]]
[[Category:Earls of Morton]]
[[Category:Lord-Lieutenants of West Lothian]]
[[Category:Scottish landowners]]

{{Scotland-noble-stub}}

George Hay, 1. Earl of Kinnoull

2012-11-19T17:05:56Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
[[Image:1stEarlOfKinnoul.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The 1st Earl of Kinnoull.]]
'''George Hay, 1st Earl of Kinnoull''' (1572–1634) was a Scottish nobleman.

He served as a [[Gentleman of the Bedchamber]] from 1596, and was knighted around 1609. He was appointed [[Lord Clerk Register]] and a [[Court of Session|lord of session]] in 1616. He supported the [[five articles of Perth]]. He was [[Lord Chancellor of Scotland]] from 1622 to 1634, and was created Viscount Dupplin in 1627 and Earl of Kinnoull in 1633. He resisted the king's regulations for lords of session (1626), and upheld precedency over archbishop of St Andrews. He was [[Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard]] from 1632 to 1634.

==References==
*''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]''

{{S-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Chancellor of Scotland]] |
before=[[Alexander Seton, 1st Earl of Dunfermline|The Earl of Dumfermline]] |
after=[[John Spottiswoode]] | years=1622–1634}}

{{succession box | title=[[Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard]] |
years=1632–1634 |
before=[[Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland|The Earl of Holland]] |
after=[[William Douglas, 7th Earl of Morton|The Earl of Morton]]}}

{{s-reg|sct}}
{{s-new| rows = 2 | creation}}
{{s-ttl| title = [[Earl of Kinnoull]]
| years = 1633–1634 }}
{{s-aft| rows = 2 | after = [[George Hay, 2nd Earl of Kinnoull|George Hay]] }}
{{s-ttl| title = [[Viscount Dupplin]]
| years = 1627–1634 }}
{{S-end}}

{{Persondata
| name = Kinnoull, George Hay, 1st Earl of
| alternative names =
| short description =
| date of birth = 1572
| place of birth =
| date of death = 1634
| place of death =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kinnoull, George Hay, 1st Earl of}}
[[Category:1572 births]]
[[Category:1634 deaths]]
[[Category:Earls of Kinnoull]]

{{Scotland-earl-stub}}

William Haughey, Baron Haughey

2012-11-19T16:47:51Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Infobox person
| name = Sir William Haughey
| image = William haughey.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = 1956
| birth_place = [[Gorbals]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]
| occupation = [[Chairperson|Chairman]], City Refrigeration Holdings UK Ltd
|networth = {{increase}} [[Pound sterling|£]]152 million
| spouse = {{marriage|[http://www.williehaughey.com/willie-haughey-family.aspx Susan Haughey, ''née'' Moore] |1985}}
| children = [http://www.williehaughey.com/willie-haughey-family.aspx Kenny Haughey]
}}
'''Sir William Haughey''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] (born 1956 in [[Glasgow]])<ref>[http://www.pressteam.co.uk/index.php/news/tycoon-unveils-house-plans PressTeam Scotland Ltd - Tycoon unveils house plans]</ref> is a Scottish [[businessman]], [[philanthropist]]<ref>Leadbetter, Russell. [http://www.eveningtimes.co.uk/features/display.var.1730990.0.i_may_be_a_millionaire_but_theres_nothing_i_like_better_than_a_fish_supper_on_a_friday_night.php "I may be a millionaire but..."]. ''[[Evening Times]]''. 3 October 2007</ref> and [[chairperson|chairman]] of City Refrigeration Holdings. He formerly served as a non-executive director for [[Celtic F.C.]],<ref>[http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/ViewArticle.aspx?articleid=2615916 The Scotsman]</ref> and in 1997 signed a deal with [[Asda]] to maintain refrigeration equipment in stores throughout the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>[http://www.city-holdings.co.uk/origins.htm City Refrigeration Holdings]</ref> City Refrigeration Holdings Headquarters are based in [[Gorbals]], Glasgow.

Willie Haughey has given over [http://www.williehaughey.com/city-charitable-trust.aspx £5 million to charity] over the past 5 years. In January 2011 Haughey presented a cheque for £100,000 to UNICEF ambassador Sir Alex Ferguson to support the charity’s work with child flood victims in Pakistan.<ref>http://www.beattiegroup.com/prclients/pr-press-releases.aspx?news=31&id=10839</ref><ref>http://www.unicef.org.uk/Latest/News/Willie-Haughey/</ref> In 2010 alone, he made charitable donations of £1.3 million.<ref>http://www.williehaughey.com/city-charitable-trust.aspx</ref>

Haughey has been named in several newspaper reports in connection with the resignation of [[Steven Purcell]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.scotsman.com/comment/Eddie-Barnes-Resignation-is-a.6117742.jp|title=Resignation is a hammer-blow for Scottish Labour so close to a general election|date=3 March 2010|publisher=The Scotsman|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/comment/Steven-Purcell-Fall-of-a.6130367.jp|title=Steven Purcell: Fall of a High Flier|date=7 March 2010|publisher=Scotland on Sunday|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article7061166.ece|title=Labour donor Willie Haughey in ‘cash for favours’ row|date=14 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010 | location=London | first1=Jon | last1=Ungoed-Thomas | first2=Mark | last2=MacAskill}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article7061170.ece|title=Labour donor Willie Haughey linked to cocaine city councillor|date=14 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010 | location=London | first1=Mark | last1=MacAskill | first2=Jon | last2=Ungoed-Thomas}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/politics/company-linked-to-purcell-in-700-000-land-deal-with-labour-donor-1.1014924|title=Company linked to Purcell in £700,000 land deal with Labour donor|date=21 March 2010|publisher=The Herald|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/politics/firm-caught-up-in-purcell-furore-pulls-out-of-labour-party-conference-1.1015284|title=Firm caught up in Purcell furore pulls out of Labour party conference|date=23 March 2010|publisher=The Herald|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/world/britain/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15772731|title=Heartland attack|date=25 March 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=28 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/scotland/article7078926.ece|title=Labour in little local difficulty|date=28 March 2010|publisher=Sunday Times Scotland|accessdate=28 March 2010 | location=London | first=Mark | last=MacAskill}}</ref> The 2010 edition of the Sunday Times Rich List estimated Sir Willie's fortune at £150 million.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}

Haughey was [[Knight bachelor|knighted]] in the [[2012 Birthday Honours]] for services to business and philanthropy.<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=60173 |date=16 June 2012 |startpage=1 |supp=yes}}</ref>

==Honours==
*[[Image:Knight-Bachelor.ribbon.png|23px]]: [[Knight Bachelor]] (2012)
*[[File:Order of the British Empire (Civil) Ribbon.png|23px]]: [[Order of the British Empire|Officer, Order of British Empire]] (2003)

*[[Hon]] [[DTech]] ('''Honorary Doctor of Technology'''): Glasgow Caledonian University (2005)

==Official Website==
[http://www.williehaughey.com Willie Haughey]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

==External links==
* [http://www.debretts.com/people/biographies/browse/h/25098/William+HAUGHEY.aspx ''Debrett's People of Today'']

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Haughey, William
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1956
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Gorbals]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Haughey, William}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1956 births]]
[[Category:People from Glasgow]]
[[Category:Scottish businesspeople]]
[[Category:Political scandals in Scotland]]
[[Category:Celtic F.C. non-playing staff]]
[[Category:Knights Bachelor]]
[[Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Scottish Labour Party]]
[[Category:Scottish football chairmen and investors]]
[[Category:Scottish philanthropists]]

{{Scotland-poli-stub}}
{{Scotland-sport-bio-stub}}
{{UK-business-bio-1950s-stub}}

Benutzer:Wega14/Growth of photovoltaics

2012-11-18T22:32:57Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
[[File:Photovoltaic array world production 1980-2007.jpg|thumb|Photovoltaic array production]]
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"
! colspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:pink;"| Photovoltaic power (GW)<ref name=epia2012>{{cite web |url=http://www.epia.org/index.php?eID=tx_nawsecuredl&u=0&file=fileadmin/EPIA_docs/publications/epia/EPIA-market-report-2011.pdf&t=1336509071&hash=c440f688a562514b0fda2a03c5d6453f |title=Market Report 2011 |author=European Photovoltaic Industry Association |year=2012 |work= }}</ref><ref name=epiaoutlook2016>{{cite web |url=http://files.epia.org/files/Global-Market-Outlook-2016.pdf |title=Global Market Outlook 2016 |author=European Photovoltaic Industry Association |date=May 2012 |work= }}</ref>
|-
| align=right | 2005 || align=right | 5.3
|-
| align=right | 2006 || align=right | 6.9
|-
| align=right | 2007 || align=right | 9.4
|-
| align=right | 2008 || align=right | 15.8
|-
| align=right | 2009 || align=right | 23.2
|-
| align=right | 2010 || align=right | 40.0
|- style="text-align:right; background:pink;"
|| 2011 || style="text-align:right; background:pink;"| ''' 69.7'''
|-
| colspan=2 |Year end capacities
|}
{{Sustainable energy}}
{{tocleft}}

The '''growth of photovoltaics''', showing the history of installed [[photovoltaics]].

Photovoltaics has been growing at an average of 64.8%/year since 2007, and increased by 74.1% in 2011. Cumulative installations at the end of 2012 are expected to reach from 89.9 to 109.9 GW, and from 207.9 to 342.8 GW by the end of 2016.<ref>[http://cleantechnica.com/solar-power/ Solar Power]</ref> By the end of 2011, a total of 67.4 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWh/year.<ref name="epiaoutlook2016" />

Official agencies keep underestimating the growth rate of renewables.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/ezra-klein/wp/2012/06/19/are-we-wildly-underestimating-solar-and-wind-power/ |title= Are we wildly underestimating solar and wind power? |first= Brad |last= Plumer |date= 19 June 2012|publisher= The Washington Post |accessdate= 17 September 2012 }}</ref> There was an exponential growth in global solar consumption from 2001 to end 2011, with an approximate doubling of consumption every two years. If the trend continues then solar power would reach 10% of total global power generation by 2018, advancing from the 55.7 TWh consumption figure of 2011 to approximately 2200 TWh,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ftalphaville.ft.com/blog/2012/06/18/1048871/the-exponential-growth-in-solar-consumption/ |title= The exponential growth in solar consumption |first= Izabella |last= Kaminska |date= 18 June 2012|publisher= The financial Times Ltd |accessdate= 17 September 2012 }}</ref> and would provide 100 percent of the current world energy needs by 2027.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2011/feb/21/ray-kurzweill-climate-change |title= Climate change no problem, says futurist Ray Kurzweil |first= Ray |last= Kurzweil |date= 21 February 2011|publisher= The Guardian |accessdate= 17 September 2012 }}</ref>

The [[Solar power in the United States|United States]] was the leader of total photovoltaics installed until 1997 when it was surpassed by [[Solar power in Japan|Japan]], which maintained the lead until [[Solar power in Germany|Germany]] took the lead in 2005, and has maintained the lead in cumulative installations through {{currentyear}}. In 2011 [[Solar power in Italy|Italy]] had the most photovoltaics installed during that year.
{{-}}

==Cumulative installations by country==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Cumulative Photovoltaic Installations (MWp)<ref name="epiaoutlook2016" /><ref name="IEA PV Data 2008"/><ref name="IEA PV Data 2009"/><ref name="IEA2010"/><ref name=EPIA2011 /><ref name="eur2012" /><ref>[http://www.iea-pvps.org/ International Energy Agency Photovoltaic Power System Programme]</ref>
|-
!Country !! 1992 !! 1993 !! 1994 !! 1995 !! 1996 !! 1997 !! 1998 !! 1999 !! 2000 !! 2001 !! 2002 !! 2003 !! 2004 !! 2005 !! 2006 !! 2007 !! 2008 !! 2009 !! 2010 !! 2011
|-
|[[Solar power in Australia|Australia]] ||{{nts|7.3}}||{{nts|8.9}}||{{nts|10.7}}||{{nts|12.7}}||{{nts|15.7}}||{{nts|18.7}}||{{nts|22.5}}||{{nts|25.3}}||{{nts|29.2}}||{{nts|33.6}}||{{nts|39.1}}||{{nts|45.6}}||{{nts|52.3}}||{{nts|60.6}}||{{nts|70.3}}||{{nts|82.5}}||{{nts|104.5}}||{{nts|183.6}}||{{nts|571}}||{{nts|1,408}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Austria|Austria]] ||{{nts|0.6}}||{{nts|0.8}}||{{nts|1.1}}||{{nts|1.4}}||{{nts|1.7}}||{{nts|2.2}}||{{nts|2.9}}||{{nts|3.7}}||{{nts|4.9}}||{{nts|6.1}}||{{nts|10.3}}||{{nts|16.8}}||{{nts|21.1}}||{{nts|24.0}}||{{nts|25.6}}||{{nts|27.7}}||{{nts|32.4}}||{{nts|52.6}}||{{nts|96}}||{{nts|187}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Belgium|Belgium]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|574}}||{{nts|1,037}}||{{nts|1,997}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Brazil|Brazil]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|27}}||{{nts|32}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|5.7}}||{{nts|35}}||{{nts|135}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Canada|Canada]] ||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|1.2}}||{{nts|1.5}}||{{nts|1.9}}||{{nts|2.6}}||{{nts|3.4}}||{{nts|4.5}}||{{nts|5.8}}||{{nts|7.2}}||{{nts|8.8}}||{{nts|10.0}}||{{nts|11.8}}||{{nts|13.9}}||{{nts|16.7}}||{{nts|20.5}}||{{nts|25.8}}||{{nts|32.7}}||{{nts|94.57}}||{{nts|281}}||{{nts|559}}
|-
|[[Solar power in the People's Republic of China|China]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|893}}||{{nts|3,093}}
|-
|[[Solar power in the People's Republic of Cyprus|Cyprus]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|3.3}}||{{nts|6.2}}||{{nts|9}}
|-
|[[Solar power in the Czech Republic|Czech]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|463.3}}||{{nts|1,952}}||{{nts|1,959}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Denmark|Denmark]] || ||{{nts|0.1}}||{{nts|0.1}}||{{nts|0.1}}||{{nts|0.2}}||{{nts|0.4}}||{{nts|0.5}}||{{nts|1.1}}||{{nts|1.5}}||{{nts|1.5}}||{{nts|1.6}}||{{nts|1.9}}||{{nts|2.3}}||{{nts|2.7}}||{{nts|2.9}}||{{nts|3.1}}||{{nts|3.3}}||{{nts|4.6}}||{{nts|7}}||{{nts|17}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Estonia|Estonia]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.05}}||{{nts|0.08}}||{{nts|0.1}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Finland|Finland]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|}}||{{nts|0.1}}||{{nts|1}}
|-
|[[Solar power in France|France]] ||{{nts|1.8}}||{{nts|2.1}}||{{nts|2.4}}||{{nts|2.9}}||{{nts|4.4}}||{{nts|6.1}}||{{nts|7.6}}||{{nts|9.1}}||{{nts|11.3}}||{{nts|13.9}}||{{nts|17.2}}||{{nts|21.1}}||{{nts|26.0}}||{{nts|33.0}}||{{nts|43.9}}||{{nts|75.2}}||{{nts|179.7}}||{{nts|335.2}}||{{nts|1,197}}||{{nts|2,831}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Germany|Germany]] ||{{nts|5.6}}||{{nts|8.9}}||{{nts|12.4}}||{{nts|17.7}}||{{nts|27.8}}||{{nts|41.8}}||{{nts|53.8}}||{{nts|69.4}}||{{nts|113.7}}||{{nts|194.6}}||{{nts|278.0}}||{{nts|431.0}}||{{nts|1,034.0}}||{{nts|1,926.0}}||{{nts|2,759.0}}||{{nts|3,835.5}}||{{nts|5,340.0}}||{{nts|9,959}}||{{nts|17,193}}||{{nts|24,678}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Greece|Greece]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|55}}||{{nts|205.4}}||{{nts|631}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Hungary|Hungary]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.65}}||{{nts|1.75}}||{{nts|4}}
|-
|[[Solar power in India|India]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|161}}||{{nts|461}}
|-
|[[Solar power in the Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.1}}||{{nts|3}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Israel|Israel]] || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.9}}||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|1.3}}||{{nts|1.8}}||{{nts|3.0}}||{{nts|24.5}}||{{nts|66}}||{{nts|196}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Italy|Italy]] ||{{nts|8.5}}||{{nts|12.1}}||{{nts|14.1}}||{{nts|15.8}}||{{nts|16.0}}||{{nts|16.7}}||{{nts|17.7}}||{{nts|18.5}}||{{nts|19.0}}||{{nts|20.0}}||{{nts|22.0}}||{{nts|26.0}}||{{nts|30.7}}||{{nts|37.5}}||{{nts|50.0}}||{{nts|120.2}}||{{nts|458.3}}||{{nts|1,157}}||{{nts|3,470}}||{{nts|12,754}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Japan|Japan]] ||{{nts|19.0}}||{{nts|24.3}}||{{nts|31.2}}||{{nts|43.4}}||{{nts|59.6}}||{{nts|91.3}}||{{nts|133.4}}||{{nts|208.6}}||{{nts|330.2}}||{{nts|452.8}}||{{nts|636.8}}||{{nts|859.6}}||{{nts|1,132.0}}||{{nts|1,421.9}}||{{nts|1,708.5}}||{{nts|1,918.9}}||{{nts|2,144}}||{{nts|2,627}}||{{nts|3,618}}||{{nts|4,914}}
|-
|[[Solar power in South Korea|Korea]] ||{{nts|1.5}}||{{nts|1.6}}||{{nts|1.7}}||{{nts|1.8}}||{{nts|2.1}}||{{nts|2.5}}||{{nts|3.0}}||{{nts|3.5}}||{{nts|4.0}}||{{nts|4.8}}||{{nts|5.4}}||{{nts|6.0}}||{{nts|8.5}}||{{nts|13.5}}||{{nts|35.8}}||{{nts|81.2}}||{{nts|357.5}}||{{nts|441.9}}||{{nts|662}}||{{nts|812}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Latvia|Latvia]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0}}||{{nts|0.2}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Lithuania|Lithuania]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.07}}||{{nts|0.2}}||{{nts|0.3}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|26.4}}||{{nts|27.3}}||{{nts|30}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Malaysia|Malaysia]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|5.5}}||{{nts|7.0}}||{{nts|8.8}}||{{nts|11.1}}||{{nts|11}}||{{nts|14}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Malta|Malta]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|1.53}}||{{nts|1.67}}||{{nts|12}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Mexico|Mexico]] ||{{nts|5.4}}||{{nts|7.1}}||{{nts|8.8}}||{{nts|9.2}}||{{nts|10.0}}||{{nts|11.0}}||{{nts|12.0}}||{{nts|12.9}}||{{nts|13.9}}||{{nts|15.0}}||{{nts|16.2}}||{{nts|17.1}}||{{nts|18.2}}||{{nts|18.7}}||{{nts|19.7}}||{{nts|20.8}}||{{nts|21.8}}||{{nts|25.0}}||{{nts|30}}||{{nts|37}}
|-
|[[Solar power in the Netherlands|Netherlands]] ||{{nts|1.3}}||{{nts|1.6}}||{{nts|2.0}}||{{nts|2.4}}||{{nts|3.3}}||{{nts|4.0}}||{{nts|6.5}}||{{nts|9.2}}||{{nts|12.8}}||{{nts|20.5}}||{{nts|26.3}}||{{nts|45.7}}||{{nts|49.2}}||{{nts|50.7}}||{{nts|52.2}}||{{nts|52.8}}||{{nts|57.2}}||{{nts|67.5}}||{{nts|88}}||{{nts|130}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Norway|Norway]] ||{{nts|3.8}}||{{nts|4.1}}||{{nts|4.4}}||{{nts|4.7}}||{{nts|4.9}}||{{nts|5.2}}||{{nts|5.4}}||{{nts|5.7}}||{{nts|6.0}}||{{nts|6.2}}||{{nts|6.4}}||{{nts|6.6}}||{{nts|6.9}}||{{nts|7.3}}||{{nts|7.7}}||{{nts|8.0}}||{{nts|8.3}}||{{nts|8.66}}||{{nts|9}}||{{nts|9}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Poland|Poland]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|1.38}}||{{nts|1.75}}||{{nts|3}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Portugal|Portugal]] ||{{nts|0.2}}||{{nts|0.2}}||{{nts|0.3}}||{{nts|0.3}}||{{nts|0.4}}||{{nts|0.5}}||{{nts|0.6}}||{{nts|0.9}}||{{nts|1.1}}||{{nts|1.3}}||{{nts|1.7}}||{{nts|2.1}}||{{nts|2.7}}||{{nts|3.0}}||{{nts|3.4}}||{{nts|17.9}}||{{nts|68.0}}||{{nts|102.2}}||{{nts|150}}||{{nts|184}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Romania|Romania]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.64}}||{{nts|1.94}}||{{nts|3}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Slovakia|Slovakia]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.192}}||{{nts|148}}||{{nts|468}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Slovenia|Slovenia]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|9.0}}||{{nts|35}}||{{nts|81}}
|-
|[[Solar power in South Africa|South Africa]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|40}}||{{nts|41}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Spain|Spain]] || || ||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|2.0}}||{{nts|2.0}}||{{nts|4.0}}||{{nts|7.0}}||{{nts|12.0}}||{{nts|23.0}}||{{nts|48.0}}||{{nts|145.0}}||{{nts|693.0}}||{{nts|3,354.0}}||{{nts|3,438}}||{{nts|3,915}}||{{nts|4,260}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Sweden|Sweden]] ||{{nts|0.8}}||{{nts|1.0}}||{{nts|1.3}}||{{nts|1.6}}||{{nts|1.8}}||{{nts|2.1}}||{{nts|2.4}}||{{nts|2.6}}||{{nts|2.8}}||{{nts|3.0}}||{{nts|3.3}}||{{nts|3.6}}||{{nts|3.9}}||{{nts|4.2}}||{{nts|4.8}}||{{nts|6.2}}||{{nts|7.9}}||{{nts|8.8}}||{{nts|12}}||{{nts|16}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Switzerland|Switzerland]] ||{{nts|4.7}}||{{nts|5.8}}||{{nts|6.7}}||{{nts|7.5}}||{{nts|8.4}}||{{nts|9.7}}||{{nts|11.5}}||{{nts|13.4}}||{{nts|15.3}}||{{nts|17.6}}||{{nts|19.5}}||{{nts|21.0}}||{{nts|23.1}}||{{nts|27.1}}||{{nts|29.7}}||{{nts|36.2}}||{{nts|47.9}}||{{nts|73.6}}||{{nts|111}}||{{nts|211}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Taiwan|Taiwan]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|32}}||{{nts|102}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Thailand|Thailand]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|50}}||{{nts|100}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Turkey|Turkey]] || || || || || || ||{{nts|0.2}}||{{nts|0.3}}||{{nts|0.4}}||{{nts|0.6}}||{{nts|0.9}}||{{nts|1.3}}||{{nts|1.8}}||{{nts|2.3}}||{{nts|2.8}}||{{nts|3.3}}||{{nts|4.0}}||{{nts|5.0}}||{{nts|6}}||{{nts|7}}
|-
|[[Solar power in Ukraine|Ukraine]] || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||{{nts|3}}||{{nts|190}}
|-
|[[Solar power in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] ||{{nts|0.2}}||{{nts|0.3}}||{{nts|0.3}}||{{nts|0.4}}||{{nts|0.4}}||{{nts|0.6}}||{{nts|0.7}}||{{nts|1.1}}||{{nts|1.9}}||{{nts|2.7}}||{{nts|4.1}}||{{nts|5.9}}||{{nts|8.2}}||{{nts|10.9}}||{{nts|14.3}}||{{nts|18.1}}||{{nts|22.5}}||{{nts|29.6}}||{{nts|77}}||{{nts|976}}
|-
|[[Solar power in the United States|USA]] ||{{nts|43.5}}||{{nts|50.3}}||{{nts|57.8}}||{{nts|66.8}}||{{nts|76.5}}||{{nts|88.2}}||{{nts|100.1}}||{{nts|117.3}}||{{nts|138.8}}||{{nts|167.8}}||{{nts|212.2}}||{{nts|275.2}}||{{nts|376.0}}||{{nts|479.0}}||{{nts|624.0}}||{{nts|830.5}}||{{nts|1,168.5}}||{{nts|1,255.7}}||{{nts|2,528}}||{{nts|4,383}}
|- class=sortbottom
!Total !! 105 !! 130 !! 158 !! 192 !! 237 !! 305 !! 386 !! 510 !! 1,425 !! 1,753 !! 2,220 !! 2,798 !! 3,911 !! 5,340 !! 6,915 !! 9,443 !! 15,772 !! 23,210 !! 40,019 !! 69,684
|}

==2011==

{| style="font-size:95%; text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
|+ '''Produced, installed & total photovoltaic peak power capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2011'''<ref name=EPIA2011>{{citation | title = EPIA Market Report | url = http://www.epia.org/publications/epiapublications.html | format=PDF | accessdate = 23 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="eur2012">[http://www.eurobserv-er.org/pdf/photovoltaic_2012.pdf Photovoltaic barometer]</ref>
|-
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2011 
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background:Yellow;"|Total 2011 
! Wp/capita Total
! 2011 Generation (GWh)
! Module Price [[USD|$]]/Wp
! System Cost [[USD|$]]/Wp
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[USD|USD¢]]/kW·h 
|-
| align=left|{{noflag}}World
| || ||29,655|| || ||69,684
|0.01|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|''{{flag|European Union}}''
|10.3||21,518||21,529||166.7||51,191||51,357
|102.2||44,800|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Germany}}
|5||7,500||7,505||55||24,820||24,875
|304.3||19,000|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Italy}}
|0||9,280||9,280||13.5||12,750||12,764
|210.5||10,730|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Japan}}
| 4.48 || 1,291.3 || 1,295.8 || 103.3 || 4,810.7 ||4,913.7
|39|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United States}}
| ||1,867||1,867|| || ||4,383
|13.8|| ||{{sort|1.28|1.28-1.67}}||{{sort|4.79|3.62-6.14}}<ref>[http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=1&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=1214 National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in the USA 2011]</ref>||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Spain}}
|1||354||355||23.3||4,191||4,214
|91.3||7,912|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|China}}
| || ||2,200|| || ||3,093
|2.3|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|France}}
|0.1||1,634||1,634||29.4||2,802||2,831
|43.5||1,800|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Czech Republic}}
|0||0||0||0.4||1,959||1,959
|186.0||2,118|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Belgium}}
|0||776||776||0.1||1,812||1,812
|165.5||1,282|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Australia}}
|76||761||837||163.78||1244.16||1,407.9
|56.4|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|0.3||937||937||2.3||1,012||1,014
|16.2||259|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Korea}}
|0||156.7||156.7||6||806.3||812.3
|15.4|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Greece}}
|0.1||426||426||7||624||631
|55.8||544|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Canada}}
| || ||364|| || ||563
|16.6|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Slovakia}}
|0.1||314||314||0.1||488||488
|89.8||400|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|India}}
| || ||300|| || ||461
|0.4|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}}
| || ||126|| || ||260
|32|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Israel}}
| || ||130|| || ||190
|23.9|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Austria}}
|0.69||90.98||91.64||4.5||182.67||187.17
|20.7||163|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Portugal}}
|0.1||12.6||12.7||3.2||140||144
|13.5||265|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Ukraine}}
| || ||188|| || ||190
|4.1|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
|0.4||100||100||0.7||132||133
|17.7||120|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|0||30||30||5||113||118
|7.1||86|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Taiwan}}
| || ||70|| || ||102
|4.4|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Thailand}}
| || ||50|| || ||100<ref>[http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=1&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=1233 Trends Preview 2011]</ref>
| || || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Slovenia}}
|0||44.9||44.9||0.1||90.3||90.4
|44.1||60|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Africa}}
| || ||1|| || ||41
|0.8|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Mexico}}
| || ||10|| || ||40
|0.4|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Brazil}}
| || ||5|| || ||32
|0.2|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Luxembourg}}
|0||1.2||1.2||0||30.6||30.6
|59.9||21|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sweden}}
|0.73||3.59||4.31||6.48||9.27||15.75
|2.0||15.0|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Denmark}}
|0.2||9.5||9.7||0.8||15.88||16.68
|3.0||12.0|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malta}}
|0||7.7||7.7||0||11.5||11.5
|27.4||17.5|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Finland}}
|1.5||0||1.5||11||0.2||11.2
|2.1||8.0|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|0||0.9||0.9||11||2.5||13.5
|0.4|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Cyprus}}
|0.1||3.8||3.8||0.7||9.3||10.1
|12.5||12.0|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Turkey}}
| || ||5|| || ||6
|0.1|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Hungary}}
|0.2||2.2||2.4||0.4||3.7||4.1
|0.4||3.3|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Romania}}
|0||1||1||0.6||2.3||2.9
|0.1||2.0|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Poland}}
|0||0||0||1.3||0.5||1.8
|0.0||1.7|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Latvia}}
|0||1.5||1.5||0||1.5||1.5
|0.7|| || || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Ireland}}
|0||0||0||0.6||0.1||0.7
|0.2||0.5|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Estonia}}
|0.1||0||0.1||0.1||0.0||0.2
|0.1||0.1|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Lithuania}}
|0||0||0||0.1||0||0.1
|0.0||0.1|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Norway}}
| || ||0|| || ||0.1
|0.02|| || || ||
|- class="sortbottom"
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2011
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background:Yellow;"|Total 2011
! Wp/capita Total
! 2011 Generation (GWh)
! Module Price [[USD|$]]/Wp
! System Cost [[USD|$]]/Wp
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[USD|USD¢]]/kW·h
|}

==2010==

{| style="font-size:95%; text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
|+ '''Produced, installed & total photovoltaic peak power capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2010'''<ref name="IEA2010">{{citation | last = IEA PVPS Task 1 | year = 2011 | title = Preliminary Trend Report 2010 | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=92&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=823 |format=PDF| accessdate = 16 September 2011}}</ref><ref name="IEA2010">{{citation | last = IEA PVPS Task 1 | year = 2011 | title = Preliminary Trend Report 2010 | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=92&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=823 |format=PDF| accessdate = 16 September 2011}}</ref><ref name=bp>{{citation | title = BP Statistical World Energy Review 2011 | url = http://www.bp.com/liveassets/bp_internet/globalbp/globalbp_uk_english/reports_and_publications/statistical_energy_review_2011/STAGING/local_assets/spreadsheets/statistical_review_of_world_energy_full_report_2011.xls |format=XLS| accessdate = 8 August 2011}}</ref><ref name=obs>[http://www.eurobserv-er.org/pdf/baro202.pdf EurObserv’ER 202: Photovoltaic Barometer]</ref>
|-
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2010 
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background:Yellow;"|Total 2010 
! Wp/capita Total 
! Module Price [[USD|$]]/Wp
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[USD|USD¢]]/kW·h 
|-
| align=left|{{noflag}}World
| || ||16,735|| || ||39,778
| || ||
|-
| align=left|''{{flag|European Union}}''
|9.8||13,013||13,023||29,173||154.4||29,328||58.5|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Germany}}
| 5||7,406||7,411||50||17,320||17,370||212.3
| 
| 
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Spain}}
| 1||369||370||21.1||3,787||3,808||82.8
| 
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Japan}}
| 4.2||986.8||991.0||98.8||3,519||3,618||28.3
| 
| 
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Italy}}
| 0.1||2,321||2,321||13.5||3,465||3,478||57.6
| 
| 
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United States}}
| 31||887||918||440||2,094||2,534||8.1
| {{sort|1.48|1.48-2.36}}
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Czech Republic}}
| 0||1,490||1,490||0.4||1,952.7||1,953||185.9|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|France}}
| 0.1||719.0||719.1||29.4||1,025||1,054||16.3
|  ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|China}}
| || ||520.0|| || ||893.0|| || ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Belgium}}
| 0||213.4||213.4||0.1||787.4||787.5||72.6|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Korea}}
| 0||131.2||131.2||6.0||649.6||655.6||13.4
| 
| 
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Australia}}
| 3.8||379.5||383.3||87.8||483.1||570.9||25.2
| 
| 
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Canada}}
| 24.9||171.7||196.6||60.1||231.0||291.1||8.4
| 
| 
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Greece}}
| 0.1||150.3||150.4||6.9||198.5||205.4||18.2|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|India}}
| || ||69.0|| || ||189.0|| || ||

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}}
| 0.2||25.5||25.7||4||69.6||73.6||9.7
| {{sort|3.0|3.0-3.5}}
| {{sort|14.7|14.7}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}
| 0.091||10.58||10.67||5||62.5||67.5||4.1
| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Austria}}
| 0.25||19.96||20.21||3.61||48.99||52.60||6.4
| {{sort|3.0|3.0-3.2}}
| {{sort|26.4|26.4}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
| 0.155||6.922||7.077||0||26.4||26.4||0.4
|
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Mexico}}
| 2.47||0.80||3.27||23.72||1.30||25.02||0.2
| {{sort|4|4-5}}
| {{sort|36.2|<36.2}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Israel}}
| 0.5||21||21.5||2.9||21.63||24.53||3.4
| {{sort|3.6|3.6-5.1}}
| {{sort|12.5|12.5}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Portugal}}
| 0.2||14.25||14.45||2.841||15.03||17.87||1.7
| {{sort|2.1|2.1-4.2}}
| {{sort|10.3|10.3-19.2}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malaysia}}
| 2||0.287||2.287||10||1.063||11.06||0.4
| {{sort|3.71|3.71}}
| {{sort|13.5|<13.5}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Slovenia}}
| 0||6.9||6.9||0.1||8.9||9.0||4.1|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sweden}}
| 0.338||0.516||0.854||5.169||3.595||8.764||1.0
| {{sort|2.4|2.4-6.5}}
| {{sort|18.3|18.3-20.9}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Norway}}
| 0.32||0||0.32||8.530||0.132||8.662||1.9
|
| {{sort|11.1|11.1–14.3}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Finland}}
| 2.0||0||2.0||7.5||0.2||7.6||1.4|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Luxembourg}}
| 0||1.8||1.8||0||5.7||5.7||52.4|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
| 0||4.3||4.3||0||5.7||5.7||0.8|| ||
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Denmark}}
| 0.2||1.2||1.3||0.540||4.025||4.565||0.8
| {{sort|2.8|2.8-4.7}}
| {{sort|37.5|37.5}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Turkey}}
| 0.9||0.1||1||4.5||0.5||5||0.1
| {{sort|2.8|2.8-4.2}}
| {{sort|13.3|13.3}}
|- class="sortbottom"
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2010
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background:Yellow;"|Total 2010
! Wp/capita Total
! Module Price [[USD|$]]/Wp
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[USD|USD¢]]/kW·h
|}

==2009==

{| style="font-size: 95%; text-align: right;" class="wikitable sortable" border="0"
|+ '''Produced, installed & total photovoltaic peak power capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2009'''<ref name="IEA PV Data 2009">{{Citation| last = IEA PVPS Task 1 | year = 2010 | title = Trend Report 2009 | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=92&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=432 |format=PDF| accessdate = 28 March 2011}}</ref>
|-
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2009 
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 2009 
! Wp/capita Total 
! Module Price [[USD|$]]/Wp

! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[USD|USD¢]]/kW·h 
|-
| align=left|{{noflag}}World
|75||6,113||6,188||837||19,543||20,381
|
|

|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Germany}}
|5||3,840||3,845||45||9,800||9,845||119.6
| {{sort|2.1|2.1-3.5}}

| {{sort|31.5|31.5}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Spain}}
| 0||60||60||31||3,492||3,523||76.1
| {{sort|1.6|1.6-3.5}}

|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Japan}}
| 3.8||479.2||483.0||95||2,533||2,627||20.7
| {{sort|4.3|4.3}}

| {{sort|19.1|19.1-25.8}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United States}}
| 40||433.1||473.1||410||1,232||1,642||5.3
| {{sort|1.85|1.85-2.2}}

| {{sort|10.4|10.4}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Italy}}
| 0||723||723||13||1168||1,181||20.3
| {{sort|2.2|2.2-3.0}}

| {{sort|23.6|23.6}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Korea}}
| 0||84.4||84.4||5.9||436.0||441.9||9.1
| {{sort|1.9|1.9-2.0}}

| {{sort|13.3|13.3-19.6}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|France}}
| 0.2||250||250.2||23||407||430||6.7
| {{sort|1.5|1.5-2.8}}

|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Australia}}
| 10.56||68.57||79.13||83.91||99.7||183.65||8.3
| {{sort|2.3|2.3-4.7}}

| {{sort|10.2|10.2-15.6}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Portugal}}
| 0.1||34.15||34.25||3.05||99.15||102.2||9.5
| {{sort|2.1|2.1-4.2}}

| {{sort|10.3|10.3-19.2}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Canada}}
| 7.71||54.14||61.85||35.2||59.37||94.57||2.8
| {{sort|2.9|2.9}}

| {{sort|6.1|6.1}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}}
| 0.2||25.5||25.7||4||69.6||73.6||9.7
| {{sort|3.0|3.0-3.5}}

| {{sort|14.7|14.7}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}
| 0.091||10.58||10.67||5||62.5||67.5||4.1
|

|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Austria}}
| 0.25||19.96||20.21||3.61||48.99||52.60||6.4
| {{sort|3.0|3.0-3.2}}

| {{sort|26.4|26.4}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
| 0.155||6.922||7.077||1.75||27.85||29.59||0.4
|

|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Mexico}}
| 2.47||0.80||3.27||23.72||1.30||25.02||0.2
| {{sort|4|4-5}}

| {{sort|36.2|<36.2}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Israel}}
| 0.5||21||21.5||2.9||21.63||24.53||3.4
| {{sort|3.6|3.6-5.1}}

| {{sort|12.5|12.5}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malaysia}}
| 2||0.287||2.287||10||1.063||11.06||0.4
| {{sort|3.71|3.71}}

| {{sort|13.5|<13.5}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sweden}}
| 0.338||0.516||0.854||5.169||3.595||8.764||1.0
| {{sort|2.4|2.4-6.5}}

| {{sort|18.3|18.3-20.9}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Norway}}
| 0.32||0||0.32||8.530||0.132||8.662||1.9
|

| {{sort|11.1|11.1–14.3}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Turkey}}
| 0.9||0.1||1||4.5||0.5||5||0.1
| {{sort|2.8|2.8-4.2}}

| {{sort|18.0|18.0}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Denmark}}
| 0.2||1.2||1.3||0.540||4.025||4.565||0.8
| {{sort|2.8|2.8-4.7}}

| {{sort|37.5|37.5}}
|-
|- class="sortbottom"
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2009
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 2009
! Wp/capita Total
! Module Price [[USD|$]]/Wp

! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[USD|USD¢]]/kW·h
|}

==2008==

{| style="font-size: 95%; text-align: right;" class="wikitable sortable" border="0"
|+ '''Produced, installed & total photovoltaic peak power capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2008'''<ref name="IEA PV Data 2008">{{Citation| last = IEA PVPS Task 1 | year = 2010 | title = Trend Report 2008 | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=92&eID=dam_frontend_push&docID=145 |format=PDF| accessdate = 7 May 2012}}</ref>
|-
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2008 
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 2008 
! Wp/capita Total 

|-
| align=left|{{noflag}}World
|68.56||5,490.4||5,558.9||740.6||12,683||13,424

|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Germany}}
|4.5||1,500||1,504.5||40||5,300||5,340||64.7

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Spain}}
| 1||60||2,661||31||3,323||3,354||77.1

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Japan}}
| 0.7||224.6||225.3||90.8||2,053||2,144||16.8

|-
| align=left|{{flag|United States}}
| 45||293||338||370||798.5||1,168.5||3.9

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Italy}}
| 0.2 ||337.9||338.1||13.3||445||458.3||7.8

|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Korea}}
| 0||276.3||276.3||5.9||351.6||357.5||7.3

|-
| align=left|{{flag|France}}
| 0.4||104.1||104.5||22.9||156.8||179.7||2.9

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Australia}}
| 6.9||15.1||22.0||73.3||31.2||104.5||5.1

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Portugal}}
| 0.1||49.98||50.08||2.941||65.01||67.95||6.7

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}
| 0.21||4.2||4.4||5.2||52||57.2||3.5

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}}
| 0.2||11.5||11.7||3.8||44||47.9||6.4

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Canada}}
| 4.62||2.33||6.94||27.48||5.24||32.7||1.0

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Austria}}
| 0.13||4.55||4.69||3.36||29.03||32.39||4.0

|-
| align=left|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
| 0.12||4.3||4.42||1.59||20.92||22.51||0.3

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Mexico}}
| 0.80||0.20||1.00||21.25||0.50||21.75||0.2

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malaysia}}
| 1.6||0.135||1.76||8||0.776||8.776||0.4

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Norway}}
| 0.35||0||0.35||8.210||0.132||8.342||1.8

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sweden}}
| 0.275||10.403||1.678||4.83||3.08||7.91||0.9

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Turkey}}
| 0.675||0.075||0.75||3.75||0.25||4||0.06

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Denmark}}
| 0.55||0.135||0.190||0.440||2.825||3.265||0.8

|-
| align=left|{{flag|Israel}}
| 0.6||0.6||1.21||2.4||0.62||3.03||0.4

|-
|- class="sortbottom"
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2009
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 2009
! Wp/capita Total

|}

==2007==


{| style="font-size: 95%; text-align: right;" class="wikitable sortable" border="0"
|+ '''Produced, installed & total photovoltaic peak power capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2007'''
|-
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2007 
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 2007 
! Wp/capita Total 
! Module Price [[Euro|€]]/Wp
! kW·h/kWp·yr [[Insolation]] 
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[Euro|EU¢]]/kW·h 
|-
| align=left|{{noflag}}World
|127.9||2,130||2,258||662.3||7,178||7,841
|
| {{sort|02.5|2.5–11.2}}
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" | {{sort|0800|800–2,902}}
| {{sort|0|0–59.3}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Germany}}<ref name="NSR-Germany">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Wissing | first = Lothar | coauthors = Jülich, Forschungszentrum & Jülich, Projektträger | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Germany 2006 - Version 2 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/germany/index.htm NSRs for Germany] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06deunsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends">{{cite journal | last = Bründlinger | first = Roland | coauthors = Cowley, Paul & Watt, Greg et al. (See:Table 11 – IEA PVPS Task 1 national report authors) | date = 2007-August | title = Trends In Photovoltaic Applications - Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/rep1_16.htm IEA PVPS T1-16:2007] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/download/rep1_16.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 5 November 2007}}</ref>
|35||1,100||1,135||35||3,827||3,862||46.8
| {{sort|04.0|4.0–5.3}}
| style="background-color: Cyan" | {{sort|1000|1,000–1,300}}<ref name="Insolation-Germany&USA">{{cite journal | last = Sherwood | first = Larry | coauthors = Les Nelson, Fred Morse, Jeff Wolfe, Chris O’Brien | year = 2006 | title = US Solar Industry - Year In Review - 2006 | journal = [http://www.seia.org/ Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA)] & [http://www.prometheus.org/ the Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development] | url = http://www.seia.org/Year_in_Solar_2006.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070928194646/http://www.seia.org/Year_in_Solar_2006.pdf| archivedate = 28 September 2007}}</ref>
| {{sort|51.8|51.8–56.8}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Japan}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Japan">{{cite journal | last = Ikki | first = Osamu | coauthors = Matsubara, Koji | date = 25 May 2007 | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Japan 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/japan/index.htm NSRs for Japan] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06jpnnsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 1.562||208.8||210.4||90.15||1,829||1,919||15
| {{sort|02.96|2.96}}
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" | {{sort|1200|1,200–1,600}}
| Ended(2005)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United States}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-USA">{{cite journal | last = Pedigo | first = Susannah | coauthors = Maycock, Paul D. & Bower, Ward | date = 30 August 2007 | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in The United States Of America 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/usa/index.htm NSRs for the USA] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06usansr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 55||151.5||206.5||325||505.5||830.5||2.8
| {{sort|02.98|2.98}}
| style="background-color: GreenYellow"|{{sort|0900|900–2,150}}<ref name="Insolation-Germany&USA"/>
| {{sort|01.2|1.2–31.04(CA)}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Spain}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 22||490||512||29.8||625.2||655||15.1
| {{sort|03.0|3.0–4.5}}
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" | {{sort|1600|1,600–2,200}}
| {{sort|18.38|18.38–44.04}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Italy}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Italy">{{cite journal | last = Guastella | first = Salvatore | coauthors = Castello, Salvatore & Anna De Lillo | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Italy 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/Italy/index.htm NSRs for Italy] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06itansr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0.3||69.9||70.2||13.1||107.1||120.2||2.1
| {{sort|03.2|3.2–3.6}}
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" | {{sort|1400|1,400–2,200}}
| {{sort|36.0|36.0–49.0}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Australia}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Australia">{{cite journal | last = Watt | first = Muriel | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Australia 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/australia/index.htm NSRs for Australia] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06ausnsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 16 October 2007}}</ref>
| 5.91||6.28||12.19||66.45||16.04||82.49||4.1
| {{sort|04.5|4.5–5.4}}
| style="background-color: Gold" | {{sort|1450|1,450–2,902}}<ref>{{cite journal | last = Blakers | first = Andrew W. | year = 2000 | title = Solar and Wind Electricity in Australia | journal = Australian Journal of Environmental Management, Vol 7, pp 223-236, 2000 | url = http://solar.anu.edu.au/pubs/papers/Solar&Wind.pdf | accessdate = 3 September 2008 | format = pdf}}</ref>
| {{sort|0|0–26.4(SA'08)}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Korea}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Korea">{{cite journal | last = Yoon | first = Kyung-Hoon | coauthors = Kim, Donghwan & Yoon, Kyung Shick | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Korea 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/korea/index.htm NSRs for the Republic of Korea] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06kornsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0||42.87||42.87||5.943||71.66||77.60||1.6
| {{sort|03.50|3.50–3.84}}
| style="background-color: Lime" | {{sort|1500|1,500–1,600}}
| {{sort|56.5|56.5–59.3}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|France}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-France">{{cite journal | last = Claverie | first = André | coauthors = Equer, Bernard | date = 15 July 2007 | title = Solar Photovoltaic Electricity Applications in France National Survey Report 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/france/index.htm NSRs for France] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/france/France%20NSR%20PV%202006.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 13 March 2008}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
| 0.993||30.31||31.30||22.55||52.68||75.23||1.2
| {{sort|03.2|3.2–5.1}}
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" | {{sort|1100|1,100–2,000}}
| {{sort|30.0|30.0–55.0}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Netherlands">{{cite journal | last = Swens | first = Job | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in The Netherlands 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/netherlands/index.htm NSRs for the Netherlands] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06nldnsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0.582||1.023||1.605||5.3||48||53.3||3.3
| {{sort|03.3|3.3–4.5}}
| style="background-color: Cyan" | {{sort|1000|1,000–1,200}}
| {{sort|01.21|1.21–9.7}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Switzerland">{{cite journal | last = Hüsser | first = Pius | coauthors = Hostettler, Thomas | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report on PV Power Applications in Switzerland 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/Switzerland/index.htm NSRs for Switzerland] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06chensr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 11 December 2007}}</ref>
| 0.2||6.3||6.5||3.6||32.6||36.2||4.9
| {{sort|03.18|3.18–3.30}}
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" | {{sort|1200|1,200–2,000}}
| {{sort|09.53|9.53–50.8}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Austria}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 0.055||2.061||2.116||3.224||24.48||27.70||3.4
| {{sort|03.6|3.6–4.3}}
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" | {{sort|1200|1,200–2,000}}
| >0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Canada}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Canada">{{cite journal | last = Ayoub
| first = Josef | coauthors = Martel, Sylvain & Dr. Dignard-Bailey, Lisa | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Canada 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/canada/index.htm NSRs for Canada] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06cannsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 16 October 2007}}</ref>
| 3.888||1.403||5.291||22.86||2.911||25.78||0.8
| {{sort|03.76|3.76}}
| style="background-color: Cyan" | {{sort|0900|900–1,750}}
| {{sort|0|0–29.48(ON)}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Mexico}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 0.869||0.15||1.019||20.45||0.3||20.75||0.2
| {{sort|05.44|5.44–6.42}}
| style="background-color: Gold" | {{sort|1700|1,700–2,600}}
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United Kingdom}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-United Kingdom">{{cite journal | last = Davidson | first = Sarah | date = 2007-October | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in the United Kingdom 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/uk/index.htm NSRs for the United Kingdom] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/uk/UK_IEA_PVPS_NSR_2006.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 16 March 2008}}</ref>
| 0.16||3.65||3.81||1.47||16.62||18.09||0.3
| {{sort|03.67|3.67–5.72}}
| style="background-color: Cyan" | {{sort|0900|900–1,300}}
| {{sort|0|0–11.74(exprt)}}
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Portugal}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
| 0.2||14.25||14.45||2.841||15.03||17.87||1.7
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" | {{sort|1600|1,600–2,200}}
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Norway}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Norway">{{cite journal | last = Bugge | first = Lars | coauthors = Salvesen, Fritjof | date = 30 May 2007 | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Norway 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/norway/index.htm NSRs for Norway] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06nornsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0.32||0.004||0.324||7.86||0.132||7.992||1.7
| {{sort|11.2|11.2}}
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" | {{sort|0800|800–950}}
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sweden}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Sweden">{{cite journal | last = Malm | first = Ulf | coauthors = Stolt, Lars | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/sweden/index.htm NSRs for Sweden] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06swensr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0.271||1.121||1.392||4.566||1.676||6.242||0.7
| {{sort|03.24|3.24–7.02}}
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" | {{sort|0900|900–1,050}}
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Denmark}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Denmark">{{cite journal | last = Ahm | first = Peter | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Denmark 2006 - Version 04 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/denmark/index.htm NSRs for Denmark] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06dnknsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0.05||0.125||0.175||0.385||2.69||3.075||0.6
| {{sort|05.36|5.36–8.04}}
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" | {{sort|0900|900–1,100}}
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Israel}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Israel">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Siderer | first = Yona | coauthors = Dann, Roxana | year = 2007 | month = May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Israel 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/israel/index.htm NSRs for Israel] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06isrnsr.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0.5||0||0.5||1.794||0.025||1.819||0.3
| {{sort|04.3|4.3}}
| style="background-color: Gold" | {{sort|2200|2,200–2,400}}
| {{sort|13.13|13.13–16.40}}


|- class="sortbottom"
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2007
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 2007
! Wp/capita Total
! Module Price [[Euro|€]]/Wp
! kW·h/kWp·yr [[Insolation]]
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[Euro|EU¢]]/kW·h
|}

Notes: Off grid refers to photovoltaics which are not grid connected. On grid means connected to the local electricity grid. Δ means the amount installed during the previous year. Σ means the total amount installed. Wp/capita refers to the ratio of total installed capacity divided by total population, or total installed Wp per person. Module price is average installed price, in Euros. kW·h/kWp·yr indicates the range of insolation to be expected. While National Report(s) may be cited as source(s) within an International Report, any contradictions in data are resolved by using only the most recent report's data. Exchange rates represent the 2006 annual average of daily rates (OECD Main Economic Indicators June 2007). Module Price: Lowest:2.5 EUR/Wp<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/> (2.83 USD/Wp<ref name="Exchange Rates"/>) in Germany 2003. Uncited insolation data is from maps dating 1991-1995. [http://www.iea-pvps.org/pvpower/download/pvpower26.pdf PV Power (2007-June)]<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/><ref name="Baro178-ASP"/> [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries IEA PVPS website].

==2006==


{| style="font-size: 95%; text-align: right;" class="wikitable sortable" border="0"
|+ '''Produced, installed & total photovoltaic peak power capacity (MWp) as of the end of 2006'''
|-
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! Cells Made 
! Modules Made 
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2006 
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 06 
! Wp/capita Total 
! Module Price [[Euro|€]]/Wp
! kW·h/kWp·yr [[Insolation]] 
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[Euro|EU¢]]/kW·h 
|-
| align=left|{{noflag}}World
| 2,523
| 2,092
| 97.48
| 1,452
| 1,549
| 712.7
| 5,150
| 5,862
| 0.879
| 2.5-11.2
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |0800-2902
| 0-59.3
|-
| align=left|{{flag|European Union}}
| 653.7
| 593.9
| 16.91
| 1,032
| 1,049
| 112.3
| 3,108
| 3,221
| 6.533
| 3.0-8.04
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |0800-2200
| 0-56.8
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Germany}} <ref name="NSR-Germany">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Wissing | first = Lothar | coauthors = Jülich, Forschungszentrum & Jülich, Projektträger | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Germany 2006 - Version 2 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/germany/index.htm NSRs for Germany] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06deunsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref><ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends">{{cite journal | last = Bründlinger | first = Roland | coauthors = Cowley, Paul & Watt, Greg et al. (See:Table 11 – IEA PVPS Task 1 national report authors) | date = 2007-August | title = Trends In Photovoltaic Applications - Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/rep1_16.htm IEA PVPS T1-16:2007] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/products/download/rep1_16.pdf | accessdate = 5 November 2007}}</ref>
| 514.0
| 341.0
| 3
| 950
| 953
| 32
| 2,831
| 2,863
| 34.78
| 4.0-5.3
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000-1300<ref name="Insolation-Germany&USA">{{cite journal | last = Sherwood | first = Larry | coauthors = Les Nelson, Fred Morse, Jeff Wolfe, Chris O’Brien | year = 2006 | title = US Solar Industry - Year In Review - 2006 | journal = [http://www.seia.org/ Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA)] & [http://www.prometheus.org/ the Prometheus Institute for Sustainable Development] | url = http://www.seia.org/Year_in_Solar_2006.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070928194646/http://www.seia.org/Year_in_Solar_2006.pdf| archivedate = 28 September 2007}}</ref>
| 51.8-56.8
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Japan}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Japan">{{cite journal | last = Ikki | first = Osamu | coauthors = Matsubara, Koji | date = 25 May 2007 | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Japan 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/japan/index.htm NSRs for Japan] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06jpnnsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 919.8
| 645.4
| 1.531
| 285.1
| 286.6
| 88.59
| 1,620
| 1,709
| 13.37
| 2.96
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1200-1600
| Ended(2005)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United States}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-USA">{{cite journal | last = Pedigo | first = Susannah | coauthors = Maycock, Paul D. & Bower, Ward | date = 30 August 2007 | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in The United States Of America 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/usa/index.htm NSRs for the USA] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06usansr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 201.6
| 200.5
| 37
| 108
| 145
| 270
| 354
| 624
| 2.058
| 2.98
| style="background-color: GreenYellow"|0900-2150<ref name="Insolation-Germany&USA"/>
| 1.2-31.04(CA)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Spain}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 75.3
|
| 9.1
| 51.4
| 60.5
| 17.8
| 100.4
| 118.2
| 2.620
| 3.0-4.5
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1600-2200
| 18.38-44.04
|-
| align=left|{{flag|China}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>

| 380
| 510
| 15
|
| 15
| 73
|
| 73
| 0.055
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1300-2300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Australia}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Australia">{{cite journal | last = Watt | first = Muriel | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Australia 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/australia/index.htm NSRs for Australia] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06ausnsr.pdf | accessdate = 16 October 2007}}</ref>
| 36.0
| 7.6
| 7.576
| 2.145
| 9.721
| 60.54
| 9.765
| 70.30
| 3.327
| 4.5-5.4
| style="background-color: Gold" |1450-2902<ref>{{cite journal | last = Blakers | first = Andrew W. | year = 2000 | title = Solar and Wind Electricity in Australia | journal = Australian Journal of Environmental Management, Vol 7, pp 223-236, 2000 | url = http://solar.anu.edu.au/level_1/pubs/papers/Solar&Wind.pdf | accessdate = 14 February 2008 | format = – [http://scholar.google.co.uk/scholar?hl=en&lr=&q=author%3A+intitle%3ASolar+and+Wind+Electricity+in+Australia&as_publication=Australian+Journal+of+Environmental+Management%2C+Vol+7%2C+pp+223-236%2C+2000&as_ylo=&as_yhi=&btnG=Search Scholar search]| archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070831051447/http://solar.anu.edu.au/level_1/pubs/papers/Solar&Wind.pdf| archivedate = 31 August 2007}} {{Dead link|date=May 2008}}</ref>
| 0-26.4(SA'08)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Netherlands">{{cite journal | last = Swens | first = Job | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in The Netherlands 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/netherlands/index.htm NSRs for the Netherlands] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06nldnsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 18.0
| 2.6
| 0.278
| 1.243
| 1.521
| 5.713
| 46.99
| 52.71
| 3.217
| 3.3-4.5
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000–1200
| 1.21-9.7
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Italy}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Italy">{{cite journal | last = Guastella | first = Salvatore | coauthors = Castello, Salvatore & Anna De Lillo | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Italy 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/Italy/index.htm NSRs for Italy] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06itansr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 11.0
| 27.0
| 0.5
| 12
| 12.5
| 12.8
| 37.2
| 50
| 0.846
| 3.2-3.6
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1400-2200
| 36.0-49.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|France}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-France">{{cite journal | last = Claverie | first = André | coauthors = Equer, Bernard | date = 15 July 2007 | title = Solar Photovoltaic Electricity Applications in France National Survey Report 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/france/index.htm NSRs for France] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/france/France%20NSR%20PV%202006.pdf | accessdate = 13 March 2008}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>
| 33.5
| 36.0
| 1.478
| 9.412
| 10.89
| 21.55
| 22.38
| 43.93
| 0.685
| 3.2-5.1
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1100-2000
| 30.0-55.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Korea}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Korea">{{cite journal | last = Yoon | first = Kyung-Hoon | coauthors = Kim, Donghwan & Yoon, Kyung Shick | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Korea 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/korea/index.htm NSRs for the Republic of Korea] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06kornsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 18.0
| 16.9
| 0.28
| 20.93
| 21.21
| 5.943
| 28.79
| 34.73
| 0.716
| 3.50-3.84
| style="background-color: Lime" |1500–1600
| 56.5-59.3
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Thailand}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>

|
| 20
| 6
|
| 6
| 30
|
| 30
| 0.477
| 2.5<ref name="NSR-Germany"/>
| style="background-color: Gold" |2200–2400
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Switzerland">{{cite journal | last = Hüsser | first = Pius | coauthors = Hostettler, Thomas | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report on PV Power Applications in Switzerland 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/Switzerland/index.htm NSRs for Switzerland] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06chensr.pdf | accessdate = 11 December 2007}}</ref>
| 0.03
| 0.03
| 0.15
| 2.5
| 2.65
| 3.4
| 26.3
| 29.7
| 3.955
| 3.18-3.30
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1200-2000
| 9.53-50.8
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Austria}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
|
|
| 0.274
| 1.29
| 1.564
| 3.169
| 22.42
| 25.59
| 3.076
| 3.6-4.3
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1200-2000
| >0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Luxembourg}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF">{{cite journal | last = EurObserv'ER | first = (Includes Some Discredited/Preliminary Sources) | date = 2007-April | title = EurObserv’ER - Photovoltaic Energy Barometer | journal = [http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/ Systèmes Solaires - Le Journal des Énergies Renouvelables n° 178] | pages = 49–70 | url = http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/observ/baro178.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 7 September 2007}}</ref>
|
|
|
| 0.042
| 0.042
|
| 23.60
| 23.60
| 50.54
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100–1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Canada}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Canada">{{cite journal | last = Ayoub
| first = Josef | coauthors = Martel, Sylvain & Dr. Dignard-Bailey, Lisa | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Canada 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/canada/index.htm NSRs for Canada] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06cannsr.pdf | accessdate = 16 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0
| 2.35
| 3.354
| 0.384
| 3.738
| 18.98
| 1.508
| 20.48
| 0.620
| 3.76
| style="background-color: Cyan" |0900-1750
| 0-29.48(ON)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Mexico}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
|
|
| 0.938
| 0.116
| 1.054
| 19.59
| 0.155
| 19.75
| 0.185
| 5.44-6.42
| style="background-color: Gold" |1700-2600
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|United Kingdom}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-United Kingdom">{{cite journal | last = Davidson | first = Sarah | date = 2007-October | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in the United Kingdom 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/uk/index.htm NSRs for the United Kingdom] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/uk/UK_IEA_PVPS_NSR_2006.pdf | accessdate = 16 March 2008}}</ref>
| 1.9
| 89.4
| 0.376
| 3.007
| 3.383
| 1.3
| 12.96
| 14.26
| 0.232
| 3.67-5.72
| style="background-color: Cyan" |0900-1300
| 0-11.74(exprt)
|-
| align=left|{{flag|India}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 43.4<ref name="Eco-Economy Indicators-PVNews">{{cite journal | last = Prometheus Institute | first = Preliminary Data Hearsay Reference | date = 2007-April | title = Eco-Economy Indicators: SOLAR POWER - Data - 23rd Annual Data Collection - Final | journal = PVNews, vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 8-9 | url = http://www.earthpolicy.org/Indicators/Solar/2007_data.htm#table3 | accessdate = 14 April 2008}}</ref>
| 65
| 6
|
| 6
| 12
|
| 12
| 0.010
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1700-2500
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Norway}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Norway">{{cite journal | last = Bugge | first = Lars | coauthors = Salvesen, Fritjof | date = 30 May 2007 | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Norway 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/norway/index.htm NSRs for Norway] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06nornsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 37.0
| 0
| 0.35
| 0.053
| 0.403
| 7.54
| 0.128
| 7.668
| 1.624
| 11.2
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0800-0950
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Greece}} <ref name="Baro178-PDF"/><ref name="Presentation-Balkans">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Zachariou | first = Alexander | date = 19 April 2007 | title = PV Market and Industry in the Balkans | journal = [http://www.pvmed.org/ PV Med] - [http://www.pvmed.org/index.php?id=162 Presentations Day 2] | url = http://www.pvmed.org/uploads/media/0704200900C_05_ZACHARIOU.pdf | accessdate = 14 March 2008}}</ref>
|
|
| 1.049
| 0.201
| 1.25
| 5.081
| 1.613
| 6.694
| 0.601
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1500-1900
| 40.0-50.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sweden}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Sweden">{{cite journal | last = Malm | first = Ulf | coauthors = Stolt, Lars | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Sweden 2006 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/sweden/index.htm NSRs for Sweden] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06swensr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0
| 55.4
| 0.302
| 0.301
| 0.613
| 4.285
| 0.555
| 4.84
| 0.529
| 3.24-7.02
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0900-1050
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Belgium}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 2.103
| 2.103
| 0.053
| 4.108
| 4.161
| 0.398
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000–1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Finland}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 0.064
| 0.064
| 3.779
| 0.287
| 4.066
| 0.768
|
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0800-1050
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Bangladesh}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>

|
|
| 1.134
|
| 1.134
| 3.6
|
| 3.6
| 0.023
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1900–2100
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Sri Lanka}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>

|
|
| 0.65
|
| 0.65
| 3.6
|
| 3.6
| 0.187
|
| style="background-color: Gold" |2200–2400
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Portugal}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.25
| 0.227
| 0.477
| 2.691
| 0.775
| 3.466
| 0.326
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1600-2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Denmark}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Denmark">{{cite journal | last = Ahm | first = Peter | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Denmark 2006 - Version 04 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/denmark/index.htm NSRs for Denmark] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06dnknsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0
| 0.525
| 0.04
| 0.21
| 0.25
| 0.335
| 2.565
| 2.9
| 0.531
| 5.36-8.04
| style="background-color: LightSkyBlue" |0900-1100
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Nepal}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>

|
|
| 0.333
|
| 0.333
| 2.333
|
| 2.333
| 0.083
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1900–2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Israel}} <ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/><ref name="NSR-Israel">{{cite journal | last = Dr. Siderer | first = Yona | coauthors = Dann, Roxana | date = 2007-May | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Israel 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/israel/index.htm NSRs for Israel] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06isrnsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>
| 0
| 0
| 0.275
|
| 0.275
| 1.294
| 0.025
| 1.319
| 0.183
| 4.3
| style="background-color: Gold" |2200–2400
| 13.13-16.40
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Cyprus}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.08
| 0.44
| 0.52
| 0.45
| 0.526
| 0.976
| 1.142
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1900–2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Czech Republic}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
| 42<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
|
| 0.241
| 0.241
| 0.15
| 0.621
| 0.771
| 0.075
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100–1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malaysia}} <ref name="NSR-Malaysia">{{cite journal | last = Gulabrai | first = Lalchand | coauthors = Ruoss, Daniel; Chen, Wei-nee; Ir Ahmad Hadri Haris | date = 2007-April | title = National Survey Report of PV Power Applications in Malaysia 2006 - Version 14 | journal = [http://www.iea.org/ IEA] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/index.html PVPS Programme] - [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/malaysia/index.htm NSRs for Malaysia] | url = http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries/download/nsr06/06mysnsr.pdf | accessdate = 20 October 2007}}</ref>{{?}}
| 0
| 0
|
| .00452
| 0.00452
|
| 0.486
| 0.486
| 0.018
| 4.73
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1950–2250
| None
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Poland}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.027
| 0.087
| 0.114
| 0.319
| 0.112
| 0.431
| 0.011
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100–1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Slovenia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 0.183
| 0.183
| 0.098
| 0.265
| 0.363
| 0.180
|
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1300–1500
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Ireland}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
|
|
| 0.3
|
| 0.3
| 0.070
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1000–1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Bulgaria}} <ref name="Presentation-Balkans"/>{{?}}
|
|
| 0.12
|
| 0.12
| 0.2
|
| 0.2
| 0.026
|
| style="background-color: Lime" |1300-1800
| 38.5-40.0
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Hungary}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
|
|
| 0.09
| 0.065
| 0.155
| 0.015
|
| style="background-color: SpringGreen" |1300–1500
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Slovakia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.004
|
| 0.004
| 0.064
|
| 0.064
| 0.012
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1200–1400
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Malta}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
|
| 0.033
| 0.033
|
| 0.048
| 0.048
| 0.118
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |2100–2200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Lithuania}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.023
|
| 0.023
| 0.04
|
| 0.04
| 0.012
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100–1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Estonia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.005
|
| 0.005
| 0.008
|
| 0.008
| 0.006
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100–1200
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Latvia}} {{?}}<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/>
|
|
| 0.001
|
| 0.001
| 0.006
|
| 0.006
| 0.003
|
| style="background-color: Cyan" |1100–1300
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Taiwan}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 170
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="background-color: GreenYellow" |1700–1900
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|Philippines}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
| 63
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1950–2250
|
|-
| align=left|{{flag|South Africa}} {{?}}<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/>
|
| 30
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| style="background-color: Yellow" |1950–2250
|

|- class="sortbottom"
! [[List of renewable energy topics by country|Country or Region]] [[#References|Report]] Nat. Int.
! Cells Made
! Modules Made
! off grid Δ
! on grid Δ
! Installed 2006
! off grid Σ
! on grid Σ
! style="background-color: Yellow" |Total 06
! Wp/capita Total
! Module Price [[Euro|€]]/Wp
! kW·h/kWp·yr [[Insolation]]
! [[Feed-in Tariff]] [[Euro|EU¢]]/kW·h
|}
Notes: While National Report(s) may be cited as source(s) within an International Report, any contradictions in data are resolved by using only the most recent report's data. Exchange rates represent the 2006 annual average of daily rates (OECD Main Economic Indicators June 2007) Module Price: Lowest:2.5 EUR/Wp<ref name="ISR-IEA-Trends"/> (2.83 USD/Wp<ref name="Exchange Rates">[http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/g5a/ FRB: G.5A Release-- Foreign Exchange Rates, Release Dates]</ref>) in Germany 2003. Uncited insolation data is lifted from maps dating 1991-1995. [http://www.iea-pvps.org/pvpower/download/pvpower26.pdf PV Power (2007-June)]<ref name="Baro178-PDF"/><ref name="Baro178-ASP">{{cite journal | last = EurObserv'ER | first = (Includes Some Discredited/Preliminary Sources) | date = 2007-April | title = EurObserv’ER - Photovoltaic Energy Barometer | journal = [http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/ Systèmes Solaires - Le Journal des Énergies Renouvelables n° 178] | pages = 49–70 | url = http://www.energies-renouvelables.org/observ-er/stat_baro/erec/baro178.asp | format = [[ASP]] | accessdate = 7 September 2007}}</ref> [http://www.iea-pvps.org/countries IEA PVPS website].

==2005==

{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Installed PV Power as of the end of 2005<ref>[http://www.iea-pvps.org/isr/01.htm Table 1: Installed PV power in reporting IEA PVPS countries as of the end of 2005]</ref>'''
|-
! rowspan=3 | Country
! colspan="5" | PV Capacity
|-
! colspan="3" | Cumulative
! colspan="2" | Installed in 2005
|-
! Off Grid PV [kW]
! On Grid [kW]
! Total [kW]
! Total [kW]
! Grid-tied [kW]
|-
| Germany || align=right | 29,000 || align=right | 1,400,000 || align=right | 1,429,000 || align=right | 635,000 || align=right | 632,000
|-
| Japan || align=right | 87,057 || align=right | 1,334,851 || align=right | 1,421,908 || align=right | 289,917 || align=right | 287,105
|-
| United States || align=right | 233,000 || align=right | 246,000 || align=right | 479,000 || align=right | 103,000 || align=right | 70,000
|-
| Australia || align=right | 41,841 || align=right | 8,740 || align=right | 60,581 || align=right | 8,280 || align=right | 1,980
|-
| Spain || align=right | 15,800 || align=right | 41,600 || align=right | 57,400 || align=right | 20,400 || align=right | 18,600
|-
| Netherlands || align=right | 4,919 || align=right | 45,857 || align=right | 50,776 || align=right | 1,697 || align=right | 1,547
|-
| Italy || align=right | 12,300 || align=right | 15,200 || align=right | 37,500* || align=right | 6,800 || align=right | 6,500
|-
| France || align=right | 20,076 || align=right | 12,967 || align=right | 33,043 || align=right | 7,020 || align=right | 5,900
|-
| Switzerland || align=right | 3,250 || align=right | 23,800 || align=right | 27,050 || align=right | 3,950 || align=right | 3,800
|-
| Austria || align=right | 2,895 || align=right | 21,126 || align=right | 24,021 || align=right | 2,961 || align=right | 2,711
|-
| Mexico || align=right | 18,654 || align=right | 40 || align=right | 18,694 || align=right | 513 || align=right | 30
|-
| Canada || align=right | 15,622 || align=right | 1,124 || align=right | 16,746 || align=right | 2,862 || align=right | 612
|-
| South Korea || align=right | 5,663 || align=right | 9,358 || align=right | 15,021 || align=right | 6,487 || align=right | 6,183
|-
| United Kingdom || align=right | 924 || align=right | 9,953 || align=right | 10,877 || align=right | 2,732 || align=right | 2,567
|-
| Norway || align=right | 7,177 || align=right | 75 || align=right | 7,252 || align=right | 362 || align=right | 0
|-
| Sweden || align=right | 3,983 || align=right | 254 || align=right | 4,237 || align=right | 371 || align=right | 0
|-
| Denmark || align=right | 295 || align=right | 2,355 || align=right | 2,650 || align=right | 360 || align=right | 320
|-
| Israel || align=right | 1,019 || align=right | 25 || align=right | 1,044 || align=right | 158 || align=right | 2
|-
|}

:<nowiki>*</nowiki> Original source gives these individual numbers and totals them to 37,500 kW. The 2004 reported total was 30,700 kW.<ref>[http://www.iea-pvps.org/isr/22.htm Total photovoltaic power installed in IEA PVPS countries] accessed 24 July 2007 {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> With new installations of 6,800 kW, this would give the reported 37,500 kW.

==2004==

{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="center"
|+ '''Installed PV Power as of the end of 2004 <ref>[http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/isr/22.htm Total photovoltaic power installed in IEA PVPS countries]</ref>'''
|-
! rowspan=3 style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:3px solid grey;" | Country
! colspan="5" style="background:#efefef;" | PV Capacity
|-
! colspan="3" style="background:#efefef;" | Cumulative
! colspan="2" style="background:#efefef;" | Installed in 2004
|-
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:3px solid grey;" | Off-grid PV [KW]
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:3px solid grey;" | Grid-connected [KW]
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:3px solid grey;" | Total [KW]
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:3px solid grey;" | Total [KW]
! style="background:#efefef; border-bottom:3px solid grey;" | Grid-tied [KW]
|-
| Japan || 84,245 || 1,047,746 || 1,131,991 || 272,368 || 267,016
|-
| Germany || 26,000 || 768,000 || 794,000 || 363,000 || 360,000
|-
| United States || 189,600 || 175,600 || 365,200 || 90,000 || 62,000
|-
| Australia || 48,640 || 6,760 || 52,300 || 6,670 || 780
|-
| Netherlands || 4,769 || 44,310 || 49,079 || 3,162 || 3,071
|-
| Spain || 14,000 || 23,000 || 37,000 || 10,000 || 8,460
|-
| Italy || 12,000 || 18,700 || 30,700 || 4,700 || 4,400
|-
| France || 18,300 || 8,000 || 26,300 || 5,228 || 4,183
|-
| Switzerland || 3,100 || 20,000 || 23,100 || 2,100 || 2,000
|-
| Austria || 2,687 || 16,493 || 19,180 || 2,347 || 1,833
|-
| Mexico || 18,172 || 10 || 18,182 || 1,041 || 0
|-
| Canada || 13,372 || 512 || 13,884 || 2,054 || 107
|-
| Korea || 5,359 || 4,533 || 9,892 || 3,454 || 3,106
|-
| United Kingdom || 776 || 7,386 || 8,164 || 2,261 || 2,197
|-
| Norway || 6,813 || 75 || 6,888 || 273 || 0
|-
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Renewable energy|Energy}}
* [[Solar power by country]]
* [[Timeline of solar cells]]

==External links==
*[http://www.epia.org/european-photovoltaic-industry-association.html/ European Photovoltaic Industry Association]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Photovoltaics}}
[[Category:Photovoltaics]]

50 Cent Party

2012-11-18T22:30:57Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{ChineseText}}{{Chinese|s=五毛党 |t=五毛黨 |p=wǔmáo dǎng}}

The '''50 Cent Party''' are Internet commentators ({{lang|zh-s|网络评论员}}, {{lang|zh-t|網絡評論員}}, wǎnglù pínglùn yuán) hired by the [[government of the People's Republic of China]] (both local and central) or the [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] to post comments favorable towards party policies in an attempt to shape and sway [[public opinion]] on various Internet message boards.<ref name="BBC1"/><ref name="chinadigitaltimes"/> The commentators are said to be paid fifty cent of [[RMB]] for every post that either steers a discussion away from anti-party or sensitive content on domestic websites, [[bulletin board system]]s, and [[chatroom]]s,<ref name="tibetanreview"/> or that advances the Communist [[party line (politics)|party line]].<ref name="dnai"/><ref name="freedomhouse"/>

==History==
In October 2004, the Publicity Department of [[Changsha]] started hiring Internet commentators, in one of the earliest known uses of professional Internet commentators.<ref name="commentators" /><ref name="changshaxuanchuan"/>

In March 2005, the [[Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China]] enacted a systematic censorship of Chinese college bulletin board systems. The popular "Little Lily" BBS, ran by [[Nanjing University]], was forced to close. As a new system was prepared to be launched, school officials hired students as part-time web commentators, paid from the university's work-study funds, to search the forum for undesirable information and actively counter it with Party-friendly viewpoints. In the following months, party leaders from [[Jiangsu]] province began hiring their own teams.<ref name="feer"/> By mid-2007, web commentator teams recruited by schools, and party organizations were common across China. [[Shanghai Normal University]] employed undergraduates to monitor for signs of dissent and post on university forums.<ref name="nyt"/> These commentators not only operate within political discussions, but also in general discussions.<ref name="feer" /><ref name=nyt /> Afterwards, some schools and local governments also started to build similar teams.<ref name="sohu"/><ref name="guoluo"/><ref name="t20090729_791744"/>

On 23 January 2007, Chinese leader [[Hu Jintao]] demanded a "reinforcement of ideological and public opinion front construction and positive publicity" at the 38th collective learning of [[Politburo of the Communist Party of China|Politburo]].<ref name="xinhuanet"/> Large Chinese websites and local governments have been requested to publish the sayings of Hu, and select "comrades with good political quality" to form "teams of Internet commentators" by the CPC Central Committee ({{lang|zh|中共中央办公厅}}) and General Office of the State Council ({{lang|zh|国务院办公厅}}).<ref name="feer" /><ref name="dwnews"/>

Negative reporting of local authorities has increased on the internet since then.<ref name="cdt"/> In one instance described on the [[China Digital Times]], the [[Jiaozuo]] (Henan) City Public Security Bureau established a mechanism to analyse public opinion after criticism of the police handling of a traffic incident appeared on the internet. The Bureau responded with 120 staff calling for the truth to be revealed in line with the public opinion, which gradually shifted and eventually supported the police position, denouncing the original poster.<ref name=cdt/><ref name=zhong /> In the aftermath of the [[2008 Weng'an riot|2008 Guizhou riot]], internet forums were filled with posts critical of the local authorities; the ''China News Weekly'' later reported that "the major task of the propaganda group was to organize commentators to past [sic] posts on websites to guide online public opinions."<ref name=zhong />

In 2010, the Shanghai [[Communist Youth League of China|Communist Youth League]]'s official website published a summary, saying that there were more than 200 topics by Shanghai Municipal Authorities' Internet commentators posted at [[People's Daily]] site, [[Xinhua]] site, Eastday (东方网), [[Sina.com|Sina]] and [[Tianya Club|Tianya]] after many incidents in 2009, including [[Lotus Riverside]] incident, [[Green Dam Youth Escort|Green Dam]] software forced installation, [[Putuo District, Shanghai|Putuo]] [[City Urban Administrative and Law Enforcement Bureau|Urban Administrative]] incident, [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|H1N1]]'s control, Shanghai entrapment incident ([[:zh:钓鱼执法|钓鱼执法]]), Pan Rong (潘蓉)'s self-immolation, etc. It was praised by Shanghai Internet Publicity Office.<ref name="shy"/>

==Range of operation==
The [[Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic of China]] now holds regular training sessions, whose participants are required to pass an exam after which they are issued a job certification.<ref name="feer"/> Some estimates<ref name="BBC1"/> claim thousands of such commentators while other estimates put their numbers as high as 280,000–300,000.<ref name="feer"/><ref name="tw"/>

According to the ''Chinese Communists' opinions of the recruitment of university Work Committee (tentative)'', the university Internet commentators are mainly selected from [[en cadre|cadres]] or student cadres at Communist Party Publicity Department of universities, Youth League, Office of Academic Affairs, Network Center, Admissions Employment Department, Political Theory Department, Teaching Department and other units.<ref name="gaoxiaozhaopin"/>

The court of [[Qinghe District, Huai'an|Qinghe District]], [[Huai'an]] organized a team of 12 commentators.<ref name="huaian"/> [[Gansu|Gansu Province]] hired 650 commentators, sorted by their writing abilities.<ref name="sina"/> Suqian Municipal Publicity Department's first 26 commentators' team were reported by ''[[Yangtse Evening Post]]'' in April 2005.<ref name="su"/> According to high-profile [[Independent (politician)|independent]] Chinese blogger [[Li Ming]], the pro-Chinese government web commentators must number "at least in the tens of thousands".<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

[[Wen Yunchao]] ([[:zh:温云超|温云超]]), a formal Internet commentator said that there were about 20 full-time commentators for the local news websites in [[Guangdong]]. A county-level discipline inspection commission's Internet commentator estimated more than 100 spare-time Internet commentator in his county, whose population was about 1 million. Hu Yong, an Internet expert from [[Peking University]], said that "the public opinion molders have already penetrated different layers of Chinese society", he found public opinion watchmen that deal with negative information on the forums in tourist city's airport and county-level middle school.<ref name="commentators" />

[[Amnesty International]] secretary-general [[Salil Shetty]] in March 2011 warned that countries, like China and Iran, were investing "considerable resources into pro-government blogs" in an effort to cement state power.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>

Every large Chinese website is instructed by the Information Office to create a trained team of Internet commentators.<ref name="feer" />

In a leaked propaganda directive to 50 cent party internet commentators, their objective was stated as:<ref name="chinadigitaltimes1"/><ref name="chinadigitaltimes2"/>
<blockquote>
In order to circumscribe the influence of [[Taiwan]]ese democracy, in order to progress further in the work of guiding public opinion, and in accordance with the requirements established by higher authorities to “be strategic, be skilled,” we hope that internet commentators conscientiously study the mindset of netizens, grasp international developments, and better perform the work of being an internet commentator. For this purpose, this notice is promulgated as set forth below:

:(1) To the extent possible make [[United States|America]] the target of [[criticism]]. Play down the existence of Taiwan.
:(2) Do not directly confront [the idea of] democracy; rather, frame the argument in terms of “what kind of system can truly implement democracy.”
:(3) To the extent possible, choose various examples in [[Western countries]] of violence and unreasonable circumstances to explain how democracy is not well-suited to capitalism.
:(4) Use America’s and other countries’ interference in [[international relations|international affairs]] to explain how [[Western democracy]] is actually an invasion of other countries and [how the West] is forcibly pushing [on other countries] Western values.
:(5) Use the bloody and tear-stained history of a [once] weak people [i.e., China] to stir up pro-Party and patriotic emotions.
:(6) Increase the exposure that positive developments inside China receive; further accommodate the work of maintaining [social] stability.<ref name="chinadigitaltimes1"/><ref name="chinadigitaltimes2"/>
</blockquote>

==Salary==
The English version of China-based ''Global Times'' reported that Changsha Publicity Department's Internet commentators were paid 0.5 yuan per post, which is considered as the origin of the term "50 Cent Party". However, according to the local party-building website, the basic salary of such commentators was 600 [[Chinese yuan|yuan]] in 2006.<ref name="commentators" /><ref name="changshaxuanchuan" />

In 2010, the Internet commentators from [[Hengyang]] Municipal Committee Party School were paid 0.1 yuan per post and less than 100 yuan's monthly bonus.<ref name="hydjnet"/><ref name="cenews"/>

A county-level discipline inspection commission's Internet commentator from Hunan Province told ''Global Times'' that a 500 word article is worth 40 yuan on local websites and 200 yuan on national sites.<ref name="commentators" />

==Terms==
There is an alternate official term for the Internet Commentator, as well as several unofficial terms coined by [[netizen]]s for them:
{| class="wikitable"
!
!Chinese (Simp/Trad)
!Pinyin
!Literally in English
!Commonly in English
!Note
|-
|Official name (Primary)
|{{linktext|网|络|评|论|员}}/網絡評論員
|wǎnglù pínglùn yuán
|Internet commentator
|Internet commentator
| rowspan=2 | Abbreviation in Chinese: 网评员/網評員 (wǎng píng yuán)
|-
|Official name (Secondary)
|{{linktext|网|络|阅|评|员}}/網絡閱評員
|wǎnglù yuè píng yuán
|Internet examiner and commentator
|N/A
|-
|Unofficial term
|{{linktext|五|毛|党}}/五毛黨 or simply 五毛
|wǔmáo dǎng or wǔmáo
|5 mao<ref group="Note" name="mao">"毛" (máo), formally known as "[[Jiao (currency)|jiao]]", is a colloquial unit of current Chinese currency [[Renminbi]] which equals to 0.1 basic unit yuan.</ref> Party or 5 mao
|50 Cent Party
|The most common name, pejorative. Other English translation: 50 Cent Army
|-
|Unofficial term
|{{linktext|网|评|猿}}/網評猿
|wǎng píng yuán
|Ape who comments on Internet
|N/A
|Pronounced identically with the above Chinese ''wǎng píng yuán'' 网评员 abbreviation, punning ''yuán'' ([[Wikt:猿|猿]] "ape; monkey") for ''yuán'' ([[Wikt:员|员]] "personnel, staff member"), pejorative
|-
|Other English terms
|{{linktext|红|马|甲}}/紅馬甲, {{linktext|红|卫|兵}}/紅衛兵
|hóng mǎjiǎ, hóng wèibīng
|Red vest; [[Red Guards (China)|Red guard]]
|Red vest, [[Red Guards (People's Republic of China)|Red vanguard]]<ref name="zhong"/><ref name="elgan"/>
|The Chinese translation for these English terms are rarely used
|}

Among those names, "50 Cent Party" (五毛党) is the most common and pejorative unofficial term.<ref name="China's plan to use internet for propaganda"/> It was created by Chinese [[netizen]]s as a satire. Many trace the origin of the "50 cent" name to the salaries at the Publicity Department of [[Changsha]], which according to the English version of ''[[Global Times]]'', supplemented Internet Commentators' basic income with 50 cent ("5 mao") <ref group="Note" name="mao" /> per post since October 2004.<ref name="commentators"/>

The term is derogatorily applied by cynical Chinese netizens to any person who blatantly expresses pro-[[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] thoughts online.<ref name="dnai" /> However, there's another word "5 US cent (五美分)" used by some pro-party netizens to denigrate anti-party, pro-democracy comments, with the implication that those commentators are hired by the governments of the United States, Taiwan or other [[Western world#Modern political|"western" countries]]. Zhang Shengjun, a professor of international politics at [[Beijing Normal University]] published an article ''Who would be afraid of the cap of "50 Cent Party"?'' on the Chinese version of ''Global Times'', claiming that spread by western media outfits, "it has become a baton waved towards all Chinese patriots" to make the Chinese government a constant target of criticism.<ref name="commentators"/><ref name="huanqiu"/>

The Hong Kong-based ''[[Apple Daily]]'' reported that although a search for "五毛党" ("50 Cent Party" in Chinese) on a search engine produces results, most were inaccessible and had been deleted.<ref name="commentators"/>

==Effects and opinions==
The ''[[Washington Post]]'' noted a similar practice by [[John McCain presidential campaign, 2008|John McCain's 2008 presidential campaign]], in which the campaign registered and rewarded (with book signings and bus rides with the candidate) internet commentators who promoted McCain or his [[talking point]]s. It described the Chinese version as "[m]ore chilling...".<ref name="farhi"/>

The Internet commentator/50 Cent Party's activities were described by CPC General Secretary, Chinese President [[Hu Jintao]] as "a new pattern of public-opinion guidance";<ref name="radioau"/><ref name="cmp"/> they represent a shift from erasing dissenting opinions to guiding dialogue since otherwise the "truth may hurt social stability".<ref name="commentators"/> In 2010, a contributor to the [[Huffington Post]] stated that some comments she received on one of her posts were from the 50 Cent Party;<ref name="Usha"/> she also stated that the 50 Cent Party monitors popular US websites, news sites and blogs and posts comments that advance Chinese governmental interests.<ref name="Usha"/>

==See also==
{{Portalbox|China|Internet}}
* [[Internet Water Army]], private astroturfing from paid Chinese writers paralleling the 50 Cent Party
* [[Great Firewall of China]], a Chinese "national firewall" Internet censorship system
* [[Internet censorship in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Web brigades]], Russian Internet commentators with a similar role
* [[Astroturfing]], a form of advocacy in support of a political, organizational, or corporate agenda, designed to give the appearance of a "grassroots" movement
* [[Ntrepid]], an American company that produces software to astroturf for the USA

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="Note"}}

==References==
{{reflist|2|refs=
<ref name="BBC1">{{cite news|last=Bristow|first=Michael|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7783640.stm|title=China's internet 'spin doctors'|work=[[BBC News Online]]|date=16 December 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="China's plan to use internet for propaganda">{{Cite news |url=http://www.theage.com.au/technology/technology-news/chinas-plan-to-use-internet-for-propaganda-20100713-109hc.html |title=China's plan to use internet for propaganda |first=John |last=Garnaut |date=14 July 2010 |accessdate=17 October 2010 |work=The Age |location=Australia}}</ref>

<ref name="Usha">{{cite news |last=Usha |first=Haley |title=China's Fifty Cent Party for Internet Propaganda |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/usha-haley/chinas-fifty-cent-party-f_1_b_749989.html |accessdate=19 February 2011 |work=Huffington Post |date=4 October 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://news.smh.com.au/breaking-news-technology/chinas-web-spin-doctors-spread-beijings-message-20110512-1ek4j.html |title=China's web spin doctors spread Beijing's message |work=Sydney Morning Herald |date=12 May 2011 |accessdate=28 November 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="cdt">Nan, Wu. [http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2008/05/chinese-bloggers-on-the-history-and-influence-of-the-fifty-cent-party/ Chinese Bloggers on the History and Influence of the “Fifty Cent Party”]. China Digital Times. 15 May 2008</ref>

<ref name="cenews">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | publisher = Cenews | title = 中共衡阳市委党校《党校阵地》网评员管理办法 | url = http://www.cenews.eu/?p=21320 | date = 21 January 2010 | accessdate =3 March 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="changshaxuanchuan">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | title = 关于南昌、长沙、郑州宣传文化工作的考察报告 (An Investigative Report Regarding Cultural Propaganda Work in Nanchang, Changsha, and Zhengzhou) | url = http://swxcb.hefei.gov.cn/ContentDir/20065/24124915293.shtml | author = Publicity Department of Hefei | date = 24 May 2006 }} {{Dead link|date=February 2011}} [http://i46.tinypic.com/243qfti.jpg Screenshot]</ref>

<ref name="chinadigitaltimes">[http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2010/05/internet-spin-for-stability-enforcers/ "Internet Spin for Stability Enforcers"], Sophie Beach, China Digital Times, 25 May 2010</ref>

<ref name="chinadigitaltimes1">{{cite web|last=Qiang |first=Xiao |url=http://chinadigitaltimes.net/2011/06/future-banned-on-sina-weibo-search/ |title=Leaked Propaganda Directives and Banned "Future" | China Digital Times (CDT) |publisher=China Digital Times |accessdate=28 November 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="chinadigitaltimes2">http://chinadigitaltimes.net/chinese/2011/06/网评员《上级通知》/ {{cn icon}}</ref>

<ref name="cmp">{{cite web |title=Propaganda leaders scurry off to carry out the "spirit" of Hu Jintao’s "important" media speech |url=http://cmp.hku.hk/2008/06/25/1079/ |publisher=China Media Project |date= 25 June 2008 |accessdate=11 January 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name="commentators">{{cite web | publisher = Global Times English version | title = Invisible footprints of online commentators | url = http://special.globaltimes.cn/2010-02/503820.html | author = Zhang Lei | date = 5 February 2010 | accessdate =7 February 2010 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100208224640/http://special.globaltimes.cn/2010-02/503820.html| archivedate= 8 February 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

<ref name="commentators">"China hires, trains 'online commentators' to influence public opinion – daily". ''Apple Daily''. 5 October 2007</ref>

<ref name="dnai">{{cite news |first=Venkatesan |last=Vembu |title=Big Brother 2.0 is here |url=http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1218190 |work=Daily News and Analysis |location=India |date=2 January 2009 |accessdate=11 January 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name="dwnews">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | publisher = dwnews | title = 特稿：党布阵网络人民战争 | url = http://politics.dwnews.com/news/2008-07-19/4159738.html | accessdate =10 September 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="elgan">{{cite news |first=Mike |last=Elgan |title=How China's '50 Cent Army' Could Wreck Web 2.0 |url=http://itmanagement.earthweb.com/columns/article.php/3795091/How+Chinas+50+Cent+Army+Could+Wreck+Web+2.0.htm |work=Datamation |publisher=JupiterOnlineMedia |date=8 January 2009 |accessdate=11 January 2009 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090116101006/http://itmanagement.earthweb.com/columns/article.php/3795091/How+Chinas+50+Cent+Army+Could+Wreck+Web+2.0.htm| archivedate= 16 January 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

<ref name="farhi">{{Cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/06/AR2008080603589.html |title=Win Points for McCain! |first=Paul |last=Farhi |date=7 August 2008 |accessdate=17 October 2010 |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] | quote=More chillingly, dissidents alleged earlier this year that the Chinese government has paid Chinese citizens token sums for each favorable comment about government policies they post in chat rooms and on blogs}}</ref>

<ref name="feer">{{cite news |first=David |last=Bandurski |title=China's Guerrilla War for the Web |url=http://www.feer.com/essays/2008/august/chinas-guerrilla-war-for-the-web |publisher=Far Eastern Economic Review |date=July 2008 |accessdate=11 January 2009 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090122041422/http://feer.com/essays/2008/august/chinas-guerrilla-war-for-the-web| archivedate= 22 January 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

<ref name="freedomhouse">{{cite web|url=http://blog.freedomhouse.org/weblog/2011/10/chinas-growing-army-of-paid-internet-commentators.html|title=China’s growing army of paid internet commentators|first1=Sarah|last1=Cook|first2=Maggie |last2=Shum |publisher=Freedom House|date=11 October 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="gaoxiaozhaopin">“为认真贯彻落实《中共中央、国务院关于进一步加强和改进大学生思想政治教育的意见》（中发〔2004〕16号）和《教育部、共青团中央关于进一步加强高等学校校园网络管理工作的意见》(教社政〔2004〕17号)精神，牢牢把握网上舆论主导权，为我省高等教育改革发展稳定提供良好的舆论环境，努力构建社会主义和谐校园，现就加强高校网络评论员队伍建设提出以下意见。”</ref>

<ref name="guoluo">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | publisher = Government of Golog, Qinghai | title = 关于进一步加强互联网管理工作的实施意见 | url = http://www.guoluo.gov.cn/html/33/5154.html | accessdate =10 September 2010 }} {{cn icon}}</ref>

<ref name="huaian">{{cite web|url=http://fy.huaian.gov.cn/jsp/content/content.jsp?articleId=412124|title=清河法院组建互联网网评工作队|publisher=Huai'an Intermediate People's Court|language=Simplified Chinese|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100414062331/http://fy.huaian.gov.cn/jsp/content/content.jsp?articleId=412124|archivedate=14 April 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="huanqiu">{{cite web|url=http://opinion.huanqiu.com/roll/2010-01/694194.html|title="五毛党"帽子能吓住谁？|trans_title=Who would be afraid of the cap of "50 Cent Party"?|date=20 January 2010|publisher=Global Times|language=Simplified Chinese|accessdate=4 March 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="hydjnet">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | publisher = 中国衡阳党建网 (China Hengyang Party-building website) | title = 《党校阵地》网评员管理办法 |trans_title=''Party school front'' Internet commentators Regulations | url = http://dx.hydjnet.gov.cn/News_View.asp?NewsID=28290 | date = 8 January 2010 | accessdate =22 January 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=March 2011}} [http://i49.tinypic.com/4q5vl3.jpg Screenshot]</ref>

<ref name="nyt">[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/09/world/asia/09internet.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all As Chinese Students Go Online, Little Sister Is Watching]. ''The New York Times''. 9 May 2006</ref>

<ref name="radioau">{{cite news |first=Corrinne |last=Podger |title=China marshalls army of bloggers |url=http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/programguide/stories/200808/s2342236.htm |publisher=Radio Australia |date=21 August 2008 |accessdate=11 January 2009 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20081201111729/http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/programguide/stories/200808/s2342236.htm| archivedate= 1 December 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

<ref name="shy">{{cite web | url=http://www.shyouth.net/website/xinxiguanlibu/content.jsp?ct_id=61903&sj_dir=xxglb_jcdt | title=市级机关团工委2009年度工作总结 (2009 summary of works of the Municipal Authorities Youth League Working Committee) | date=20 January 2010 | publisher=Shanghai Communist Youth League official site | language=Simplified Chinese | accessdate=20 January 2010 | quote=2009年，市级机关网评员在市网宣办的业务指导下，先后参与了莲花河畔景苑倒楼事件、强制安装“绿坝”网络屏蔽软件、普陀区城管打人事件、甲型 H1N1 流感防控、“倒钩”执法事件、闵行区潘蓉自焚事件、地铁事故频发等以涉沪舆情为重点的网上舆论引导工作，在人民网、新华网、东方网及新浪、天涯社区等国内重点网站、主要商业网站、大型网络社区。发帖、跟帖、转帖200余篇，东方网评论频道录用各类网评文章20余篇，工作得到市网宣办的肯定。}}{{Dead link|date=March 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="sina">{{cite web|url=http://news.sina.com.hk/cgi-bin/nw/show.cgi/9/1/1/1401589/1.html|title=甘肅將建650人網絡評論員隊伍引導輿論|publisher=Sina|date=20 January 2010|accessdate=4 March 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="sohu">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | publisher = sohu | title = 宿迁26名网评员今上岗 | url = http://news.sohu.com/20050429/n225390790.shtml | accessdate =10 September 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="su">{{cite web|url=http://news.sohu.com/20050429/n225390790.shtml|title=宿迁26名网评员今上岗|publisher=Sohu|date=29 April 2005|accessdate=4 March 2011}}</ref>

<ref name="t20090729_791744">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | publisher = Sichuan Provincial People's Government | title = 巴中市人事局采取四大措施加强网络舆情监控 | url = http://www.sc.gov.cn/zwgk/zwdt/szdt/200907/t20090729_791744.shtml | accessdate =10 September 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="tibetanreview">[http://www.tibetanreview.net/news.php?cat=2&&id=1846 China employs army of piece-rate ‘netizens’ for online thought control]. Tibetan Review. 2 January 2009</ref>

<ref name="tw">Fareed, Malik. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2008/sep/22/chinathemedia.marketingandpr China joins a turf war]. ''The Guardian''. 22 September 2008</ref>

<ref name="xinhuanet">{{cite web | language = Simplified Chinese | publisher = xinhua | title = 胡锦涛：以创新的精神加强网络文化建设和管理 | url = http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2007-01/24/content_5648188.htm | accessdate =10 September 2010 | archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100830035521/http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2007-01/24/content_5648188.htm| archivedate= 30 August 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

<ref name="zhong">Zhong, Wu. [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JH14Ad01.html China's Internet awash with state spies]. Asia Times Online. 14 August 2008</ref>
}}

==External links==

* [http://chinadigitaltimes.net/china/fifty-cent-party/ 50 Cent Party related news and translations on China Digital Times]

[[Category:Chinese Internet slang]]
[[Category:Cyberspace]]
[[Category:Internet censorship in China]]
[[Category:Propaganda in China]]
[[Category:Propaganda techniques]]
[[Category:Public relations techniques]]

[[es:Partido de los 50 centavos]]
[[fa:ارتش ۵۰ سنتی]]
[[ko:우마오당]]
[[ru:Умаодан]]
[[zh:网络评论员]]

Paul Mounsey

2012-11-18T22:11:44Z

1exec1: uses dmy dates

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox musical artist 
| name = Paul Mounsey
| image =
| caption =
| image_size =
| background = non_vocal_instrumentalist
| birth_name =
| alias =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1959|4|15|df=yes}}
|birth_place =[[Scotland]]
| death_date =
| origin =
| instrument =
| genre = [[Celtic fusion]], [[Film scores]], [[Music of Brazil|Brazilian music]]
| occupation = Composer, Arranger, Producer
| years_active = 1985–present
| label =
| associated_acts =
| website =
| notable_instruments =
}}

'''Paul Mounsey''' (born 15 April 1959) is a composer, arranger and producer from [[Scotland]].

He lived for over 20 years in [[Brazil]]. A graduate of [[Trinity College, London]], where he studied with [[Richard Arnell]], he has written for film, television, theatre, advertising and also for the Latin American pop market. He lectured for a short while at [[Goldsmiths College]] before moving on as creative director of [[Play It Again (music studio)|Play It Again]], one of the biggest commercial music houses in Brazil. He has also written articles on various aspects of music. He’s written pop hits for Mexican boy bands, has received commissions for chamber and multimedia works, has lived with and recorded the music of indigenous communities in the Amazon rainforest, and to date has released five solo albums. Paul's music has featured in the television and cinema adverts for tourism boards such as VisitScotland. He is currently based in Los Angeles working as composer, orchestrator and programmer in the film industry.

== Discography ==
=== Solo albums ===
To date, Paul Mounsey has released 5 solo albums:
* ''[[Nahoo]]'' (1994)
* ''[[NahooToo]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Nahoo 3 - Notes from the Republic]]'' (1999)
* ''[[City of Walls]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Tha Na Laithean a' Dol Seachad (The Days Flash Past)]]'' (2005)

=== With Runrig ===
* [[Proterra]] (2003)

== References ==
* [http://www.folkworld.de ''Folk World'' magazine]
* [http://www.allcelticmusic.com ''All Celtic Music'' article]
* [http://www.bdimusic.com/Images/Composers/CV/1014.pdf ''BDi Music'' composer profile]

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|id=1633633|name=Paul Mounsey}}
* [http://www.bdimusic.com/Composer.aspx?ComposerID=1014 BDi Music Composer Biography]
* [http://audio.urcm.net/spip.php?article551 Planeta Musical Sur]
* [http://www.folkworld.de/13/e/nahoo.html Folk World interview]
* [http://www.greenmanreview.com/cd/cd_mounsey_cityofwalls.html Green Man Review]
* [{{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p146041|pure_url=yes}} allmusic entry]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Mounsey, Paul
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 15 April 1959
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Scotland]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mounsey, Paul}}
[[Category:Celtic fusion musicians]]
[[Category:1959 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Scottish musicians]]

{{Scotland-musician-stub}}

Weiquan-Bewegung

2012-11-18T20:04:04Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{good article}}
{{Rights}}{{Chinese|s=维权运动|t=維權運動|p=Wéiquán Yùndòng|l=rights defending movement}}
The '''Weiquan movement''' is a non-centralized group of lawyers, legal experts, and intellectuals in the People's Republic of China who seek to protect and defend the [[civil right]]s of the citizenry through litigation and legal activism. The movement, which began in the early 2000s, has organized demonstrations, sought reform via the legal system and media, defended victims of [[Human rights in the People's Republic of China|human rights abuses]], and written appeal letters, despite opposition from [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] authorities. Among the issues adopted by Weiquan lawyers are property and housing rights, protection for [[HIV/AIDS in the People's Republic of China|AIDS]] victims, [[Pollution in China|environmental damage]], [[Freedom of religion in the People's Republic of China|religious freedom]], [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of the press|the press]], and defending the rights of other lawyers facing disbarment or imprisonment.<ref name="ssrn"/><ref name="HRW Thin Ice" />

Individuals involved in the Weiquan movement have met with occasionally harsh reprisals from Chinese officials, including disbarment, detention, harassment, and, in extreme instances, torture.<ref name="HRW Thin Ice" /> Authorities have also responded to the movement with the launch of an education campaign on the "socialist concept of rule of law," which reasserts the role of the Communist Party and the primacy of political considerations in the legal profession, and with the [[Three Supremes]], which entrenches the supremacy of the Communist Party in the judicial process.

==Background==
Since the [[Legal history of China#1978-1981|legal reforms]] of the late 1970s and 1980s, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has moved to embrace the language of the [[rule of law]] and establish a modern [[Court system of the People's Republic of China|court system]]. In the process, it has enacted thousands of new laws and regulations, and begun training more legal professionals.<ref name="HRW Thin Ice" /> The concept of "rule of law" was enshrined in the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]], and the CCP embarked on campaigns to publicize the idea that citizens have protection under the law. At the same time, however, a fundamental contradiction exists in the implementation of rule of law wherein the CCP insists that its authority supersedes that of the law;<ref name=fordham/> the constitution enshrines rule of law, but also emphasizes the principle of the "leadership of the Communist Party." The judiciary is not independent, and is therefore subject to politicization and control by the Communist Party.<ref name="HRW Thin Ice"/> This has produced a system that is often described as "rule by law," rather than rule of law.<ref name="nytimes"/>

Because judicial decisions are subject to the sometimes arbitrary assessments of the CCP, citizens who attempt to make use of the legal system to pursue grievances find that, if their cause is determined to have the potential to undermine the authority of the Communist Party, they may be suppressed.<ref>Cai Yongshun, [http://books.google.pt/books/about/Collective_resistance_in_China.html?id=e97ErKeqb08C "Collective Resistance in China: Why Popular Protests Succeed or Fail"] (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2010)</ref> Defendants who find themselves facing criminal charges, such as for conducting activism or for their religious beliefs, often have few means of pursuing an effective defense.

The Weiquan movement coalesced in the early 2000s in response to these inherent contradictions and the arbitrary exercise of [[Judicial system of the People's Republic of China|legal authority in China]], though its roots could be traced to the consumer protection movement that began in the 1990s.<ref name="ssrn"/> The movement is informal, and can be understood as including lawyers and legal activists who advocate for [[civil rights]] and defend the interests of citizens against corporations, government or Communist Party organs. Fu Hualing and Richard Cullen note that Weiquan lawyers "are generally always on the side of the weaker party: (migrant) workers v. employers in labor disputes; peasants in cases involving taxation, persons contesting environmental pollution, land appropriation, and village committee elections; journalists facing government censorship; defendants subject to criminal prosecution; and ordinary citizens who are discriminated against by government policies and actions."<ref name="ssrn"/>

The emergence of the Weiquan movement was made possible by a confluence of factors, including a market for their services, and an emerging rights consciousness. It was also facilitated by the 1996 "Lawyers Law," which changed the definition of lawyers from "state legal workers" to professionals holding a legal certificate who perform legal services. The law effectively delinked lawyers from the state, and gave lawyers greater (though still limited) autonomy within the profession.<ref name="ssrn"/><ref name=Lynch>Elizabeth Lynch, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1825431 Rule of Law Mirage], George Washington International Law Review, 26 April 2011.</ref>

Weiquan lawyers tend to be especially critical of the lack of judicial independence in China. Rather than challenging particular laws, they frame their work as being in keeping with Chinese laws, and describe their activities as a means of defending and upholding the Constitution against abuses.<ref name="transnational"/> As such, Weiquan lawyering has been described as a form of [[Rightful resistance]].<ref name="conscientious"/>

==Weiquan lawyers==
[[File:GZ gaozhisheng 1jan03 300.jpg|thumb|right|Gao Zhisheng, a Christian and arguably one of the most well known Weiquan lawyers, has been imprisoned and allegedly tortured for his advocacy on behalf of religious minorities]]
Since the 1980s, as China’s leadership became cognizant of the importance of the legal system and legal profession to advance economic development, training for lawyers dramatically increased. From 1986 to 1992, the number of lawyers in the country more than doubled from 21,500 to 45,000, and by 2008 had reached 143,000.<ref name="peopledaily"/>

The proportion of Weiquan lawyers is very small, relative the number of legal professionals in China. The number of lawyers actively focusing on civil rights issues has been estimated by legal scholar [[Teng Biao]] to number "only a few dozen."<ref>Teng Biao, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/24/AR2009072402940.html 'Chinese Human Rights Lawyers Under Assault'], Washington Post, 25 July 2009.</ref> The lawyers face considerable personal and professional obstacles, and Weiquan lawyering demands substantial commitment to their cause. According to Fu and Cullen, “Weiquan lawyers act principally out of commitment, not because of any financial concerns. They accept weiquan cases to pursue their cause, and typically charge no legal fees.”
<ref name="ssrn"/>

Weiquan activists include law professors with university teaching positions—including He Weifang, [[Xu Zhiyong]], and Teng Biao—professional lawyers, and “[[Barefoot lawyer|barefoot lawyers]],” who are self-taught and often lack any formal legal education. Several of China’s more high-profile Weiquan lawyers fall into the latter category, including [[Guo Feixiong]] and [[Chen Guangcheng]]. Many barefoot lawyers are peasants who teach themselves enough law to file civil complaints, engage in litigation, and educate fellow citizens about their rights.<ref name="newsweek"/>

Because corporate law firms are generally not hospitable to Weiquan lawyers and legal aid workers operate within the government system, Weiquan lawyers in large cities tend to work as solo practitioners in partnership firms with other like-minded lawyers.<ref name="ssrn"/> The [[Beijing Global Law Firm]] and [[Yitong Law Firm]] are examples of such organizations.

Rana Siu Inboden and William Inboden note that a disproportionate number of influential Weiquan lawyers identify with the [[Christianity in China|Christian]] faith, including [[Gao Zhisheng]], Chen Guangcheng, [[Zheng Enchong]], and [[Li Heping]], among others.<ref name="purdue"/>

There are at least two distinctive (and sometimes competing) approaches to Weiquan activism. Among Weiquan lawyers, the pragmatists (or consequentialists) are more deferential to the existing legal systems and institutions, and only pursue courses of actions that are likely to produce incremental improvements and reforms. These activists may reject approaches that are liable to be met with official reprisals. By contrast, the "radical" Weiquan activists (those adopting a deontological approach) view rights defending as a moral obligation that is to be pursued regardless of potential consequences.<ref name="fordham"/> Radical lawyers such as Gao Zhisheng are more inclined to take on the most "sensitive" cases—such as those of [[Falun Gong]] adherents—simply because it is the "right thing to do," even though the prospects of success are minimal. A pragmatist may become radicalized once they encounter the limits of possible reform.<ref name="fordham"/>

==Major fields==
===Freedom of expression===

Although freedom of speech is enshrined in Article 35 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China, Chinese authorities enforce restrictions on political and religious expression.<ref>Congressional Executive Commission on China, [http://www.cecc.gov/pages/virtualAcad/hrrolindex.php 'Human rights and rule of law in China']</ref> Such restrictions are sometimes in accordance with [[Political offences in the People's Republic of China#Inciting subversion of the state|Article 105]] of the criminal code, which contains vague and broadly defined provisions against "[[inciting subversion of state power]]". Weiquan lawyers, along with international human rights organizations, have argued that the provisions against subversion are inconsistent both with China’s own constitution and with international human rights standards, particularly in light of the lack of transparency and clear guidelines used in applying the laws.<ref name="freedom"/>

Several Weiquan lawyers have been involved in litigation and other forms of advocacy to defend the rights to free expression for individuals charged with the crime of subversion.<ref name="gpo"/> Notable cases include that of [[Liu Xiaobo]], a prominent Beijing intellectual sentenced to 11 years in prison for inciting subversion in December 2009. [[Chengdu]] activist [[Tan Zuoren]] was sentenced to five years for inciting subversion for publishing writings on the 1989 [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen Square Massacre]], advocating for the families of the [[2008 Sichuan earthquake]] victims, and accepting interviews from the Falun Gong-affiliated [[Sound of Hope]] radio. His lawyers were reportedly barred from entering the courtroom.<ref name="chinageeks"/> In October 2009, intellectual [[Guo Quan]] was sentenced to 10 years in prison for publishing “reactionary” articles online.<ref name="intermediate"/>

Weiquan lawyers have also challenged the application of state secret laws, which are sometimes used to prosecute individuals who disseminate information on politically sensitive issues. In November 2009, for instance, lawyers were involved in arguing for [[Huang Qi]], a [[Sichuan]] activist who had advocated online for the parents of Sichuan earthquake victims. Huang was sentenced to three years in prison for possession of state secrets.<ref name="nytimes1"/>

===Judicial independence===
The Chinese Constitution enshrines rule of law, but simultaneously emphasizes the principle of the "leadership of the Communist Party."<ref name="HRW Thin Ice"/> The legal profession itself is subordinate to the authority of the Communist Party; the [[Ministry of Justice of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Justice]], not the [[All China Lawyers Association|bar associations]], is responsible for issuing and renewing lawyers' licenses.<ref name="usatoday"/> Weiquan lawyers have argued that this structure precludes the emergence of genuine rule of law, and in some cases have advocated for reforms to advance judicial independence and the protection of legal professionals.

In late August 2008, a collection of several dozen Beijing lawyers signed a petition stating that the Beijing Bar Association leaders should be elected by the organization's members, rather than being appointed. The petition letter stated that selection process in place for the Association's directors is inconsistent with official guidelines and the Chinese constitution, and should be replaced with a democratic voting process.<ref name="chinafreepress"/> The Beijing Bar Association responded to the campaign by asserting that "Any individual who uses text messages, the web or other media to privately promote and disseminate the concept of direct elections, express controversial opinions, thereby spreading rumors within the Beijing Bar Association, confuse and poison people's minds, and convince people of circumstances that do not exist regarding the so-called 'Call For Direct Elections For the Beijing Bar Association' is illegal."<ref name="chinafreepress2"/> The following year, the Beijing Bureau of Justice refused to renew the licenses of 53 Beijing Weiquan lawyers, all of whom had signed the petition for elections to the Bar Association.<ref name="nytimes3"/>

===Land rights===
[[File:Shanghai Tower construction, April 12, 2011.jpg|right|thumb|The practice of land requisitions and forced evictions is widespread in China as local governments make way for private real estate developers.]]
Under [[Property Law of the People's Republic of China|Chinese property law]], there is no privately held land; “urban land” is owned by the state, which grants land rights for a set number of years. Rural, or “collectively owned land,” is leased by the state for periods of 30 years, and is theoretically reserved for agricultural purposes, housing and services for farmers.<ref name=CECCproperty/> [[Forced eviction (China)|Forced evictions]] are forbidden under [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]], which China has ratified. Under China’s constitution and other property laws, expropriation of urban land is permitted only if it is for the purpose of supporting the “public interest,” and those being evicted are supposed to receive compensation, resettlement, and protection of one’s living conditions. The “public interest” is not defined, however, and abuses are common in the expropriation process, with many citizens complaining of receiving little or no compensation.<ref name=CECCproperty>Congressional Executive Commission on China, [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_house_committee_prints&docid=f:61507.pdf 2010 Annual Report]. 10 October 2010, pp 41–42</ref>

Forced evictions with little or no compensation occur frequently in both urban and rural China, with even fewer legal protections for rural citizens. Collectively owned rural land may be "reallocated" at the discretion of authorities, and in many regions local governments collude with private developers to reclassify rural land as urban land, which can then be sold.<ref name=CECCproperty/> from the mid-1990s to mid-2000s, an estimated 40 million Chinese peasants were affected by land requisitions.<ref name=fordham/> Citizens who resist or protest the evictions have reportedly been subjected to harassment, beatings, or detention,<ref name=CECCproperty/> and land-related grievances occasionally escalate into large-scale protests or riots.<ref>The Economist, [http://www.economist.com/node/4462719 “Protest in China: The Cauldron Boils”], 29 September 2005.</ref>

Several Weiquan lawyers have advocated for the rights of individual citizens whose land and homes were taken with inadequate compensation, including Shanghai lawyer Zheng Enchong.<ref name="bbc"/> [[Ni Yulan]], a Beijing lawyer, was herself left homeless by forced eviction, and became an outspoken advocate for victims before being sentenced to two years in prison.<ref name="csmonitor"/>

In 2007, a 54-year-old farmer in Heilongjiang [[Yang Chunlin]] published numerous articles on human rights and land rights, and helped to organise a petition entitled: "We want human rights, not the Olympics."<ref name="hrw"/> The petition reportedly collected over ten thousand signatures.<ref name="voanews"/> Yang was put to trial, and sentenced to five years in prison, where he has allegedly been tortured. [[Li Fangping]] was hired to defend him, but was denied access to his client.<ref name="washingtonpost"/>

===Defense of ethnic minorities===
Several Weiquan lawyers, including Teng Biao, [[Jiang Tianyong]],<ref name="thestar"/> and Li Fangping,<ref name="rfa"/> offered legal aid to [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]] in the wake of the March 2008 [[2008 Tibetan unrest|Tibetan protests]]. The protests resulted in the imprisonment of at least 670 Tibetans, and the execution of at least four individuals. Chinese government sources asserted that the unrest and violence in Tibet had been masterminded by the [[Dalai Lama]] and executed by his followers for the purpose of fomenting unrest and disrupting the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in Beijing. The [[Open Constitution Initiative]] (OCI), operated by several Weiquan lawyers and intellectuals, issued a paper in May 2009 challenging the official narrative, and suggesting that the protests were instead a response to economic inequities, [[Han Chinese]] migration, and religious sentiments. The OCI recommended that Chinese authorities better respect and protect the rights and interests of the Tibetan people, including religious freedom, and pursue the reduction of economic inequality and official corruption.<ref name="cecc"/>

Tibetan Filmmaker Dhondup Wangcheng was sentenced to six years in prison for making a documentary on [[human rights in Tibet]] in the run-up to the Beijing Olympics. Two lawyers who sought to represent him, [[Chang Boyang]] and [[Li Dunyong]], faced threats and harassment for their advocacy.<ref name="amnesty"/>

In July 2010, a group of Chinese activists including Teng Biao co-signed a letter to the Chinese leadership to protest the 15-year prison sentence that had been meted out to [[Uighur]] journalist Halaite Niyaze.<ref name="uyghurcongress"/> Niyaze was not permitted to have a lawyer at his trial, where he was charged with "endangering state security." According to reports, Niyaze was being charged because he had criticized the Chinese government in an interview with a Hong Kong news agency for not doing enough to prevent the [[July 2009 Ürümqi riots]].<ref name="telegraph"/>

===Falun Gong===
[[Image:April25Zhognanhai.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Falun Gong practitioners demonstrate outside the [[Zhongnanhai]] compound in April 1999 to demand official recognition. The practice was banned three months later.]]
Falun Gong, a spiritual qigong discipline that once claimed tens of million adherents in China, was banned in July 1999 under the leadership of the Communist Party, and a campaign was launched to suppress the group.<ref name="amnesty.org"/> In an attempt to have Falun Gong adherents renounce their belief in the practice, they are subject to state-sanctioned, systematic violence in custody,<ref name="washingtonpost4"/> sometimes resulting in death. Some sources indicate hundreds of thousands may have been detained in reeducation-through-labor camps for practicing Falun Gong and/or resisting persecution.<ref name="state"/><ref name="nationalpost"/>

In November 1999, the [[Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China|Supreme People’s Court]] offered a judicial interpretation of article 300 of the criminal code, stating that Falun Gong should be regarded as a ''“xie jiao'',” or evil religion.<ref name="amnesty.org"/> Large numbers were subsequently sentenced to long prison terms, often under article 300, in what are typically very short trials without the presence of a lawyer.<ref name=CECC2010>Congressional Executive Commission on China, [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_house_committee_prints&docid=f:61507.pdf ' Annual Report 2010], 10 October 2010.</ref> In 2009 alone, the Falun Dafa Information Center reported that several hundred Falun Gong adherents have been sentenced to prison terms of up to 18 years.<ref name="faluninfo"/> Human rights groups, including Amnesty International, note that the application of the law to persecute Falun Gong adherents contravenes both China’s own constitution and international standards.<ref name="amnesty.org"/> Several Weiquan lawyers have argued similarly while defending Falun Gong adherents who face criminal or administrative sentencing for their beliefs. Laywers who have defended Falun Gong include [[Guo Guoting]], Zhang Kai and Li Chunfu,<ref name="hrichina"/> Wang Yonghang,<ref name="amnesty5"/>[[Tang Jitian]] and Liu Wei,<ref name="nytimes3"/> among others.

In addition to litigation work, Weiquan lawyers like Gao Zhisheng have also advocated publicly and in the media for human rights for Falun Gong. In 2004 and 2005, Gao wrote a series of letters to China’s top leadership detailing accounts of torture and sexual abuse against Falun Gong practitioners, and calling for an end to the persecution of the group.<ref name=fordham/> In response, Gao lost his legal license, was put under house arrest, detained, and was reportedly tortured.<ref name="nytimes7"/>

===HIV/AIDS===
Some Weiquan lawyers have advocated for the rights of HIV/AIDS victims who contracted the virus as a result of state-sponsored blood drives. In the 1990s, government officials in central China, and especially in [[Henan]] province, encouraged rural citizens to sell blood plasma in order to supplement their incomes. Gross mismanagement of the process resulted in hundreds of thousands of individuals being infected with HIV. According to activists, victims have not been compensated, and no government officials were held accountable.<ref name="economist"/> Authorities continue to suppress information about the epidemic, which is particularly sensitive in light of the involvement of [[Li Changchun]], the Communist Party Propaganda head and formerly Party chief in Henan.

[[Hu Jia (activist)|Hu Jia]] is arguably the most well known advocate for HIV/AIDS victims, having served as the executive director of the Beijing Aizhixing Institute of Health Education and as one of the founders of the non-governmental organization Loving Source.<ref>Amnesty International, [http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/news/chinese-activist-gets-jail-sentence-20080403 'Hu Jia jailed for three and a half years], 4 April 2008.</ref>

===Women's rights===
[[Chen Guangcheng]], a blind self-taught Weiquan lawyer, rose to prominence for defending victims of China's [[one-child policy]]. First implemented in 1979, the one-child policy mandates that couples may only have one child, though there are exceptions for some rural citizens, ethnic minorities, and couples who were themselves only children.<ref>Laura Fitzpatrick, [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1912861,00.html 'A Brief History of China's One-Child Policy'], TIME, 27 July 2009.</ref> Though Chinese laws condemn harsh enforcement measures, Chinese authorities and family planning staff have been accused of carrying out coercive, late-term forced abortions, sterilization, incarceration and torture to enforce the policy.<ref>Amnesty International, [http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/thousands-risk-forced-sterilization-china-2010-04-22 'Thousands at risk of forced sterilization in China'], 22 April 2010.</ref><ref>Simon Elegant, [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1615936,00.html 'Why Forced Abortions Persist in China'], TIME, 30 April 2007.</ref> In 2005, Chen Guangcheng filed a class action case against family planning officials in Linyi, Shandong, who were accused of subjecting thousands of women to sterilization or forced abortions.<ref name="wp_8July06">{{cite news| title = Chinese to Prosecute Peasant Who Resisted One-Child Policy |work=Washington Post| url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/07/07/AR2006070701510.html| date = 8 July 2006 | first=Philip P. | last=Pan | accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref>

===Underground Christians===
China’s constitution guarantees freedom of religion, yet also provides a caveat specifying that only “normal” religious activities are permitted. In practice, religious freedom is granted only within the strictly prescribed parameters of the five officially sanctioned “patriotic” religious associations of [[Buddhist Association of China|Buddhism]], [[Chinese Taoist Association|Taoism]], [[Islamic Association of China|Islam]], [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement|Protestantism]] and [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association|Catholicism]]. Groups falling outside the state-administered religions, including “underground” or [[Chinese house church|"house church"]] Christians, are subject to varying degrees of repression and persecution.<ref name=DOS2011>U.S. Department of State, [http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/171651.pdf July–December, 2010 International Religious Freedom Report: China (Includes Tibet, Hong Kong, Macau)], 13 September 2011.</ref>

Although there are no definitive figures on the number of underground Christians in China, some estimates have put their total number in excess of 70 million. At least 40 Catholic bishops operate independent of official sanction, and some are under surveillance, house arrest, detention, or have disappeared.<ref name=DOS2011/> Several leaders and members of underground [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches have also been detained and sentenced to reeducation through labor or prison terms. Violent raids and demolitions have been carried out on underground churches, sometimes resulting in injury to congregants inside. Chinese officials have labelled several underground Protestant churches as a ''xie jiao'', or “evil religion,” thus providing a pretext for harsher punishment of members.<ref name="cecc8"/>

Several prominent Weiquan lawyers themselves identify with the underground Protestant movement, and have sought to defend church members and leaders facing imprisonment. These include Zhang Kai, Li Heping, and Gao Zhisheng.

===Other initiatives===
A number of specific events have attracted the help and attention of Weiquan activists. In the March 2008 earthquake in Sichuan province, [[Sichuan schools corruption scandal|shoddy school construction]] resulted in the collapse of several schools full of students. A number of Weiquan lawyers, including [[Tan Zuoren]], were involved in advocating for the rights of parents, and in investigating allegations that corrupt officials were responsible for the poor construction. Parents and lawyers met with reprisals from Chinese officials for their activism.<ref name="guardian"/>

Later the same year, it was revealed that large quantities of infant formula had been [[2008 Chinese milk scandal|tainted with melamine]], causing 300,000 infants to fall ill and resulting in several deaths. A group of parents of the victims were reportedly detained for attempting to draw media attention to their plight. Dozens of lawyers—particularly from the provinces of Hebei, Henan and Shandong—offered pro-bono legal services to victims, but their efforts were [[2008 Chinese milk scandal#Pressure on the legal profession|obstructed by authorities]].<ref>{{cite news| author=Jane Macartney| url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5152668.ece |title=US places ban on Chinese food imports |date= 14 November 2008 |location=London |work=The Times |location=UK }}</ref><ref>Radio Free Asia, [http://www.rfa.org/english/news/china/lawyer-10072008150126.html 'Lawyers’ Outrage at Milk Case Ban'], 7 October 2008.</ref>

Individual human rights cases, such as the [[Deng Yujiao incident]] and the death of [[Qian Yunhui]], have also drawn help from rights defenders such as Wu Gan.<ref name="cnn"/>

In 2003, a group of legal scholars, including [[Teng Biao]] and [[Xu Zhiyong]], formed the [[Open Constitution Initiative]] (Chinese:公盟) to advocate for greater rule of law. The organization was involved in the [[Sun Zhigang]] case, and has advocated for petitioners, labor rights, freedom of expression, HIV/AIDS victims, Tibetans, land rights, and protection of public health, among other issues.<ref>The Economist, [http://www.economist.com/node/14098751 'Open Constitution Closed'], 23 June 2009.</ref>

==Government response==
===Retrenchment on rule of law===
In response to the emergence of the Weiquan movement, which often makes use of the official language about "rule of law" to justify its work, in April 2006 a political campaign was launched to solidify the Communist Party's leadership over judicial work, combat the idea of greater independence for judges and lawyers, and educate people and judicial authorities about the "socialist concept of rule of law." The campaign was announced by [[Luo Gan]], then the head of the Party Central Committee's [[Political and Legislative Affairs Committee of the Communist Party of China|Political and Legislative Affairs Committee]]. Luo urged that in order to protect political stability, "forceful measures" be adopted "against those who, under the pretext of rights-protection (weiquan), carry out sabotage."<ref name="qsjournal"/><ref>Donald C. Clarke, "China's Legal System: New Developments, New Challenges," Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge, UK: The China Quarterly, 2008).</ref> The launch of the campaign coincided with a crackdown on Weiquan lawyers.

Shortly after the campaign's launch, Party Committees provided instruction to judges reminding them of the political goals that their work must uphold. According to one document issued to judges in [[Zhejiang]] province and quoted by [[Human Rights Watch]], "Recently, some judges have started to believe that to be a judge you just have to strictly apply the law in a case. In fact, this kind of concept is erroneous [...] all the legal formulations have a clear political background and direction [...] We must stamp out the kind of narrow viewpoint that thinks that you can also do court work by having judicial independence."<ref name="lawbase"/>

During a December 2007 conference on political-legal work, CCP General Secretary [[Hu Jintao]] articulated the theory of the "[[Three Supremes]]," which emphasized again that legal work should regard as supreme the concerns and interests of the Communist Party. In March 2008, [[Wang Shengjun]] was confirmed as the new head of the [[Supreme People's Court]]. Wang, who has no formal legal training himself, abandoned the efforts of his predecessors to improve judicial competence, training, and autonomy, and instead placed primary importance on the ideological implications of the "Three Supremes" theory and upholding the leadership of the Communist Party.<ref name="harvard"/>

In 2010, China's Ministry of Justice issued two new regulations intended to "strengthen the supervision and management of lawyers and law firms". According to the Associated Press, the new regulations would serve to "allow authorities to punish lawyers ... for actions such as talking to the media or even causing 'traffic troubles.'"<ref name="abcnews"/>

In March 2012, China's Ministry of Justice issued a new directive requiring lawyers first obtaining their license or renewing an existing license to swear an oath of loyalty to the Communist Party. <ref>{{cite web|last=Wong|first=Edward|title=Chinese Lawyers Chafe at New Oath to Communist Party|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/23/world/asia/chinese-lawyers-chafe-at-new-oath-to-communist-party.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all|publisher=New York Times|accessdate=8 July 2012}}</ref>. According to the Ministry's website, a section of oath includes the following: “I swear to faithfully fulfill the sacred mission of legal workers in socialism with Chinese characteristics. I swear my loyalty to the motherland, to the people, to uphold the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the socialist system, and to protect the dignity of the Constitution and laws." <ref>{{cite web|title="Oath Lawyers Must Take" (进入律师队伍必须进行宣誓)|url=http://www.moj.gov.cn/index/content/2012-03/21/content_3445267.htm?node=7318|publisher=Ministry of Justice of the People's Republic of China|accessdate=8 July 2012}}</ref>

===Suppression of lawyers and coercive measures===
Weiquan lawyers have faced various challenges to their work from the Chinese government, including disbarment or suspension, violence, threats, surveillance, arbitrary detention, and prosecution.<ref name="hrw9"/> This is particularly true for lawyers who take up politically sensitive cases. Reports of harassment, intimidation, and violence against Weiquan lawyers increased in 2006 following the launch of the campaign to promote the "socialist concept of the rule of law." Authorities have refused to renew the licenses of several dozen Weiquan lawyers,<ref name="cecc10"/> and several have effectively been banned for life from the legal profession. In 2009, for instance, at least 17 Weiquan lawyers were not permitted to renew their legal licenses after taking on politically sensitive cases.<ref>Human Rights in China, [http://hrichina.org/content/300 Chinese Rights Defense Lawyers Under All-out Attack by the Authorities], 4 June 2009.</ref> Several Weiquan lawyers have themselves been sentenced to prison in response to their activism. A selection of notable instances of suppression are listed here:

* [[Gao Zhisheng]], once recognized as one of China's ten most promising lawyers, was an advocate for a range of disenfranchised individuals and minorities. In 2006, after he wrote a series of letters to the Chinese leadership concerning the torture of Falun Gong adherents, Gao had his legal license revoked and his law firm was shut down.<ref name="nyt1134536400"/> His family was placed under house arrest, and he was detained for six months. Gao was sentenced, with a five-year reprieve, to four years in prison. He has been the subject of several prolonged disappearances into custody, during which he has reportedly been tortured.<ref name="taipeitimes"/>

* On 27 December 2007, AIDS and pro-democracy activist Hu Jia was detained as part of a crackdown on dissents during the run-up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics. A well known rights advocate who had advocated on behalf of AIDS victims, peasants, victims of land requisitions, Hu had also been critical of the lack of human rights progress that had been made ahead of the Olympic games.<ref>Jim Yardley, [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/01/world/asia/01iht-dissident.1.9665869.html 'China formally arrests detained activist Hu Jia'], New York Times, 1 February 2008.</ref> Hu pleaded not guilty at his trial in March 2008. On 3 April 2008, he was sentenced to 3.5 years in prison for "inciting subversion of state power."<ref name="Chinese civil rights activist sentenced for subversion"/> He had previously been under house arrest, and has reportedly been beaten by police.<ref name="amnesty11"/>

[[File:Hu Jia 12apr10 300.jpg|thumb|right|Sakharov Prize winner [[Hu Jia (activist)|Hu Jia]] sentenced to three and a half years in prison in 2007 for "inciting subversion"]]
* In response to his work to bring a class action lawsuit against family planning authorities in Linyi, Shandong Province in 2005, [[Chen Guangcheng]] was put under house arrest, threatened, detained, and beaten. Three other Weiquan activists – [[Li Fangping]], Li Subin, and [[Xu Zhiyong]]— visited him to offer support, but were themselves beaten and interrogated. On 24 August 2006, he was sentenced to four years and three months in prison for "damaging property and gathering crowds to disturb transport order." Following his release, he remains under house arrest.<ref name="hrw12"/>

* On 22 April 2010, Beijing lawyers Liu Wei and Tang Jitian were permanently disbarred for defending Falun Gong practitioners.<ref name="amnesty13"/>

* On 13 May 2009, lawyers Zhang Kai and Li Chunfu are violently beaten and detained in [[Chongqing]] for investigating the death of Jiang Xiqing, a 66-year-old Falun Gong practitioner killed in a labor camp. One month earlier, Beijing lawyer Cheng Hai was similarly beaten by police in Sichuan province for seeking to defend a Falun Gong adherent.<ref name="hrichina"/>

* [[Yang Chunlin]] was arrested in July 2007 and charged with "inciting subversion of state power".<ref name="reuters"/> His trial began in February 2008 in the city of [[Jiamusi]].<ref name="rfa15"/><ref name="www"/> Yang was sentenced to five years in prison on 24 March 2008.<ref>[http://chrdnet.org/2008/03/24/“olympics-prisoner”-yang-chunlin-sentenced-to-five-years-in-prison/ "'Olympic Protester' Yang Chunlin sentenced to five years in prison"], Chinese Human Rights Defenders, 24 March 2008.</ref> He maintained his innocence throughout the trial. During and after the hearing at which he was sentenced, Yang was reportedly beaten with an electric rod on at least two occasions.<ref name="rfa17"/><ref name="washingtonpost18"/>

* On 4 July 2009, around 20 security agents broke into the home of Wang Yonghang. Wang, a Weiquan lawyer from [[Dalian]] City, had defended Falun Gong adherents. He was taken into custody for interrogation and was reportedly beaten severely.<ref name="amnesty5"/> Wang's lawyers were not permitted to contact him. In November 2009, Wang was sentenced in a closed court to seven years in prison for his advocacy on behalf of Falun Gong practitioners. When his lawyers were permitted to see him in January 2010, they reported that he had been tortured.<ref name="gpo20"/>

* On 17 July 2009, authorities in Beijing raided and shuttered the Open Constitution Initiative, an NGO established by legal scholars Teng Biao and Xu Zhiyong.<ref name="washingtonpost21"/>

* On 20 February 2011, several Weiquan activists were detained following online calls for pro-democracy protests in China, including Chen Wei, Jiang Tianyong, Tang Jitian, and Teng Biao.<ref name="guardian22"/>

==International response==
Although there is relatively little awareness of the Weiquan phenomenon as a movement outside of China, Western governments and human rights organizations have consistently expressed concern over the treatment of individual Weiquan lawyers in China, some of whom have faced disbarment, imprisonment, prolonged disappearance, sentencing and alleged torture for their work in promoting civil rights and speaking out against one-party rule. In October 2010, a bipartisan group of 29 members of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] pressed President Obama to raise the cases of Liu Xiaobo and Gao Zhisheng with the Chinese leadership, writing of Gao Zhizheng's prolonged detention: "If lawyers are hauled away for the "crime" of defending their clients, then even the pretense of rule of law in China has failed."<ref name="indiatimes"/> The U.S. State Department claims to have raised the cases of these two individuals with their Chinese counterparts.<ref name="america"/>

In 2008, Hu Jia was awarded the [[Sakharov Prize]] by the [[European Parliament]] recognizing his human rights advocacy.<ref name="bbc23"/> The same year, Hu and Gao Zhisheng received nominations for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], and were considered to be favorites for the award.<ref name="telegraph24"/> Two years later, seven members of the U.S. House of Representatives nominated imprisoned lawyers Gao Zhisheng and Chen Guangcheng, along with fellow dissident Liu Xiaobo for the prize.<ref name="members"/> The letter noted that these individuals have sought to "raise the Chinese people’s awareness of their dignity and rights, and to call their government to govern within its constitution, its laws, and the international human rights agreements it has signed," and thereby made a significant contribution to peace. The Nobel Prize Committee awarded the honor to Liu in absentia in December 2010.<ref name="nytimes25"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|Human rights|People's Republic of China}}
*[[Human rights in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[Protest and dissent in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[China National Anti-Demolition Home Alliance]]
*[[Deng Yujiao incident]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs=

<ref name="Chinese civil rights activist sentenced for subversion">{{cite news| url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/02/china.activist.sentenced.ap/index.html |publisher=CNN | title=Chinese civil rights activist sentenced for subversion | date=3 April 2008 | accessdate=24 October 2008 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080527021911/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/04/02/china.activist.sentenced.ap/index.html  |archivedate = 27 May 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="HRW Thin Ice">[[Human Rights Watch]]. [http://www.hrw.org/en/node/62248/section/6 Walking on Thin Ice] 28 April 2008.</ref>

<ref name="abcnews">Cara Anna. [http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=10434142 "2 China Lawyers Who Defended Falun Gong Face Ban"]. The Associated Press, 21 April 2010.</ref>

<ref name="america">[http://www.america.gov/st/texttrans-english/2010/May/20100517122756xjsnommis0.5151941.html "Briefing by Michael Posner on U.S.-China Human Rights Dialogue,"] 14 May 2010.</ref>

<ref name="amnesty">Amnesty International. [http://www.amnesty.org/en/news-and-updates/chinese-human-rights-defenders-subjected-absurd-disbarment-hearing-2010-04-22 ‘CHINESE HUMAN RIGHTS DEFENDERS SUBJECTED TO ‘ABSURD’ DISBARMENT HEARING’] 22 April 2010</ref>

<ref name="amnesty.org">Amnesty International. [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/011/2000/en/77562be8-df70-11dd-acaa-7d9091d4638f/asa170112000en.pdf ‘The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called “heretical organizations’]. 23 March 2000.</ref>

<ref name="amnesty11">Amnesty International. [http://www.amnesty.org.au/china/comments/12854/ 'Hu Jia – Silenced Behind Bars']. 5 May 2008</ref>

<ref name="amnesty13">Amnesty International, [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/ASA17/022/2010/en "China: No Rule of Law when Defence Lawyers Cannot Perform their Legitimate Role,"] 5 October 2010</ref>

<ref name="amnesty5">Amnesty International. [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/036/2009/en/ec5e5876-1b97-4b84-ad93-4f9ba3b9b091/asa170362009en.html ‘Human rights lawyer detained, tortured: Wang Yonghang’]. 28 July 2001</ref>

<ref name="bbc">BBC, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5048040.stm 'China land rights lawyer released'], 5 June 2006</ref>

<ref name="bbc23">BBC, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7686026.stm 'Hu Jia Wins European Rights Prize'], 23 October 2008.</ref>

<ref name="cecc">Congressional Executive Commission. [http://www.cecc.gov/pages/annualRpt/annualRpt09/CECCannRpt2009.pdf 2009 Annual Report]. 10 October 2009, p 272.</ref>

<ref name="cecc10">Donald Clarke. [http://www.cecc.gov/pages/hearings/2009/20091007/dclarke100709.pdf 'LAWYERS AND THE STATE IN CHINA: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS'], Testimony Before the Congressional-Executive Commission on China Washington, D.C. 7 October 2009</ref>

<ref name="cecc8">Congressional Executive Commission on China. [http://www.cecc.gov/pages/annualRpt/annualRpt10/CECCannRpt2010.pdf 2010 Annual Report]. 10 October 2010, pp 99 – 111.</ref>

<ref name="chinafreepress">[http://www.chinafreepress.org/publish/case/Accord_With_the_Tide_of_History_Directly_Elect_Beijing_Bar_Association_Directors.shtml 'Accord With the Tide of History, Directly Elect Beijing Bar Association Directors'], 9 September 2008.</ref>

<ref name="chinafreepress2">[http://www.chinafreepress.org/publish/case/The_Beijing_Bar_Association_s_Response_to_a_Small_Number_of_Lawyers_and_Their_So-Called_Call_For_Direct_Elections_to_the_Beijing_Bar_Association.shtml 'The Beijing Bar Association's Response to a Small Number of Lawyers and Their So-Called "Call For Direct Elections to the Beijing Bar Association"'], 10 September 2008.</ref>

<ref name="chinageeks">[http://chinageeks.org/2010/02/translation-tan-zuorens-verdict/ 'Translation: Tan Zuoren's Verdict'], 11 February 2010. Retrieved 14 February 2011.</ref>

<ref name="cnn">Steven Jiang. [http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/12/30/china.villager.death/index.html "Chinese villager's death sparks national outrage"]. CNN, 30 December 2010</ref>

<ref name="conscientious">Eva Pils, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1564447 "The practice of law as conscientious resistance: Chinese weiquan lawyers' experience"], in ''Impact of China's 1989 Tiananmen Massacre,'' Jean-Philippe Beja (ed) (Routledge, 2011).</ref>

<ref name="csmonitor">Peter Ford, [http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2010/0706/Why-Chinese-activist-Ni-Yulan-lost-nearly-everything "Why Chinese activist Ni Yulan lost nearly everything"], Christian Science Monitor, 6 July 2010.</ref>

<ref name="economist">The Economist, [http://www.economist.com/node/8554778?story_id=8554778 'Blood debts: Tens of thousands of lives devastated. Not a single official held to account']. 18 January 2007.</ref>

<ref name="faluninfo">Falun Dafa Information Center. [http://faluninfo.net/article/1024/ ‘Arbitrary Arrest and Imprisonment’], 25 April 2010.</ref>

<ref name="fordham">Eva Pils, [http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2065&context=ilj&sei-redir=1#search=%22gao%20zhisheng%20hunger%20strike%22 'Asking the Tiger for His Skin: Rights Activism in China'], Fordham International Law Journal, Volume 30, Issue 4 (2006).</ref>

<ref name="freedom">Maggie Chen, [http://www.duihua.org/media/media/media/scmp20100607.htm ‘‘Freedom of Speech Defence Bound To Fail’]’ South China Morning Post, 7 June 2010.</ref>

<ref name="gpo">Congressional Executive Commission on China, [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_house_committee_prints&docid=f:61507.pdf ‘Annual Report 2010’] 10 October 2010, pp 58–60.</ref>

<ref name="gpo20">Congressional Executive Commission on China. [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_house_committee_prints&docid=f:61507.pdf '2010 Annual Report'], 10 October 2010, p 104.</ref>

<ref name="guardian">Tania Branigan. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/feb/09/china-eathquake-schools-activist-jailed ‘China jails investigator into Sichuan earthquake schools’] The Guardian, 9 February 2010</ref>

<ref name="guardian22">Tania Branigan. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/feb/23/chinese-activists-lawyers-seized "'Chinese activists seized after call for 'jasmine revolution'"]. The Guardian, 23 February 2011.</ref>

<ref name="harvard">[http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/guorui/2008/10/23/jerome-cohen-on-the-three-supremes/ 'Jerome Cohen on the "Three Supremes"], 23 October 2008.</ref>

<ref name="hrichina">Sharon Hom, Human Rights in China. [http://www.hrichina.org/content/296 ‘Beijing Lawyers Beaten for Representing Falun Gong Case’]. 13 May 2009</ref>

<ref name="hrw">[[Human Rights Watch]] 2008, [http://china.hrw.org/press/other_news/hrw_world_report_2008_events_in_china_in_2007 "HRW World Report 2008: Events in China in 2007"]. Retrieved 3 March 2008.</ref>

<ref name="hrw12">Human Rights Watch. [http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2006/07/18/chronology-chen-guangchengs-case 'Chronology of Chen Guangcheng's case']. 13 November 2010.</ref>

<ref name="hrw9">Human Rights Watch. [http://www.hrw.org/en/reports/2008/04/28/walking-thin-ice "Walking on Thin Ice,"] 28 April 2008.</ref>

<ref name="indiatimes">The Times of India. [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/us/Obama-urged-to-address-case-of-human-rights-prisoners-in-China/articleshow/6704136.cms "Obama urged to address case of human rights prisoners in China,"] 7 October 2010.</ref>

<ref name="intermediate">[http://www.duihua.org/work/verdicts/verdict_Guo%20Quan_en.htm ‘‘Suqian Intermediate People’s Court of Jiangsu Province Criminal Verdict [in case of Guo Quan]’],’ Dui Hua Foundation, 16 October 09.</ref>

<ref name="lawbase">Huang Jiayou, [http://www.lawbase.com.cn/law_learning/lawbase_@1486.htm "Considerations on some issues related to the education in socialist rule of law viewpoints,"] China Laws (http://www.lawbase.com.cn ), 13 June 2006.</ref>

<ref name="members">[http://chrissmith.house.gov/News/DocumentSingle.aspx?DocumentID=168899 "Human Rights Leaders in China Nominated for Nobel Peace Prize by House Members,"] 2 February 2010.</ref>

<ref name="nationalpost">Leeshai Lemish. [http://www.david-kilgour.com/2008/Oct_07_2008_03.php ‘The Games are over, the persecution continues’]. The National Post, 7 October 2008</ref>

<ref name="newsweek">Melinda Liu. [http://www.newsweek.com/2002/03/03/barefoot-lawyers.html “Barefoot lawyers”], Newsweek, 4 March 2002.</ref>

<ref name="nyt1134536400">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/13/international/asia/13lawyer.html?pagewanted=1&_r=1&ei=5094&en=2603f28ce2c9c2c4&hp&ex=1134536400&partner=homepage|title=Legal Gadfly Bites Hard, and Beijing Slaps Him |last=Kahn|first=Joseph|date=13 December 2005|work=The New York Times}}</ref>

<ref name="nytimes">[[The New York Times]]. [http://www.nytimes.com/ref/world/asia/rule_index.html Rule by Law: A Series] 2005.</ref>

<ref name="nytimes1">Sharon LaFraniere. [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/24/world/asia/24quake.html ‘School Construction Critic Gets Prison Term in China’], New York Times, 23 November 2009</ref>

<ref name="nytimes25">Sarah Lyall, [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/11/world/europe/11nobel.html "Winner's Chair Remains Empty at Nobel Event,"] New York Times, 10 December 2010.</ref>

<ref name="nytimes3">Edward Wong, [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/22/world/asia/22beijing.html '2 Chinese lawyers are facing disbarment for defending Falun Gong'], New York Times, 21 April 2010.</ref>

<ref name="nytimes7">Andrew Jacobs. [http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/03/world/asia/03dissident.html "China’s Defiance Stirs Fears for Missing Dissident"], 3 February 2010.</ref>

<ref name="peopledaily">People's Daily Online. [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6393774.html "China has more than 143,000 lawyers"], 16 April 2008.</ref>

<ref name="purdue">Rana Siu Inboden and William Inboden.[http://www.purdue.edu/crcs/itemNews/inboden%20FEER%20China%20article.pdf "Faith and Law in China"], Far Eastern Economic Review, Sept 2009.</ref>

<ref name="qsjournal">Luo Gan, "Bolstering the teaching of the concept of socialist rule by law: Conscientiously strengthening the political thinking of the political and legal ranks / "深入开展社会主义法治理念教育切实加强政法队伍思想政治建设""] Seeking Truth, Issue No. 433, 16 June 2006. Quoted in Human Rights Watch, [http://www.hrw.org/en/node/11104/section/6 'A Great Danger for Lawyers']</ref>

<ref name="reuters">Beck, L. 2008, [http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSPEK27001420080228 'China foreign minister defends rights record'], ''[[Reuters]]'', 28 February. Retrieved 3 March 2008.</ref>

<ref name="rfa">Radio Free Asia. [http://www.rfa.org/english/news/tibet/lawyer-blocked-07202009165943.html 'China Blocks Tibet Lawyers']. 20 July 1999.</ref>

<ref name="rfa15">Fang Yuan & Yan Xiu 2008, [http://www.rfa.org/english/news/china_olympics-20080219.html 'China tries land activist who opposed Olympics'], ''[[Radio Free Asia]]'', 19 February. Retrieved 3 March 2008.</ref>

<ref name="rfa17">Radio Free Asia 2008, [http://www.rfa.org/cantonese/news/china_rights_trail-20080324.html 'Human rights trail'], ''Radio Free Asia'', 24 March. (Cantonese)</ref>

<ref name="ssrn">Fu Hualing, Richard Cullen. [http://ssrn.com/abstract=1083925 "Weiquan (Rights Protection) Lawyering in an Authoritarian State"], 15 January 2008.</ref>

<ref name="state">U.S. Department of State. [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119037.htm ‘2008 Human Rights Report: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)’], 25 February 2009.</ref>

<ref name="taipeitimes">Charles Hutzler. [http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2011/01/13/2003493354 'Gao Zhisheng recounts months of abuse by Chinese police']. Associated Press, 13 January 2011</ref>

<ref name="telegraph">Malcolm Moore. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/7909689/China-sentences-Uighur-to-15-years-in-prison-for-talking-to-foreigners.html 'China sentences Uighur to 15 years in prison for talking to foreigners'], The Telegraph, 25 July 2010.</ref>

<ref name="telegraph24">Malcolm Moore, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/3146473/Chinese-dissidents-favourites-for-Nobel-Peace-Prize.html "Chinese dissidents favourites for Nobel Peace Prize,"] The Telegraph, 10 June 2008</ref>

<ref name="thestar">Bill Schiller. [http://www.thestar.com/article/444409 “Lawyers pay high price for coming to aid of Tibetans”], The Star, 17 June 2008.</ref>

<ref name="transnational">Keith J. Hand. [http://journals.cdrs.columbia.edu/jtl/?p=256 "Using Law for a Righteous Purpose: The Sun Zhigang Incident and Evolving Forms of Citizen Action in the People's Republic of China"] Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, Issue 45 (2006), pp. 114–147.</ref>

<ref name="usatoday">Henry Sanderson. [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-09-11-360255464_x.htm 'China lawyers call for more open bar association']. The Associated Press, 11 September 2008.</ref>

<ref name="uyghurcongress">[http://www.uyghurcongress.org/en/?p=3657 'Chinese activists speak out for jailed Uighur'], Associated Press, 31 July 2010.</ref>

<ref name="voanews">VOA News. [http://www.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2007-09-04-voa53-66589097.html "Rights Group: China Arrests Activist For Anti-Olympics Campaign"], 4 September 2007.</ref>

<ref name="washingtonpost">Edward Cody. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/14/AR2008021401716.html?hpid=topnews 'Chinese Rights Activist Joins List of Those Facing Subversion Charge']. Washington Post, 15 February 2008.</ref>

<ref name="washingtonpost18">Fan, M. 2008, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/24/AR2008032401127.html?hpid=moreheadlines 'Protestors disrupt lighting of torch in ancient Olympia'], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 25 March. Retrieved 25 March 2008.</ref>

<ref name="washingtonpost21">Teng Biao. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/07/24/AR2009072402940.html 'The Law on Trial in China']. The Washington Post, 25 July 2009</ref>

<ref name="washingtonpost4">John Pomfret and Philip Pan. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&node=&contentId=A33055-2001Aug4 ‘Torture is Breaking Falun Gong’], Washington Post, 5 August 2001.</ref>

<ref name="www">Dickie, M. 2008, [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/8eed5c6c-e61e-11dc-8398-0000779fd2ac.html 'Beijing dismisses rights fears'], ''[[Financial Times]]'', 28 February. Retrieved 3 March 2008.</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hrw.org/en/node/62248/section/5 The emergence of the weiquan movement], [[Human Rights Watch]]

{{Human rights}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Weiquan Movement}}
[[Category:Political movements]]
[[Category:Human rights in China]]
[[Category:Weiquan movement]]
[[Category:Law of China]]
[[Category:Civil rights activists]]

[[ca:Moviment Weiquan]]
[[zh:中國維權運動]]

John Paterson (Architekt)

2012-11-18T13:25:35Z

1exec1: uses dmy dates

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Unreferenced|date=June 2008}}
'''John Patterson''' (died 1832) was a Scottish architect who trained with [[Robert Adam]] (1728-1792) whom he assisted with his work on [[Edinburgh University]] Old College.

Patterson's own works include:

*[[Monzie Castle]] 1785-1790
*[[Barmoor Castle]] c. 1801
*[[Pinkie House]] 1800
*[[Eglinton Castle]]
*[[Winton House]] 1805
*[[Milbourne Hall]] 1797-1810

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Patterson, John
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1832
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Patterson, John}}
[[Category:Scottish architects]]
[[Category:1832 deaths]]

{{Scotland-artist-stub}}
{{UK-architect-stub}}

James Hay, 15. Earl of Erroll

2012-11-18T00:54:47Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{unreferenced|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox person
| name = The Earl of Erroll
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = 20 April 1726
| birth_place =
| death_date = 3 July 1778
| death_place =
| occupation =
| spouse = Isabella Carr
| parents = William Boyd (4th Earl of Kilmarnock) Anne Livingston of Erroll
| children = Augusta Hay George Hay (16th Earl of Erroll) William Hay (17th Earl of Erroll) Lady Margaret Hay
}}

'''James Hay, 15th Earl of Erroll''' (20 April 1726 – 3 July 1778) was the son of [[William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock]].

He was born with the name of '''James Boyd''' but legally changed it to James Hay in 1758, when he succeeded his great-aunt as [[Earl of Erroll]] (his father's titles were attainted and thus he did not succeed to them).

In 1749, he married Rebecca Lockhart (died 1761)

In 1762, he married Isabella Carr (1747–1808) and they had four children:

*[[Augusta Boyle, Countess of Glasgow|Augusta Hay]] (d. 1822)
*[[George Hay, 16th Earl of Erroll]] (1767–1798)
*[[William Hay, 17th Earl of Erroll]] (1772–1819)
*Lady Margaret Hay (c. 1778–1832)

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel top|width=100%}}
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|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;
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|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1=1. James Hay, 15th Earl of Erroll
|2=2. [[William Boyd, 4th Earl of Kilmarnock]]
|3=3. Anne Livingston
|4=4. [[William Boyd, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock]]
|5=5. Lady Eupheme Ross
|6=6. [[James Livingston, 5th Earl of Linlithgow]]
|7=7. Lady Margaret Hay
|8=8. [[William Boyd, 2nd Earl of Kilmarnock]]
|9=9. Letitia Boyd
|10=10. [[William Ross, 12th Lord Ross]]
|11=11. Agnes Wilkie
|12=12. [[George Livingston, 3rd Earl of Callendar]]
|13=13. Lady Anne Graham
|14=14. [[John Hay, 12th Earl of Erroll]]
|15=15. Lady Anne Drummond
|16=16. [[William Boyd, 1st Earl of Kilmarnock]]
|17=17. Lady Jean Cuninghame
|18=18. Thomas Boyd
|20=20. [[George Ross, 11th Lord Ross]]
|21=21. Lady Grizel Cochrane
|24=24. [[George Livingston, 3rd Earl of Linlithgow]]
|25=25. Lady Elizabeth Maule
|26=26. [[James Graham, 2nd Marquess of Montrose]]
|27=27. Lady Isabel Douglas
|28=28. Sir Andrew Hay
|29=29. Margaret Kinnaird
|30=30. [[James Drummond, 3rd Earl of Perth]]
|31=31. Lady Anne Gordon
}}
</center>
{{ahnentafel bottom}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{s-start}}
{{s-aca}}
{{s-bef|before=[[James Milliken of Milliken]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Rector of the University of Glasgow]]|years=1761 – 1763}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Thomas Miller, Lord Glenlee|Thomas Miller]]}}
{{s-npo|mason}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alexander Montgomerie, 10th Earl of Eglinton|The Earl of Eglinton]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Grand Masters of the Grand Lodge of Scotland|Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Scotland]]|years=1741 – 1742}}
{{s-aft|after=[[George Drummond]]}}
{{s-reg|sct}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Mary Hay, 14th Countess of Erroll|Mary Hay]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Earl of Erroll]]|years=1758 – 1778}}
{{s-aft|after=[[George Hay, 16th Earl of Erroll|George Hay]]}}
{{end}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=78639820}}

{{Persondata
|NAME= Hay, James, 15th Earl of Erroll
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
|DATE OF BIRTH= 20 April 1726
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH= 3 July 1778
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Erroll, James Hay, 15th Earl of}}
[[Category:Earls of Erroll]]
[[Category:Rectors of the University of Glasgow]]
[[Category:1726 births]]
[[Category:1778 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish representative peers]]

{{Scotland-politician-stub}}
{{Scotland-peer-stub}}

George Hay, 7. Earl of Erroll

2012-11-18T00:48:00Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''George Hay, 7th Earl of Erroll''' (died 1573) was a Scottish nobleman and politician. He was a member of the [[Privy Council]] of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] in 1561. He was also the [[Earl of Erroll]]. In April 1567, Erroll was a signatory to [[Ainslie Tavern Bond|Ainslie's Tavern Band]] agreeing to the marriage of [[Mary, Queen of Scots]] to the [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell|Earl of Bothwell]].<ref>Wormald, Jenny, ''Lords and Men in Scotland'', John Donald (1985), 406.</ref>

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Erroll, George Hay, 7th Earl Of
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1573
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Erroll, George Hay, 7th Earl Of}}
[[Category:1573 deaths]]
[[Category:Earls of Erroll]]
[[Category:16th-century Scottish people]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of Scotland]]
[[Category:Privy Council of Mary, Queen of Scots]]

{{Scotland-noble-stub}}
{{Scotland-politician-stub}}

Priscilla Buchan, Baroness Tweedsmuir

2012-11-18T00:43:04Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''Priscilla Buchan, Baroness Tweedsmuir and Baroness Tweedsmuir of Belhelvie''', [[Privy Counsellor|PC]] (25 January 1915 – 11 March 1978)<ref>{{Rayment-hc|a|1|date=March 2012}}</ref> was a [[Unionist Party (Scotland)|Unionist]] and [[Scottish Conservative Party|Conservative]] politician.

Born as '''Priscilla Jean Fortescue Thomson''', the daughter of Brigadier Alan F. Thomson DSO, she married Major Sir Arthur Lindsay Grant, [[Grant Baronets|11th Baronet]], Grenadier Guards in 1934. He was killed in action in 1944. She subsequently married the author and politician, the [[John Norman Stuart Buchan, 2nd Baron Tweedsmuir|2nd Baron Tweedsmuir]], in 1948.

Lady Tweedsmuir was an unsuccessful parliamentary candidate for [[Aberdeen North (UK Parliament constituency)|Aberdeen North]] in July 1945, and was elected for [[Aberdeen South (UK Parliament constituency)|Aberdeen South]] in 1946, holding the seat until 1966.
She was a delegate to the [[Council of Europe]] from 1950–1953, a UK Delegate to the [[United Nations General Assembly|General Assembly]] of the [[United Nations]], 1960–1961; Joint Parliamentary [[Under-Secretary of State for Scotland]] from 1962–1964; [[Minister of State for Scotland|Minister of State]] at the [[Scottish Office]] from 1970–1972 and at the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] from 1972–1974. She was appointed a [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellor]] in 1974.

In 1970 she was created a [[life peer]] as '''Baroness Tweedsmuir of Belhelvie''', of Potterton in the County of Aberdeen. In the House of Lords she served as Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, 1974–1977 and as Chairman of the Select Committee on European Communities, 1974–1977. She was also a Deputy Speaker. She died of cancer in 1978, aged 63.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{refimprove|date=March 2009}}

==External links==
* {{Hansard-contribs|lady-grant-of-monymusk|Priscilla Buchan, Lady Grant of Monymusk}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Aberdeen South (UK Parliament constituency)|Aberdeen South]]
| years = [[Aberdeen South by-election, 1946|1946]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1966|1966]]
| before = [[Sir Douglas Thomson, 2nd Baronet|Sir Douglas Thomson, Bt]]
| after = [[Donald Dewar]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Tweedsmuir, Priscilla
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 25 January 1915
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 11 March 1978
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Tweedsmuir, Priscilla}}
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1978 deaths]]
[[Category:Cancer deaths in Scotland]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Scottish constituencies]]
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs]]
[[Category:Female life peers]]
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) life peers]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British female MPs]]
[[Category:Unionist Party (Scotland) MPs]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1945–1950]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1950–1951]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1951–1955]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1955–1959]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1959–1964]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1964–1966]]

{{Women's-History-stub}}
{{Scotland-MP-stub}}

Anthony Stodart, Baron Stodart of Leaston

2012-11-18T00:42:54Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{refimprove|date=April 2009}}
'''James Anthony Stodart, Baron Stodart of Leaston''' [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] (6 June 1916 – 31 May 2003) was a [[Scottish Conservative and Unionist Party|Scottish Tory]] politician.

The son of a colonel in the Indian medical service, he took over the family farm at [[Kingston, East Lothian|Kingston]], [[North Berwick]], [[East Lothian]], after his father died when he was just 18. Eventually he farmed more than {{convert|800|acre|km2}} at [[Leaston]], near [[Humbie]], East Lothian.

Although he was an active Unionist in his youth, he fell out with the party and joined the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], standing as their candidate in [[Berwick and East Lothian (UK Parliament constituency)|Berwick and East Lothian]] in 1950.

By the following year Stodart had returned to the Tory fold and was Unionist candidate for [[Midlothian and Peeblesshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Midlothian and Peebles]] in 1951 for and [[Midlothian (UK Parliament constituency)|Midlothian]] in 1955.

At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1959|1959 general election]], he was elected as [[Member of Parliament]] (MP) for [[Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]], which he held until the [[United Kingdom general election, October 1974|October 1974 general election]], when he was succeeded by fellow Tory [[James Douglas-Hamilton, Baron Selkirk of Douglas|Lord James Douglas-Hamilton]].

Stodart served as a junior [[Scottish Office]] [[Minister of State for Scotland|Minister]] under Sir [[Alec Douglas-Home]] in 1963 and 1964, and at the [[Ministry of Agriculture]] in [[Edward Heath]]’s government, from 1970 to 1974.

After leaving the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]], he became chairman of the [[Agriculture Credit Corporation]] from 1975 to 1987 and chaired an inquiry into [[Scottish local government]] in 1980. He was created a [[life peer]] as '''Baron Stodart of Leaston''', of Humbie in [[East Lothian]] in 1981.

His wife Hazel died in 1995. They had no children.

== References ==
{{reflist}}
*{{Rayment-hc|date=March 2012}}

== External links ==
* {{Hansard-contribs | mr-james-stodart | Anthony Stodart }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1959|1959]]–[[United Kingdom general election, October 1974|Oct 1974]]
| before = [[Ian Clark Hutchison]]
| after = [[James Douglas-Hamilton, Baron Selkirk of Douglas|Lord James Douglas-Hamilton]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Stodart, Anthony
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = British politician
| DATE OF BIRTH = 6 June 1916
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 31 May 2003
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stodart, Anthony}}
[[Category:1916 births]]
[[Category:2003 deaths]]
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) MPs]]
[[Category:Liberal Party (UK) politicians]]
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[[Category:People from Midlothian]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Scottish constituencies]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Edinburgh constituencies]]
[[Category:People educated at Wellington College, Berkshire]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1959–1964]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1964–1966]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1966–1970]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1970–1974]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1974]]
[[Category:People from North Berwick]]
[[Category:Conservative Party (UK) life peers|Stodart of Leaston]]

{{Scotland-MP-stub}}
{{life-peer-stub}}

William J. Watson

2012-11-17T23:06:44Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
[[File:William J Watson.PNG|thumb|right|upright]]
Professor '''William J. Watson''' (1865–1948) was a [[toponymist]], one of the greatest [[Scotland|Scottish]] scholars of the 20th century, and was the first scholar to place the study of [[Scottish place names]] on a firm linguistic basis.

Watson was a native [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]]-speaker, born in Milntown of New Tarbat (now known as [[Milton, Easter Ross|Milton]]), [[Easter Ross]]. He was the son of Hugh Watson, a [[blacksmith]]. He received his initial education from his uncle, James Watson. William became well grounded in Gaelic studies and in the [[Classics]]. William went to the [[University of Aberdeen]] and the [[University of Oxford]].

First a school teacher in [[Glasgow]], [[Inverness]] and then [[Royal High School, Edinburgh|Edinburgh]], it was while teaching in Inverness that be began to contribute to the ''Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness'' and the ''Celtic Review''. He married Ella Carmichael daughter of [[Alexander Carmichael]]. He took the chair of Celtic at the [[University of Edinburgh]] in 1914, despite holding no prior university position. He remained in this prestigious position until making way for his son [[James Carmichael Watson]] in 1938. William died aged 83 on 9 March 1948

He is best known for his ''The Celtic Place-names of Scotland'' (1926), based on 30 years of work. Watson's work, eight decades later, is still the primary scholarly reference guide on the subject. The book is based on extensive notes taken by Watson, which are unpublished and held by Edinburgh University. Watson's great work was recently republished by ''Birlinn'' (2004) .

==Select bibliography==
* ''Place-Names of Ross and Cromarty'' (Inverness, 1904)
* ''Prints of the Past around Inverness'' (Inverness, 1909; 2nd revised edition Inverness, 1925)
* ''Rosg Gàidhlig'' (Inverness, 1915; 2nd edition Glasgow, 1929)
* ''Bàrdachd Gàidhlig'' (Inverness, 1915)
* ''The Picts: their original position in Scotland'' (Inverness, 1921)
* ''Ross and Cromarty'' (Cambridge, 1924)
* ''The History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland'' (Edinburgh, 1926)
* ''Scottish Verse in the [[Book of the Dean of Lismore]]'' (Edinburgh, 1937)

==References and further reading==
* Savage, Steve, ''William J Watson: Scottish Place-Name Papers'', (London, 2002)
* Watson, W. J., ''History of the Celtic Place-Names of Scotland'', (Edinburgh, 1926), reprinted, with an Introduction, full Watson bibliography and corrigenda by Simon Taylor (Edinburgh, 2004).

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Watson, William J.
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Scottish celticist
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1865
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1948
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Watson, William J.}}
[[Category:Scottish Gaelic-speaking people]]
[[Category:1865 births]]
[[Category:1948 deaths]]
[[Category:Celticists]]
[[Category:People from Ross and Cromarty]]
[[Category:Scottish Gaelic language]]
[[Category:Toponymists]]

{{Scotland-academic-bio-stub}}

[[gd:Uilleam MhicBhatair]]

Colin McWilliam

2012-11-17T22:55:28Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''Colin McWilliam''' (1928–1989) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] architecture academic and author.

==Career==
Born in [[London]], he graduated from the [[University of Cambridge]] and became Director of the [[Scottish National Buildings Record]], then the Assistant Secretary of the [[National Trust for Scotland]]. He also directed architectural history and conservation at [[Heriot-Watt University]]. He was a founder of the Dictionary of Scottish Architects Project,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/background.php |title=The History of the Dictionary of Scottish Architects Project |work=Dictionary of Scottish Architects}}</ref> and was instrumental in setting up the [[Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ahss.org.uk/file_download/4/The+Story+of+the+Society.pdf |title=The Story of the Society |author=Robertson, Eleanor |year=1997 |publisher=Architectural Heritage Society of Scotland}}</ref>

In the 1970s he was approached by [[Nikolaus Pevsner|Sir Nikolaus Pevsner]] who, having completed the ''[[The Buildings of England]]'' series, was keen to extend the project to cover the rest of the UK. McWilliam went on to co-write two volumes in ''[[The Buildings of Scotland]]'' series and became the project's editor.

He designed a desk and a bookcase incorporating copies of a portrait medallion of [[Robert Adam]] by [[James Tassie]], for the Cabinet Room in [[Bute House]], the official residence of the [[First Minister of Scotland]].

Colin McWilliam is commemorated on a plaque in [[Greyfriars Kirkyard]] in [[Edinburgh]]. He was the father of the author [[Candia McWilliam]].

==Publications==

*''Culross: A Short Guide'' (1962)
*''Scottish Townscape'' (1975)
*''Lothian, except Edinburgh''. Buildings of Scotland. (1978)
*''Edinburgh''. Buildings of Scotland. (1984) (with David Walker and John Gifford)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.codexgeo.co.uk/dsa/index.php Dictionary of Scottish Architects Project]
*[http://www.pevsner.co.uk Pevsner Architectural Guides]

{{Authority control|VIAF=57803218}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Macwilliam, Colin
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1928
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1989
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Macwilliam, Colin}}
[[Category:1928 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish architecture writers]]
[[Category:Scottish art critics]]
[[Category:Scottish art historians]]
[[Category:Scottish curators]]
[[Category:People associated with Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Academics of Heriot-Watt University]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Cambridge]]

{{Scotland-academic-bio-stub}}
{{Scotland-writer-stub}}

Moniack Castle

2012-11-17T22:39:21Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
[[File:Moniack Castle Winery - geograph.org.uk - 101131.jpg|thumb|Moniack Castle]]
'''Moniack Castle''' is a 16th-century [[tower house]] located {{convert|7|mi}} west of [[Inverness]], and just south of [[Beauly]] in [[Highland (council area)|Highland]], [[Scotland]]. The castle was built in 1580 by members of the [[Clan Fraser]]. Today the castle grounds comprise a winery, which is still owned and operated by Frasers. The castle is protected as a category B [[listed building]].<ref name=LBR>{{cite web |url=http://hsewsf.sedsh.gov.uk/hslive/hsstart?P_HBNUM=7818 |title=Moniack Castle, Listed Building Report |accessdate=29 April 2010 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=[[Historic Scotland]]}}</ref>

The [[L-plan]] castle has been altered many times since its construction. The [[crenellated]] parapet was added in 1804 and the castle was extended in the 1830s. The interiors include a [[Roman Catholic]] chapel.<ref name=LBR/> In the grounds of the castle is the Balblair Stone, a [[Pict]]ish [[Pictish stones|symbol stone]], carved with the figure of a man, which was moved here from [[Kilmorack]] in 1903.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/12732/details/moniack+castle/ |title=Moniack Castle, Balblair Stone |accessdate=29 April 2010 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work=[[CANMORE]] |publisher=[[Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/269922/details/balblair/ |title=Balblair, Balblair Stone |accessdate=29 April 2010 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work=CANMORE |publisher=Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland}}</ref>

Moniack Castle is the only castle that still belongs to a branch of the [[Clan Fraser of Lovat|Lovat Fraser]]s. This branch is known as the Moniack Frasers and is the largest off-shoot of the clan. It consists of over 150 descendants from the Hon. Alastair Fraser and Lady Sybil (née Grimstone). Alastair was given the castle by his elder brother, [[Simon Fraser, 14th Lord Lovat]], in 1926. The castle is occupied by the [[Scottish clan chief|chief]] of the Moniack Frasers, Rory Fraser, known as "Moniack", and his family. Since 1978 the family have run a [[winery]] from the castle.

==References==
{{reflist}}

*{{cite web |url=http://canmore.rcahms.gov.uk/en/site/12730/details/moniack+castle/ |title=Moniack Castle |accessdate=29 April 2010 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work=CANMORE |publisher=Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland}}

==External links==
* [http://www.moniackcastle.co.uk/ Moniack Castle Wineries]

{{coord|57|27|35|N|4|24|56|W|region:GB|display=title}}

[[Category:Clan Fraser]]
[[Category:Castles in Highland (council area)]]
[[Category:Category B listed buildings in Scotland]]
[[Category:Listed buildings in Highland (council area)]]
[[Category:Listed castles in Scotland]]

{{Scotland-clan-stub}}
{{scotland-castle-stub}}

Malcolm Shepherd, 2. Baron Shepherd

2012-11-17T21:43:38Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}

{{Infobox Officeholder
|honorific-prefix = [[The Right Honourable]] 
|name = The Lord Shepherd
|honorific-suffix = [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council|PC]]
|office = [[Leader of the House of Lords]] [[Lord Privy Seal]]
|primeminister = [[Harold Wilson]] [[James Callaghan]]
|term_start = 4 March 1974
|term_end = 10 September 1976
|predecessor = [[David Hennessy, 3rd Baron Windlesham|The Lord Windlesham]]
|successor = [[Fred Peart, Baron Peart|The Lord Peart]]
|office2 = [[Labour Chief Whip|Chief Whip]] of the [[House of Lords]] [[Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms]]
|primeminister2 = [[Harold Wilson]]
|term_start2 = 21 October 1964
|term_end2 = 29 July 1967
|predecessor2 = [[Michael Hicks Beach, 2nd Earl St Aldwyn|The Earl St Aldwyn]]
|successor2 = [[Frank Beswick, Baron Beswick|The Lord Beswick]]
|birth_date = {{birth date|1918|9|27|df=y}}
|birth_place =
|death_date = {{death date and age|2001|4|5|1918|9|27|df=y}}
|death_place =
|party = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
}}
'''Malcolm Newton Shepherd, 2nd Baron Shepherd''' (Hereditary) and also '''Baron Shepherd of Spalding''' (Life Peerage) (27 September 1918 – 5 April 2001), was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] politician and [[peerage|peer]] who served as [[Leader of the House of Lords]] under [[Harold Wilson]] and [[James Callaghan]] and member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom]].

Shepherd was the son of the Labour politician [[George Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd]]. With the [[House of Lords Act 1999]], the right of the hereditary peers of an automatic seat in the [[House of Lords]] was removed, so Shepherd was created a [[life peer]] as Baron Shepherd of Spalding, of [[Spalding, Lincolnshire|Spalding]] in the County of [[Lincolnshire]] to keep his seat.

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Michael John Hicks-Beach, 2nd Earl St Aldwyn|The Earl St Aldwyn]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Labour Chief Whip|Chief Whip]] of the [[House of Lords]]|years=1964–1967}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Frank Beswick, Baron Beswick|The Lord Beswick]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen-at-Arms]]|years=1964–1967}}
|-
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[David Hennessy, 3rd Baron Windlesham|The Lord Windlesham]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Leader of the House of Lords]]|years=1974–1976}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Fred Peart, Baron Peart|The Lord Peart]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[Lord Privy Seal]]|years=1974–1976}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Edward Shackleton, Baron Shackleton|The Lord Shackleton]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Leader of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] in the [[House of Lords]]|years=1974–1976}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Fred Peart, Baron Peart|The Lord Peart]]}}
|-
{{s-reg|uk}}
{{s-bef|before=[[George Robert Shepherd, 1st Baron Shepherd|George Robert Shepherd]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Baron Shepherd]]|years=1954–2001}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Graeme George Shepherd, 3rd Baron Shepherd|Graeme George Shepherd]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Second Wilson Ministry}}
{{Callaghan Ministry}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Shepherd, Malcolm 2nd Baron Shepherd
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 27 September 1918
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 5 April 2001
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Shepherd, Malcolm 2nd Baron Shepherd}}
[[Category:1918 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal]]
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[[pl:Malcolm Shepherd, 2. baron Shepherd]]

{{UK-bio-stub}}

Gail Rebuck

2012-11-17T21:33:53Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''Dame Gail Rebuck, Baroness Gould of Brookwood''', [[DBE]] (born 10 February 1952) is a British publisher, chairman and chief executive of global book publisher [[Random House]]'s British operations. She was married to [[Philip Gould|Philip Gould, Lord Gould of Brookwood]] until his death in November 2011.

==Life==
Rebuck's [[Latvia]]n-born grandfather, and her own father, were both in the rag trade. At age four she was sent to the South Kensington [[Lycée Français Charles de Gaulle]], learning there to read and write in French before she did in English.<ref> Boyd Tonkin, [http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/gail-rebuck-power-behind-the-prose-2070134.html Gail Rebuck: Power behind the prose], ''[[The Independent]]'', 4 September 2010</ref> She graduated with a degree in intellectual history from [[Sussex University]] in 1974.<ref name=BritIndAwards>[http://www.britishindustryawards.co.uk/index.asp?PageID=35 Best of British Industry Awards - Gail Rebuck]</ref>

After working for various small publishers, and running a paperback imprint for [[Hamlyn (publishers)|Hamlyn]], she put funds of her own into a new imprint, '''''Century'''''. After a merger with [[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]] in 1985, Century Hutchinson was taken over by Random House UK in 1989. Rebuck was appointed Chair and Chief Executive of Random House UK in 1991.<ref name=BritIndAwards/>

Rebuck was awarded a CBE in the 2000 honours list,<ref name=BritIndAwards/> and made a Dame in 2009.<ref>Graham Ruddick, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/5518038/Random-House-boss-Gail-Rebuck-leads-Queens-birthday-honours-for-financial-world.html Random House boss Gail Rebuck leads Queen's birthday honours for financial world], ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'', 13 June 2009</ref>

Rebuck was listed at fifth place in a 2006 ''[[The Observer|Observer]]'' list of the top people in the British books industry,<ref>[[Robert McCrum]], [http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2006/mar/05/features.review Our top 50 players in the world of books], ''[[The Observer]]'', 5 March 2006</ref> and at ninth place in a 2011 ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' version of the list.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2011/sep/23/gail-rebuck-books-power-100 Books Power 100: Gail Rebuck #9], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 24 September 2011</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Rebuck, Gail
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = CEO, [[Random House UK]]
| DATE OF BIRTH = 10 February 1952
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rebuck, Gail}}
[[Category:1952 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:British publishers (people)]]
[[Category:Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:British baronesses]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]

{{Publisher-stub}}
{{UK-bio-stub}}

West Coast Wilderness Railway

2012-11-17T19:19:53Z

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{{Use Australian English|date=January 2012}}
{{Heritage Railway |
|name = West Coast Wilderness Railway |
|image = [[File:Tasmania ABT railway.jpg|250px|Locomotive on the West Coast Wilderness Railway.]]
|locale = [[West Coast, Tasmania]]|
|terminus = [[Queenstown, Tasmania|Queenstown]] and [[Regatta Point, Tasmania|Regatta Point]] |
|linename = |
|builtby = Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company|
|originalgauge = {{RailGauge|42}} |
|originalrack = [[Rack railway#Abt|Abt system]] |
|preservedgauge = {{RailGauge|42}} |
|preservedrack = Abt system |
|era = |
|owned = |
|operator = [[Federal Group|Federal Hotels]]|
|stations = Regatta Point, Teepookana, Dubbil Barril, Queenstown
|length = 34.5 km|
|originalopen = 1899-11-01 |
|closed = 1963-08-10 |
|stageyears = |
|stage = Restoration started at|
|years = 2002
|events = Reopened under the name of the Abt Wilderness Railway |
|years1 =
|routemap = {{infobox rdt|West Coast Wilderness Railway|navbar=1}}
|routemap_state = collapsed
}}

The '''West Coast Wilderness Railway, Tasmania''' is a reconstruction of the [[Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company]] railway between [[Queenstown, Tasmania|Queenstown]] and [[Regatta Point, Tasmania|Regatta Point]]. The trip takes approximately one hour and has remarkable views and is also world famous for its engineering.

==History==
===Original operation===
The Mount Lyell Mining Co (reformed on 29 March 1893 as the Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company) began on November 1892. The railway officially opened in 1897, and again on 1 November 1899 when the line was extended from Teepookana to Regatta Point and Strahan.

The railway was the only way to get the copper from the mine at [[Queenstown, Tasmania]] to markets. Until 1932 when a Hobart road link was completed, it was the only access through to Queenstown. The motto of Kelly and Orr was, [[Labor omnia vincit|Labor Omnia Vincit]], shows the achievement of this railway because it ran, even though multiple surveyors said it was not possible, the weather was extreme, the trains had to climb 1m in 16m (6.25%), and the train had to carry many tonnes of copper and the rail line had to survive natural disasters (including 1906 floods).

The railway utilised the [[Rack railway#Abt|Abt rack system]] of [[Rack railway|cog railway]] for steep sections. Because of the gradients, tonnages were always limited on the railway. The gauge is {{RailGauge|42}}.<ref name=Jehan>{{cite book |title=Rack Railways of Australia |last=Jehan |first=David |publisher=Illawarra Light Railway Museum Society |year=2003 |edition=2nd. |isbn=0-9750452-0-2}}</ref>

The original line continued into the Mount Lyell mining operations area in Queenstown, and at Regatta Point the line linked around the foreshore of [[Strahan, Tasmania|Strahan]] to link with the [[Strahan-Zeehan Railway|Government Line]] to [[Zeehan, Tasmania|Zeehan]].

The railway ceased operation on 10 August 1963 due to increasing maintenance costs and the improvement of road access to the West Coast to the North with the opening of the Murchison Highway. The last train run was performed by the same engine that ran the first run (ABT 1 in 1896 was the first engine to steam into Queenstown). The rail and other movable items were lifted taken off-site, leaving most of the bridges intact.

Following the closure of the railway, the rolling stock was dispersed—carriages to the [[Puffing Billy Railway]] in Victoria and the Abt locomotives were put on static displays or in museums.
With the removal of the railtrack the formation from Regatta Point came to be used by road vehicles for access to Lette's Bay and Lowana to the East.

Most bridges remained intact but fell into disrepair and unsuitable for vehicle access beyond Iron Bridge that crosses the King River at the location of the early port of Teepookana.

===Reconstruction===
Despite various proposals post 1963, it was not until the 1990s after the demise of the main Mount Lyell Company mining operations, and the downgrading of [[Hydro Tasmania|The Hydro]] activities of dam building on the [[West Coast, Tasmania|West Coast]], that some very committed local West Coast people campaigned for the restoration of the Abt Railway as an iconic heritage tourist attraction featuring the unique rail system and the community's mining history.

The restoration of the Abt Railway was made possible through the allocation of $20.45M from the Australian Government Prime Minister's Federal Fund, with further funding from the State Government and some private investment.

===New railway===
[[File:West Coast Wilderness Railway steam locomotive.jpg|thumb|Mount Lyell No. 5 was one of the original steam Abt locomotives on the line]]
The restored Abt Railway commenced operations on 27 December 2002 under the name of the Abt Wilderness Railway, and was officially re-opened by the [[Prime Minister of Australia]] [[John Howard]] and the [[Premier of Tasmania]] [[Jim Bacon]] in 2003.

The new railway terminal in Queenstown is on the same lands as that of the original station yard, and terminates at that point. At Regatta Point the railway station has been renovated and terminatesthere.

There was no attempt to vary the original alignment of the railway, except for the vicinity of the 'Quarter Mile Bridge' which is very near [[Teepookana, Tasmania|Teepookana]]. The old bridge was washed away in the floods of 1974, and the new bridge for this location is just south of the original.

A number of the original locomotives used on the line have been reconditioned into running order, but the passenger carriages are totally new, providing facilities for passenger comfort for year round operation.

There were 5 original ABT steam locomotives, with ABT 1 and ABT 3 restored in 2001, ABT 5 restored in 2005, with ABT 2 is currently on display at the Tasmanian Transport Museum, Glenorchy, Hobart and ABT 4 that after a life of poor operating performance was scrapped to provide parts for the other Abt locomotives.

==Stopping Places and Named Features==
Most of the historical stopping places and named locations of the original railway line have been kept. The following list is made for the journey from Queenstown, and can be read in reverse for the trip from Regatta Point.
[[File:West Coast Wilderness Railway diesel locomotive.jpg|thumb|right|Diesel locomotive at Teepookana]]
* Queenstown (terminus)
** crosses the [[Queen River]]
* Lynchford
* Halls Creek
* Rinadeena
** enters the western end of the [[King River, Tasmania|King Rive]]r gorge
* Dubbil Barril ("double barrel")
* "Quarter Mile Bridge" (original destroyed by floods in 1974, reconstruction much shorter)
** crosses the King River for the first time
* Teepookana
* "Steel Bridge"
** crosses the King River for the second time
** line closest to the King River between these points
** leaves the King River near its entry into Macquarie Harbour and moves north towards Regatta Point and Strahan
* Lowana
* [[Regatta Point]] (terminus)

The current owners and operators of the Railway are the [[Federal Hotels]] group which also owns and operates other tourist operations in [[Strahan, Tasmania|Strahan]].

==Further information==
[[File:Abt rack rail.jpg|thumb|right|Abt rack railway showing the dual racks ensuring one is always positively engaged]]
[[Federal Hotels]] produce unattributed materials about the railway and its history for travelers on the line, and users of its shops.

The most accessible recent writer regarding this railway is Lou Rae, as he has written a number of books about [[West Coast, Tasmania|West Coast]] railways.
*{{cite book|last=Rae|first=Lou|title=The Abt Railway and Railways of the Lyell region|location=Sandy Bay, Tas|year=2001|isbn=0-9592098-7-5}}
In its latest edition:
*{{cite book|last=Rae|first=Lou|title=The Abt Railway: Tasmania’s West Coast Wilderness Railway|location=Sandy Bay, Tas.|publisher=The Author|year=2003|isbn=0-9592098-8-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Rae|first=Lou|title=The Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Co. Ltd: a pictorial history 1893-1993|location=Ulverstone|year=1993|isbn=0-9592098-3-2}}

Some other works on the Mount Lyell Railway are :—
*{{cite book|last=Jehan|first=David|title=Rack Railways of Australia|publisher=The Author|year=2003|isbn=0-9750452-0-2}}
*{{cite book|author=Atkinson, H.K.|title=Railway Tickets of Tasmania|year=1991|isbn=0-9598718-7-X}}
*{{cite book|authorlink=Charles Whitham|last=Whitham|first=Charles|title=Western Tasmania—a land of riches and beauty|edition=Reprint 2003|publisher=Municipality of Queenstown|location=Queenstown|year=2003}}
:1949 edition—Hobart: Davies Brothers. {{OCLC|48825404}}; [[ASIN]] [http://www.amazon.com/dp/B000FMPZ80 B000FMPZ80]
:1924 edition—Queenstown: Mount Lyell Tourist Association. {{OCLC|35070001}}; [[ASIN]] [http://www.amazon.com/dp/B0008BM4XC B0008BM4XC]

*{{cite book|authorlink=Geoffrey Blainey|last=Blainey|first=Geoffrey|title=[[The Peaks of Lyell]]|year=1954}}
*{{cite journal|title=Picnic Day on the Mount Lyell Railway|author=Palmer, B.A.|journal=[[Australian Railway History|Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin]]|month=September|year=1963}}
*{{cite journal|first=Michael|last=Chapman|title=Steepest and Hardest|journal=Narrow Gauge World|month=November-December|year=2008|volume=60}}
*{{cite video|title=Tasmania’s West Coast Wilderness Railway: the rebirth of a remarkable engineering achievement|medium=DVD video|publisher=Peter Richman Productions|location=Lindisfarne, Tas.|year=2004}}

==See also==
*[[North Mount Lyell Railway]]
*[[Railways on the West Coast of Tasmania]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*http://www.federalresorts.com.au/west-coast-wilderness-railway.php - Federal Resorts web page and info about WCWR
*http://www.railtasmania.com/arhs/ - Australian Railway Historical Society web page
*http://www.railtasmania.com/pres/ - Tasmanian Preserved Railway web page
*http://www.puretasmania.com.au - Tasmanian Tourism web-page
*http://www.parks.tas.gov.au/wha/wherein/detail.html - Position in relation to World Heritage Area

{{coord missing|Tasmania}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

[[Category:Railway museums in Australia]]
[[Category:3ft 6in gauge railways]]
[[Category:Mountain railways]]
[[Category:Heritage railways in Australia]]
[[Category:Western Tasmania]]

[[Category:Rack railways in Australia]]
[[Category:Railway lines in Tasmania]]
[[Category:Mount Lyell Mining and Railway Company]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Tasmania]]
[[Category:Queenstown, Tasmania]]

[[pl:West Coast Wilderness Railway]]

Griffith Lloyd

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''Griffith Lloyd''' (died 1586)<ref>{{cite book | url=http://books.google.com/?id=VmQCAAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA112&dq=%22griffith+lloyd%22+%22jesus+college%22&q=%22griffith+lloyd%22+%22jesus+college%22| title=Notes and Queries |publisher=(Google Books search) | last=Thomas |first=William John| coauthors= et al. |year=1850 |accessdate=17 August 2007}}</ref> was Principal of [[Jesus College, Oxford]] from 1572 to 1586.<ref name="VCH Bevans">{{cite book | title=The [[Victoria County History|Victoria History]] of the County of Oxford Volume III - The University of Oxford | publisher=The University of London Institute of Historical Research|year=1954| last=Baker |first= J. N. L. |authorlink=J. N. L. Baker |pages=278}}</ref> He was also [[Regius Professor of Civil Law (Oxford)|Regius Professor of Civil Law]] from 1577 to his death.<ref name=Allen>{{cite journal| journal=Oxoniensia | title=The early history of Jesus College, Oxford 1571–1603|last=Allen|first=Brigid | year=1998 | volume=LXIII| pages=105–124|url=http://oxoniensia.org/volumes/1998/allen.pdf|accessdate=16 August 2010}}</ref>

He was originally from [[Lampeter]], [[Wales]] where the Lloyds of Maesyfelin were a well-respected family.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.lampeter.org/english/history/manor.html| title=History of Lampeter – The Manor Houses| publisher=Menter Lambed |year=2006| accessdate=17 August 2007 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070927151946/http://www.lampeter.org/english/history/manor.html  |archivedate = 27 September 2007}}</ref> He was one of the first benefactors to leave land to the college, with his bequest of some land in [[Ceredigion|Cardiganshire]] taking effect after his widow's death in 1615.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.jesus.ox.ac.uk/history/benefactors.php | title=Benefactors| publisher=Jesus College, Oxford | date=14 May 2002 | accessdate=17 August 2007}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Jesus College, Oxford}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Lloyd, Griffith
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| DATE OF BIRTH =
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| DATE OF DEATH = 1586
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Lloyd, Griffith}}
[[Category:People from Ceredigion]]
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[[Category:1586 deaths]]
[[Category:Principals of Jesus College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Statutory Professors of the University of Oxford]]
[[Category:Welsh lawyers]]
[[Category:Welsh educators]]
[[Category:16th-century Welsh people]]
[[Category:People of the Tudor period]]
[[Category:16th-century educators]]

{{Wales-academic-bio-stub}}

Walworth Castle

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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox building
| name = Walworth Castle
| image = Walworth 001.jpg
| alt = Walworth Castle
| caption = South−east corner of Walworth Castle
| map_type = County Durham
| map_alt = Showing position of Walworth at south of County Durham, near Darlington
| map_caption = Location within Durham
| altitude = {{convert|300|ft|m}}
| building_type = [[Manor house]]
| architectural_style = [[Tudor style architecture]]
| structural_system = [[Limestone]] rubble and [[Slate industry in Wales|Welsh slate]]
| cost =
| ren_cost =
| client = Thomas Jennison
| owner =
| current_tenants = Rachel and Chris Swain
| landlord = [[Best Western]]
| location = [[Walworth, County Durham|Walworth]] [[County Durham]], [[England]]
| iso_region =
| coordinates_display =
| latitude = 54.565
| longitude = -1.639
| coordinates =
| start_date = ca.1579
| completion_date = ca.1600
| inauguration_date =
| renovation_date = 1740; 1864; 1991
| demolition_date =
| destruction_date =
| height =
| diameter =
| other_dimensions =
| floor_count =
| floor_area =
| main_contractor =
| architect = [[Thomas Holt (architect)|Thomas Holt]]
| references =
}}

'''Walworth Castle''' is a 16th century mansion house, built in the style of a [[medieval]] [[castle]] and situated at [[Walworth, County Durham|Walworth]], near [[Darlington]], [[County Durham]], [[England]]. It is a Grade 1 [[listed building]]. It was completed around 1600, probably by [[Thomas Holt (architect)|Thomas Holt]] for Thomas Jenison. It stands on the site of a former manor house or castle built in the 12th century by the Hansard family. The estate passed through the hands of the [[Ainscough|Ayscoughs]] and Aylmers besides the Hansards and Jenisons, and became a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] during [[World War II]] and then a girls' [[boarding school]] after the war. It has been a hotel since 1981.

==History==
===Hansard and Ayscough families===
The present manor house stands on the site of a previous manor house or castle which was built around 1150 by the Hansard family. There is no evidence that the building was ever used for defence. The title to the castle fell into the hands of the [[House of Neville]] after the 1349 [[Black Death in England|Black Death]], but was reclaimed by Robert Hansard in 1391. The castle then passed to Sir Richard Hansard in 1395, his son Richard in 1454, his grandson Richard in 1466,<ref name="BestWesternTimeline1">{{cite web|url=http://www.walworthcastle.co.uk/history2.php|title=Best Western: The Castle|year=2010|work=The history of Walworth Castle 1050-1508|publisher=Best Western|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref> Sir William Hansard in 1508, Sir William's short−lived son William in 1520, and his daughter Elizabeth Hansard (William's sister) in 1521. In 1539 she married Sir Francis Ayscough, so the castle passed to the [[Ainscough|Ayscough]] family. In 1563 the castle passed to her son William Ayscough, but because there were no further heirs the castle was sold.<ref name="BestWesternTimeline2"/>

===Jenison family===
In about 1579 Thomas Jennison, [[Comptroller and Auditor General|Auditor General]] of Ireland (d.1579), purchased from the [[Ainscough|Ascough]] family the manor of High Walworth.<ref name=HTD>''An Historical ,Topographical and Descriptive View of the County of Durham'' McKenzie and Ross (1834) p171 Google Books</ref> The manor included a manor house or medieval castle on this site;<ref name="KeysSiteofCastle">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D1565|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth Castle; site of Medieval castle. (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> he demolished most of it apart from the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] south−west tower and built the present castle,<ref name=IOE/> whose fabric is still identifiable as 16th century in date. It is thought that Jennison's architect was probably [[Thomas Holt (architect)|Thomas Holt]].<ref name="KeysListedCastle">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D11084|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth castle; Listed building (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> In 1586 Jenison died, and his widow Elizabeth ''[[Married and maiden names|née]]'' Birch inherited the castle.<ref name="BestWesternTimeline2">{{cite web|url=http://www.walworthcastle.co.uk/history3.php|title=Best Western: The Castle|year=2010|work=The history of Walworth Castle 1508-1605|publisher=Best Western|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref> It was during her ownership that [[James I of England|King James VI of Scotland]] is believed to have rested here on 14 May 1603 while travelling to his coronation as king of [[England]].<ref name="KeysWalworth"/> It is said that the king knighted her son−in−law George Freville in return for bountiful entertainment at the castle.<ref name="BestWesternTimeline2"/> In 1605 Elizebeth Jenison died and her son William Jenison inherited the castle. It became dilapidated because he did not live there, because he was in debt and because in 1610 and 1612 he was imprisoned for being [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]].<ref name="BestWesternTimeline3"/> The Jennisons were a strongly Catholic family.<ref>''Dictionary of National Biography'' Editor Sidney Lee (2001) p293 Google Books</ref> In 1679 Francis Jennison sold the estate and emigrated to [[Europe]],<ref name=HTD/> possibly because in 1678 Thomas Jenison was accused of involvement in the [[Popish Plot]] to assassinate [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], arrested by [[Titus Oates]] and thrown into [[Newgate Prison]]. In 1681 the castle was divided from the rest of the estate and awarded by [[Court of Chancery|Chancery]] to Robert Jenison. In 1687 the castle was reunited with its estate when Ralph Jenison bought the whole estate for £6,205. The castle was searched for arms in 1689 in response to suspicions of a potential rebellion against the [[Protestantism|Protestants]] [[William and Mary]]. Ralph Jenison inherited the castle at the age of 10 years in 1704. He later renovated the castle at great expense, and died in debt, so that the castle was again sold.<ref name="BestWesternTimeline3">{{cite web|url=http://www.walworthcastle.co.uk/history4.php|title=Best Western: The Castle|year=2010|work=The history of Walworth Castle 1605-1759|publisher=Best Western|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref>

===Stephenson, Harrison, Aylmer and Eade families===
The castle was sold for £16,000 in 1759 to wine merchant Matthew Stephenson, and then to Newcastle merchant John Harrison in 1775. His daughter Ann married Arthur Aylmer, a [[British Army]] officer of the [[68th Regiment of Foot]], later promoted to [[Lieutenant-General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant-General]]; so it passed to the Aylmer family.<ref name="BestWesternTimeline4"/><ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16390|startpage=1094|date=24 July 1810|accessdate=15 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette|issue=18141|startpage=925|date=28 May 1825|accessdate=15 April 2010}}</ref><ref>''A Genealogical and Heraldic History of the Commoners of Great Britain and Ireland'' Vol I, John Burke (1835) p177 Google Books</ref> After General Aylmer was buried in [[Heighington, County Durham|Heighington]] in 1831, John Harrison Aylmer inherited the castle. He repaired the roof and replaced previous soldier statues on the towers with pillars topped with balls, to look like the statues. However in 1868 he, his wife and eldest son were killed in the [[Abergele rail disaster]]. His sons Vivian and Edmund, aged 12 and 9 respectively, inherited the castle. Vivian became [[High Sheriff of Durham]] and a [[Trophy hunting|big game hunter]] who explored [[Somaliland]] and crossed the [[Horn of Africa]] in 1885. He died in 1931, and he and his brother were buried in [[Caerleon]]. The castle was then sold to General Aylmer's descendants Neville and Charles Eade. In [[World War II]], during the Eades' ownership, the castle was used as a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] for 200 men including [[Germans|German]] and [[Italian people|Italian]] officers, under the command of Major Rollin Holmes.<ref name="NorthernEcho24mar05">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2005/03/24/The+North+East+Archive/6957584.A_spark_of_gratitude/|title=The Northern Echo|date=24 March 2005|work=A spark of gratitude|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In 1950 [[County Durham|Durham County Council]] bought the castle and it became a girls' [[boarding school]].<ref name="BestWesternTimeline4">{{cite web|url=http://www.walworthcastle.co.uk/history5.php|title=Best Western: The Castle|year=2010|work=The history of Walworth Castle 1759-present|publisher=Best Western|accessdate=13 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="KeysEvaluation1991"/>

===Hotel ownership===
In 1981 the Council sold the castle and it was opened as an hotel by John and Jennifer Wayne. By 2000 the owners were Anita and Peter Culley, and it was sold again in that year, along with the resident female [[parrot]] (which was misnamed Albert).<ref name="NorthernEcho8aug01">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/08/08/The+North+East+Archive/7102076.Albert_says_it_s_good_to_squawk/|title=The Northern Echo|date=8 August 2001|work=Albert says it's good to squawk|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="NorthernEcho7jan03">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2003/01/07/The+North+East+Archive/7047280.Famous_parrot_checks_out_of_hotel/|title=The Northern Echo|date=7 January 2003|work=Famous parrot checks out of hotel|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="NorthernEcho22jan01">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/01/22/The+North+East+Archive/7119700.Castle_owners__bid_to_prove_age_of_romance_is_not_dead/|title=The Northern Echo|date=22 January 2001|work=Castle owners' bid to prove age of romance is not dead|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> The castle was renovated in 2000−2006 by Rachel and Chris Swain who added a glass roof to the courtyard.<ref name="BestWesternTimeline4"/><ref name="KeysEvaluation1991">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D9559|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth Castle Hotel; Archaeological Evaluation (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> Anita Culley reclaimed the parrot in 2003,<ref name="NorthernEcho7jan03"/> and it was replaced by another [[blue-fronted Amazon]] named Barney in the same year.<ref name="BBC7mar2003">{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/2828351.stm|title=BBC News|date=7 March 2003|work=Popular parrot leaves perch|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref>

==Estate==
===Castle building===
[[Image:Walworth Castle Hotel. - geograph.org.uk - 150434.jpg|thumb|left|Walworth Castle, south [[elevation (view)|elevation]]]]
This [[Tudor style architecture|Tudor]] castle, dating from around 1600, is a manor house built of partially rendered [[limestone]] rubble, and the roof is of [[Slate industry in Wales|Welsh slate]].<ref name="KeysListedCastle"/> The west tower is older, and has [[Embrasure|gunloops]], narrow trefoil−headed and round−headed windows.<ref name="KeysListedCastle"/> It has a main, south−facing building of five bays and three storeys between two four−storey, round, angle towers,<ref name=IOE/> with east and west wings on the north side, making up three sides of a square originally open to the north. However a range of early 19th century buildings on the north side of the square now encloses the courtyard.<ref name="KeysListedCastle"/> Until the early 21st century the building contained 17th century [[stained glass|glass]], which has been removed to the [[Bowes Museum]].<ref name="KeysWalworth">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D6900|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth (County Durham)|publisher=DCC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="KeysCastle">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D1566|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth, Castle; late C16 mansion. (Walworth)|publisher=DCC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> Some flagstones of unknown date were discovered in situ in the cellar or basement of the castle in 2002.<ref name="KeysFlagstones">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D8096|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth Castle flagstones; photographic recording (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> Internal renovation took place in 1740, so that the interior now has important mid−18th century features, such as [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]] plasterwork and [[Rococo]] details. In 1864 the main staircase was rebuilt and the west wing was given a new front.<ref name="KeysListedCastle"/> It is now a Grade I [[listed building]].<ref name=IOE>[http://www.heritagegateway.org.uk/Gateway/Results_Single.aspx?uid=110911&resourceID=5 English Heritage: Images of England, listing and architectural details]</ref>

===Walworth park===
The parkland south of Walworth Castle was originally [[Inclosure Acts|enclosed]] [[demesne]] land, and as such there is still evidence of [[ridge and furrow]] fields.<ref name="KeysParkland">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D3626|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth Park; Medieval parkland (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> This [[field system]] may be associated with the lost settlement at North Farm, [[Walworth, County Durham|Walworth]]; however a possible enclosure has been identified in the park, close by.<ref name="KeysPossEnclosure">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D3627|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth Park; Possible enclosure (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> That means that besides the lost settlement near the castle at North Farm there could have been a second and possibly sequential lost settlement, or the same settlement was scattered or moved. At the southern edge of the park there is evidence of a U−shaped earthwork which may be associated with the possible enclosure.<ref name="KeysParkEarthworkU">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D1570|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth; earthworks. (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref>

===Grounds===
North of the castle there is a 19th century set of patched brick and squared stone garden walls, dressed stone gate piers with pyramid−shaped tops and a greenhouse which are [[listed building|listed]]. The glazed wooden greenhouse has a taller central section with two lower wings.<ref name="KeysWallsGreenhouse">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D11588|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Garden walls, gate piers and greenhouse north of w; Listed building (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> A medal apparently belonging to Thomas Jennison, the 16th century builder of the castle, was found in 1937−1938 during road−widening work on Newton Lane. It was found under the north wall of the castle grounds, and it was engraved with an image of a bridge and Thomas Jennison's name.<ref name="KeysMedal">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D1567|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth, Castle; medal found. (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> The 1870 [[Tudor Revival architecture|Tudor revival]] castle lodge and gate is a [[listed building]], because it imitates the medieval [[battlement]]ed style to match the castle. The lodge and gate piers are both battlemented and the single−storey, L−shaped building has corner towers and rock−faced masonry with [[ashlar]] dressing.<ref name="KeysLodgeandGate">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D11085|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=The lodge, linking walls and gate piers to west of; Listed building (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> Huts to the east of the castle have been identified as the possible site of the [[World War II]] [[prisoner-of-war camp]].<ref name="KeysWW2camp">{{cite web|url=http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D9016|title=Keys to the past|year=2010|work=Walworth Castle; Possible WWII PoW Camp. (Walworth)|publisher=DBC|accessdate=12 April 2010}}</ref> The gardens to the north of the castle, including the [[greenhouse|glasshouse]], were owned separately from the castle grounds and used for [[market gardening]] by 2003.<ref name="NorthernEcho29aug03">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2003/08/29/The+North+East+Archive/7017729.Caravan_set_to_stay_in_face_of_objection/|title=The Northern Echo|date=29 August 2003|work=Caravan set to stay in face of objection|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> They were sold again as a separate unit in 2010.<ref name="Glasshouseforsale">{{cite web|url=http://www.georgefwhite.co.uk/property_more.asp?id=W1968016|title=George F. White|year=2010|work=Walworth Castle Gardens, Walworth|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref>

==Walworth Castle today==
The building has been open in the past on [[Heritage Open Days|National Heritage weekends]].<ref name="NorthernEcho6sep00">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2000/09/06/The+North+East+Archive/7131186.Take_the_chance_for_a_rare_peek_at_some_of_our_heritage_treasures/|title=The Northern Echo|date=6 September 2000|work=Take the chance for a rare peek at some of our heritage treasures|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> The castle attracts imaginative stories of ghosts,<ref name="HauntedPlaces07">{{cite web|url=http://www.hauntedplaces.co.uk/walworthcastle.htm|title=Hauntedplaces.co.uk|last=Walker|first=C.|year=2007|work=Walworth Castle|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="KeetonStories">{{cite web|url=http://www.exorcisms.co.uk/tvradioexorcisms2.htm|title=Exorcisms.co.uk|last=Keeton|first=Ralph|date=2004-2009|work=A 'Castle' Exorcism on Film for Sony Pictures USA. |accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> and the hotel business has taken advantage of this in the past at [[Halloween]].<ref name="NorthernEcho31oct01">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/10/31/The+North+East+Archive/7094254.Now_be_afraid__be_very_afraid/|title=The Northern Echo|date=31 October 2001|work=Now be afraid, be very afraid|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="NorthernEcho27oct01">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/10/27/The+North+East+Archive/7094584.Castle_offers_visitors__a_very_spooky_supper/|title=The Northern Echo|date=27 October 2001|work=Castle offers visitors a very spooky supper|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> The castle restaurant used to have variable reviews,<ref name="NorthernEcho6jun01">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/06/06/The+North+East+Archive/7107766.The_peasants_were_not_impressed/|title=The Northern Echo|date=6 June 2001|work=The peasants were not impressed|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="NorthernEcho27jun06">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/leisure/808937.Hassle_Castle_under_attack/|title=The Northern Echo|date=27 June 2006|work=Hassle Castle under attack|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="NorthernEcho7jul06">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/yoursay/letters/822910.July_7__2006/|title=The Niorthern Echo|date=7 July 2006|work=Letters: July 7, 2006|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> however the restaurant earned a three−star classification from the [[RAC plc|RAC]] and [[The Automobile Association|AA]] in 2002.<ref name="NorthernEcho3apr02">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2002/04/03/The+North+East+Archive/7079023.Three_star_accolade_for_hotel_and_restaurant/|title=The Northern Echo|date=3 April 2002|work=Three-star accolade for hotel and restaurant|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> There have been problems with reduction of public transport access to the castle.<ref name="NorthernEcho19jul03">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2003/07/19/The+North+East+Archive/7023127.Bus_changes_posing_threat_to_hotel_jobs/|title=The Northern Echo|date=19 July 2003|work=Bus changes posing threat to hotel jobs|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In 2001 Walworth Castle Hotel became the 100th member to join Darlington and District Business Club.<ref name="NorthernEcho2aug01">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/08/02/The+North+East+Archive/7102676.Club_celebrates_as_membership_hits_100/|title=The Northern Echo|date=2 August 2001|work=Club celebrates as membership hits 100|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In celebration of the [[Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II]] in 2002, there was a children's fancy dress party at the castle in aid of charity.<ref name="NorthernEcho31may02">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2002/05/31/The+North+East+Archive/7072240.Ready_to_celebrate_the_golden_jubilee/|title=The Northern Echo|date=31 May 2002|work=Ready to celebrate the golden jubilee|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> Further charity fundraising events have been held at the castle including a car boot sale in 2002,<ref name="NorthernEcho30may02">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2002/05/30/The+North+East+Archive/7072370.News_in_brief__Landlords_have_advice_to_hand/|title=The Northern Echo|date=30 May 2002|work=News in brief: Landlords have advice to hand|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> and a Butterwick Children's Hospice event in 2003, which included staged Viking marauders.<ref name="NorthernEchocharity2">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2003/05/16/The+North+East+Archive/7030971.Castle_to_hold_displays/|title=The Northern Echo|date=16 May 2003|work=Castle to hold displays|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="NorthernEchoCharityevent03">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2003/05/27/The+North+East+Archive/7029478.Castle_takes_visitors_back_to_the_past/|title=The Northern Echo|date=27 May 2003|work=Castle takes visitors back to the past|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In 2007 the castle was lit up with pink light on the evening of [[Valentine's Day]].<ref name="NorthernEcho15feb07">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/1194174.Castle_thinks_pink_to_get_in_the_mood_for_love/|title=The Northern Echo|date=15 February 2007|work=Castle thinks pink to get in the mood for love|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In 2008 the castle was on the route of the Quaker Triathlon charity event, organised by the local [[Rotary International|Rotary Club]].<ref name="NorthernEcho16may08">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/2275589.Triathlon_group_aims_to_raise___4_000_at_event/|title=The Northern Echo|date=16 May 2008|work=Triathlon group aims to raise £4,000 at event|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> In 2009 Darlington Education Village, previously Haughton School, held its formal ball at the castle.<ref name="NorthernEcho8jul09">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/local/darlington/4482237.Education_Village_pupils_have_a_ball/|title=The Northern Echo|date=8 July 2009|work=Education Village pupils have a ball|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref> The building is used as a [[polling place|polling station]] during elections.<ref name="NorthernEcho8jun01">{{cite web|url=http://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/archive/2001/06/08/The+North+East+Archive/7107625.All_quiet_in_hotel_that_had_to_cancel_offer/|title=The Northern Echo|date=8 June 2001|work=All quiet in hotel that had to cancel offer|accessdate=14 April 2010}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland]]
*[[List of castles in England]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Walworth Castle}}
* [http://www.streetmap.co.uk/map.srf?X=423500&Y=518500&A=Y&Z=120 Map of Walworth]
* [http://www.francisfrith.com/walworth/maps/ Old map of Walworth: 1896-1913]
* [http://www.keystothepast.info/durhamcc/K2P.nsf/K2PDetail?readform&PRN=D11084 Full Grade I listing details for Walworth Castle]

{{CastlesCDT&W}}

{{Coord|54.557630|-1.648966|source:geograph.co.uk_region:GB_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:Country houses in County Durham]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in County Durham]]
[[Category:Castles in County Durham]]
[[Category:History of County Durham]]

Carmel Budiardjo

2012-11-10T18:29:00Z

1exec1: uses dmy dates

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
'''Carmel Budiardjo''' (1925- ) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[human rights]] activist, founder of the organisation [[Tapol]] and a recipient of the [[Right Livelihood Award]].

Carmel was born in London in 1925. She received a Bachelors degree in Economics in 1946 from the [[University of London]]. She met Suwondo (Bud) Budiardjo, an [[Indonesia]]n Government official while working in Prague for the [[International Union of Students]],<ref>Budiardjo, "Surviving Indonesia's Gulag"</ref> and married and moved to Indonesia in 1951. After General [[Suharto]] seized power in 1965, her husband was imprisoned, spending 12 years in jail. She herself was imprisoned for 3 years, and was then expelled to England on her release in 1971.

Upon returning she founded Tapol ('''Ta'''hanan '''Pol'''itik - political prisoner), to campaign for political prisoners in Indonesia. The organisation expanded its activities, and was prominent in getting out information on military activity and human rights violations in [[East Timor]], and [[West Papua (region)|West Papua]]. The [[Tapol Bulletin]] was a major source of information about the human rights situation in Indonesia under the dictatorship. She is also the author of a number of books on human rights and politics in Indonesia. The organisation remains active, with Carmel still playing a very important part in its activities.

In 1995 Carmel Budiardjo was awarded the [[Right Livelihood Award]] for her work, being nominated by the [[International Federation for East Timor]].<ref>Right livelihood award: 1985 - Carmel Budiardjo</ref>

==External links==
*[http://tapol.gn.apc.org/ Tapol Homepage]
*[http://www.rightlivelihood.org/budiardjo.html Right livelihood award: 1995 - Carmel Budiardjo]
*[http://www.newint.org/issue116/extapol.htm 1982 Article on Carmel]

==Bibliography==
* Budiardjo, Carmel. "The Abuse of Human Rights in Indonesia" in W. A. Veenhoven ed. "Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey", Volume 3. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976.
* Budiardjo, Carmel and Liem Soei Liong. ''The War against East Timor''. London: Zed Books, 1984. ISBN 0-86232-228-6.
* Budiardjo, Carmel and Liem Soei Liong. ''West Papua: The Obliteration of a People''. Rev. ed. Thornton Heath, UK: TAPOL, the Indonesian Human Rights Campaign, 1988.
* Budiardjo, Carmel. ''Surviving Indonesia's Gulag''. London: Cassell, 1996. ISBN 0-304-33562-2.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Budiardjo, Carmel
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1925
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Budiardjo, Carmel}}
[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:British human rights activists]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of London]]
[[Category:British people imprisoned abroad]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of Indonesia]]

{{Indonesia-stub}}
{{UK-activist-stub}}

[[fr:Carmel Budiardjo]]
[[id:Carmel Budiardjo]]
[[vi:Carmel Budiardjo]]

Rosalind Grender, Baroness Grender

2012-11-09T15:15:12Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{notability|Biographies|date=May 2011}}

'''Olly Grender''' was Head of Communications for the [[Liberal Democrats]].<ref name = "telegraph 50 grender" />

After working as a researcher for the Liberal Democrats, Grender became a speech-writer to [[Paddy Ashdown]] in the late 1980s, and was the party's Head of Communications at the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 General Election]]. She then left to work at the charity [[Shelter (charity)|Shelter]], before joining LLM Communications in 2000.<ref>{{cite web|last=Benady|first=Alex|title=PROFILE: Olly Grender, LLM Communications - Tamed By The Media Relations Machine?/Political Animal Olly Grender Prepares To Change Focus At Rebranded LLM|url=http://www.prweek.com/news/101985/|work=PR Week|accessdate=15 May 2011}}</ref> Grender sometimes appears on British television, espousing Liberal Democrat points of view,<ref name = "telegraph 50 grender" /><ref name = "guido fawkes grender" />

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em|refs =

<ref name = "guido fawkes grender">
{{citation
| url = http://order-order.com/2010/05/26/newsnights-olly-grendlestein-problem/
| title = Newsnight’s Olly Grendlestein Problem
| author = [[Paul Staines]]
| date = 26 May 2010
| accessdate = 16 May 2011
}}</ref>

<ref name = "telegraph 50 grender">
{{citation
| url = http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/liberaldemocrats/8012991/Top-50-most-influential-Liberal-Democrats-50-26.html
| title = Top 50 most influential Liberal Democrats: 50-26
| work = [[The Daily Telegraph]]
| date = 9 October 2010
| accessdate = 16 May 2011
}}</ref>

}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Grender, Olly
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH =
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grender, Olly}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Liberal Democrats (UK) officials]]

{{UK-bio-stub}}

Chinesisch-pakistanische Beziehungen

2012-11-08T12:48:25Z

1exec1: 30em

{{Infobox Bilateral relations|PR China-Pakistan|Pakistan|China|filetype=svg}}

'''People's Republic of China–Pakistan relations''' began in 1950 when [[Pakistan]] was among the first countries to break relations with the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] and recognize the PRC. Following the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], both countries have placed considerable importance on the maintenance of an extremely close and supportive relationship.<ref name="bbcnews">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13418957|title= Pakistani PM hails China as his country's 'best friend'|work=BBC News|accessdate=17 May 2011|date=17 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="nyt">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/13/world/asia/13pstan.html|title= Pakistan President to Visit China, a Valued Ally|work=New York Times|accessdate=12 October 2008|first=Salman|last=Masood|date=13 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2006-11/14/content_732562.htm|title=China-Pakistan relations|accessdate=14 November 2006|work=China Daily}}</ref> Since then, the two countries have regularly exchanged high-level visits resulting in a variety of agreements. The PRC has provided economic, military and technical assistance to Pakistan and each considers the other a close strategic ally.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|work=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/7384378.html|title=China, Pakistan joined in bonds of brotherhood|accessdate=18 May 2011|work=People's Daily}}</ref>

Bilateral relations have evolved from an initial Chinese policy of neutrality to a partnership that links a smaller but militarily powerful Pakistan, partially dependent on China for its economic and military strength, with China attempting to balance competing interests in the region. Diplomatic relations were established in 1950, military assistance began in 1966, a strategic alliance was formed in 1972 and economic co-operation began in 1979. China has become Pakistan’s largest supplier of arms and its third-largest trading partner.<ref>{{cite web|author=Reuters | 21 May 2011 |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/21/pakistan-says-wants-china-to-build-naval-base.html |title=Pakistan wants China to build it a naval base |publisher=Dawn.com |date=21 May 2011 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thecommongood.net/2011/05/china-to-fast-track-jets-for-pakistan/ |title=China to Fast-Track Jets for Pakistan |publisher=Thecommongood.net |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> Recently, both nations have decided to cooperate in improving Pakistan's civil nuclear power sector.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10340642 |title=China says Pakistan nuclear deal 'peaceful' |publisher=BBC |date=17 June 2010 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

Favorable relations with China is a pillar of Pakistan's foreign policy. China supported Pakistan's opposition to the [[Soviet Union]]'s intervention in [[Afghanistan]] and is perceived by Pakistan as a regional counterweight to [[NATO]] and the [[United States]]. China and Pakistan also share close military relations, with China supplying a range of modern armaments to the Pakistani defense forces. China supports Pakistan's stance on [[Kashmir]] while Pakistan supports China on the issues of [[East Turkestan independence movement|Xinjiang]], [[Tibetan independence movement|Tibet]], and [[Taiwan independence|Taiwan]]. Lately,{{When|date=June 2012}} military cooperation has deepened with joint projects producing armaments ranging from [[fighter jet]]s to guided missile frigates.

Chinese cooperation with Pakistan has reached economic high points, with substantial Chinese investment in Pakistani infrastructural expansion including the Pakistani deep-water port at [[Gwadar]]. Both countries have an ongoing [[free trade]] agreement. Pakistan has served as China's main bridge between Muslim countries. Pakistan also played an important role in bridging the communication gap between China and the West by facilitating the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].
The relations between Pakistan and China have been described{{By whom|date=June 2012}} as "higher than mountains deeper than oceans stronger than steel and sweeter than honey".

==Background==
Pakistan has a long and symbiotic relationship with China. The long-standing ties between the two countries have been mutually supportive. A close identity of views and mutual interests remain the hallmark of bilateral ties. Since the 1962 [[Sino-Indian War]], Pakistan has supported China on most issues of importance to the latter, especially those related to the question of China's sovereignty like [[Taiwan]], [[Xinjiang]], and [[Tibet]] and other sensitive issues such as human rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf |title=Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center, p 212 |format=PDF |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Pakistan Air Force Chengdu JF-17 Gu.jpg|thumb|left|alt=JF-17 Thunder.|The [[JF-17 Thunder]] is a joint Pakistan-China project.]]

The Chinese leadership has acknowledged Pakistan's steadfast support on key issues. Pakistan helped China in reestablishing formal ties with the West, where they helped make possible the 1972 Nixon visit to China. Pakistan has collaborated with China in extensive military and economic projects, seeing China as a counterweight to [[India]] and the United States. Pakistan has also served as a conduit for China's influence in the Muslim world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan-OIC_relations#China.27s_representation_in_OIC_through_Pakistan |title=Pakistan and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation – Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia |publisher=En.wikipedia.org |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref>

China also has a consistent record of supporting Pakistan in regional issues. During the Pakistan-Indian tensions in 2008, it implied that it would support Pakistan in the event of a war. Pakistan's military depends heavily on Chinese armaments, and joint projects of both economic and militaristic importance are ongoing. China has supplied equipment to support Pakistan's nuclear program, and has provided nuclear technology to Pakistan.<ref name="ReferenceA">China tested N-weapons for Pak: US insider [[The Times of India]] 6 September 2008</ref>

==Diplomatic relations==
[[Diplomatic relations]] between Pakistan and China were established on 21 May 1951, shortly after the defeat of the [[Republic Of China]] in 1949.<ref>[http://202.83.164.26/wps/portal/Mocul/!ut/p/c0/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os_hQN68AZ3dnIwML82BTAyNXTz9jE0NfQwNfA_2CbEdFAA2MC_Y!/?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/MoculCL/ministry/highlights/iap-pakchina-01 Pakistan and China Relations]</ref> While initially ambivalent towards the idea of a Communist country on its borders, Pakistan hoped that China would serve as a counterweight to Indian influence. [[India]] had recognized China a year before, and Indian Prime Minister Nehru also hoped for closer relations with the Chinese. However, with escalating border tensions leading to the 1962 Sino-Indian war, China and Pakistan aligned with each other in a joint effort to counter perceived Indian encroachment. One year after China's border war with India, Pakistan ceded the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]] to China to end border disputes and improve diplomatic relations.

Since then, an informal alliance that initially consisted of joint Indian opposition has grown into a lasting relationship that has benefited both nations on the diplomatic, economic and military frontiers. Along with diplomatic support, Pakistan served as a conduit for China to open up to the West. China has in turn provided extensive economic aid and political support towards Pakistan.

[[Image:Kashmir map big.jpg|thumb|300px|Disputed territory ceded to China in 1963.]]

Pakistan's military initially depended almost entirely on American armaments and aid, which was increased during the covert U.S. support of Islamic militants in the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]. America under US President [[Richard Nixon]] supported Pakistan in the 1971 [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].<ref name="Shalom">Shalom, Stephen R., [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.htm The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971]</ref> However, the period following the Soviet withdrawal and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] led indirectly to the increasing realignment of America with the previously pro-Soviet India. The Pressler Amendment in 1990 suspended all American military assistance and any new economic aid amidst concerns that Pakistan was attempting to develop a nuclear weapon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historycommons.org/entity.jsp?entity=larry_pressler_1 |title=Larry Pressler |publisher=Historycommons.org |date=29 March 1993 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> Given the support that Pakistan had given them during the War in Afghanistan, many Pakistanis saw this as a betrayal that sold out Pakistani interests in favor of India. This belief was further strengthened as India had developed a nuclear weapon without significant American opposition, and Pakistan felt obligated to do the same. Consequently, the primarily geopolitical alliance between Pakistan and China has since 1990 branched out into military and economic cooperation, due to Pakistan's belief that America's influence and support in the region should be counterbalanced by the Chinese.

With the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|war in Afghanistan]] leading to renewed relations with the U.S., there is a general sentiment in Pakistan to adopt a foreign policy which favors China over the United States.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm Global Security] and [http://pakobserver.net/201009/28/detailnews.asp?id=54483 Pakistan Foreign Policy Makers Urged to tie strongly with China compared to US]</ref> Washington has been accused deserting Pakistan in favor of a policy that favors stronger relations with India, while Pakistan sees China as a more reliable ally over the long term.<ref name="articles.cnn.com">{{Cite news|url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-05-17/world/china.pakistan.friend_1_minister-yousuf-raza-gilani-chinese-president-hu-jintao-pakistani-counterpart?_s=PM:WORLD|title=Pakistan cements China ties amid tension with U.S|date=17 May 2011|accessdate=12 July 2011|publisher=CNN}}</ref>

Since [[9/11]], Pakistan has increased the scope of Chinese influence and support by agreeing to a number of military projects, combined with extensive economic support and investment from the Chinese. This is partially due to Pakistan's strategy of playing off the two powers against each other, but also a genuine effort to prevent America's influence in the region from becoming too strong. In return, the Chinese hope to strengthen Pakistan as a counterbalance to American and Indian influence.

==Military relations==
The People's Republic of China enjoys strong defense ties with Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/pakistan/2010/pakistan-100619-irna03.htm|title=Pakistan enjoys strong defense ties with China|date=19 June 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Islamic Republic News Agency|IRNA – Islamic Republic News Agency]]|first=IRNA|last=Islamic Republic News Agency}}</ref> This relationship between two adjoining Asian countries is important in the world's geo-strategic alliances. The strong defense ties are primarily to counter regional Indian and American influence, and was also to repel Soviet influence in the area. In recent years this relationship has strengthened through ongoing defence projects and agreements between Pakistan and China.

China also fully supported Pakistan in its 1965 war against India. Chinese pressure on India enabled Pakistan to accept ceasefire in a better position than it would have been. The Chinese were of less help in the 1971 war as the Soviets had agreed to deal with China, if it helped Pakistan. However, soon after the war China wrote off some of the loans it had given to Pakistan.

Since 1962, China has been a steady source of military equipment to the [[Pakistani Army]], helping establish munition factories, providing technological assistance and modernizing existing facilities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10070/chinapakistan_relations.html|title=China-Pakistan Relations|work=Backgrounder|publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]]|date=6 July 2010|accessdate=16 July 2010|first1=Jamal|last1=Afridi|first2=Jayshree|last2=Bajoria}}</ref> The countries are involved in the joint venture of several projects to enhance military and weaponry systems, which include collaborating in the development of [[JF-17 Thunder]] fighter aircraft, [[K-8 Karakorum]] advance training aircraft, [[space technology]], [[Airborne Early Warning and Control|AWACS]] systems, [[Al-Khalid tank]]s and the [[Babur cruise missile]]. The armies have a schedule for organising joint military exercises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/pakistan/mbt-2000.htm|title=Al Khalid MBT-2000 / Type 2000 Main Battle Tank|publisher=[[GlobalSecurity.org]]|accessdate=16 July 2010}}</ref>

[[Image:Gwadar Port.jpg|framepx200|right|thumb|Gwadar Port.]]

China is the largest investor in the [[Gwadar]] Deep Sea Port, which is strategically located at the mouth of the [[Strait of Hormuz]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2528.html|title=Gwadar: China's Naval Outpost on the Indian Ocean|first=Tarique|last=Niazi|date=28 February 2005|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=Association for Asian Research}}</ref> It is viewed warily by both America and India as a possible launchpad for Chinese naval operations in the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{cite web|author=Posted: 11:17 pm, 16 October 2010 |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/opedcolumnists/gwadar_pakistan_the_most_important_ssAP84fMvDX9oWHMC2ebAI |title=Gwadar, Pakistan – the most important city you’ve never heard of, New York Post |work=New York Post |date=16 October 2010 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> However the Gwadar Port is currently delayed due to a [[Pakistan–Singapore relations#Gwadar Port controversy|multilateral diplomatic standoff]] between the project leaders and the Singapore government.

China has offered Pakistan military aid in order to fight against terrorism in Pakistan. Pakistan has purchased military equipment from China in order to bolster their efforts against Islamic militants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeenews.com/news439060.html|title=China offers Pakistan military aid to fight terrorism|date=26 April 2008|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Zee Entertainment Enterprises|Zee News Ltd]]}}</ref>

In the past, China has played a major role in the development of Pakistan's nuclear infrastructure, especially when increasingly stringent export controls in [[Western countries]] made it difficult for Pakistan to acquire materials and uranium enriching equipment from elsewhere. China has supplied Pakistan with equipment to advance their nuclear weapons program, such as the Chinese help in building the [[Khushab]] reactor, which plays a key role in Pakistan's production of plutonium. A subsidiary of the [[China National Nuclear Corporation]] contributed in Pakistan's efforts to expand its uranium enrichment capabilities by providing 5,000 custom made ring magnets, which are a key component of the bearings that facilitate the high-speed rotation of centrifuges. China has also provided technical and material support in the completion of the [[Chashma Nuclear Power Complex]] and plutonium reprocessing facility, which was built in the mid 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/|title=Pakistan Nuclear Weapons: A Brief History of Pakistan's Nuclear Program|date=11 December 2002|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=Strategic Security Project|publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]]}}</ref> China may also have supplied nuclear technology to the Pakistanis, enabling Pakistan to become a nuclear state with an estimated 100 warheads as of 2011.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="washingtonpost.com">{{cite news| url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/30/AR2011013004682.html | work=The Washington Post | first=Karen | last=DeYoung | title=Pakistan doubles its nuclear arsenal | date=31 January 2011}}</ref>

China has become increasing concerned about al-Qaeda linked [[Terrorism in Pakistan|terrorism originating in Pakistan]] and is seeking to setup military bases on Pakistani soil to deal with the problem.<ref>[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics/nation/china-seeks-military-bases-in-paks-restive-tribal-region/articleshow/10497288.cms "China seeks military bases in Pak's restive tribal region."] ''PTI'', 26 October 2011.</ref>

==Economic relations==
{{See also|China – Pakistan Free Trade Agreement}}
Economic trade between Pakistan and China is increasing at a rapid pace and a free trade agreement has recently been signed. Military and technological transactions continue to dominate the economic relationship between the two nations, although in recent years China has pledged to vastly increase their investment in Pakistan's economy and infrastructure. Among other things, China has been helping to develop Pakistan's infrastructure through the building of power plants, roads and communication nodes. Current trade between both countries is at $9 billion, making China the second largest trade partner of Pakistan.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/04/05/trade-with-china-reaches-86-billion.html}}</ref>

Both countries are keen on strengthening the economic ties between the two, and have promised to 'propel' cross-border trade. This has led to investment in Pakistan's nascent financial and energy sectors, amidst a surge of Chinese investment designed to strengthen ties. Pakistan has in turn been granted free trade zones in China.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-09/10/content_12031914.htm|title=China, Pakistan service trade agreement to take effect next month|date=10 September 2009|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=Xinhua}}</ref>

The economic relationship between Pakistan and China is composed primarily of Chinese investment in Pakistani interests. China's increasing economic clout has enabled a wide variety of projects to be sponsored in Pakistan through Chinese credit. Pakistani investment in China is also encouraged, and cross-border trade remains fluid.<ref name="articles.cnn.com"/>

In 2011 China Kingho Group canceled a $19 billion mining deal because of security concerns.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/8799596/US-finds-new-friend-in-Uzbekistan-after-Pakistan-fallout.html "US finds new friend in Uzbekistan after Pakistan fallout."] ''Telegraph Media Group Limited'', 30 September 2011.</ref>

==Views==
The support with which China and Pakistan give each other is considered important in global diplomacy, and has been compared to [[Israel – United States relations]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Thalif Deen |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/indepth/features/2010/10/20101028135728235512.html |title=China: 'Pakistan is our Israel' – Features |publisher=Al Jazeera English |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref> According to a Pew survey of Pakistan public opinion in 2010, 84 percent of respondents said they had a favorable view of China and 16 percent had a favorable view of the United States. These results showed that Pakistan is the most pro-China country in the world.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref> Similarly, the Chinese state-run media has portrayed Pakistan in a favorable light in regional issues.

Pakistan and China have long praised the close ties the two countries have with each other. China has been referred to by Pakistani President [[Pervez Musharraf]] as their "time-tested and all-weather friend", while in return Chinese president Hu Jintao has referred to Pakistan as "a good friend and partner".<ref name="cbsnews.com">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/16/world/main4018992.shtml | work=CBS | title=Olympic Torch Hits China-Friendly Pakistan | date=11 February 2009}}</ref> These statements are noted by some observers as occurring after Pakistani relations with the United States or India have become strained, such as after [[Osama Bin Laden]] was killed by American forces without Pakistan's prior permission.<ref name="articles.cnn.com"/>

==Issues==

The [[East Turkestan Islamic Movement|ETIM]] is a [[Waziri]] based mujihadeen organization that is said to be allied with the [[Taliban]],<ref>http://waziristanhills.com/Taliban/MilitantOrganizations/EastTurkistanIslamicMovementETIM/tabid/141/language/en-GB/Default.aspx</ref> which has received funding from rogue elements in the [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10302946 |work=BBC News | title=Pakistani agents 'funding and training Afghan Taliban' | date=13 June 2010}}</ref> As these militants are labeled as terrorists from the Chinese province of [[Xinjiang]], Pakistan's inability to prevent this is a potential source of conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Politics/03-Jun-2009/Hu-Jintao-urges-Zardari-to-crush-ETIM-extremists |title=Hu Jintao urges Zardari to crush ETIM extremists |publisher=The Nation |date=3 June 2009 |accessdate=13 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/12/13/us-pakistan-china-idUSTRE6BC12D20101213?pageNumber=2 | work=Reuters | title=Pakistan-China ties to be strengthened in Wen visit | date=13 December 2010}}</ref>

The U.S. [[War On Terror]] has the Chinese wary of U.S. influence in the region, and as Pakistan is a US ally and major recipient of US military and economic aid, China is obligated to step up its support in order to maintain its influence in the region.

==Timeline==
Important events:
: '''1950''' – Pakistan becomes the third non-communist country, and first Muslim one, to recognize the People's Republic of China.
: '''1951''' – Beijing and [[Karachi]] establish diplomatic relations.
: '''1963''' – Pakistan cedes the Trans-Karakoram Tract to China, ending border disputes.
: '''1970''' – Pakistan helps the U.S. arrange the [[1972 Nixon visit to China]].
: '''1978''' – The [[Karakoram Highway]] linking the mountainous [[Northern Pakistan]] with Western China officially opens.
: '''1980'''s – China and the U.S. provide support through Pakistan to the [[Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghan]] guerrillas fighting [[Soviet]] occupational forces.
: '''1986''' – China and Pakistan reach a comprehensive nuclear co-operation agreement.
: '''1996''' – Chinese President [[Jiang Zemin]] pays a state visit to Pakistan.
: '''1999''' – A 300-megawatt nuclear power plant, built with Chinese help in [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab province]], is completed.
: '''2001''' – A joint-ventured Chinese-Pakistani tank, the [[MBT-2000]] (Al-Khalid) MBT is completed.
: '''2002''' – The building of the [[Gwadar]] deep sea port begins, with China as the primary investor.
: '''2003''' – Pakistan and China signed a $110 million contract for the construction of a housing project on Multan Road in Lahore<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.dawn.com/2004/12/16/top5.htm|title=China, Pakistan sign 7 accords in vital sectors: •Oil, gas exploration •high-level trade •Gwadar port improvement|author=Khan, Bahzad Alam|date=16 December 2004|accessdate=16 July 2010|publisher=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]]}}</ref>
: '''2007''' – The [[People's Republic of China|Sino-]]Pakistani joint-ventured [[multirole]] [[fighter aircraft]] – the [[JF-17 Thunder]] (FC-1 Fierce Dragon) is formally rolled out.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan welcomes the Chinese Olympic Torch in an Islamabad sports stadium, under heavy guard amidst security concerns.<ref name="cbsnews.com"/>
:'''2008''' – China and Pakistan sign a free trade agreement.
:'''2008''' – Pakistan and China to build a railway through the [[Karakoram Highway]], in order to link China's rail network to [[Gwadar Port]].
:'''2008''' – The [[F-22P]] frigate, comes into service with the [[Pakistani Navy]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/brothers-in-arms-china-gives-warship-to-pak/98275-2.html|title=Brothers in 'arms'? China gives warship to Pak|date=31 July 2009|accessdate=16 July 2010|work=[[Press Trust of India]]|publisher=[[CNN-IBN|IBN Live]]}}</ref>
:'''2009''' – The [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]] arrest several suspected [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]] terrorists seeking refuge in Pakistan.
:'''2010''' – Pakistan and China conduct a joint anti-terrorism drill.
:'''2010''' – China donates $260 million in dollars to flood hit Pakistan and sends 4 military rescue helicopters to assist in rescue operations.
:'''2010''' – [[Wen Jiabao]] visits Pakistan. More than 30 billion dollars worth of deals were signed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://dailytimespakistan.com/china-pm-inaugurates-pak-china-friendship-centre/|title=Gilani, Jiabao inaugurate Pak-China Friendship Centre|date=18 December 2010|accessdate=30 December 2010|publisher=[[Associated Press of Pakistan|APP]]|first=APP|last=Express}}</ref>
:'''2011''' – Pakistan is expected to buy air to air SD 10 missiles from China for its 250 JF 17 thunder fighter fleet

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://blogs.reuters.com/india-expertzone/2012/01/20/the-limits-of-the-pakistan-china-alliance/ The limits of the Pakistan-China alliance]
*[http://www.youtube.com/v/Ogqj5UZiWEs&list=UURPwLKbd4S960c7hkYVNahQ&index=1&feature=plcp China hints at ally Pakistan's hand in Xinjiang unrest]
*[http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-02-12/news/31052205_1_china-pakistan-relationship-countries-trade-and-business-relationship Ahmed Rashid on the Sino-Pakistani relationship]
*[http://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/coe21/publish/no16_1_ses/11_rahman.pdf Eager Eyes Fixed on Eurasia Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis Russia and Its Neighbors in Crisis, Edited by IWASHITA Akihiro, Slavic Research Center]
*[http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSISL9262520061124 CHRONOLOGY-Main events in Chinese-Pakistani relations]
*[http://www.hindustantimes.com/audio-news-video/AV-World/Pakistan-trained-militants-pose-a-threat-to-Xinjiang/Article2-841360.aspx Xinjiang-Pakistan]

{{China–Pakistan relations}}
{{Foreign relations of Pakistan}}
{{Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:China–Pakistan Relations}}
[[Category:China–Pakistan relations| ]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of Pakistan|China, People's Republic]]
[[Category:Bilateral relations of China|Pakistan]]

[[pt:Relações entre China e Paquistão]]
[[zh:中国－巴基斯坦关系]]

Organtransplantation in China

2012-11-07T03:01:30Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

[[File:Transplants.png|thumb|350px|alt=Kidney transplants rose from about 3,000 in 1997 to 11,000 in 2004, falling to 6,000 in 2007. Liver transplants rose from a few hundred in 2000 to 3,500 in 2005, then dropped to 2,000 in 2007|Trend in kidney and liver transplants in the People's Republic of China (1997–2007)<ref>[http://www.thelancetglobalhealthnetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Health-System-Reform-in-China-CMT-11.pdf Government policy and organ transplantation in China] ''The Lancet'' retrieved 24 September 2010</ref>]]

'''Organ transplantation in the People's Republic of China''' has taken place since the 1960s, and is one of the largest [[organ transplant]] programmes in the world, peaking at over 13,000 transplants a year in 2004.<ref name=Lancet/> China is also involved in innovative transplant surgery such as [[face transplantation]] including bone.<ref name=bone/>

Involuntary [[organ harvesting]] is illegal under Chinese law; though, under a 1984 regulation, it became legal to remove organs from executed criminals with the prior consent of the criminal or permission of relatives. Growing concerns about possible ethical abuses arising from coerced consent and corruption led medical groups and human rights organizations, by the 1990s, to start condemning the practice.<ref name=TTS>{{cite web|url=https://www.dafoh.org/TTS__policy_on_Interactions.php |title=TTS' policy on Interactions with China |publisher=Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting |accessdate=24 May 2010 }}</ref> These concerns resurfaced in 2001, when ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported claims by a Chinese asylum-seeking doctor that he had taken part in organ extraction operations. Further, in 2006, there were claims of harvesting of organs from live practitioners of the persecuted spiritual movement [[Falun Gong]], which led to a disputed report being compiled by former Canadian parliamentarian [[David Kilgour]] and human rights lawyer [[David Matas]]. While not revealing exact figures, the Chinese authorities have not denied the practice of taking organs from executed prisoners, and have taken steps to address international concerns regarding both the State's reliance on executed prisoners for organ donation and the illegal trading of these organs which in 2005 they acknowledged had occurred. They have consistently denied the allegations of removing organs from living Falun Gong practitioners. In 2007, China issued regulations banning the commercial trading of organs,<ref name="www.chinadaily.com.cn">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-04/10/content_9711027.htm |title=New system to boost number of organ donors |work=China Daily |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref> and the Chinese Medical Association agreed that the organs of prisoners should not be used for transplantation, except for members of the immediate family of the deceased.<ref name=CMA>Press release, [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/84754.php "Chinese Medical Association Reaches Agreement With World Medical Association Against Transplantation Of Prisioners's (sic) Organs"], ''Medical News Today'', 7 October 2007 retrieved 24 September 2010</ref>

In 2008, a liver-transplant registry system was established in Shanghai, along with a nationwide proposal to incorporate information on individual driving permits for those wishing to donate their organs.<ref name=liver>{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node17256/node18151/userobject22ai29524.html |title=shanghai |publisher=www.shanghai.gov.cn |accessdate=25 September 2010 }}</ref> Despite these initiatives, ''[[China Daily]]'' reported in August 2009 that approximately 65% of transplanted organs still came from death row prisoners. The condemned prisoners have been described as "not a proper source for organ transplants" by Vice-Health Minister Huang Jiefu,<ref name=bbc20090826>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8222732.stm |title=China admits death row organ use |work= BBC News |date=26 August 2009 | accessdate=24 September 2010}}</ref> and in March 2010 he announced the trial of China's first [[organ donation]] program starting after [[death]], jointly run by the [[Red Cross Society]] and the Ministry of Health, in 10 pilot regions.

==Background==
Globally, pioneering experimental studies in the surgical technique of human organ transplantation were made in the early 1900s by the French surgeon [[Alexis Carrel]], and successful transplants starting spreading worldwide after the Second World War.<ref name=Geneva>[http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/1991/9241693045.pdf HUMAN ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION – A Report on Developments Under the Auspices of WHO (1987–1991)], page 7, [[World Health Organization]], Geneva, 1991</ref> China herself began organ transplantation in the 1960s, which grew to an annual peak of over 13,000 transplants in 2004;<ref name=Lancet>[http://www.thelancetglobalhealthnetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Health-System-Reform-in-China-CMT-11.pdf "Health-System-Reform-in-China"] ''[[The Lancet]]'', 20 October 2008, retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> and, despite some deaths from infection and hepatitis, the transplant programme has been successful in saving many lives.<ref name=icrc/> Though the number of transplants fell to under 11,000 annually by 2005, China still has one of the largest transplant programmes in the world.<ref name=Lancet/><ref name=TTS/> China explores innovative surgery, such as the world’s first flesh and bone face transplant, performed by Professor Guo Shuzhong.<ref name=bone>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/3534205/Military-hospital-in-China-conducts-world-first-face-transplants.html |title=Military hospital in China conducts world-first face transplants |work=Telegraph |accessdate=24 September 2010 | location=London | date=28 November 2008}}</ref> Organ donation, however, has met resistance, and involuntary organ donation is illegal under Chinese law,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1411389.stm |title=China fury at organ snatching 'lies' |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=21 May 2010 | date=28 June 2001}}</ref> as it is against Chinese tradition and culture, which attach symbolic life affirming importance to the kidney and heart.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dafoh.org/Article_by_Dr.php |title=Article by Dr. Tom Treasure in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |publisher=www.dafoh.org |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref><ref>David N. Weisstub, Guillermo Díaz Pintos, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zIlDmNVlHlAC&pg=PA238&dq=chinese+%22life+after+death%22+%22integrity+of+the+body%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=chinese%20%22life%20after%20death%22%20%22integrity%20of%20the%20body%22&f=false |title=''Autonomy and Human Rights in Health Care: An International Perspective'' |page= 238|publisher=Springer |year=2007 |ISBN= 1-4020-5840-3 |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref> China is not alone in encountering donation difficulties; demand outstrips supply in most countries. The world-wide shortage has encouraged some countries—such as India—to trade in human organs.<ref name=icrc/><ref>Reddy KC: In Land W, Dossetor JB (eds): Organ Replacement Therapy: Ethics, Justice, Commerce. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1990, p 173, ISBN 3-540-53687-6</ref> Reports of organs being removed from executed prisoners in China for sale internationally had been circulating since the mid-1980s, when a 1984 regulation made it legal to harvest organs from convicted criminals with the consent of the family or if the body goes unclaimed.<ref name=tidyup>Jane Macartney, [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,25689-1901558,00.html "China to 'tidy up' trade in executed prisoners' organs"], ''[[The Times]]'', 3 December 2005</ref> Development of an immunosuppressant drug, [[cyclosporine A]], made transplants a more viable option for patients.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japans-rich-buy-organs-from-executed-chinese-prisoners-470719.html |title=Japan's rich buy organs from executed Chinese prisoners |work=The Independent |accessdate=21 May 2010 | location=London | first1=Clifford | last1=Coonan | first2=David | last2=McNeill | date=21 March 2006}}</ref>

==Milestones==
The first living related renal transplant was performed in China in 1972;<ref name=chen/> the first allogeneic [[bone marrow transplantation]] was successfully executed in an acute leukaemia patient<ref>Dr LU Daopei, [http://www.hkmj.org/article_pdfs/hkm0906sp3p9.pdf "Blood and marrow transplantation in mainland China (Supplement 3)"]. ''Hong Kong Medical Journal'' (3 June 2009) 15 (Suppl 3):9–12</ref> The first recorded clinical [[Living donor liver transplantation|liver transplant from a living donor]] in China took place in 1995, seven years after the world's first was performed in Sao Paulo, Brazil.<ref>Wang XH, Zhang F, Li XC, Qian JM, Kong LB, Huang J, et al. Clinical report on 12 cases of Living donor partial liver transplantation. Natl Med J Chin (Chin) 2002; 82: 435–439.</ref> Between January 2001 and October 2003, 45 patients received living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) at five different hospitals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cmj.org/periodical/PaperList.asp?id=LW2006620338047306108 |title=Early experiences on living donor liver transplantation in China: multicenter report |publisher=www.cmj.org |accessdate=26 November 2010 }}</ref> In 2002, doctors at Xijing Hospital of the Fourth Military Medical University described three cases of living related liver transplantation. In 2003 a landmark brain-death case involving switched off ventilation came to the attention of the public and made a big impact on medical ethics and legislation. The first successful brain-death organ donation soon followed.<ref name=chen>Professor Dr. Zhonghua Klaus CHEN (6 December 2007). [http://www.cityu.edu.hk/garc/ARC/ARCfile/SSS/SSS06122007.htm "Current Situation of Organ Donation and Transplantation in China"] of the Institute of Organ Transplantation, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College and [[Huazhong University of Science and Technology]], PRC, pub: City University of Hong Kong</ref> From October 2003 to July 2006, 52 LDLT operations were conducted at the [[Sichuan University|West China Hospital, Sichuan University]].<ref>[http://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/13/3752.pdf Donor safety in adult living donor liver transplantation using the right lobe: Single center experience in China], Fu-Gui Li, Lu-Nan Yan, Yong Zeng, Jia-Yin Yang, Qi-Yuan Lin, Xiao-Zhong Jiang, Bin Liu. wjgnet.com</ref> In October 2004, Peking University People's Hospital Liver Transplantation Center executed two cases of living related liver transplantation involving complex blood vessel anatomy.<ref>Wu WH, Wan YL, Lee L, Yang YM, Huang YT, Chen CL, et al. "First two cases of living related liver transplantation with complicated anatomy of blood vessels in Beijing." ''World J Gastroenterol'' (2004); 10: 2854–2858.</ref> In 2002, the Chinese media reported surgeon Dr Zheng Wei successfully transplanted a whole ovary at the Zhejiang Medical Science University to a 34-year-old patient, Tang Fangfang, from her sister.<ref>Woodford, Peter (15 March 2007) [http://www.nationalreviewofmedicine.com/issue/2007/03_15/4_advances_medicine2_5.html "Whole ovary transplant reverses early menopause"], ''National Review of Medicine'' vol 4 no. 5</ref>

In April 2006, the Xijing military hospital in Xian carried out a [[face transplant]] operation covering the cheek, upper lip, and nose of Li Guoxing, who was mauled by an [[Asiatic black bear]] while protecting his sheep.<ref name="titleXinhua - English">{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/15/content_4426709.htm |title=China's first human face transplant successful|date=15 April 2006 |accessdate=25 November 2007 |work=Xinhua}}</ref><ref name="'First face transplant' for China">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4910372.stm |title='First face transplant' for China |accessdate=25 November 2007 |format= |work= BBC News| date=14 April 2006}}</ref> However, it was reported on 21 December 2008 that Li Guoxing had died in July in his home village in Yunnan Province. Prior to his death, the Discovery Channel filmed a documentary during which showed he had stopped taking immuno-suppressant drugs in favour of herbal medication. His surgeon, Dr Guo Shuzhong, suggested it to be a contributing factor to his death.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first successful [[penis transplant]] procedure was performed in September 2006, at a military hospital in [[Guangzhou]]. The patient, a 44-year-old male, had sustained the loss of most of his penis in an accident. The transplanted penis came from a [[brain-dead]] 22-year-old male. Although successful, the patient and his wife suffered [[psychological trauma]] as a result of the procedure, and had the surgery reversed fifteen days later.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2006/sep/18/medicineandhealth.china | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Man rejects first penis transplant | first=Ian | last=Sample | date=18 September 2006 | accessdate=22 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
| url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0302283806008670
| title = A preliminary report of penile transplantation
| year = 2006
| journal = European Urology
| pages = 851–853
| volume = 50
| issue = 4
| last1 = Hu | first1 = Weilie
| last2 = Lu | first2 = Jun
| last3 = Zhang | first3 = Lichao
| last4 = Wu | first4 = Wen
| last5 = Nie | first5 = Haibo
| last6 = Zhu | first6 = Yunsong
| last7 = Deng | first7 = Zhixiong
| last8 = Zhao | first8 = Yongbing
| last9 = Sheng | first9 = Wen
| accessdate =30 March 2009
| doi = 10.1016/j.eururo.2006.07.026
| pmid = 16930814
| last = Bai | first = Ying
}}</ref> Following this, [[Jean-Michel Dubernard]], famous for performing the world's first face transplant, wrote that the case "raises many questions and has some critics". He alluded to a double standard writing, "I cannot imagine what would have been the reactions of the medical profession, ethics specialists, and the media if a European surgical team had performed the same operation."<ref name=Dubernard2006>{{Citation
| url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0302283806008955
| title = Penile transplantation?
| year = 2006
| last1 = Dubernard | first1= Jean-Michel | author1-link = Jean-Michel Dubernard
| journal = European Urology
| pages = 664–665
| volume = 50
| issue = 4
| accessdate =30 March 2009
| pmid = 16930811
| doi = 10.1016/j.eururo.2006.07.055
| last2 = Lu
| first2 = J
| last3 = Zhang
| first3 = L
| last4 = Wu
| first4 = W
| last5 = Nie
| first5 = H
| last6 = Zhu
| first6 = Y
| last7 = Deng
| first7 = Z
| last8 = Zhao
| first8 = Y
| last9 = Sheng
| first9 = W
}}</ref>

==International concerns==
Transplantation first began in the early 1970s China, when organs were sourced from executed prisoners. Although other sources, such as brain-dead donors, had been tried, the lack of legal framework hampered efforts. Dr Klaus Chen said in 2007 that this was still the dominant pool.<ref name=chen/> Concerns that some poorer countries were answering donor shortages by selling organs to richer countries led the [[World Medical Association]] (WMA) to condemn the purchase and sale of human organs for transplantation at Brussels in 1985,<ref name=Geneva/> and at Stockholm in 1994.<ref name=icrc>{{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList302/87DC95FCA3C3D63EC1256B66005B3F6C |title=The Bellagio Task Force Report on Transplantation, Bodily Integrity, and the International Traffic in Organs |publisher=www.icrc.org |accessdate=14 June 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> In Madrid in 1987, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) condemned the practice of extracting organs from executed prisoners due to the difficulty of knowing if they had given consent.<ref name=Hillman/> Growing concern led other professional societies and human rights organisations to condemn the practice in the 1990s,<ref name=TTS/> and to question the way in which the organs were obtained.<ref name=tidyup/> The WHO starting drafting an international guideline (WHA44.25) on human organ transplants in 1987<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/ethics/topics/human_transplant_report/en/index.html |title=Human organ and tissue transplantation |publisher=WHO |accessdate=23 September 2010 }}</ref> which resulted in the ''WHO Guiding Principles on Human Organ Transplantation'' being endorsed in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/ethics/topics/transplantation_guiding_principles/en/index.html |title=Draft guiding principles on human organ transplantation |publisher=World Health Organization |accessdate=9 June 2010}}</ref> However, the wording did not allow the international community to draw up any laws preventing China from continuing to trade in human organs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/prisonorgans.htm |title=Illegal Human Organ Trade from Executed Prisoners in China |publisher=www1.american.edu |accessdate=9 June 2010 }}</ref>

The [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] convened a hearing in 1995 on the trade in human body parts in China;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/china-illegal-trade-in-human-body-parts-hearing-before-the-committee-on-foreign-relations-united-states-senate-one-hundred-fourth-congress-first-session-may-4-1995/oclc/33310708 |title=China, illegal trade in human body parts : hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, One Hundred Fourth Congress, first session, May 4, 1995|year=1995) |publisher=www.worldcat.org |accessdate=18 June 2010 }}</ref> receiving evidence from various sources including statements from [[Amnesty International]], the BBC, and Chinese government documents produced by human rights activist [[Harry Wu]].<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/sdc/vol9e.pdf "Senate Committee Hears How Executed Prisoners’ Organs are Sold for Profit"] ''Laogai Report'', November 1995. The Laogai Research Foundation. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref>

The WMA, the [[Korean Medical Association]], and the [[Chinese Medical Association]] reached an agreement in 1998 that these practices were undesirable and that they would jointly investigate them with a view to stopping them; however, in 2000, the Chinese withdrew their cooperation.<ref name=Hillman>[[Harold Hillman]] in a letter published in the November 2001 issue of ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' {{cite journal|pmc=1121712 |title=Harvesting organs from recently executed prisoners |publisher= | pmid=11758525 |volume=323 |issue=7323 |year=2001 |month=November |author=Hillman H |journal=BMJ |pages=1254}}</ref> Amnesty International claimed to have strong evidence that the police, courts and hospitals were complicit in the organ trade, facilitated by the use of mobile execution chambers, or "death vans".<ref name=calum>Calum MacLeod, [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-06-14-death-van_x.htm China makes ultimate punishment mobile], ''[[USA Today]]'', 15 May 2006. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> Amnesty speculated that this profitable trade might explain China's refusal to consider abolishing the death penalty, which is used on between 1,770 (official figure) and 8,000 (Amnesty estimates) prisoners annually. Corpses are typically cremated before relatives or independent witnesses can view them, fuelling suspicions about the fate of internal organs.<ref name=calum/>

In June 2001, Wang Guoqi, a Chinese doctor applying for [[political asylum]], made contact with Harry Wu and his Laogai Research Foundation, who assisted Wang in testifying to the [[US Congress]] in writing that he had removed skin and corneas from more than 100 executed prisoners for the transplant market at the Tianjin Paramilitary Police General Brigade Hospital, and that during at least one such operation the prisoner was still breathing.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1411389.stm "China fury at organ snatching 'lies'"], BBC News, 28 June 2001. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> Wang, a 'burns specialist', said that he had also seen other doctors remove vital organs from executed prisoners; and the hospital where he worked sold those organs to foreigners. Harry Wu said that he had gone to "great lengths" to verify Wang's identity and that both the foundation and congressional staff members found the doctor's statements "highly credible."<ref name='WashPost'>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A49239-2001Jun26 |title=Chinese Doctor Tells of Organ Removals After Executions |accessdate=21 September 2008 |last=Mufson |first=Steven |date=27 June 2001 |work=Washington Post |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5azlCotB6 |archivedate=21 September 2008 }}</ref>

By 2005 the WMA had specifically demanded that China cease using prisoners as organ donors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/30council/cr_5/index.html |title=The World Medical Association Council Resolution on Organ Donation in China |publisher=World Medical Association |accessdate=9 June 2010 }}</ref> In December of that year, China's Deputy Health Minister acknowledged that the practice of removing organs from executed prisoners for transplant was widespread – as many as 95% of all organ transplants in China derived from executions,<ref>Congressional Executive Commission on China Annual Report 2006, p. 59; note 224, p.201</ref> and he promised steps to prevent abuse.<ref name=tidyup/><ref name=lum>Lum, Thomas (11 August 2006). [http://www.usembassy.it/pdf/other/RL33437.pdf Congressional Research Report #RL33437], Congressional Research Service</ref> According to ''Time'', a transplant brokerage in Japan which organised 30–50 operations annually sourced its organs from executed prisoners in China.<ref name=grim>Gerlin, Andrea (23 April 2006) [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1186611,00.html "China's Grim Harvest"], ''Time Magazine''. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> [[Edward McMillan-Scott]], vice president of the [[European Parliament]], said he believed that nearly 400 hospitals in China had been involved in the transplant organ trade, with websites advertising kidney transplants for $60,000.<ref name="yst06">McMillan-Scott, Edward (13 June 2006) [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=97&ArticleID=1560709 "Secret atrocities of Chinese regime"], ''Yorkshire Post'', 13 June 2006. Retrieved 28 June 2006.</ref>

On the eve of a state visit to the United States by President Hu Jintao, the 800-member British Transplantation Society also criticised China's use of death-row prisoners' organs in transplants, on the grounds that as it is impossible to verify that organs are indeed from prisoners who have given consent;<ref name=grim/> the WMA once again condemned the practice on similar grounds.<ref>Press release, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070427100933/http://www.wma.net/e/press/2006_4.htm "World Medical Association demands China stops using prisoners for organ transplants"], World Medical Association, 22 May 2006. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> A BBC news report by Rupert Wingfield-Hayes in September 2006 showed negotiations with doctors in No 1 Central Hospital in Tianjin for a liver transplant.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/5386720.stm |title=BBC NEWS | World | Asia-Pacific | Organ sales 'thriving' in China |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk |accessdate=10 November 2010 | date=27 September 2006}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wtSV_BEf14 |title=YouTube – Organ selling in China. BBC investigates undercover |publisher=Youtube |accessdate=18 June 2010 }}</ref>

In 2006, claims of harvesting of organs from live practitioners of the [[Falun Gong]] spiritual movement at [[Sujiatun Thrombosis Hospital|a research hospital]] led to an investigative report being compiled by former Canadian politician, [[David Kilgour]], and human rights lawyer [[David Matas]].<ref name=orgharv>{{cite web|url=http://organharvestinvestigation.net/ |title=An Independent Investigation into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China |author=Kilgour & Matas |publisher=organharvestinvestigation.net |accessdate=9 June 2010 }}</ref> The [[Kilgour-Matas report|findings of their investigation]] were controversial as the conclusions were based on circumstantial evidence,<ref name=theage060708>Reuters, AP (8 July 2006) [http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/falun-gong-organ-claim-supported/2006/07/07/1152240489760.html "Falun Gong organ claim supported"], ''The Age'', (Australia). Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref><ref name=Ottawa>Endemann, Kirstin (6 July 2006) CanWest News Service; ''Ottawa Citizen''[http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=290fed94-d0c2-4265-8686-54ce75d08eca&k=34245 "Ottawa urged to stop Canadians travelling to China for transplants"]. Retrieved 6 July 2006.</ref><ref>''Calgary Herald'' (5 July 2006). [http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/theeditorialpage/story.html?id=c990936c-e208-4601-888f-810ff73bd994 "Rights concerns bedevil China—Doing trade with regime must be balanced with values"]. Retrieved 8 July 2006.</ref> The report outlines extraordinarily short wait times for organs in China—one to two weeks for a liver compared with 32.5 months in Canada (median wait for 2003) as an incriminating factor. Kilgour and Matas also present self-accusatory material from Chinese transplant centre Web sites that advertise the immediate availability of large numbers of organs from living donors. Organ price lists were available on Chinese hospital Web sites. <ref name=Nowak> http://chinaview.wordpress.com/category/all-hot-topic/organ-harvesting/ </ref> <ref name=report>http://organharvestinvestigation.net/ </ref> Investigations, including by dissident [[Harry Wu]], and the U.S. State Department, failed to find evidence to support the allegations,<ref name=lum/><ref>{{cite web|title=Wu Hongda's Statement on the Sujiatun Concentration Camp: My Knowledge and Experience with the Falun Gong media reporting on the Sujiatun Concentration Camp problem |author=Observechina.net |url=http://www.observechina.net/info/artshow.asp?ID=39862 |language=Chinese |date=18 July 2006}} [http://www.zonaeuropa.com/20060806_1.htm Zonaeuropa (English translation)]</ref><ref>Frank Stirk, [http://www.canadianchristianity.com/cgi-bin/bc.cgi?bc/bccn/0606/07chinese Canadians probe Chinese organ harvesting claims], Canadian Christianity. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref><ref name=glen>Glen McGregor, [http://www.canada.com/components/print.aspx?id=2c15d2f0-f0ab-4da9-991a-23e4094de949 "Inside China's 'crematorium'"], ''[[The Ottawa Citizen]]'', 24 November 2007</ref><ref name=usgov1>{{cite web|url=http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/April/20060416141157uhyggep0.5443231.html |title=U.S. Finds No Evidence of Alleged Concentration Camp in China |publisher=US Government |date=16 April 2006 |accessdate=18 December 2009}}</ref> though Kirk C. Allison, Associate Director of the Program in Human Rights and Medicine in the University of Minnesota, (2006) and Tom Treasure of Guy's Hospital, London (2007), considered the report "plausible from a medical standpoint" based on the numerical gap in the number of transplants and the short waiting times in China compared with other countries.<ref name=treasure>{{cite journal|url=https://www.dafoh.org/Article_by_Dr.php |title=The Falun Gong, organ transplantation, the holocaust and ourselves |author=Treasure, Tom |work=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=100 |date = March 2007|pages=119–121|publisher=Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tc.umn.edu/~falun/document/all092906.pdf |title=Falun Gong, Organ Harvesting in China, and the Human Rights Case for an Independent Congressional Investigation – testimony submitted by Kirk C. Allison |format=PDF |date=29 September 2006 |work=Open Hearing of the Subcommittee on Oversight and
Investigations |accessdate=4 February 2010 |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref><ref>[http://www.theepochtimes.com/news/6-8-7/44706.html "Mounting Evidence of Falun Gong Practitioners used as Organ Sources in China and Related Ethical Responsibilities"], ''The Epoch Times'', 7 August 2006. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> In May 2008 two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their previous request for the Chinese authorities to adequately respond to the allegations,<ref name=marketwireun2>[http://www.theinformationdaily.com/2008/05/09/united-nations-human-rights-special-rapporteurs-reiterate-findings-on-chinas-organ-harvesting-from-falun-gong-practitioners United Nations Human Rights Special Rapporteurs Reiterate Findings on China's Organ Harvesting from Falun Gong Practitioners], 9 May 2008 retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> and to explain the source of organs which would account for the sudden increase in organ transplants in China since 2000. China has repeatedly denied the organ harvesting allegations in the report.<ref name="ctvJuly06">CTV.ca News Staff (6 July 2006)</ref>

In June 2011 the US added a question to its DS-160 application for non-immigrant visas. The application asks if the person has ever taken part in forced human organ transplantation. <ref name= ntdtv> http://ntdtv.org/en/news/world/north-america/2012-10-26/nyu-medical-ethics-director-urges-us-to-release-information-on-organ-harvesting-in-china.html </ref>

No straight answers have been produced by the Chinese regime over the allegations of state-sanctioned organ harvesting of Falun Gong practitioners, said Manfred Nowak, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Torture.“The Chinese government has yet to come clean and be transparent,” said Nowak in an interview with The Epoch Times. “It remains to be seen how it could be possible that organ transplant surgeries in Chinese hospitals have risen massively since 1999, while there are never that many voluntary donors available.” <ref name= Nowak> http://chinaview.wordpress.com/category/all-hot-topic/organ-harvesting/ </ref> Nowak has submitted two reports to the U.N. Human Rights Council formally requesting the Chinese regime respond to the allegations. The report states, in part, that, “The [Falun Gong] practitioners were given injections to induce heart failure, and therefore were killed in the course of the organ harvesting operations or immediately thereafter.” “Nothing seems to have changed for the better,” said Nowak. The majority of the inmates in the forced labor camps were Falun Gong members. And that is so frightening, because none of these people were ever given the benefit of a trial. They were never charged”, he said. <ref name=Nowak/>

On 12 September 2012, the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs heard the testimonies of experts about organ harvesting in China. Ethan Gutmann, an investigative journalist, referred to the body of witness testimony, much of which he has wrangled, from former surgeons and nurses who have direct knowledge of organ harvesting from prisoners of conscience. He has also interviewed imprisoned Falun Gong practitioners who have been tested for their blood type, which is needed for their organs to be harvested. He lamented the lack of interest in the West in the evidence that he and others have worked to accumulate, and urged the committee to invite the witnesses to be cross-examined. <ref name=uscongress> http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/united-states/congress-hones-in-on-vast-organ-harvest-in-china-291603.html </ref> Dr. Gabriel Danovitch, a professor of medicine at UCLA, noted the efforts that international medical organizations have made to change abusive Chinese organ sourcing practices. Dr. Damon Noto, the spokesman with the medical society Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting, presented a careful historical analysis of the beginnings of organ harvesting by the CCP, and ran through a narrative that led to the ultimate conclusion that the Party has harvested the organs of up to 60,000 Falun Gong prisoners of conscience. The CCP’s military apparatus began with death row prisoners in the 1990s and after 1999 moved on to the newly persecuted Falun Gong population. There was an “exponential increase in transplantations” from 2000 onward, Noto said. <ref name=uscongress/>

Arthur Caplan, a Professor of Medical Ethics and the Director of the Langone Medical Center and School of Medicine of New York University, said that the release of any information on forced organ removal is the first step in stopping the practice. "Having this release of information is very important. I am very pleased that these Congressmen have called for this release and I hope that the state department responds quickly”, he said. He also said the evidence that this is happening in China should not be in question. <ref name= ntdtv> http://ntdtv.org/en/news/world/north-america/2012-10-26/nyu-medical-ethics-director-urges-us-to-release-information-on-organ-harvesting-in-china.html </ref> Dr. Caplan also called on the American scientific and medical community to actively boycott transplant information and research coming from China. <ref name=ntdtv/>

==Developments since 2006==

In March 2006, the Ministry of Health issued the ''Interim Provisions on Clinical Application and Management of Human Organ Transplantation'', which stipulated that medical centres must meet new requirements for transplant services; the provinces were made responsible for plans for clinical applications. Establishments performing transplantation were thereby obliged to incorporate considerations for ethics, medical and surgical expertise, and intensive care. In April 2006, the Committee of Clinical Application of Human Organ Transplantation Technologies was created to standardise clinical practice; a national summit on clinical management took place in November 2006 which issued a declaration outlining regulatory steps.<ref name=Lancet/> Professor Guo Shuzhong conducted a series of [[face transplant]] experiments in Xijing hospital, leading in April 2006 to the world’s first face transplant that included bone.<ref name=bone/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9010-worlds-second-face-transplant-performed-in-china.html |title=World's second face transplant performed in China – health – 18 April 2006 – New Scientist |publisher=www.newscientist.com |accessdate=24 September 2010 }}</ref> The donor had been declared brain-dead before the operation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/2210/63 |title=Chinese Man Gets World's Second Face Transplant |publisher=health.dailynewscentral.com |accessdate=25 September 2010 }}</ref>

In May 2007 the Regulation on Human Organ Transplantation came into force, banning organ trading and the removal of a person's organs without their prior written consent,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2007-04/06/content_574120.htm |title=人体器官移植条例 |publisher=www.gov.cn |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}[http://translate.google.com/translate?js=y&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=1&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.cn%2Fzwgk%2F2007-04%2F06%2Fcontent_574120.htm&sl=zh-CN&tl=en Google translation]. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> and this has been favourably received by the World Health Organization and The Transplantation Society.<ref name=Lancet/><ref name=TTS/> To curb illegal transplants, doctors involved in commercial trade of organs will face fines and suspensions; only a few hospitals will be certified to perform organ transplants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6534363.stm|title=China issues new rules on organs|publisher=BBC News|date=7 April 2007|accessdate=7 April 2007}}</ref> As a result of a systematic overhaul, the number of institutions approved for transplants has been reduced from more than 600 in 2007 to 87 as at October 2008; another 77 have received provisional approval from the Ministry of Health.<ref name=Lancet/>

To further combat transplant tourism, the Health Ministry issued a notice in July 2007 in line with the Istanbul Declaration, giving Chinese citizens priority as organ recipients.<ref name=Lancet/> In October 2007, after several years of discussions with the WHO, the Chinese Medical Association agreed to cease commercial organ collection from condemned prisoners, who would only be able to donate to their immediate relatives.<ref name="CMA"/><ref>Pact to block harvesting of inmate organs, Pg 1, ''[[South China Morning Post]]'', 7 October 2007</ref> Other safeguards implemented under the legislation include documentation of consent for organ removal from the donor, and review of all death sentences by the Supreme People’s Court. Transplant professionals are not involved until death is declared. A symposium among legal and medical professionals was held in April 2008 to discuss the diagnostic criteria for brain death for donors of transplant organs.<ref name=Lancet/>

A liver-transplant registry system was established in Shanghai, in 2008, which allows the monitoring of the after-care of liver recipients; at the same time a nationwide proposal was announced that would allow people to note on their driving licence that they wish to donate their organs.<ref name=liver/> Despite these initiatives the ''[[China Daily]]'' newspaper reported in August 2009 that approximately 65% of transplanted organs still came from death row prisoners,<ref name=bbc20090826/> which has been described as "not a proper source for organ transplants" by Vice-Health Minister Huang Jiefu.<ref name="www.chinadaily.com.cn"/> China's first posthumous [[organ donation]] system was jointly launched in March 2010 by the [[Red Cross]] and the Ministry of Health.<ref name=Lancet/> Huang Jiefu announced that the scheme, which will allow people to express their wishes on their driver’s licences, would be trialled in 10 pilot regions including the cities of [[Tianjin]], [[Wuhan]] and [[Shenzhen]].<ref name="www.chinadaily.com.cn"/> Funds will be made available for the families of people who voluntarily donate their organs. Chinese authorities say they hope the pilot program's success will reduce the need to take organs from death row prisoners and stem the tide of black market organs.<ref name=bbc20090826/> In 2012 China officials stated they plan to phase out organ harvesting of death-row inmates.<ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304724404577298661625345898.html China to Stop Harvesting Inmate Organs] 23 March 2012 </ref>

In September 2012, the report "Organ Harvesting of Religious and Political Dissidents by the
Chinese Communist Party" presented to the members of a US Congress Subcommittee by Damon Noto, the spokesperson for the organization Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting, opined: "Medical doctors outside China have confirmed that their patients have gone to China and received organs from Falun Gong practitioners".<ref name=Damon>Damon Noto, M.D., [http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/112/HHRG-112-FA17-WState-NotoD-20120912.pdf Organ Harvesting of Religious and Political Dissidents by the
Chinese Communist Party], [[House Committee on Foreign Affairs]], 12 September 2012</ref>

After the congressional hearing on 12 September 2012, Congressmen Robert Andrews and Chris Smith have initiated a bipartisan letter to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, asking for information that the Department of State might have about the organ harvesting practices in China. They asked their fellow House members to co-sign the letter to Clinton which states that “serious allegations suggest unimaginable abuses have occurred” in the practice of organ transplantation in China. Out of a total House membership of 435, 106 representatives from 33 states signed the letter, as of 3 October when sponsorship closed.On the next day at a rally in Fairfax, Va., President Barack Obama accepted a letter apprizing him of the contents of the House letter, said Karen Gao, who delivered the letter on behalf of the Falun Dafa Association of Washington, D.C. It asks the president for his support in having the State Department release important documents, which, the association’s letter says, “may be instrumental in helping put an end to the atrocity that has been referred to as ‘a new form of evil on this planet.’” <ref name=epochtimesreport> http://www.theepochtimes.com/n2/world/us-house-members-want-answers-on-transplantation-abuse-in-china-300526.html </ref>

on 5 November 2012, the organization'Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvest' stated in a press release in response to the announcement of Dr. Haibo Wang in the Bulletin of the WHO to phase out the harvesting of organs from executed prisoners, that, phasing out a crime against humanity remains a crime until it has completely ended. 'If we applaud the recent announcements by Dr. Haibo Wang, we actually risk to lose our responsibility for all those who are still being killed for their organs', they stated. <ref name= pressrelease> https://dafoh.org/Press_Release_11_05_2012.php </ref>

==See also==
*[[Organ transplantation in different countries]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2010}}
{{Organ transplantation}}
{{Health in the People's Republic of China}}
{{People's Republic of China topics}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Organ Transplantation In The People's Republic Of China}}
[[Category:Health in China]]
[[Category:Organ transplantation by country]]

[[es:Trasplante de órganos en la República Popular China]]

Selbstverbrennungsvorfall auf dem Tian’anmen-Platz

2012-11-07T01:15:03Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}
{{Chinese
|s=天安门自焚事件
|t=天安門自焚事件
|pic=Selfimmowflag.jpg
|piccap=A man identified in state-run media as Wang Jindong sits on Tiananmen Square as police stand nearby
|p=Tiān'ānmén Zìfén Shìjiàn
|order=st }}

The '''Tiananmen Square self-immolation incident''' took place in [[Tiananmen Square]] in central Beijing, on the eve of [[Chinese New Year]] on 23 January 2001. The incident is disputed: the official Chinese press agency, [[Xinhua News Agency]], stated that five members of [[Falun Gong]], a spiritual movement whose members are persecuted in mainland China, set themselves on fire to protest the treatment of Falun Gong by the Chinese government. Falun Gong sources disputed the accuracy of these portrayals, noting that Falun Gong's teachings explicitly forbid violence or [[suicide]]. The Falun Dafa Information Center suggested the incident was staged by the Chinese government to turn public opinion against the group and to justify the [[persecution of Falun Gong|campaign against it]].<ref name="FDI_PressRelease"/><ref>[http://faluninfo.net/article/1114/?cid=84 "On Ten Year Anniversary, Tiananmen Square Self-Immolation Continues to Be Deadly Frame-up,"] Falun Dafa Information Center, 19 January 2011</ref>

According to Chinese state media, the five people were part of a group of seven who had travelled to the square together.<ref name=xinhua1/> One of them, Liu Chunling, died at Tiananmen under disputed circumstances and another, her 12-year-old daughter, Liu Siying, died in hospital several weeks later; three survived. A CNN crew present at the scene witnessed the five setting themselves ablaze and had just started filming when police intervened and detained the crew.<ref name=tense/> The incident received international news coverage, and video footage was broadcast later in the People's Republic of China by [[China Central Television]] (CCTV).<ref name=oneway>{{cite news |first=Philip P. |last=Pan |url= |title=One-Way Trip to the End in Beijing |work=International Herald Tribune |date=5 February 2001}}</ref> The coverage in the CCTV showed images of Liu Siying burning and interviews with the others in which they stated their belief that self-immolation would lead them to paradise,<ref name=oneway/> a belief that is not supported by Falun Gong’s teachings. Two weeks after the event, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' published an investigation into the identity of the two self-immolation victims who were killed, and found that "no one ever saw [them] practice Falun Gong."<ref name=Pan>{{cite news|url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A23596-2001Feb3 |author=[[Philip P. Pan]] |title= Human Fire Ignites Chinese Mystery |newspaper=Washington Post|date=4 February 2001|accessdate=13 February 2012}}</ref>

[[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) believed the incident was among one of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing at the time to report on because of a lack of independent information available.<ref name=hrw-chn43081/> A wide variety of opinions and interpretations of what may have happened emerged: the event may have been set up by the government,<ref name=schechter1/> it may have been an authentic protest,<ref>[http://www.hum.leidenuniv.nl/chinees/organisatie/medewerkers-alfabetisch/haarbjter.html Barend ter Haar], Chair of Chinese History at Leiden University (Sinological Institute) Retrieved 29 September 2009</ref> the self-immolators "new or unschooled" practitioners,<ref name=ownbyfalungong218/> and other views. Journalist Danny Schechter notes that the Chinese government's claims about the incident remain unsubstantiated by outside parties.<ref name=schechter1>Falun Gong's Challenge to China - A report by Danny Schechter</ref>

The campaign of state propaganda that followed the event eroded public sympathy for Falun Gong, and the government began sanctioning "systematic use of violence" against the group.<ref name=breaking>{{cite news|author=Philip Pan and John Pomfret|title=Torture is Breaking Falun Gong|newspaper= Washington Post|date= 5 August 2001| url=http://faluninfo.net/article/566/ | accessdate=10 April 2012 }}</ref> Posters, leaflets and videos were produced detailing the supposed detrimental effects of Falun Gong practice, and regular anti-Falun Gong classes were scheduled in schools to expose the "dangers" of the practice.<ref name=oneway/><ref name=dangerous>{{cite book |first=Mickey |last=Spiegel |url=http://hrw.org/reports/2002/china/ |title=Dangerous Meditation: China's Campaign Against Falungong |publisher=Human Rights Watch |year=2002 |isbn=1-56432-270-X|accessdate=28 September 2007}}</ref><ref name=chrandra>{{cite journal |first=Chrandra D. |last=Smith |url=http://org.law.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/new_devs/RJLR_ND_66.pdf | format=PDF |title=Chinese Persecution of Falun Gong |publisher=Rutgers School of Law |journal=Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion |date=October 2004 |accessdate=28 September 2009}}</ref>

== Background ==
{{See also|History of Falun Gong}}
[[Image:April25Zhognanhai.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Falun Gong practitioners demonstrate outside the [[Zhongnanhai]] government compound in April 1999 to request official recognition. Soon thereafter, a crackdown on the practice began.]]
Falun Gong, also known as Falun Dafa, is a form of spiritual [[qigong]] practice that involves meditation, energy exercises, and a philosophy drawing on [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Taoism|Taoist]] tradition. The practice was introduced by [[Li Hongzhi]] in Northeast China in the spring of 1992, and by the late 1990s had attracted tens of millions of followers.<ref>Faison, Seth "In Beijing: A Roar of Silent Protestors," ''New York Times'', 27 April 1999</ref><ref>Kahn, Joseph "Notoriety Now for Movement's Leader," ''New York Times'', 27 April 1999</ref><ref name="Chang4">{{cite book|last=Chang|first=Maria Hsia|title=Falun Gong – The End of Days|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2004|page=4|isbn=978-0-300-10227-7}}</ref><ref name=Ownby>David Ownby, “Falun Gong and the Future of China,” Oxford University Press (2008)</ref> Falun Gong initially enjoyed official recognition support during the early years of its development.<ref name=Ownby/> By the mid-1990s, however, Chinese authorities sought to rein in the influence of qigong practices, enacting more stringent requirements on the country’s various qigong denominations.<ref name=Ownby/><ref name=Palmer>David Palmer, “Qigong Fever: Body, Science and Utopia in China,” Columbia University Press (2007).</ref> In 1996, Falun Gong came under increasing criticism and surveillance from the country’s security apparatus.<ref name=Tong>James Tong, “Revenge of the Forbidden City,” Oxford University Press (2009).</ref>

0n 15 April 1999, more than ten thousand practitioners congregated outside [[Communist Party of China]] headquarters in [[Zhongnanhai]] to request legal recognition.<ref name=Tong/><ref name=Fuyou>Ethan Gutmann, [http://www.david-kilgour.com/2009/Jul_05_2009_04.php ‘An Occurrence on Fuyou Street’], National Review, 13 July 2009.</ref> That evening, then-Communist Party leader [[Jiang Zemin]] issued a decision to eradicate Falun Gong. At Jiang's direction, on 7 June 1999 a special leading group was established within the party’s [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China|Central Committee]] to manage the suppression.<ref name=Jamestown>Sarah Cook and Leeshai Lemish, [http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=38411&cHash=2dff246d80ffd78112de97e280ce9725 ‘The 610 Office:Policing the Chinese Spirit’], China Brief , Volume 11 Issue 17 (9 November 2011).</ref> The resulting organisation, called the [[6-10 Office]], assumed the role of coordinating the anti-Falun Gong media coverage in the state-run press, as well influencing other party and state entities such as the courts and security agencies.<ref name="Tong"/><ref name=Jamestown/> On 19 July, the Central Committee of the Communist Party issued a document effectively banning the practice of Falun Gong. The following day, hundreds of adherents were detained by security forces.<ref name=Tong/><ref name=Amnesty/>

The suppression that followed was characterised by what Amnesty International called a "massive propaganda campaign" intended to justify the suppression by portraying Falun Gong as superstitious, dangerous, and incompatible with the official ideology.<ref name=Amnesty>Amnesty International [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/011/2000/en/7a361a8e-df70-11dd-acaa-7d9091d4638f/asa170112000en.html 'China: The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called "heretical organization"'] 23 March 2000</ref> Tens of thousands of Falun Gong adherents were imprisoned, and by the end of 1999, reports began to emerge of torture in custody. According to Ian Johnson, authorities were given broad mandates to eliminate Falun Gong and pursue the coercive conversion of practitioners, but were not scrutinized for the methods they used. This resulted in the widespread use of torture, sometimes resulting in death.<ref>Ian Johnson, "Death Trap - How One Chinese City Resorted to Atrocities To Control Falun Dafa," Wall Street Journal, 26 December 2000</ref>

Following the ban, [[Tiananmen Square]]—a central point for [[Tiananmen Square protests|several major historical protests]]—was one of the main venues where Falun Gong practitioners protested the suppression. The Falun Gong protests were characterised as peaceful "appeals," and typically involved raising banners in defence of the group, or staging meditation sit-ins.<ref>Elisabeth Rosenthal, "Falun Gong Holds Protests On Anniversary of Big Sit-In." New York Times. 26 April 2001.</ref> By 25 April 2000, more than 30,000 practitioners had been arrested.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pulitzer.org/archives/6464 |title=Defiant Falun Dafa Members Converge on Tiananmen |first=Ian |last=Johnson |date=25 April 2000 |work=The Wall Street Journal |publisher=Pulitzer.org |page= A21}}</ref> Seven hundred Falun Gong followers were arrested during a demonstration in the Square on 1 January 2001.<ref name="Perry">{{cite book |first=Elizabeth J. |last=Selden |coauthor=Perry, Mark |title=Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=041530170X}}</ref>

== The incident ==

On 23 January 2001, the eve of [[Chinese New Year]], five people on Tiananmen Square poured gasoline over their clothes and set themselves on fire; another two people were prevented from igniting the gasoline.<ref name=dangerous/><ref name=missions/>

A [[CNN]] film crew, who were there on a routine check for a possible Falun Gong protest,<ref name=mulls/> observed a man sitting down on the pavement north-east of the [[Monument to the People's Heroes]] at the centre of the square.<ref name=tense>{{cite news |author=Staff and wire reports |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/24/asia.falun.03/ |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070222110517/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/24/asia.falun.03/ |archivedate=22 February 2007 |title=Tiananmen tense after fiery protests |publisher=CNN |date=24 January 2001 |accessdate=9 February 2007}}{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> He proceeded to pour gasoline over himself and set himself ablaze.<ref name=tense /> Police officers on the square noticed what was happening, quickly approached the man and extinguished the flames.<ref name=tense /> Shortly afterwards, another four people on the square set themselves alight. One of the four, a man, was detained and driven away in a police van.<ref name=tense /> According to the CNN report, there were at least two males among the five people, and there was no children on the site. But CCP medias claimed the five people were four females and one male, including a 12-year-old girl. The CNN crew was filming these events when military police stepped in and detained the crew.<ref name=tense /> The authorities then put out the flames consuming the other four people's clothing.<ref name=tense /> A police van came to collect the badly burnt man, and two ambulances arrived almost 25 minutes later to collect the other four.<ref name=tense /> The square was completely closed,<ref>Mickey Spiegel, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=klyC1eH97pQC&pg=PA33&dq=%22China+responded+to+the+even+unusually+quickly,+completely+shutting+down+Tiananment+Square%22&q= |title=DANGEROUS MEDITATION China's Campaign Against Falungong, page 33 |publisher=Human Rights Watch, 2002, ISBN 1-56432-270-X |accessdate=14 October 2009 |isbn=978-1-56432-269-2 |date=2002-01 }}</ref> and security was tight the next day, the most important of the traditional Chinese holidays; police monitored public access to the square for the New Year celebrations, had fire extinguishers ready, and prevented Falun Gong members from opening banners.<ref name=tense/>

Of the five people who set themselves alight, one, Liu Chunling, died at the scene; another, her 12-year-old daughter, Liu Siying, died in Beijing hospital two months later, in March;<ref name=Siying>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1228576.stm |title= Tiananmen 'suicide' girl dies |accessdate=10 October 2009 | date=18 March 2001 | work=BBC News}}</ref> the other three were left severely disfigured.

== People involved ==

The official news agency, Xinhua, gave the participants' details as follows:<ref name=xinhua1/>

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:10%;"| Romanised name
! style="width:5%;"| Chinese name
! style="width:20%;"| Description
! style="width:20%;"| Outcome
|-
| Wang Jindong || 王進東 || Male, former driver || Hospitalised
|-
| Liu Chunling || 劉春玲 || Female, mother of Siying ||Died on scene ([[#Falun_Gong_response|circumstances disputed]])
|-
| Liu Siying || 劉思影 || 12-year-old girl, daughter of Chunling || Died two months after the event<ref name=Siying/>
|-
| Chen Guo || 陳果 || Daughter of Hao Huijun || Treated at Beijing Jishuitan Hospital; severely disfigured
|-
| Hao Huijun || 郝惠君 || Female, mother of Chen Guo, music teacher|| Hospitalised; severely disfigured
|-
| Liu Baorong || 劉葆榮 || Female, former textile factory worker|| Did not set herself alight
|-
| Liu Yunfang || 劉雲芳 || 57-year-old male, part-time paint shop worker || Did not set himself alight
|-
|}

Xinhua further alleged that Wang Jindong had practised Falun Gong since 1996, Hao Huijin since 1997, and Liu Baorong since 1994.

== Chinese state media reports ==

Xinhua released details of the incident to foreign media 2 hours after the self-immolation occurred.<ref>David Ownby, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Bwqkwx4SWS0C&pg=PT231&dq=%22Xinhua+offered+a+brief+report+of+the+events+that+very+evening%22&q=%22Xinhua%20offered%20a%20brief%20report%20of%20the%20events%20that%20very%20evening%22 |title=Falun Gong and the future of China, page 216 |publisher=Oxford University Press US, 2008, ISBN 0-19-532905-8 |accessdate=11 October 2009 |isbn=978-0-19-532905-6 |year=2008 }}</ref> Xinhua then distributed a fuller press release seven days later on Tuesday, 30 January,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zhihui.com.cn/storydb/truth/0130.htm |title=zhihui.com.cn |publisher=www.zhihui.com.cn |accessdate=11 October 2009 }}</ref> in response to other media reports on the incident.<ref name=missions/>

On 31 January, a 30-minute special edition of the current affairs programme ''Forum'' told the state's version of the events to the Chinese public.<ref name=ownbyfalungong>{{cite book |first=David |last=Ownby |title=Falun Gong and the future of China |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2008 |pages= 215–216 |isbn=0-19-532905-8}}</ref> [[China Central Television]] aired footage, said to be taken by nearby surveillance cameras, of five people in flames.<ref name=mediachannel/>

Filming by the CNN crew on Tiananmen Square was stopped by the police almost immediately after it began, and their tapes were confiscated.<ref name=mulls/> Articles in the ''[[Yangcheng Evening News]]'' and the ''[[Southern Daily]]'' reported that police had evidence that a few foreign reporters had advance knowledge of the incident, and suggested that such reporters could be charged with "instigating and abetting a suicide."<ref name=mulls/><ref name=laogai>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/commentprint021301a.html
|title=Beijing is Burning — More lies from the PRC
|work=National Review |first= Ann |last=Noonan
|author=policy director for the Laogai Foundation
|date=13 February 2001}}</ref> State media claimed surveillance video showed six or seven reporters from CNN, the Associated Press and Agence France-Presse arriving just 10 minutes before the self-immolations took place; however, all three agencies denied advance knowledge of the incident{{mdash}}AP and AFP said they had no reporters in the square at the time, while CNN's chief news executive, [[Eason Jordan]], said the CNN crew were there on a routine check for a possible Falun Gong protest.<ref name=mulls/>

The Chinese authorities stated that the seven people who had come to Tiananmen Square with the intention of committing suicide were all from the city of [[Kaifeng]] in [[Henan|Henan province]]. The state-run Xinhua News Agency asserted that the self-immolators were "avid practitioners" of Falun Gong who had taken up the practice between 1994 and 1997, and that they fantasised during the preceding week about "how wonderful it would be to enter heaven".<ref name=xinhua1/> Six of them reportedly took the train on 16 January, meeting Chen Guo, the daughter of one of them, upon their arrival in Beijing. The seven agreed to light themselves in different parts of the Square at 2:30 pm on the designated day with gasoline smuggled there in plastic soda bottles; each had been armed with two lighters in case one would fail.<ref name=xinhua1>{{cite web |author=Xinhua |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/7474.htm |title=The Tragedy of Falun Gong Practitioners- Rescue: Doctors, Nurses Rush to Save Life |publisher=China.org.cn |date=31 January 2001 |accessdate=1 August 2007}}</ref> According to the government-run China Association For Cultic Studies website, Wang Jindong stated afterwards that the group arrived in Tiananmen Square by two taxis, and were dropped off at the south of the [[Great Hall of the People]], from where they walked to the spot where they would ignite themselves. Wang said he was approached by police as he was splitting open the soda bottles, and ignited himself hurriedly without assuming the [[lotus position]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.facts.org.cn/Words/200907/t95505.htm |title=Wang Jindong: Blindness, death and rebirth (Excerpt) |date=November 2007 |author= China Association For Cultic Studies |publisher=facts.org |accessdate=5 October 2009}}</ref> A press release from the Chinese government says that Liu Yunfang felt that the police were able to stop him burning himself because he had not attained the "required spiritual level."<ref name=missions>{{cite web |url=http://missions.itu.int/~china/pressrelease/archives/pressrelease01.htm |title=Press Release: Suicidal Blaze, Another Crime of Falun Gong |publisher=Government of the People's Republic of China |date=31 January 2001}}</ref>

== Falun Gong response ==
[[File:Liu chunling frames.jpg|thumb |200px |Stills sequence taken from CCTV footage allegedly proves Liu Chunling was killed by a man in military uniform, rather than by the flames. Frames 1–5 follow the course of a baton-like object (circled) first connecting with and then rebounding from her head; frames 6–8 focus on the soldier|alt=Composite image of a sequence of eight screen shots differentially highlighted to show the movement of a baton in relation to a person in military uniform]]

Immediately following the self-immolation, the Falun Dafa Information Center denied that the self-immolators could have been Falun Gong practitioners, emphatically pointing out that Falun Gong’s teachings do not sanction any form of violence, and that suicide is considered a sin.<ref name="FDI_PressRelease">{{cite web |url=http://www.clearwisdom.net/eng/2001/jan/23/vsf012301_3.html |title=Press Statement |publisher=Clearwisdom |date=23 January 2001 |accessdate=9 February 2007}}</ref>

Falun Gong sources overseas questioned the official Chinese government account of the event, and apparent inconsistencies in government’s official narrative led to a hypothesis that the self-immolation was staged by the government to justify the persecution against Falun Gong by portraying its practitioners as irrational and suicidal. According to this hypothesis, the self-immolation participants were paid actors, and were presumably assured that the flames would be extinguished before doing real harm.

Falun Gong-affiliated New Tang Dynasty Television produced a programme called ''False Fire'',<ref name="falsefire_a">{{cite web |url=http://www.falsefire.com |publisher= falsefire.com |author=NTDTV |year=2001 |title=False Fire: China's Tragic New Standard in State Deception |format=Digital Video Disc}}</ref> which analyses the inconsistencies in the accounts of the event in the official Chinese media.

Based on a review of CCTV footage, the programme purports to demonstrate that the self-immolators donned fire-proof clothing and masks, and raises the question of why the participants’ hair and the apparently gasoline-filled bottles they carried did not catch fire.<ref name="falsefire_a" /> Falun Gong sources also noted that the self-immolators’ behaviour, the slogans they shouted, and their meditation postures were not consistent with the teachings or practices of Falun Gong.<ref name=WOIPFG2>{{cite web |url=http://www.upholdjustice.org/English.2/S_I_second_report.htm |title=Second Investigation Report on the 'Tiananmen Square Self-Immolation Incident |author=World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong |publisher=upholdjustice.org |date=August 2003 |accessdate=6 February 2007}}</ref>

Among the issues highlighted by the False Fire documentary is the conditions surrounding the deaths of self-immolators Liu Chunling and her daughter. A frame-by-frame analysis of the CCTV footage purportedly shows that Liu was not killed on scene by the flames, but by a deadly blow to the head from a man in a military overcoat.<ref name=clw39928>{{cite web |url=http://www.clearwisdom.net/emh/articles/2003/9/5/39928.html |title=Report from the "World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong" Reveals Chinese Government Lies – Official Government Media Seriously Violate Basic Reporting Principles and Professional Ethics |publisher=Clearwisdom |date=5 September 2003 |accessdate=4 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Yu|first=Haiqing|title=Media and Cultural Transformation in China|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=2009|pages=133–134|isbn=978-0-415-44755-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=xUWC188UoVcC&pg=PA133&dq=%22false+fire%22+falun+gong&q=%22false%20fire%22%20falun%20gong}}</ref> The ''False Fire'' documentary also says that Liu's 12-year-old daughter died under unusual circumstances in hospital, noting that she was recovering well before dying suddenly on 17 March.<ref name="FalseFire_video">{{cite web | url=http://www.falsefire.com/download/ff.wmv | title=False Fire — CCP's Tragic New Standard in State Deception |format=wmv |publisher=falsefire.com}}</ref><ref name="FalseFire">{{cite web | url=http://www.falsefire.com/ | title=Analysis and Insights about the "self-Immolation" |publisher=New Tang Dynasty Television |accessdate=26 September 2009}}</ref> Some Falun Gong sources argue that she may have been killed by the government as a way of guaranteeing her silence.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Falun Dafa Minghui.org |url=http://en.minghui.org/html/articles/2011/10/1/128478.html#.UHmYacXR6So |title=54 Facts That Reveal How the "Self-Immolation" on Tiananmen Square Was Actually Staged for Propaganda Purposes - Part 2|accessdate= 13 October 2012}}</ref>

Falun Gong sources suggest that the reaction times of state-run television crews and police on Tiananmen Square demonstrates they had advanced knowledge of the event. They observed that officers arrived almost immediately on the scene equipped with numerous fire extinguishers. Fire extinguishers are not standard equipment for police on Tiananmen Square, the nearest building that would house them was several minutes away from the scene.<ref name="falsefire_a" /><ref name="FalseFire_video" />

The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution further called attention to portrayals of Wang Jindong in the state-run television, claiming that the man who self-immolated on the square was not the same person who appeared in subsequent interviews with CCTV. It pointed to a voice analysis conducted by the Speech Processing Laboratory at [[National Taiwan University]], which concluded that the voices did not match, and also noted that the hairline and facial proportions appeared to be different. These observations were used to advance the theory that the self-immolators were actors.<ref name=woipfghighlights>{{cite web |publisher=World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong |url=http://www.upholdjustice.org/English.2/S.I._highlights_report.htm |title=Highlights of Investigation of the Alleged Self-Immolation in Tiananmen Square |accessdate=4 October 2007}}</ref><ref name=c>http://tiananmenburns.com/</ref>

== Third-party findings ==
[[File:Wjd3photos.jpg|thumb|left|250px|alt=composite image of three portraits and a table comparing them |Three pictures broadcast by state-media, presented by Falun Gong as evidence that Wang Jindong "was played by different people".]]

The identities of some of the self-immolators, and their relationship to Falun Gong, was called into question by an investigation in Washington Post by reporter Philip Pan. The state-run Xinhua News Agency had reported that Liu Chunling's adoptive mother spoke of her daughter's "obsession with Falun Gong", her "worshipping of Li Hongzhi", and that Liu would teach her daughter Falun Gong.<ref>{{cite web |author=Xinhua |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/7490.htm |title=Families of Falun Gong Victims After Tragedy |publisher=china.org.cn |date=1 February 2001}}</ref> Yet two weeks after the event took place, Pan travelled to Kaifeng, the hometown of the Liu and her daughter, both of whom died in connection with the self-immolation. Pan interviewed neighbours and those close to the participants, and found that Liu worked in a nightclub, took money to keep men company, and beat her mother and daughter. No one ever saw her practise Falun Gong.<ref name=Pan/> According to David Ownby, a University of Montreal historian and expert on Falun Gong, Pan’s portrayal of Liu Chunlin is highly inconsistent with the typical profile of a Falun Gong practitioner.<ref name=Ownby/>

The identities of participants on Tiananmen Square was also called into question by a CNN producer on the scene. While the Chinese government claimed that a 12-year-old Liu Siying had set herself on fire at the urging of her mother, the CNN producer said that she did not see any children among the self-immolators.<ref name="Schechter2001"/>

Several observers have noted that foreign journalists were not allowed to interview the self-immolation victims recovering in hospitals. Even the victims’ relatives were not permitted to speak with them, according to David Ownby.<ref>David Ownby, Falun Gong and the Future of China. (Oxford University Press, 2008), p 217</ref> Philip Pan wrote that "Beijing denied requests to interview Liu Siying and the three other survivors, who are all hospitalized ... A Kaifeng official said only China Central Television and the official New China News Agency were permitted to speak to their relatives or their colleagues. A man who answered the door at the Liu home referred questions to the government."<ref name=Pan/> The survivors were interviewed by the state-run press, however. In one such interview, CCTV interviewed the 12-year-old Liu Siying. Government sources reported Liu Siying had undergone a [[tracheotomy]] shortly before the interview. Speaking through approved media outlets, she said that her own mother told her to set herself on fire to reach the "heavenly golden kingdom";<ref name=mediachannel/> journalist Danny Schechter doubted that the child would have been able to speak to the Chinese media so soon after a tracheotomy, yet Liu Siying appeared to be speaking clearly and singing in the interview.<ref name="Schechter2001" />

Danny Schechter also drew attention to the fact that Xinhua had released a statement on the self-immolation to foreign media only hours after the event occurred. He noted that this was unusual because sensitive subjects in the Chinese press are almost never reported on a timely basis;<ref name=mediachannel>{{cite web |first=Danny |last=Schechter |url=http://www.mediachannel.org/views/dissector/falungong2.shtml |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20021202162929/http://www.mediachannel.org/views/dissector/falungong2.shtml |archivedate=2 December 2002 |title=The Fires This Time: Immolation or Deception In Beijing? |publisher=Mediachannel |date=22 February 2001}}</ref> the usual protocol is approval by several party officials before publication.<ref name=mulls/> The Wall Street Journal's Ian Johnson similarly observed the state media "reported [the victim's] death with unusual alacrity, implying that either the death took place earlier than reported or the usually cautious media had top-level approval to rush out electronic reports and a televised dispatch. The 7 p.m. local evening news, for example, had a filmed report from Mr. Tan's hometown of Changde, a small city in Hunan province. Most reports for the evening news are vetted by noon, so the daily broadcast rarely carries reports from the same day, let alone an event that happened at noon and involved satellite feeds from relatively remote parts of the country."<ref name="c"/><ref name="Schechter2001" />

Questions were also raised over where the footage of the event came from, and the speed with which camera crews appeared on scene. Chinese government media reported that the close-up shots in its video footage came from confiscated CNN tapes.<ref name=mulls /> CNN representatives argued that this was impossible, however, as their reporters were detained shortly after the event began. Philip Pan of the ''[[Washington Post]]'' was also suspicious of the positioning of the cameras, and the fact that the close-up shots shown on Chinese television were taken without police interference. "In some, the camera is clearly behind police barricades", the ''[[Washington Post]]'' article says.<ref name=mulls /> In addition, overhead surveillance camera footage seemed to show a man filming the scene using a small hand-held camera, rather than a large camera of the type used for TV news reporting.<ref name=mulls>{{cite news |first=Philip |last=Pan |work=The Washington Post |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A44880-2001Feb8?language=printer |title=China Mulls Murder Charges for Foreign Journalists |date=8 February 2001 |publisher= }}</ref>

''[[The Age]]'' commented that the "ready availability of fire-extinguishers and official TV teams and the lack of verification about the victims" raised questions about whether authorities had advanced knowledge of the self-immolation.<ref name=hamish>{{cite web |first=Hamish |last=Mcdonald |url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/10/15/1097784013251.html?oneclick=true |title=What's wrong with Falun Gong |work=The Age |date=16 October 2004}}</ref> Police on Tiananmen Square were not known to carry firefighting equipment, and the nearest building would have been several minutes away. Yet police appeared on the scene of the self-immolation within 90 seconds carrying numerous pieces of firefighting equipment. A European journalist was quoted as saying "I have never seen policemen patrolling on Tiananmen Square carrying fire extinguishers. How come they all showed up today? The location of the incident is at least 20 minutes roundtrip from the nearest building — the People's Great Hall. If they were to have dashed over there to get the equipment, it would have been too late."<ref name="Schechter2001" /> John Gittings of ''[[The Guardian]]'' offered an alternative explanation, however, noting it was common practice in many countries for police camera operators to be on hand when a public disturbance is anticipated; the police used small-scale fire-extinguishers of the type carried in public vehicles, many of which are routinely on the square.<ref name="gittings2"/>

== Dispute ==

Following the incident, the details of why the individuals were involved has been and remains the subject of dispute between representatives of Falun Gong, the Chinese government, and other observers.

A significant challenge to arriving at a definitive assessment of the event is that independent corroboration of the government’s claims has not been possible. According to [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW), the lack of independent information and difficulties in ascertaining the extent of control of the information made the incident one of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing to report.<ref name=hrw-chn43081>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=search&docid=42df60bb11&skip=0&query=CHN43081.E |title=Responses To Information Requests "CHN43081.E" |author=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |publisher=UNHCR |accessdate= 6 February 2007 |quote=In a 23 November 2004 telephone interview with the Research Directorate, the senior researcher on China for HRW asserted that it would not have been possible for independent organisations to conduct an independent investigation of the incident. According to the senior researcher, the incident was among one of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing at the time to report on because of a lack of information and difficulties in ascertaining the extent of control of the information}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' stated that conflicting claims were difficult to assess "[w]ith propaganda streaming in from seemingly opposite ends of the universe ... especially since the remaining Falun Gong practitioners have been driven underground." <ref>{{cite news |first=Elisabeth |last=Rosenthal |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/world/former-falun-gong-followers-enlisted-in-china-s-war-on-sect.html |title=Former Falun Gong Followers Enlisted in China's War on Sect |work=New York Times |date=5 April 2002}}</ref>

In his 2001 book on Falun Gong, journalist Danny Schechter drew on evidence from Falun Gong sources, from Philip Pan, and interviews with other journalists to argue that the self-immolation was staged by the Chinese government.<ref name="Schechter2001">Danny Schechter, "Falun Gong’s Challenge to China" (Akashic Books, 2001). pp 20 - 23</ref> Citing Schechter’s research, anthropologist Noah Porter wrote that "convincing evidence has been provided that the events described by the Chinese media are at least deceptive, if not a complete hoax," also stating "even if there were people who lit themselves on fire and considered themselves Falun Gong practitioners, they would not be representative of Falun Gong practitioners."<ref name="Porter">Noah Porter (Masters thesis for the University of South Florida),''[http://www.lib.usf.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-06122003-113105/unrestricted/FalunGongInTheUS-NoahPorter-Thesis.pdf Falun Gong in the United States: An Ethnographic Study]''. 2003. p 105</ref> Beatrice Turpin, a China correspondent with Associated Press Television, said of the self-immolation that "There was a big brouhaha with Falun Gong protests and footage of police beating practitioners last Chinese New Year and it would certainly fit in with typical China strategy to stage an event this year [2001] and make the show their own."

Reviewing the divergent narratives on the identity of the self-immolation victims, historian David Ownby concluded that "although the arguments of Falun Gong practitioners seem cogent, it is very difficult to arrive at a final judgment about the self-immolation. [...] there are desperate people in China (and elsewhere) who will do anything for money (which would go to their families in this case, one supposes, unless the authorities had promised to rescue them before the flames could do harm). Or the entire event could have been staged. But it seems just as possible that those who set themselves on fire might have been new or unschooled Falun Gong practitioners, had discovered and practised Falun Gong on their own (and badly) in the post-suppression period, and, for whatever reason, decided to make the ultimate sacrifice."<ref name=ownbyfalungong218>{{cite book |first=David |last=Ownby |title=Falun Gong and the future of China |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2008 |page=218 |isbn=0-19-532905-8}}</ref>

Philip Pan’s investigation, and other inconsistencies highlighted by Falun Gong organisations, led some observers to entertain the possibility that the self-immolation was not as straightforward as the Chinese official media accounts suggested. In the ''[[National Review]]'', Ann Noonan of the [[Laogai Research Foundation]] suggested that it was "hardly a far-fetched hypothesis" that the government allowed or staged the incident to discredit Falun Gong, as the government vowed to crush the practice before the eightieth anniversary celebrations of the Communist Party in July.<ref name=noonan>Ann Noonan in the ''[[National Review]]'', [http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment021301a.shtml Beijing is Burning: More lies from the PRC]. Retrieved 21/5/08</ref> Clive Ansley, a Vancouver-based rights lawyer who lived in China during the self-immolation, suggested that a dramatic response by Falun Gong would have been understandable, but ultimately concluded that the event was staged: "You've got Falun Gong people in this country, they've been oppressed over and over again, they are not allowed to speak, they are not allowed to assert any of their rights as citizens, the level of frustration must be terribly, terribly high.. I can understand people doing that.. but ironically, we ultimately found out that it was staged anyway, it was not real. it was completely staged by the government."<ref>Quoted in Peter Rowe (2007), "Beyond the Red Wall: The Persecution of Falun Gong" [[CBC Television]] Documentary.</ref>

Other human rights activists speculated that the five who set themselves on fire did so to protest the government's crackdown on Falun Gong.<ref name=oneway/> Barend ter Haar was open to the idea that the self-immolators were Falun Gong practitioners, and postulated that former Buddhists may have brought with them the "respectable Buddhist tradition of self-immolation as a sacrifice to the Buddha".<ref name="Haar"/> He sought to account for the inconsistencies by suggesting that the government may have fabricated a video of their own when they realised the mediatic potential of the suicides.<ref name="Haar">{{cite web |last=Haar |first=Barend ter |url=http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~haarbjter/faluntext2.html |title=Part One: Introductory remarks |publisher=Barend ter Haar, Leiden University |year=2001 |accessdate=29 September 2009}}</ref>

Francesco Sisci, Asia editor of ''[[La Stampa]]'', supported the possibility that the self-immolators were Falun Gong practitioners, writing in the ''[[Asia Times]]'' that "no one believed that the government could have paid a mother to torch herself and her daughter, or that she was so loyal to the Communist Party that she pretended to be a Falungong member and kill herself and her only daughter, even if Falungong master Li Hongzhi forbade suicide ..."<ref name=sisci>{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/china/DD10Ad01.html |title=The burning issue of Falungong |work=Asia Times |first=Francesco |last=Sisci |year=2002}}</ref>

The CNN producer on the site said that she did not see any children among the self-immolators.<ref name="Schechter2001"/> In Sisci’s view, Chinese officials made a mistake by arresting foreign journalists on Tiananmen —"independently filmed news footage of the proceedings could have been the best proof of Falungong madness. Instead, when the government reported the episode, it looked like propaganda."<ref name=sisci/>

''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' noted some of the confusion surrounding the conflicting views on the self-immolation; one Beijing Falun Gong practitioner interviewed appeared to accept that the self-immolators were practitioners engaged in protest, while Falun Gong organisations overseas denied any involvement.<ref name=time20010129>{{cite news |first=Hannah |last=Beech |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,97124,00.html |title=Too Hot to Handle |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=29 January 2001 |accessdate=9 February 2007}}</ref> ''Time'' also speculated that the "lack of solidarity" in Falun Gong was contributing to the sense of desperation of Mainland Chinese practitioners who may feel out of touch with the exiled leadership.<ref name=time20010129/> Guardian reporter John Gittings reported that some observers believed it was possible that the self-immolators acted in desperation and confusion.<ref name="gittings">{{cite news |first=John |last=Gittings |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/jan/29/china.johngittings |title=China prepares for new offensive against 'dangerous' sect |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=29 January 2001 | location=London}}</ref>

Some observers have speculated that if the participants were Falun Gong practitioners, they may have resorted to self-immolation in response to the publication of a new scripture by Li Hongzhi released on 1 January 2001, "Beyond the Limits of Forbearance." An article authored by a collection of Mainland Chinese Falun Gong practitioners and published on the main Chinese-language Falun Gong website noted that the scripture had caused confusion both among Falun Gong practitioners and "in society," and that some people wondered whether Falun Gong would resort to violence to resist persecution. The authors wrote that this would not occur, as violence would be both counterproductive and contrary to the teachings of the practice.<ref>Minghui, [http://en.minghui.org/emh/special_column/cultivation/harmonizing-dafa-010111.pdf ‘Harmonizing Dafa, Not Going to Extremes’], 10 January 2001.</ref> A Falun Gong spokesperson clarified that the new scripture simply meant it was time to "bring truth to light" about human rights abuses committed by the Chinese government.<ref name="gittings"/> Nonetheless, Gittings posited that the scripture may have confused Falun Gong followers, particularly in Mainland China.<ref name="gittings"/> Matthew Forney wrote in ''Time'' magazine that Li’s message had spread into China via the internet and informal networks of followers, and speculated that it may have galvanised more radical practitioners there.<ref name=breakingpoint>{{cite news |first=Matthew |last=Forney |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,165163,00.html |title=The Breaking Point |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=25 June 2001}}</ref> David Ownby wrote that he found the brief message to be "difficult to interpret": on its surface, the scripture resembled a "call to arms" against what Li described as "evil beings who no longer have any human nature or righteous thoughts." Yet Ownby said no practitioners he talked to had seen the scripture as a "green light" for violent action. Instead, practitioners had interpreted it to mean that they could resist suppression without guilt; they could stop "simply surrendering to the police at the first moment of a confrontation. They could run away, they could organize, they were, in a word, free of whatever constraints the necessity to "forbear" had previously placed upon them."<ref name="ownbyfalungong"/> In an interview with the Washington Post, Ownby noted that Li does not endorse suicide in any of his recent statements, "But a practitioner at the end of his or her rope in China could certainly see [the statements] as an endorsement for martyrdom, and perhaps choose his or her own means to achieve that."<ref>{{cite news |title=A Foe Rattles Beijing From Abroad |first=John |last=Pomfret |work=Washington Post |date=9 March 2001}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==

===Media campaign and public opinion===
The self-immolation incident was given prominent coverage in the official Chinese media as evidence of the alleged dangers of Falun Gong practice. Coverage of the event resulted in increased support for the Party's suppression efforts against Falun Gong, and eroded public sympathy for the group. According to Philip Pan, the Communist Party "launched an all-out campaign to use the incident to prove its claim that Falun Gong is a dangerous cult, and to turn public opinion in China and abroad against the group[...] Every morning and night, the state-controlled media carry fresh attacks against Falun Gong and its U.S.-based leader, Li Hongzhi."<ref name=Pan/> Posters, leaflets and videos were produced, detailing the supposed detrimental effects of Falun Gong practice. The New York Times reported that the public was "bombarded with graphic images of the act on television and in newspapers."<ref>Erik Eckholm, "Beijing Judge Jails 4 for Promoting Falun Gong's Public Suicides", New York Times, 18 August 2001.</ref> In China's schools, regular anti-Falun Gong classes were scheduled.<ref name=oneway/> Eight million students joined the ''"Anti-Cult Action by the Youth Civilized Communities Across the Nation"''.<ref name=dangerous/> Twelve million children submitted writings disapproving of the practice.<ref name=dangerous/>

Within a month of the Tiananmen Square incident, authorities issued a document entitled ''The whole story of the self-immolation incident created by Falun Gong addicts in Tiananmen Square'', containing colour photographs of charred bodies.<ref name=dangerous/> The [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]]'s "Office for the Prevention and Handling of Evil Cults" declared after the event that it was now ready to form a united front with the global anti-cult struggle.<ref name=dangerous/> Meetings took place in factories, offices, universities and schools to educate people about Falun Gong. The Government announced that religious leaders from across the country had delivered denunciations of Falun Gong. In Kaifeng, the post office issued an anti-Falun Gong postmark, and 10,000 people signed a petition denouncing the group.<ref name=oneway/>

''Time'' reported that prior to the self-immolation incident, many Chinese had felt that Falun Gong posed no real threat, and that the state's crackdown had gone too far. After the event, however, China's media campaign against Falun Gong gained significant traction.<ref name=breakingpoint/> The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong reported that hostility toward Falun Gong from the general public escalated, the government had stepped up its campaign, and alleged that "hate crimes" targeting Falun Gong increased.<ref name="WOIPFGpaper">{{cite web |author=WOIPFG |url=http://www.upholdjustice.org/English.2/S.I._highlights_report.htm |title=Investigation Reports on the Persecution of Falun Gong: Volume 1 |year=2003–2004 |publisher=World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong |accessdate=4 October 2007}}{{dead link|date=March 2012}}</ref> One western diplomat commented that the public changed from sympathising with Falun Gong to siding with the Government, popular consensus seemingly shifted by human-interest stories and accounts of rehabilitation efforts of former practitioners.<ref name=ansfield>{{cite news |first=Jonathan |last=Ansfield |publisher=Reuters |url= |title=After Olympic win, China takes new aim at Falun Gong |date=23 July 2001}}</ref> Østergaard believes that, in retrospect, the New Year scripture was Li's greatest gift to the state, as the self-immolations marked a turning point which ended domestic support for the movement.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H80YZqSj7EEC&pg=PA208&dq=Ostergaard+falun&client=firefox-a&cd=3#v=onepage&q=New%20Year%27s%20Day%202001&f=false |title=Governance in China |editor= Jude Howell |first=Clemens Stubbe |last=Østergaard |pages=220 (Governance and the Political Challenge of Falun Gong) |year=2003 |isbn=0-7425-1988-0}}</ref>

===Violence and reeducation===
In the aftermath of the event, the government began sanctioning more severe forms of torture and punishment against Falun Gong adherents in an effort to have them renounce the practice. ''The Washington Post'' reported that Chinese authorities benefited from the turn in public opinion against Falun Gong that followed the self-immolation, seizing on the opportunity to sanction "the systematic use of violence against the group." According to ''the Post'', authorities "established a network of brainwashing classes and embarked on a painstaking effort to weed out followers neighbourhood by neighbourhood and workplace by workplace." The "reeducation" tactics employed included beatings, shocks with electric truncheons, and intensive anti-Falun Gong study classes.<ref name=breaking/>

According to a report published in the Wall Street Journal, in February 2001 the [[6-10 Office]] "stepped up pressure on local governments" to implement the anti-Falun Gong campaign. In particular, it issued new, detailed instructions requiring that all who continued to actively practice Falun Gong were to be sent to prison or labour camps, and individuals who refused to renounce the practice were to be socially isolated and monitored by their families and workplaces. This was a shift from the past, when local officials sometimes tolerated Falun Gong on the condition that it was practised privately.<ref>Charles Hutzler, "Falun Gong Feels Effect Of China's Tighter Grip --- Shift Means Even Private Practice Is Banned," Asian Wall Street Journal, 26 April 2001.</ref>

===Impact on Falun Gong's resistance===
The self-immolation necessitated a change in tactics for Falun Gong. Tiananmen Square had been "permanently contaminated" as a venue for protest, according to journalist Ethan Gutmann, and Falun Gong's daily demonstrations in Beijing nearly ceased altogether.<ref name=dangerous/><ref name=ThinAir>Gutmann, Ethan. (6 December 2010) [http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/thin-airwaves_519589.html 'Into Thin Airwaves']. ''The Weekly Standard''</ref> According to Human Rights Watch, practitioners may have concluded "the protests had outlived their usefulness for demonstrating Chinese abuses or for informing an overseas audience of Falungong's harmlessness."<ref name=dangerous/> Diaspora practitioners living oversees focused their attentions on getting the word out about the treatment of practitioners by the Chinese government, issuing reports to the United Nations and human rights organisations, staging public marches and hunger strikes outside of China, and documenting human rights abuses on websites.<ref name=dangerous/> Within China, practitioners used mass mailings and handed out literature to "spread the truth" and counter the government's charges against them.<ref name=dangerous/> In an August 2001 press release, the U.S.-based Falun Dafa Information Center noted this shift in strategy, and said that Chinese practitioners "sometimes also manage to post large posters and banners in major thoroughfares. They even set up loudspeakers on rooftops or trees around labour camps and in densely populated areas to broadcast news about the human rights abuses."<ref name=dangerous/>

In 2002, Falun Gong practitioners in [[Changchun]] successfully broadcast the ''False Fire'' video on Chinese television, interrupting the station's scheduled programming for 50 minutes.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200203/s499227.htm |date=8 March 2002 |title=Falun Gong hijack Chinese TV station |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> Liu Chengjun, a Falun Gong practitioner who hacked into the satellite feed, was arrested and sentenced to prison, where he was allegedly beaten to death 21 months later.<ref name=USDOS2003-2005>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27768.htm|title=2003 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)|last=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|publisher=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=3 October 2009}} {{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51509.htm|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2005: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)|last=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|publisher=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=3 October 2009}} The United States Department of State said Liu Chengjun had reportedly been "abused in custody" and "beaten to death by police in Jilin City Prison".</ref> The remaining five individuals behind the television hijacking were also imprisoned, and all have reportedly died or been tortured to death in custody.<ref name=ThinAir/>

===Fate of the self-immolators===
Five of the people involved in the incident were tried in mid-2001. Liu Yunfang, named as the mastermind, was given a life sentence; Wang Jindong was given 15 years. Two other accomplices – a 49-year-old man named Xue Hongjun, and a 34-year-old Beijing woman named Liu Xiuqin who apparently provided the group with lodging and helped in the preparation of the incident – were sentenced to 10 and 7 years in prison respectively.<ref name=embassy36594>{{cite web|url=http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/ppflg/t36594.htm|title=Organizers of Tian'anmen Self-Burning Incident Sentenced|date=17 August 2001|publisher=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States|accessdate=4 October 2009}}</ref><ref name=real/> Liu Baorong, who had "acknowledged her crime", escaped punishment because her role in planning the event was minor.<ref name=xinhua1 /><ref name="gittings2">{{cite web |first=John |last=Gittings |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/aug/21/worlddispatch.china |title=Chinese whispers surround Falun Gong trial |work=The Guardian |date=21 August 2001}}</ref> ''The Guardian'' reported that on the last day of the one-month trial, Xinhua had, by mid-morning, issued a full report of the verdicts; the ''[[People's Daily]]'' had produced its own editorial by the afternoon.<ref name="gittings2"/>

After having long denied foreign media access to the self-immolation victims, in April 2002 the Government arranged for foreign press to interview the purported survivors of the self-immolation in the presence of state officials. The interviewees refuted claims that the self-immolation was staged, showing their burn injuries as evidence, and denounced Falun Gong while expressing support for the authorities' handling of the group.<ref name=real>{{cite web |first=Jeremy |last=Page |author=Reuters |url=http://www.facts.org.cn/Reports/World/200708/t60322.htm |title=Survivors say China Falun Gong immolations real |date=4 April 2002 |publisher= Facts.org |accessdate=9 February 2007}}</ref> When asked why they set themselves on fire, Hao Huijun replied that she had realised the futility of writing letters and demonstrating by waving banners, "so finally, we decided ... to make a big event to show our will to the world. ... We wanted to show the government that Falun Gong was good."<ref name=real/> At the time of the interview, Chen Guo and her mother were said to still be in the hospital, both having lost their hands, ears and noses.<ref name=real/> Both her mother's eyes were covered with skin grafts. Wang Jindong, showing burns to his face, said he felt "humiliated because of my stupidity and fanatical ideas."<ref name=real/> Liu Baorong, who did not set fire to herself, spent months in "[[Laogai|reform through labour and reeducation]]."

==== The death of Liu Siying ====
On 3 March, mainland China's Health Newspaper reported that Liu Siying was relatively stable after over one month treatment and there was no serious Complication.<ref name="Jishuitan Hospital">[http://http://www.cnm21.com/HOTSPOT/shehui_116.htm Jishuitan Hospital's 39 days Rescuing]</ref>

On 18 March, the 2nd day after Liu Siying died, the head of Jishuitan Hospital said: Liu Siying in the past had a Myocarditis history and had never been healed. After she was sent to the hospital on 23 January, the burn was cured through medical staff's great effort, but Liu Siying's heart function had been out of the way all the time and her heart rate had been at about 140-170 times per minute.<ref name="Liu Siying's Sudden Death">[http://www.chinamil.com.cn/gb/pladaily/2001/03/19/20010319001100.html Liu Siying's Sudden Death]</ref>

On 5 April, one mainland medical doctor argued on Minghui website <ref>[http://weekend.minghui.org/gb/016/016_15.html Liu Siying really died due to Cardiogenic sudden death?]</ref> that the hospital head's words 'Liu Siying's heart function had been out of the way all the time and her heart rate had been at about 140-170 times per minute for over one month' showed Liu Siying experienced serious Complication, which could lead to death anytime. If so, how could the mainland media said on 3 March there was no serious Complication? The doctor questioned why the hospital and any mainland media never revealed Liu's Myocarditis history before her death when many Chinese had been very concerned about her health. The doctor believed that the hospital head's words were temporarily staged for covering up Liu's real death cause.

WOIPFG exhibited the following testimony from one of medical staff who treated her in Jishuitan Hospital: during the period of time right before she died, including 16 March one day before her death, Liu Siying’s electrocardiogram (EKG) and other tests all showed normal results; On 17 March between 8 am to 9 am when the head of the Jishuitan Hospital and the head of the Beijing City Medical Administration Division paid a visit to Liu Siying at her hospital room and talked to her for quite a long time, Liu Siying was still quite animated and active; On 17 March between 11am to 12pm, doctors suddenly discovered that Liu Siying was in critical condition and She died shortly afterwards.<ref>[http://www.zhuichaguoji.org/en/node/54 New Evidence Confirms Alleged Falun Gong]</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.falsefire.com/ falsefire.com (Falun Gong site)]

{{Falun Gong}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tiananmen Square Self-Immolation Incident}}
[[Category:Falun Gong]]
[[Category:2001 in China]]
[[Category:History of Beijing]]
[[Category:Political repression in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Suicides in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Self-immolations]]
[[Category:Tiananmen Square]]

[[cs:Upálení na náměstí Tchien-an-men]]
[[es:Incidente de la autoinmolación en Tiananmen]]
[[eo:Membruligoj de la placo Tian An Men]]
[[ja:天安門焼身自殺事件]]
[[ru:Групповое самосожжение в Пекине (2001)]]
[[zh:天安门自焚事件]]

Hiob Kara

2012-11-06T18:00:10Z

1exec1: 30em

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox member of the Knesset
| image= Ayoub Kara.JPG
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1955|3|12|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Daliyat al-Karmel]]
| Year of Aliyah =
| death_date =
| death_place =
| Knesset(s) = [[Israeli legislative election, 1999|15th]], [[Israeli legislative election, 2003|16th]], [[Israeli legislative election, 2009|18th]]
| Party = [[Likud]]
| Former parties =
| Religious views = [[Druze]]
| Gov't roles ='''Deputy Minister of the Development of the Negev and Galilee''' Deputy Speaker of the Knesset Chairman of the Committee on Foreign Workers Chairman of the Anti-Drug Committee
}}

'''Ayoob Kara''' ({{lang-he|איוב קרא}}, {{lang-ar|أيوب قرا}} also '''Ayoub''' or '''Ayub''' or '''Qara'''; born 12 March 1955) is a [[Druze]] [[Israel]]i politician. He is currently a member of the [[Knesset]] for [[Likud]] and [[Development of the Negev and Galilee Minister of Israel|Deputy Minister for Development of the Negev and Galilee]]. He lives in [[Isfiya]], [[Haifa District]].<ref name="arson">{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140974 |title=Fire or a Massacre? Israeli Media Downplays Arson Suspicion |author=Ronen, Gil |date=2 December 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=3 December 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101203193520/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140974| archivedate= 3 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

He is one of the most conservative and outspoken members of the Knesset and a strong supporter of Israel. He opposed the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|Gaza disengagement]], is hawkish on [[Iran]], supports the [[three-state solution]] and supports Jewish settlement in the [[West Bank]].

==Biography==
===Early life===
Kara was born in [[Daliyat al-Karmel]], a Druze town near [[Haifa]], in 1955. He went to an agricultural high school in [[Kfar Galim]]. He served in the [[Israel Defense Forces]] reserve and attained the rank of major before being discharged for [[posttraumatic stress disorder]]. Serving alongside Jews before and after the establishment of Israel has been a source of family pride. His uncle was killed during [[1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine|Arab riots]] in 1939. His father served in the IDF during the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]]. Another uncle was also killed by Arabs then and two of his brothers were killed in action in the [[1982 Lebanon War]].<ref name=tjp>{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishpress.com/indepth/interviews-and-profiles/this-is-my-state-im-an-israeli-patriot-an-interview-with-druze-mk-ayoub-kara/2010/08/18/ |title='This Is My State. I'm An Israeli Patriot': An Interview with Druze MK Ayoub Kara |author=Lehmann, Sarah |date=18 August 2010 |publisher=The Jewish Press |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> Following his [[national service]], Kara studied Business Administration. Today, he lives in [[Daliyat al-Karmel]] with his wife and five children.

===Early political career: 1996—2006===
He was named 35th on the [[Likud]]-[[Gesher (political party)|Gesher]]-[[Tzomet]] list, which only attained 32 seats in the [[Israeli legislative election, 1996|1996 elections]]. He urged Likud party chairman [[Ariel Sharon]] to campaign for the Arab vote. Sharon agreed on the importance of it and the need for an Arab minister in government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,100605,00.html |title=Learning to Speak Up |author=Rees, Matt |date=5 March 2001 |work=TIME Magazine |accessdate=21 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101030091509/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,100605,00.html| archivedate= 30 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Kara was elected [[Israeli legislative election, 1999|in 1999]], becoming the third Druze [[Likud]] MK in history, after [[Amal Nasser el-Din]] and [[Assad Assad]]. He was appointed Deputy [[List of Knesset speakers|Speaker of the Knesset]] and served as chairman of the Committee on Foreign Workers. He retained his seat in the [[Israeli legislative election, 2003|2003 elections]] and became chairman of the Anti-Drug Committee. Speaking out during the [[Second Intifada]], he condemned Arab MKs for incitement.<ref name=renew>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/128503 |title=Ayoub Kara Calls to Renew Jewish-Druze Ties in Likud Renewal |author=Julian, Hana Levi |date=23 November 2008 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref>

Kara loudly opposed the Gaza disengagement plan, championed by prime minister [[Ariel Sharon]], and was almost ejected from Knesset with [[Michael Ratzon]] for "repeated disturbances".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3064324,00.html |title=Pullout referendum bill defeated |author=Marciano, Ilan |date=28 March 2005 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> When Sharon announced plans to break from Likud, Kara refused to defect to [[Kadima]] in 2005 and slammed other MKs that did, including [[Shaul Mofaz]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3182649,00.html |title=MKs slam Mofaz for Likud defection |last1=Somfalvi |first1=Attila |last2=Sofer |first2=Ronny |last3=Marciano |first3=Ilan |date=11 December 2005 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> He praised Likud's "glorious past" and said it will return stronger, despite the split.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3172195,00.html |title=MK Kara: Likud will grow stronger |author=Sofer, Ronny |date=21 November 2005 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> He lost his seat in the [[Israeli legislative election, 2006|2006 elections]], when Likud were reduced to just 12 seats.

Despite being out of office, he remained active in politics. He met with [[Hebron]] residents and criticized the demolition of a Jewish home there, bashing Kadima chairman [[Tzipi Livni]] as "good for [[Hamas]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3625181,00.html |title=Tensions high in Hebron; Settlers gird for battle |author=Weiss, Efrat |date=19 November 2008 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref>

===Deputy Minister: 2009—present===
Announcing his intention to run in the Likud primary for the [[Israeli legislative election, 2009|2009 elections]], Kara called for unity between Druze and Jews, "to strengthen the Zionist connection...that has been damaged in recent years." He reminded voters of his opposition to the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|disengagement]], making it an important part of his campaign.<ref name=renew /> He was placed 23rd on the party's list, and returned to the [[Knesset]] when Likud won 27 seats. Kara sought and received a ministerial post: becoming Israel's new [[Development of the Negev and Galilee Minister of Israel|Deputy Minister of the Development of the Negev and Galilee]]. He is the first non-Jewish nationalist to receive a portfolio.<ref name=portfolio>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/news.aspx/130117 |title=Druze MK Ayoub Kara is Seeking a Ministerial Post |author=Ratzlav-Katz, Nissan |date=24 February 2009 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> Kara opposed the inclusion of [[Kadima]] in Netanyahu's government, saying that Likud had "no room for traitors".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3827077,00.html |title=PM: Unity has always been important |author=Somfalvi, Attila |date=29 December 2009 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref>

As deputy minister, Kara has cited demographic issues as a growing threat to Israel. He has promoted development of the two regions to encourage Jews to stay and work there. He worked to help former soldiers to study for free at colleges in the [[Negev]] and [[Galilee]], as well as a new college of medicine in the latter.<ref name=tjp /> He also supported the building of casinos in the Negev.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3711403,00.html |title='We'll build casino in Negev,' says development minister |author=Curiel, Ilana |date=5 May 2009 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> In addition, he promoted a program in Knesset to train Druze firefighters that will serve in Jewish towns in the West Bank.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3879875,00.html |title=Druze to put out fires in Judea and Samaria |author=Grossman, Shmulik |date=25 April 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> Later, with Kara's help, [[ZAKA]] volunteers began to establish volunteer rescue services in northern Druze and Arab towns in September 2010, starting with [[Beit Jann]] and [[Yirka]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3956697,00.html |title=ZAKA expanding to Druze, Arab towns |author=Raved, Ahiya |date=23 September 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100925212549/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3956697,00.html| archivedate= 25 September 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

He is a strong proponent of Jewish settlement in the West Bank. As the opening speaker at an April 2010 visit to the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]], he urged the Israeli government to "say no to [[Barack Hussein Obama]]" and build more in the West Bank.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.demotix.com/news/291660/cave-patriarchs-heritage-site-ceremony |title=Cave of the Patriarchs Heritage Site Ceremony |date=1 April 2010 |publisher=Demotix |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> He participated in events marking the end of the 10-month [[Road map for peace|settlement freeze]].<ref name=npr>{{cite web |url=http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=129594828 |title=Settlement-Building May Tear Down Peace Talks |author=Inskeep, Steve |date=2 September 2010 |publisher=NPR |accessdate=20 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101027035849/http://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=129594828| archivedate= 27 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> A month later, he headlined an event opposing [[Iran]]ian president [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]]'s visit to [[Lebanon]].<ref name=abc>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2010/s3038985.htm |title=Iranian leader receives extraordinary welcome in Lebanon |author=Barker, Anne |date=15 October 2010 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref>

====Foreign relations====
Shortly after the election, the family of [[Ouda Tarabin]], an Israeli [[Bedouin]] who was convicted of espionage [[in absentia]] by [[Egypt]], enlisted Kara's support to gain Tarabin's release. Tarabin entered Egypt in 2000 illegally and was arrested and sentenced to 15 years in prison.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3692064,00.html |title=MK Kara meets brother of Israeli imprisoned in Egypt |date=25 March 2009 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> Kara also led a group of Druze, Bedouins, and Muslims that met with the family of [[Gilad Shalit]] to show support for his release from [[Hamas]], who kidnapped Shalit in a 2006 raid.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3688392,00.html |title=Bedouins, Druze and Muslims arrive to support Shalit family |date=18 March 2009 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref>

Kara met with Turkish ambassador to Israel, Ahmet Oğuz Çelikkol, to improve [[Israel–Turkey relations]], citing [[Turkey]] as a "proven" friend to Israel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3861811,00.html |title=Turkish ambassador: Developments in Ankara-J'lem ties imminent |author=Sofer, Roni |date=12 March 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> However, relations deteriorated after the [[Gaza flotilla raid]]. Kara has also been instrumental in improving relations with [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]]. Just before the 2009 election, he claimed to have met with Syrian officials in Washington, DC, who said Syria was interested in revisiting talks to improve [[Israel–Syria relations|relations]]. However, the Syrian embassy in Washington denied the meeting took place, as did a spokesman for Israeli prime minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE52970F20090311 |title=Netanyahu ally says met Syrian officials in U.S. |author=Williams, Dan |date=10 March 2009 |agency=Reuters |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3684417,00.html |title=Report: Netanyahu rep met top Syrian official |author=Nahmias, Roee |date=10 March 2009 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref> He has also been outspoken in his opposition to proposed divisions of the border village of [[Ghajar]], comparing it to the [[Berlin Wall]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3838845,00.html |title=National Union MKs for unified Ghajar under Israeli rule |author=Einav, Hagai |date=24 January 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref>

For much of 2010, he has worked to improve economic and humanitarian ties between Israel and Syria. Druze farmers in the [[Golan]] now import water from Syria and export thousands of tons of apples every year. In addition, Druze have been able to visit relatives in Syria for the first time in decades and also receive organ transplants there.<ref name=cgn>{{cite web |url=http://www.commongroundnews.org/article.php?id=27617 |title=How to bring Syria to the negotiating table |author=Kara, Ayoob |date=15 April 2010 |work=Common Ground News |publisher=Search for Common Ground |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3915888,00.html |title=MK Kara, Golan Druze underwent organ transplants in Syria |date=6 July 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> In addition, he has coordinated burials for families between Syria, Lebanon, and the Golan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3831412,00.html |title=Syrian Druze doctor buried in native Golan Heights village |author=Einav, Hagai |date=7 January 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3876471,00.html |title=SLA woman's body transferred to Lebanon for burial |author=Einav, Hagai |date=15 April 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> Kara is hopeful that these "cracks in the great wall between Israel and Syria" will one day lead to real negotiations for peace.<ref name=cgn /> Or at the very least, he hopes to cut down the bureaucracy preventing humanitarian exchanges between Israel and Syria.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3895224,00.html |title=Golan dancers invited to Syrian festival |author=Nahmias, Roee |date=28 May 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> Kara has also called for mines to be removed from the Golan, citing them as dangerous to travelers and not needed for Israel's defense.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3848710,00.html |title=MK Kara says will discuss clearing out mines from Golan with PM |author=Einav, Hagai |date=14 February 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=22 October 2010}}</ref>

When several pro-Israel European politicians visited Israel, Kara and other Knesset members joined the Europeans to condemn the Gaza disengagement and lack of assistance to former Jewish residents of Gaza, who had been expelled from their homes. Kara urged stronger relationships with European politicians that support Israel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/141055 |title=European MPs: Giving Up Gaza was a Mistake |author=Miskin, Maayana |date=8 December 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=14 December 2010}}</ref> Kara visited [[Austria]] in December 2010 and met with [[Heinz-Christian Strache]], leader of the [[Freedom Party of Austria]], praising him at a joint press conference and calling him a "friend of Israel" in its war on terror.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/austrian-jews-chide-likud-mk-for-meeting-far-right-leader-1.332597 |title=Austrian Jews chide Likud MK for meeting far-right leader |author=Barak Ravid |date=24 December 2010 |work=Haaretz |publisher=Haaretz |accessdate=24 December 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110111155900/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/austrian-jews-chide-likud-mk-for-meeting-far-right-leader-1.332597| archivedate= 11 January 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Austria's Jewish community complained in a letter addressed to Israeli Prime Minister [[Benyamin Netanyahu]] about the meeting and the praise and honor bestowed by Kara on the party and its members, particularly in light of the party's anti-semitic remarks and their praise for the Nazi regime of the [[Third Reich]]. Israel had scaled back its diplomatic relations with Austria when the party entered into the Austrian government a few years ago.

The head of a [[southern Sudan]] delegation to a February 2011 meeting of a new organization to develop [[Nigeria]], Suleiman Alhariri, invited Kara to the newly forming country to help begin setting up diplomatic relations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/142392 |title=South Sudan Wants Ties with Israel |date=Ronen, Gil |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=17 February 2011}}</ref> Kara led a delegation of Jewish, Muslim, Druze, and Christian religious leaders to discuss interfaith relations in [[Istanbul]] with TV show host [[Adnan Oktar]]. The delegation presented a list of Jewish religious sites in Syria for the opposition in the [[2011 Syrian uprising]] to guard, should unrest threaten the sites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=220149|title=Rabbis to give Syrian opposition list of holy sites to save|last=Mandel|first=Jonah|date=12 May 2011|publisher=Jerusalem Post|accessdate=14 May 2011}}</ref> The group planned to set up a religious court to arbitrate regional disputes. Kara also said Turkey is eager to reestablish its ties with Israel."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishNews/Article.aspx?id=220373|title=Interfaith leaders in Istanbul pledge to counter extremism|last=Mandel|first=Jonah|date=13 May 2011|publisher=Jerusalem Post|accessdate=14 May 2011}}</ref> In May 2011, Kara claimed that the opposition movement in the [[2011 Syrian uprising]] had approached him to seek help for their movement from the United Nations, United States, and [[European Union]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4074980,00.html|title=MK Kara: Syria dissidents sought Israel's help|last=Curiel|first=Ilana|date=28 May 2011|work=Ynetnews|publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth|accessdate=31 May 2011}}</ref>

==Political positions==
Kara is known as a staunch conservative in the Knesset, supporting "hawkish" and Zionist views. He opposed the Gaza [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|disengagement]] and the 2009–10 settlement freeze. He is a supporter of [[Moshe Feiglin]]'s [[Manhigut Yehudit]] faction, within Likud.<ref name=portfolio /> He also supports the death penalty for terrorism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/143633|title=Death Penalty Unlikely for Itamar Massacre Terrorists|last=Ben Gedalyahu|first=Tzvi|date=18 April 2011|work=Israel National News|publisher=Arutz Sheva|accessdate=19 April 2011}}</ref>

===Gaza===
During the months preceding the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|disengagement]] from the [[Gaza Strip]] and northern [[West Bank]], Kara requested from then Prime Minister, [[Ariel Sharon]], that Druze soldiers not be assigned to tasks related to the disengagement, since the Druze opposed the disengagement and did not want to have anything to do with it. In an interview, Kara claimed "The withdrawal is going to be terrible for Israeli security. Hamas is going to become dominant as soon as Israel leaves Gaza, and they will use the land to stage more attacks against Israel."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=43770 |title=Gaza withdrawal 'victory for terrorism' |author=Klein, Aaron |date=13 April 2005 |publisher=World Net Daily |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> However, he was threatened with expulsion from the Knesset for trying to obstruct the plan as it went through.<ref name=tjp /> The Israeli media called him the "prophet of fury".<ref name=sos>{{cite web |url=http://www.sos-israel.com/20255.html |title=Assistant Minister Ayoob Kara: Israeli Leaders Haven't Learned their Lesson |date=19 October 2010 |publisher=SOS Israel |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> Years earlier, he opposed the [[South Lebanon conflict (1982–2000)#2000: Israeli withdrawal|withdrawal from Lebanon]] in 2000, warning that [[Hezbollah]] would gain power in Israel's absence.<ref name=tjp />

After the [[Gaza flotilla clash]], Kara spoke with a leading [[mufti]] in Turkey. He told the mufti that Israel conducted the operation legally and humanely and presented facts backing his claims. In addition, he said "Israel is the most humanitarian country in the Middle East and never objected to the transfer of humanitarian aid to Gaza," and the flotilla organizers intended to provoke Israel. He also asked the mufti to preach brotherhood between Israel and Turkey, "saying there are no winners in war."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/news.aspx/137828 |title=Israeli MK Ayoub Kara Talks to Turkish Mufti About Flotilla |author=Fleisher, Malkah |date=1 June 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref>

At a meeting hosted by Turkish television personality Adnan Oktar, Kara stated that flotillas must carry humanitarian aid and not weapons. He said that Israel wanted to work with Turkey to transfer humanitarian aid to Gaza.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=flotilla-must-carry-food-not-gun-israeli-official-says-2011-05-12|title=Flotilla must carry food not guns, Israeli official says|last=Tunçel|first=Çağla Pinar|date=12 May 2011|publisher=Hürriyet Daily News|accessdate=14 May 2011}}</ref>

===Iran===
Kara supports an Israeli strike against [[Iran]]'s [[Nuclear program of Iran|nuclear program]] and assured that other Muslim nations would support a strike, albeit quietly and not publicly.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jpost.com/ArtsAndCulture/Entertainment/Article.aspx?ID=170342 |title='Islamic nations will back Iran strike' |date=6 February 2010 |publisher=Jerusalem Post |accessdate=20 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101203020421/http://www.jpost.com/ArtsAndCulture/Entertainment/Article.aspx?id=170342| archivedate= 3 December 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> In April 2010, the MK made public that he had been approached by an Israeli woman of [[Persian Jewish]] origin, who had been contacted by an Iranian nuclear scientist seeking [[right of asylum|asylum]] in Israel. Kara stated he would help and that the scientist was staying in a "friendly country", but there has been no word on the plan since the announcement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3880056,00.html |title='Iranian nuke scientist seeks asylum in Israel' |author=Sofer, Roni |date=24 April 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronoth |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref>

Following a planned visit by Iranian president [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] to the Israel-[[Lebanon]] border, Kara organized a rally in which 2,000 blue and white balloons would be released if Ahmadinejad came, stating that "the balloons represent the fact that the Jewish people have come home after 2,000 years of exile, and are not going anywhere". Kara also stated that as a non-Jew, he appreciated Israel's freedom and democracy, and that were it not for the Jewish people, the entire region would look like Iran. Kara also claims to have sent Ahmadinejad a letter in [[Persian language|Persian]], in which he expressed "the Israeli nation's desire for peace, and its willingness to defend itself".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140032 |title=MK Kara: 2,000 Blue and White Balloons to Greet Ahmadinejad |author=Lev, David |date=12 October 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=20 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101015211155/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140032| archivedate= 15 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

At the event, Kara criticized the Israeli government for inaction and called Ahmadinejad "a catastrophe for the world" and said that Israel wants peace, not wars.<ref name=abc /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.euronews.net/2010/10/14/ahmadinejad-rallies-crowd-in-lebanon/ |title=Ahmadinejad rallies crowd in Lebanon |date=14 October 2010 |publisher=Euronews |accessdate=20 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101019000651/http://www.euronews.net/2010/10/14/ahmadinejad-rallies-crowd-in-lebanon/?| archivedate= 19 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> He also warned that Ahmadinejad intends to rebuild the [[Persian Empire]], using Lebanon as an army base.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3968769,00.html |title=Metula: Dozens protest against Ahmadinejad's visit to Lebanon |date=13 October 2010 |work=Ynetnews |publisher=Yedioth Ahronot |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref>

===Arab-Israeli conflict and peace===
Kara believes that Israel "has no one to make peace with" and that all the peace partners aim to weaken Israel. He noted that Israelis think like Europeans and do not understand the thought process in the Middle East.<ref name=sos /> He criticized the [[Oslo accords]] for giving "the [[Palestine Liberation Organization|criminal Palestinian leadership]] that was in [[Lebanon]] and [[Tunisia]] the legitimacy to be leaders in Judea, Samaria, and Gaza."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jstandard.com/index.php/content/item/14426/ |title=MKs: New peace initiative to rely on international law |author=Santacruz, Daniel |date=6 August 2010 |publisher=Jewish Standard |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref>

In July 2010, Kara warned Israel not to be tricked by United States president Barack Obama's apparent sympathy for Israel. Kara stated that Obama "doesn’t sound evil now because he needs Jewish votes and money, but I won’t forget the pressure he put on Netanyahu and the stress I saw in the prime minister the last time he came back from Washington."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/Flash.aspx/189669 |title=Ayoub Kara Warns Not to Trust Obama |date=7 July 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> Several days later, in an interview, he endorsed a [[three-state solution]], saying that [[Egypt]] should resume control over [[Gaza]]. He noted that Arabs almost universally call for a restoration of the situation prior to the [[Six-Day War]], when Gaza was part of Egypt. In addition, he mentioned that it would be beneficial to the security of Egypt to eliminate [[Iran]]ian influence in the territory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/Flash.aspx/189908 |title=MK Kara: Give Gaza to Egypt |date=12 July 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=20 October 2010}}</ref> In an interview, Kara noted that "In all history there was never a [[Palestinian state]]." He proposed that [[Jordan]], which is 90% [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] take administrative control of Arab cities in the West Bank, while Israel would control defense, major cities, and broad areas in the territory.<ref name=tjp />

During the [[2010 Israel forest fire]], Kara stated he had information that the fire was "a terrorist act"—arson—and called for the perpetrators to be executed like [[Adolf Eichmann]].<ref name="arson" /> Some of the 41 killed in the blaze were Druze.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140968 |title=40 Dead in Fire, Most were on Prisons Service Bus |author=Benari, Elad et al |date=2 December 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=3 December 2010}}</ref>

In 2011, Kara and fellow MK [[Aryeh Eldad]] met with [[Glenn Beck]]. After Eldad said that there was a Palestinian state in Jordan, Kara added "the world doesn't understand that there are already two states here, and now they want three states. There were never Palestinians in this area"<ref name="Harkov">LAHAV HARKOV. [http://www.jpost.com/VideoArticles/Video/Article.aspx?id=228884 Beck’s love for Israel not ‘right’ enough for some MKs]. [[Jerusalem Post]].</ref> During the same meeting he explained his Zionism as consistent with the Druze tradition that they are descendants of [[Jethro (Bible)|Jethro]], and "commanded to watch over the Land of Israel for the People of Israel."<ref name="Harkov"/> At the first International Regional Cooperation Conference in Tel Aviv, Kara said Israel should negotiate with businessmen rather than the [[Palestinian Authority]] leadership.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/147664#.TmjDhZgTO0d|title=MK Kara: Talk to the Arab People – Not the PA Leadership|last=Benari|first=Elad|coauthors=Yoni Kempinski|date=8 September 2011|work=Israel National News|publisher=Arutz Sheva|accessdate=8 September 2011}}</ref>

===Settlements===
A staunch supporter of Jewish settlement in the West Bank, Kara spoke at a ceremony marking the end of the settlement freeze. He criticizing it as not helpful to Israel or the PA<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/139780 |title=Balloons, Cheers as Freeze Comes to an End |author=Miskin, Maayana |date=26 September 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=20 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100929193954/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/139780| archivedate= 29 September 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> and said that the [[August 2010 West Bank shooting|killings]] of four Israelis near [[Kiryat Arba]] shows that the freeze only serves as "[[appeasement]]" and is not working.<ref name=npr /> At an event marking the construction of a new building in the West bank, Kara stated: "The expulsion of Jews from [[Gush Katif]] brought zero results, the expulsion of the Israeli army from Lebanon has brought zero results, and the construction freeze brought zero results."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/Flash.aspx/194845 |title=MK Kara: We Will Rebuild Gush Katif |date=28 September 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=23 October 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101001082846/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/Flash.aspx/194845| archivedate= 1 October 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Kara attended an Israeli version of the American [[tea party protests]] with other Likud MKs and members. Speakers at the event called on Obama to stop pressuring Netanyahu and for the prime minister to stand his ground and uphold Jewish rights and values.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/news.aspx/140372 |title=First Anti-Obama Tea Party in Israel |author=Benari, Elad and Yoni Kempinsky |date=1 November 2010 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=30 November 2010| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101105150308/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/140372?| archivedate= 5 November 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref>
In 2010, Kara attended a rally marking the end of the construction slow down in [[Revava]], that was also attended by hundreds of Christian supporters of Israel. He welcomed the tourists saying: "I say to all the non-Jews who are here, I too am not a Jew, but in spirit I am most Jewish, I am most Zionist, and so are you! Good for you that you are here to support Israel."<ref>[http://www.israeltoday.co.il/default.aspx?tabid=178&nid=21941 Christians bolster Jews as settlement freeze ends]</ref>

In 2011, however, he abstained from a vote brought by [[National Union (Israel)|National Union]] MKs that would extend sovereignty to Jewish towns in the West Bank.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/142492 |title=Knesset Rejects NU Plan for Sovereignty in Judea and Samaria |author=Ronen, Gil |date=23 February 2011 |work=Israel National News |publisher=Arutz Sheva |accessdate=23 February 2011}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of Arab members of the Knesset]]

==Articles==
* [http://www.commongroundnews.org/article.php?id=27617 How to bring Syria to the negotiating table]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*{{MKlink|id=230}}
* [http://www.ayoobkara.co.il Official Website] (Hebrew)

{{Current MKs}}

{{Persondata
| NAME =Kara, Ayoob
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Israeli politician
| DATE OF BIRTH =12 March 1955
| PLACE OF BIRTH =[[Daliyat al-Karmel]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kara, Ayoob}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Arab politicians in Israel]]
[[Category:Druze people of Israeli nationality]]
[[Category:Government ministers of Israel]]
[[Category:Likud politicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Knesset]]

[[cs:Ajúb Qará]]
[[he:איוב קרא]]
[[nl:Ayoob Kara]]
[[ru:Кара, Аюб]]

Hiob Kara

2012-11-06T18:00:10Z

1exec1: 30em

Jock Stirrup

2012-11-05T23:52:23Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox military person
|name=Lord Stirrup
|birth_date={{birth date and age|df=yes|1949|12|04}}
|birth_place=
|death_place=
|image= Stirrup in Istanbul.jpg
|caption= Sir Jock Stirrup in RAF service dress
|nickname=Jock
|allegiance= {{flag|United Kingdom}}
|serviceyears=c. 1968–2011
|rank= [[Air Chief Marshal]]
|branch= {{air force|United Kingdom}}
|commands=[[No. 2 Squadron RAF|No. 2 Squadron]] [[RAF Marham]] [[No. 1 Group RAF|No. 1 Group]] [[Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Air Staff]] [[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Defence Staff]]
|unit=
|battles= [[Dhofar Rebellion|Dhofar War]] [[Cold War]] [[Operation Telic]] [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|War in Afghanistan]]
|awards= [[Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]] [[Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)|Air Force Cross]]}}

[[Air Chief Marshal]] '''Graham Eric "Jock" Stirrup, Baron Stirrup''', [[Knight Grand Cross in the Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)|AFC]], [[Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society|FRAeS]], [[Chartered Management Institute|FCMI]] (born 4 December 1949) is a former senior [[Royal Air Force]] commander, who was the [[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] from 2006 until his retirement in late 2010. He is also a [[Crossbenches|Crossbench]] member of the [[House of Lords]].

As a junior RAF officer, he was a fast jet pilot, seeing action in the [[Dhofar War]]. Later in his career, Stirrup commanded [[No. 2 Squadron RAF|No. 2 Squadron]] and [[RAF Marham]]. After several senior air force appointments, Stirrup was made the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of [[RAF Strike Command|Strike Command]] and during this time he served as the first commander of [[Operation Veritas|British forces engaged in fighting the Taliban]]. In 2002, Stirrup was appointed the Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff responsible for equipment and capability and was heavily involved in procuring equipment for the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]]. Spending a little over a year in that role, he was then appointed the [[Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Air Staff]], in which capacity he served from 2003 to 2006. He became Chief of the Defence Staff in 2006: during his time in office the British Armed Forces faced significant commitments both to Iraq ([[Operation Telic]]) and Afghanistan ([[Operation Herrick]]). Stirrup retired as Chief of the Defence Staff on 29 October 2010 and was succeeded by [[David Richards (British Army officer)|General Sir David Richards]], the former [[Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the General Staff]].

==Early life==
Graham Eric Stirrup was born on 4 December 1949, the son of William Hamilton Stirrup and his wife, Jacqueline Brenda Stirrup (''née'' Coulson).<ref name=WW>''[[Who's Who (UK)|Who's Who]] 2010'', [[A & C Black]], 2010, ISBN 978-1-4081-1414-8</ref> He was educated at [[Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood|Merchant Taylors' School]] in [[Northwood, London|Northwood]], [[Hertfordshire]].<ref name=WW/>

==RAF career==
Stirrup started his military career at the [[RAF College Cranwell]] in [[Lincolnshire]] in the late 1960s and it was from Cranwell that he received his [[Commissioned officer|commission]] on 31 July 1970.<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=45186 |date=4 September 1970 |startpage=9882 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> He was promoted to [[flying officer]] on 31 July 1971 with seniority backdated to 31 January 1971<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=45438 |date=2 August 1971 |startpage=8340 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> and to [[flight lieutenant]] from 31 July 1973.<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=46046 |date=7 August 1973 |startpage=9402 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> From 1973 to 1975, Stirrup was on loan service with the [[Royal Air Force of Oman|Sultan of Oman’s Air Force]].<ref name="Dods">{{cite book |title=Dod's Civil Service Companion 2009-2010 |editor1-first=Jonathan |editor1-last=Pearson |year=2009 |publisher=Dods |location=London |isbn=978-0-905702-85-8 |page=159 |url=http://viewer.zmags.com/services/DownloadPDF?publicationID=bc65b83d&selectedPages=all |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> While in Oman Stirrup flew [[BAC Strikemaster]]s during the [[Dhofar Rebellion|Dhofar War]] in the [[close air support]] and [[air interdiction|interdiction]] roles, giving him valuable battle experience of the use of [[air power]] in [[counter-insurgency]] operations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/C403A6C7-E72C-445E-8246-D11002D7A852/0/20091201jdp_40UDCDCIMAPPS.pdf |title=Security & Stabilisation: the military contribution|publisher=Ministry of Defence|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> After he returned to Great Britain in 1975, Stirrup was posted to [[No. 41 Squadron RAF|No. 41 Squadron]] where he flew the [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] in the fighter reconnaissance role.<ref name="Dods"/> Stirrup went on to serve in an exchange tour in the [[United States]] where he flew the all-weather tactical reconnaissance [[F-4 Phantom II|RF-4C Phantom]].<ref name="NATO">{{cite web|url=http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-4084B1D8-A915087A/natolive/who_is_who_50457.htm |title=Sir Jock Stirrup|publisher=NATO|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

Promoted to [[squadron leader]] on 1 January 1980,<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=48100 |date=18 February 1980 |startpage=2642 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> Stirrup was serving as a flight commander on No. 226 [[Operational Conversion Unit]] which was based at [[RAF Lossiemouth]] in March 1983: his duties centred around the instruction of trainee pilots on the [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] and, on 7 March 1983, Stirrup was carrying out a student progress check from the rear seat of his aircraft when they suffered a serious [[bird strike]].<ref name=bird>{{LondonGazette |issue=49413 |date=11 July 1983 |startpage=9151 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> Stirrup was unable to ascertain whether his student was conscious and forward vision through the canopy was obscured: one of his [[internal combustion engine|engines]] caught fire, and although ejecting from the aircraft would have been justified, not knowing whether the student was conscious or not, Stirrup managed to land at [[RAF Leuchars]].<ref name=bird/> Stirrup was later awarded the [[Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)|Air Force Cross]] for his actions.<ref name=bird/>

Stirrup was promoted to [[Wing Commander (rank)|wing commander]] on 1 July 1984.<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=49800 |date=9 July 1984 |startpage=9435 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> In 1985 Stirrup received a command appointment, as the Officer Commanding [[No. 2 Squadron RAF|No. 2 Squadron]] which at that time was operating the Jaguar from [[RAF Laarbruch]] in Germany: along with other NATO air units, his squadron's role was the air defence of Western Europe in the face of the Soviet [[Cold War]] threat.<ref name="NATO"/> Stirrup gained first hand experience of the higher-level workings of the RAF when, in 1987, he was appointed Personal Staff Officer to the [[Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Air Staff]].<ref name="NATO"/>

Having been promoted to [[group captain]] on 1 January 1990,<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=52005 |date=2 January 1990 |startpage=73 |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> from 1990 to 1992, Stirrup served as Station Commander of [[RAF Marham]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rafweb.org/Stations/Station%20OCs-EAng.htm|title=RAF Station Commanders - East Anglia|publisher=Air of Authority - A History of RAF Organisation|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> and during his time in command, RAF Marham's strike aircraft were dispatched to the Middle East, seeing action in the [[Gulf War air campaign]].<ref name="NATO"/> In 1993 Stirrup attended the [[Royal College of Defence Studies]] (RCDS).<ref name="NATO"/> Stirrup was promoted to [[air commodore]] on 1 January 1994,<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=53537 |date=31 December 1993 |startpage=20689 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> and appointed Director of Air Force Plans and Programmes that year.<ref name="NATO"/> Promoted to [[air vice-marshal]] on 1 July 1997,<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=54820 |date=30 June 1997 |startpage=7559 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> he became [[Air Officer Commanding]] [[No. 1 Group RAF|No. 1 Group]] in April 1997, [[Assistant Chief of the Air Staff]] in August 1998 and, having been promoted to [[air marshal]] on 6 November 2000,<ref>{{LondonGazette |issue=56020 |date=7 November 2000 |startpage=12489 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> he was made Deputy [[Commander-in-Chief]] [[RAF Strike Command]] that year.<ref name="NATO"/> His appointment at Strike Command also entailed taking on the additional roles of being the Commander of NATO's [[Combined Air Operations Center|Combined Air Operations Centre 9]] (based at High Wycombe) and serving as the Director of the [[European Air Group]].<ref name="NATO"/>

From September 2001 to January 2002, Stirrup was UK National Contingent Commander for [[Operation Veritas]] (British operations against the [[Taliban]]) in [[Afghanistan]], his first direct experience of front-line operations overseas since 1987.<ref name="NATO"/> In this role Stirrup directed the British contribution to the US-led [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and he was the Senior British Military Advisor to General [[Tommy Franks]], the Commander-in-Chief of [[United States Central Command]]: Stirrup was replaced by Lieutenant General [[Cedric Delves]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1741813.stm |title=SAS chief takes top Afghan war job|publisher=BBC|date=4 January 2002|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Lt Gen William Fraser greets Air Chf Mshl Sir Jock Stirrup.jpeg|thumb|right|Stirrup (left) with [[William M. Fraser III|General Fraser]] in 2005.]]
In April 2002 Stirrup was appointed [[Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff|Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (Equipment Capability)]], a post he held until May 2003.<ref name="Dods"/> His main task was production of equipment plans for the Army, Air Force and Navy while ensuring that the plans could be afforded over the coming years. The planning for the [[invasion of Iraq]] required new equipment and Stirrup became increasingly involved in planning for urgent operational requirements. A particular difficulty faced by Stirrup was the need to place equipment orders with industry before the Government was prepared to publicly commit to the action. Stirrup briefed ministers on this point but was prevented from placing the orders according to his desired timescale. In the end some critical items such as [[body armour]], boots and desert clothing were not available to all the personnel who needed them when they deployed.<ref name="Iraq enquiry">{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/45320/20100201am-stirrup-final.pdf |title=Evidence by Sir Jock Stirrup to the Iraq Inquiry|publisher=Iraq Inquiry|date=1 February 2010|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2010/feb/01/iraq-inquiry-body-armour |title=Troops sent to Iraq without sufficient body armour, Chilcot inquiry told|publisher=The Guardian|date=1 February 2010|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

Stirrup was promoted to [[air chief marshal]]<ref name="5August2003">{{London Gazette |issue=57018 |date=5 August 2003 |startpage=9733 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> and appointed [[Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Air Staff]] on 1 August 2003.<ref name="NATO"/> In July 2004 Stirrup set out his strategic direction for the RAF which was based upon working to achieve an increasingly modern and multi-role aircraft fleet, reducing the number of [[RAF station]]s by creating fewer but larger and better-equipped bases and reducing the number of personnel while maintaining or improving their training.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/tna/+/http://www.mod.uk/issues/security/cm6269/cas.htm |title=Delivering Security in a Changing World|date=21 July 2004|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

==Chief of the Defence Staff==

Stirrup was appointed [[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] – just when the British Armed Forces were facing significant commitments both to Iraq ([[Operation Telic]]) and Afghanistan ([[Operation Herrick]]) – on 28 April 2006.<ref name="NATO"/>

===Operations in Iraq===

[[File:Peter Pace and Jock Stirrup at the British Ministry of Defence.jpg|thumb|right|Stirrup with US General [[Peter Pace]] in 2006.]]
In May 2006, shortly after becoming CDS, Stirrup visited Iraq to assess the situation first hand. The British responsibility was in the south of Iraq and on his return Stirrup reported to the [[Secretary of State for Defence|Defence Secretary]] that [[Basra]] was the key to success in southern Iraq. Stirrup identified two obstacles to success, the first being the militias and the second being the need for an acceptable level of Iraqi governance. In addition, he took the view that [[Iran]]ian interference was a significant exacerbating factor. Noting that neither of two obstacles could be fully dealt with by the British Armed Forces, Stirrup viewed the solution as being essentially political.<ref name="Iraq enquiry"/>

In order to take action against the militias, the local British commander in South East Iraq developed a plan to conduct aggressive operations against them. At the same time Stirrup became increasingly concerned that strong political leadership from the Iraqis was lacking and that without this any gains made by the military actions against the militias would be to no avail. In July 2006, Stirrup overturned the previous military advice to the Defence Secretary by stating that force levels in [[Multi-National Division (South-East) (Iraq)|South East Iraq]] would need to be maintained. Previously it had been thought that they could be reduced from over 7,000 to between 3,000 and 4,000. In September 2006, the Iraqi Prime Minister, [[Nouri al-Maliki]], blocked the British plan to act against the militias which Stirrup believed was because of Maliki's dependence on [[Sadrist Movement|Sadrist]] support at that stage.<ref name="Iraq enquiry"/>

The original British plan was replaced by [[Operation Sinbad]] which was acceptable to the Iraqis and was executed from September 2006 to February 2007. Along with other Coalition commanders, Stirrup viewed Sinbad as insufficient because it did not involve directly attacking the militias. Believing that it would not deliver the level of improvements in security that the British wanted, Stirrup began looking at the high risk strategy of withdrawing British troops from inside Basra which would have left the Iraqis in the position of either having to deal with the security problems themselves or losing control of Iraq's second city.<ref name="Iraq enquiry"/>

Following the end of Operation Sinbad, the military situation for the British in Basra worsened and the British base at [[Siege of U.K. bases in Basra|Basra Palace was repeatedly attacked]]. However, by summer 2007, Maliki's political position no longer depended on Sadrist support and [[Muqtada al-Sadr]] had publicly criticized Maliki. In July 2007 Maliki replaced his Basra security co-ordinator and during one of his visits to Iraq, Stirrup met the new Basra security co-ordinator, [[Mohan al-Furayji|General Mohan]]. Mohan wanted the British forces to withdraw from Basra and Stirrup stressed that once British forces had departed, Mohan's Iraqi forces would have to deal with security. Both Mohan and Stirrup were clear that retaining British forces outside Basra would be an insurance policy against a deteriorating situation within Basra as well as give Mohan something additional with which he could threaten the militias. Stirrup was concerned that a redeployment would look as though the British had been "bombed out of Basra" but judged that this was preferable to the significant damage to British military reputation were security in Basra to completely break down.<ref name="Iraq enquiry"/> Much of the British redeployment took place in August and despite Stirrup making public statements to the effect that the withdrawal was part of the overall plan, some commentators judged that the British had been defeated in southern Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uruknet.de/?p=m35740 |title=Instructions to troops in Basra: keep fingers crossed|publisher=Time|date=28 August 2007|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> By early September all British troops had been withdrawn from Basra city to [[Basra International Airport|the airport]] to perform what was dubbed an "overwatch" role.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dotandcalm.com/calm-archive/index/t-22989.html |title=The 'proxy war': UK troops are sent to Iranian border |publisher=The Independent|date=12 September 2007}}</ref>

After British troops had been withdrawn from Basra city, violence continued and General Mohan took some time to produce a plan for improving security. Notwithstanding the difficulties, the [[Basra Governorate]] was handed over to [[Provincial Iraqi Control]] in December 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7135666.stm |title=Iraq to be given control of Basra|date=9 December 2007|publisher=BBC|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> By early March 2008, General Mohan had produced a security plan with British support which was presented to [[David Petraeus|General Petraeus]] and Prime Minister Maliki in [[Baghdad]]. The plan called for a six week period of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration starting in June 2008 before forcibly disarming the [[Mahdi Army]] and other non-Government/Coalition forces afterwards. Later in March Stirrup was in Baghdad and he met with General Petraeus and [[Lloyd Austin|General Austin]], the commander of the [[Multi-National Corps – Iraq]]. Stirrup strongly backed Mohan's plan but noted that Mohan would need to be pressed hard to deliver and also supported with Corps forces. Austin was reluctant to provide support, wishing to focus on [[Mosul]], but Petraeus agreed with Stirrup. However, this plan was overtaken by Maliki's decision to launch [[Operation Charge of the Knights]]. Both Stirrup and the American commanders were taken by surprise and were concerned about the lack of planning but Maliki was determined to launch his operation in late March.<ref name="Iraq enquiry"/>

Operation Charge of the Knights led to the Battle of Basra which lasted from 25 to 31 March. Although the lack of planning resulted in some confusion, the Coalition did support the Iraqi action with land and air assets. By the end of March the Iraqi Government forces had negotiated a ceasefire with Muqtada al-Sadr. With the militias melting away, Iraqi Government forces were able to claim control of Basra. While recognizing that Operation Charge of the Knights had been far from perfect, Stirrup judged it to be a success as the Iraqis were taking responsibility for their own security.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rusi.org/events/ref:E4905F2EFC2531/info:public/infoID:E49341B0484026/ |title=Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup's Speech 2009|publisher=RUSI|date=1 December 2008|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

After the conclusion of Operation Charge of the Knights the British were involved in helping to rebuild those Iraq Army units which had suffered from poor cohesion, or even dissolved. In hindsight, Stirrup took the view that the British forces would have been usefully employed in mentoring the Iraq Army to greater extent earlier in the campaign.<ref name="Iraq enquiry"/> In late April 2009, most British military operations in Iraq came to an end; and by 28 July 2009 all British forces had left Iraq and were all redeployed to Kuwait.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8172893.stm |title=UK troops in Iraq moved to Kuwait|date=28 July 2009|publisher=BBC|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

===Operations in Afghanistan===
After his appointment as CDS, Stirrup travelled to [[Helmand Province]] in May 2006. At that stage, the British effort consisted of a small tented base at [[Camp Bastion]], an operating base at [[Lashkar Gah]] and several isolated platoon houses in the north of Helmand. Much of the rest of the Province was not under British or other [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] control. At that time the insurgency was starting to gain strength and although by 2009 the British Armed Forces and the [[United States Marine Corps]] had greatly expanded their role and were providing security for over 50% of Helmand, speaking in 2009 Stirrup conceded that in some areas security had worsened. While, highlighting the inadequate force levels provided by NATO and the competing demands on Coalition political and military resources that Iraq had posed until 2008, Stirrup believed that by 2009 NATO forces were successfully taking the fight to the insugents, driving them out of towns and villages and thereby allowing governance to improve which would lead to the defeat of the insurgency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rusi.org/events/past/ref:E4B184DB05C4E3/ |title=Annual Chief of the Defence Staff Lecture|publisher=RUSI|date= 3 December 2009|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

Speaking generally on operations in Afghanistan, Stirrup has noted that whilst "the military is a key, an essential element in dealing with those problems, but by and large these problems can only be resolved politically" and that he favoured a pragmatic approach to dealing with former members of the [[Taliban]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1567309/Stirrup-No-military-solution-in-Afghanistan.html|title=Stirrup: 'No military solution in Afghanistan'|publisher=The Telegraph|date=25 October 2007|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> By December 2009, Stirrup was expressing his concern about falling levels of public support for the war in Afghanistan which he believed risked undermining the British effort. In particular Stirrup called for a spirit of resolution and stated that the mission was achievable, noting that the British Armed Forces had finally now got a properly resourced plan to achieve the strategic aim.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/UK-News/Afghanistan-Sir-Jock-Stirrup-Warns-Over-Falling-Public-Support-For-Afghan-War/Article/200912115490449?f=rss |title=Loss Of Support 'More Damaging Than Taliban'|date=3 December 2009|publisher=Sky News|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

===Extended term of office and early retirement===
In mid 2008, the Labour government of then Prime Minister Gordon Brown extended Stirrup's term of office until 2011, which effectively prevented the three individual Service chiefs of the time, from competing for the UK's senior military position.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1034488/Army-chief-General-Dannatt-early-snub-promotion.html |title=Army chief General Dannatt 'to go early after snub over promotion'|publisher= Daily Mail|date=12 July 2008|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> On 14 July 2010, the Defence Secretary Liam Fox announced that [[David Richards (British Army officer)|General Sir David Richards]], the then Head of the British Army, would succeed Stirrup as Chief of the Defence Staff in October 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/defence/7890288/General-Sir-David-Richards-to-be-Chief-of-Defence-Staff.html |title=General Sir David Richards to be Chief of Defence Staff|publisher=Telegraph|date=14 July 2010|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> Richards took over on 29 October 2010 and Stirrup was created a [[life peer]] as '''Baron Stirrup''' of Marylebone in the City of Westminster: he was [[Introduction (House of Lords)|introduced]] into the [[House of Lords]] on 1 February 2011, where he sits as a [[crossbencher]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2010/10/sir-jock-stirrup-announcement|title= New Lords member announced|publisher= UK Parliament|date=27 October 2010|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Stirrup married Mary Alexandra Elliott in 1976 and they have one son.<ref name="Dods"/> Stirrup includes golf, music, theatre and history among his interests.<ref name=WW/> He is a fellow of the [[Royal Aeronautical Society]],<ref name=WW/> a fellow of the [[Chartered Management Institute]]<ref name=WW/> and a member of the [[Society of Knights of the Round Table]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arthuriansocietyofknights.org/members.html |title=Membership|publisher=Society of Knights of the Round Table|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

==Honours==
Stirrup has received the following honours:
*Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Bath]]<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=57665 |date=11 June 2005 |startpage=2 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>
*[[Air Aide-de-Camp]] to Her Majesty The Queen<ref name="5August2003"/>
*Honorary Colonel 73 Engineer Regiment (Volunteers) (1 April 2002 – 1 June 2008)<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=56614 |date=25 June 2002 |startpage=7575 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette |issue=58780 |date=29 July 2008 |startpage=11418 |supp=x |accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>
*[[Doctor of Science]] from [[Cranfield University]]<ref name=WW/>

Stirrup's medal ribbons are arranged as shown:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/rafcms/mediafiles/4473442B_1143_EC82_2E27A214A72CF74D.jpg |title=Photograph of Sir Jock Stirrup|publisher= Ministry of Defence|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref>

<center>
[[File:Order of the Bath UK ribbon.png|100px]]

[[File:UK AFC ribbon.svg|100px]]
[[File:Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal ribbon.png|100px]]
[[File:General Service Medal (Oman).png|100px]]
[[File:Endurance Medal (Al-Sumood) (Oman).png|100px]]

</center>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[File:Order of the Bath UK ribbon.png|80px]] || Knight Grand Cross of the [[Order of the Bath]] || (2005)
|-
|[[File:UK AFC ribbon.svg|80px]] || [[Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)|Air Force Cross]] (AFC) || (1983)
|-
|[[File:Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal ribbon.png|80px]] || [[Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal]] || (2002)
|-
|[[File:General Service Medal (Oman).png|80px]] || Omani [[General Service Medal (Oman)|General Service Medal]] ([[Qaboos bin Said al Said|Sultan Qaboos]]) ||
|-
|[[File:Endurance Medal (Al-Sumood) (Oman).png|80px]] || Omani [[As Samood Medal]] (Endurance Medal) ||
|}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.defensenews.com/conferences/dubai1203/2457284.html Defense News - Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup]
*[http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/AboutDefence/People/ChiefsOfStaff/ChiefOfTheDefenceStaff.htm Ministry of Defence - Chief of the Defence Staff]
*[http://www.debretts.com/people/biographies/search/results/18948/Graham%20Eric%20(Jock)%20STIRRUP.aspx Debrett's - Air Chief Marshal Sir Jock Stirrup]
*[http://www.thedailyshow.com/watch/thu-april-3-2008/britain-s-fallen-soldiers Clip from The Daily Show]

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=F J Hoare}}
{{s-ttl|title=Officer Commanding [[No. 2 Squadron RAF|No 2 Squadron]] | years=1985 – 1987}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Philip Sturley|P O Sturley]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=D F A Henderson}}
{{s-ttl|title=Station Commander [[RAF Marham]] | years=1990 – 1992}}
{{s-aft|after=N R Irving}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[John Day (RAF officer)|J R Day]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Director of Air Force Plans and Programmes | years=1994 – 1997}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Steven Nicholl|S M Nicholl]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[John Day (RAF officer)|J R Day]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Air Officer Commanding]] [[No. 1 Group RAF|No 1 Group]] | years=1997 – 1998}}
{{s-aft|after=J H Thompson}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Timothy Jenner|T I Jenner]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Assistant Chief of the Air Staff]] | years=1998 – 2000}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Philip Sturley|P O Sturley]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Timothy Jenner|T I Jenner]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Deputy Commander-in-Chief [[RAF Strike Command|Strike Command]] | years=2000 – 2002}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Brian Burridge|Sir Brian Burridge]]}}
|-
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=UK National Contingent Commander for [[Operation Veritas]] Also Senior British Military Advisor to [[United States Central Command|US CENTCOM]] | years=2001 – 2002}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Cedric Delves|C N G Delves]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Jeremy Blackham|Sir Jeremy Blackham]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff|Deputy Chief of the Defence Staff (Equipment Capability)]]| years=2002 – 2003}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Robert Fulton (Royal Marines officer)|Robert Fulton]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Peter Squire|Sir Peter Squire]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Air Staff]] | years=2003 – 2006}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Glenn Torpy|Sir Glenn Torpy]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Michael Walker, Baron Walker of Aldringham|Sir Michael Walker]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] | years=2006 – 2010}}
{{s-aft|after=[[David Richards (British Army officer)|Sir David Richards]]}}
|-
{{s-hon}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Richard Johns|Sir Richard Johns]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Honorary Colonel of 73 Engineer Regiment (Volunteers)|years=1 April 2002 – 29 July 2008}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Glenn Torpy|Sir Glenn Torpy]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Chiefs of Defence Staff}}
{{Chief of the Air Staff}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Stirrup, Jock
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Royal Air Force air marshals
| DATE OF BIRTH = 4 December 1949
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stirrup, Jock}}
[[Category:Royal Air Force air marshals]]
[[Category:Chiefs of the Air Staff (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Aeronautical Society]]
[[Category:Graduates of the Royal Air Force College Cranwell]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Dhofar Rebellion]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force personnel of the War in Afghanistan (2001–present)]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force personnel of the Iraq War]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1949 births]]
[[Category:People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood]]
[[Category:People from Northwood, London]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal College of Defence Studies]]
[[Category:Chiefs of the Defence Staff (United Kingdom)]]

Salzbergwerk Khewra

2012-11-05T23:19:33Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use Pakistani English|date=May 2012}}
{{Coord|32|38|52.58|N|73|00|30.22|E|type:landmark_region:PK|display=title}}
{{Infobox mine
| name = Khewra Salt Mine
| image = Khewra Salt Mine - Crystal Deposits on the mine walls.jpg
| width = 250px
| caption = Khewra Salt Mine tunnel (Crystal Valley)
| pushpin_map =Pakistan
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_label =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_mapsize =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| latd = 32 |latm =38 |lats =52.58 |latNS =N
| longd = 73 |longm =00 |longs =30.22 |longEW =E
| coordinates_type =
| scale =
| coordinates_region =PK
| display =title
| place = [[Khewra]]
| subdivision_type = Province
| state/province = [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]
| country = [[Pakistan]]
| owner = [[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]]
| official website = {{URL|http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm|Khewra Salt Mines}}
| acquisition year =
| products = [[rock salt]], [[brine]]
| financial year =
| amount =
| opening year = {{Start date|df=yes|1872}}
| active years = 140 years
}}
The '''Khewra Salt Mine''' (or '''Mayo Salt Mine''') is located in [[Khewra]], north of [[Pind Dadan Khan]],<ref name="Spate">{{cite book |author=O.H.K. Spate |coauthors=Andrew T.A. Learmonth, B.H. Farmer |title=India, Pakistan and Ceylon: The Regions|publisher=Methuen Publishing Ltd|isbn=978-0-416-75530-5|page=502|date=13 July 1972 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=ItkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA502&dq=khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=eP5_T5m3EMWhOuzovYUH&ved=0CGEQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false |accessdate=3 April 2012}}</ref> an administrative subdivision of [[Jhelum District]], [[Punjab, Pakistan]]. It is Pakistan's largest and oldest salt mine<ref name="Stanley">{{cite book |author=Stanley J. Lefond |title=Handbook of World Salt Resources |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Db87AAAAMAAJ&q=Khewra+Salt+Mines&dq=Khewra+Salt+Mines&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CCx7T5eNNtCeOtu8neEC&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA |accessdate=3 April 2012 |edition=1st|date=1 January 1969 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-306-30315-9 |page=347}}</ref> and the world's second largest.<ref name="Camerapix">{{cite book |author=Camerapix |title=Spectrum Guide to Pakistan |publisher=Interlink Books |isbn=978-1-56656-240-9 |page=150 |date=July 1998 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=ZlwOAQAAMAAJ&q=khewra+largest+salt+producer+in+world&dq=khewra+largest+salt+producer+in+world&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TsKBT4DeMcOZOrbZ5IoH&ved=0CEUQ6AEwBQ |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Masudul. Hasan">{{cite book |author=Masud ul Hasan |title=Short encyclopaedia of Pakistan |publisher=Ferozsons |asin=B007EU8QHS |page=118 |edition=1st |year=1975 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=TsKBT4DeMcOZOrbZ5IoH&id=JAoMAAAAIAAJ&dq=khewra+largest+salt+producer+in+world&q=khewra#search_anchor |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Pete Heiden"/> It is a major tourist attaction, drawing up to 250,000 visitors a year.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/><ref name="Om Gupta">{{cite book |author=Om Gupta |title=Encyclopaedia of India Pakistan & Bangladesh |date=27 June 2006 |publisher=Isha Books |isbn=978-81-8205-389-2 |page=1250 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=svLQOrQjPRsC&pg=PA1250&dq=khewra+40,000+visitors&hl=en&sa=X&ei=raeAT6nwLoOZOrPJsewG&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> Its history dates back to its discovery by Alexander's troops in 320 BC, but it started trading in the Mughal era.<ref name="Sarina Singh">{{cite book |author=Sarina Singh |coauthors=Lindsay Brown, Lindsay Brown, Rodney Cocks, John Mock |title=Lonely Planet Pakistan and the Karakoram Highway |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=zn8I4qEew9oC&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate=3 April 2012 |edition=7th|date=1 May 2008 |publisher=Lonely Planet |isbn=978-1-74104-542-0 |page=138}}</ref> The main tunnel at ground level was developed by Dr. H. Warth, a mining engineer, in 1872, during British rule. After [[Partition of India|partition]] the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation took over the mine, which still remains the largest source of salt in the country, producing more than 350,000 tons per annum<ref name="The Seattle Times">{{cite news |last=Pennington |first=Matthew |title=Pakistan salt mined old-fashioned way mine|url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002159747_saltmine25.html |accessdate=8 April 2012 |newspaper=The Seattle Times |date=25 January 2005}}</ref> of about 99% pure [[halite]].<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/> Estimates of the reserves of salt in the mine vary from 82 million tons<ref name="natres"/> to 600 million tons.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey"/>

== History ==
The Khewra Salt Mine is also known as Mayo Salt Mine, in honour of [[Richard Bourke, 6th Earl of Mayo|Lord Mayo]], who visited it as [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy of India]].<ref name="Mayo Salt Mine">{{cite book|author=Society of Arts (Great Britain)|title=Journal Of The Society Of Arts|volume=43|date=7 November 2011|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-271-48500-0|page=258|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=2LqKT9epA_H54QTe26iJCg&id=GVgmAQAAIAAJ&dq=Khewra+Salt+mine&q=Mayo#search_anchor |accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref> The mine is a part of a [[Salt Range|salt range]] that originated about 800 million years ago, when evaporation of a shallow sea followed by geological movement formed a salt range that stretched for about 300 kilometers.<ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Helen">{{cite book |author=Helen Bateman |coauthor=Jayne Denshire |title=Dangerous Creatures Of The Oceans |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=nHMORt-4LIsC&pg=PA9&dq=khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4DJ7T4SCEoLrOZGVmdQC&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false |accessdate=3 April 2012 |date=30 July 2005 |publisher=Creative Co |isbn=978-1-58340-768-4 |page=9}}</ref> The salt reserves at Khewra were discovered when [[Alexander the Great]] crossed the [[Jhelum District|Jhelum]] and [[Mianwali District|Mianwali]] region during his [[Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Indian campaign]]. The mine was discovered, however, not by Alexander, nor by his allies, but by his army's horses, when they were found licking the stones.<ref name="Karen Zarindast">{{cite video|people=Karen Zarindast (Reporter)|date=8 November 2011|title=Pakistan salt mine is open to tourists in the Punjab province|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15645121|medium=News report|publisher=[[British Broadcasting Corporation]]|accessdate=14 May 2012}}</ref> Ailing horses of his army also recovered after licking the rock salt stones.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/> During the [[Mughal era]] the salt was traded in various markets, as far away as [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Andre Wink">{{cite book |author=Andre Wink |title=Al Hind: The Making of the Indo Islamic World |date=March 1990 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-09249-5 |page=171 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=U7Q3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA171&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=i3KAT9vPC8e5hAfngtSwBw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwADge#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> On the downfall of the Mughal empire, the mine was taken over by Sikhs. [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], the Sikh Commander-in-Chief, shared the management of the [[Salt Range]] with [[Gulab Singh of Jammu and Kashmir|Gulab Singh]], the Raja of [[Jammu]]. The former controlled the [[Warcha]] mine, while the latter held Khewra. The salt quarried during [[Sikh Empire|Sikh rule]] was both eaten and used as a source of revenue.{{cn|date=October 2012}} In 1872, some time after they had taken over the Sikhs' territory, the British developed the mine further.<ref name="Sarina Singh"/> They found the mining to have been inefficient, with irregular and narrow tunnels and entrances that made the movement of labourers difficult and dangerous. The supply of water inside mine was poor, and there was no storage facility for the mined salt. The only road to the mine was over difficult, rocky terrain. To address these problems the government levelled the road, built godowns, provided a water supply, improved the entrances and tunnels, and introduced a better mechanism for excavation of salt. Penalties were introduced to control salt smuggling.<ref name="Edwin Arnold">{{cite book |author=Sir Edwin Arnold |title=The Marquis of Dalhousie's Administration of British India |year=1862 |publisher=Saunders, Otley, and Co. |volume=1 |isbn=978-1-290-28762-3 |page=166 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=T8kNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA296&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=az2AT_ybA8imhAfgyP3IBw&ved=0CE0Q6AEwBTgK#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> While working with [[Geological Survey of India]] in the 1930s and 1940s, [[Birbal Sahni]] found evidence of [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]], [[gymnosperm]]s and insects from the [[Cambrian]] period inside the mine.<ref name="Michael Cremo">{{cite book |author=Michael A. Cremo |title=The Forbidden Archeologist |date=1 November 2010 |publisher=Torchlight Publishing |isbn=978-0-89213-337-6 |page=166 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=X28zNKCBD28C&pg=PA166&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=az2AT_ybA8imhAfgyP3IBw&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBDgK#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref>

== Location ==
[[File:Khewra Salt Mines Pakistan (206).jpg|220px|thumb|Entrance to the mine]]
Khewra Salt Mine is situated in [[Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil]] of [[Jhelum District]]. Located about 200 km from Islamabad and Lahore, it is accessed via the [[M2 motorway (Pakistan)|M2 motorway]], about 30 kilometers off the Lilla interchange while going towards Pind Dadan Khan on the Lilla road.<ref name="Dawn: beauty of Khewra"/><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/> The mine is in mountains that are part of a salt range, a mineral-rich mountain system extending about 200 km from the [[Jehlum river]] south of [[Pothohar Plateau]] to where the Jehlum river joins the [[Indus river]].<ref name="Pete Heiden">{{cite book|author=Pete Heiden|title=Pakistan|date=August 2011|publisher=Essential Library|isbn=978-1-61783-117-1|page=27|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=0RQwcO0wM6IC&pg=PA27&dq=salt+range+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1zyJT4e0CYj04QT3rvHKCQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBDgo#v=onepage&q=salt%20range%20Pakistan&f=false |accessdate=14 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Michael Cremo"/><ref name="Stacy Taus-Bolstad">{{cite book|author=Stacy Taus-Bolstad|title=Pakistan in Pictures|year=January 2003|publisher=Lerner Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8225-4682-5|page=55|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=K9QbtVadL_gC&pg=PA55&dq=salt+range+Pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1zyJT4e0CYj04QT3rvHKCQ&ved=0CFoQ6AEwBjgo#v=onepage&q=salt%20range%20Pakistan&f=false |accessdate=14 April 2012}}</ref> Khewra mine is about 945 feet above sea level<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves"/> and about 2400 feet into the mountain from the mine entrance. The underground mine covers an area of 110 km2.<ref name="WASJ">{{cite journal |author=Attique ur Rehman |coauthors=Amjad Aslam, Muhammad Akhyar Farrukh |year=2010 |title=Preparation of Analytical Grade Sodium Chloride from Khewra Rock Salt |journal=World Applied Sciences Journal |volume=9 |issue=11 |page=1223 |publisher=IDOSI Publications |format=PDF |issn=1818-4952 |accessdate=15 April 2012 |url=http://www.idosi.org/wasj/wasj9(11)/3.pdf }}</ref>

== Production ==
[[File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (67).JPG|thumb|Display Inside Mine Displaying Daily Salt Production]]
Estimates of the total reserves of salt in the mines range from 82 million tons<ref name="natres">{{cite book|title=Natural Resources of Humid Tropical Asia (Natural Resources Research)|year=1974|month=April|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-101056-9|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=iKkvAAAAMAAJ&q=Khewra#search_anchor|edition=1st|accessdate=14 May 2012|page=101}}</ref> to 600 million tons.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey">{{cite book |author=Frank C. Whitmore |coauthor=Mary Ellen Williams |title=Resources for the twenty-first century |year=1982 |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |location=Washington D.C |oclc=623259129 |page=175 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=LP5RNv1tGYAC&pg=PA175&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=HH6AT_XHEsfIhAftmoDCBw&ved=0CEcQ6AEwBDhG#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> In raw form it contains negligible amounts of Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Sulfates and moisture, with Iron, Zinc, Copper, Manganese, Chromium and Lead as [[trace element]]s.<ref name="Pennsylvania Environment dept">{{cite techreport |author=Robert V. Titler |coauthors=Paul Curry |title=Chemical Analysis of major constituents and trace contaminants of Rock Salt |institution=[[Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection]] |url=http://files.dep.state.pa.us/water/Wastewater%20Management/WastewaterPortalFiles/Rock%20Salt%20Paper%20final%20052711.pdf |format=PDF |date=14 September 2011 |page=17 |accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="JCSP:Chemical composition">{{cite journal |author=Qazi Muhammad Sharif |coauthors=Mumtaz Hussain, Muhammad Tahir Hussain |year=2007 |month=December |title=Chemical Evaluation of Major Salt Deposits of Pakistan |journal=Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan |volume=29 |issue=26 |pages=570–571 |publisher=Chemical Society of Pakistan |editor1=Viqar Uddin Ahmad |editor2=Muhammad Raza Shah |format=PDF |accessdate=15 April 2012 |url=http://jcsp.org.pk/index.php/jcsp/article/viewFile/1249/839 }}</ref> Salt from Khewra, also known as [[Himalayan salt]], is red, pink, off-white or transparent.<ref name="Dorothy Moore">{{cite web |url=http://materialscience.uoregon.edu/ttsem/curriculum%20to%20share/The_Significance_of_Salt.pdf |title=The Significance of Salt |author=Dorothy K. Moore |authorlink= |date= |month= |year= |work= |publisher=Material Science Institute, University of Oregon |location=[[Eugene, Oregon|Eugene]] |page=33 |format=PDF |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> In the early years of British rule, the Khewra mine produced about 28,000 to 30,000 tons per annum; it increased to about 187,400 tons per annum for the five fiscal years ending 1946-7 and to 136,824 tons for the two years ending 1949–50 with the systematic working introduced by Dr H. Warth.<ref name="Coggin">{{cite book |author=J.Coggin Brown |title=Mineral Wealth: Part III. Materials used in building construction, civil engineering, etc |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Quim3r1ReaEC&pg=PA507&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bQl-T8nhKcmWhQfE0IiBDg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=5 April 2012 |date= 7 February 2008 |publisher=Isha Books |isbn=978-81-8205-483-7 |page=507}}</ref> The mine's output was reported in 2003 to be 385,000 tons of salt per annum, which amounts to almost half of Pakistan's total production of rock salt.<ref name="Kogan Page">{{cite book |author=Kogan Page |title=Asia & Pacific Review 2003/04 |date=1 August 2003 |edition= 21st |publisher=World of Information |isbn=978-0-7494-4063-3 |page=279 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=RGsEvg7NdoQC&pg=PA279&dq=rock+salt+in+pakistan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=yK-BT4_rEoOaOtGdzfYG&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=rock%20salt%20in%20pakistan&f=false |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> At that rate of output, the tunnel would be expected to last for another 350 years.<ref name="The Seattle Times"/>

The mine comprises nineteen stories, of which eleven are below ground. From the entrance, the mine extends about 2440 ft into the mountains, and the total length of its tunnels is about 40 km.<ref name="Camerapix"/><ref name="PMDC">{{cite web|title=Khewra Salt mine|url=http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm|work=Salt mine|publisher=[[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]]|accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> Quarrying is done using the [[room and pillar]] method, mining only half of the salt and leaving the remaining half to support what is above.<ref name="Bushra Khalid">{{cite journal |author=Bushra Khalid |title=Effect of Temperature and Humidity on Salt Mine Environment |journal=Pakistan Journal of Meteorology |volume=7 |issue=13 |page=73 |publisher=[[Pakistan Meteorological Department]] |format=PDF |accessdate=8 April 2012 |url=http://www.pmd.gov.pk/rnd/rnd_files/vol7_issue13/7_Effect%20of%20Temperature%20and%20Humidity%20on%20Salt%20Mine%20Environment.pdf}}</ref> The temperature inside the mine remains about 18-20 °C throughout the year.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/> A railway track laid during the British era is used to bring salt out of the mine in rail cars.<ref name="Helen"/>

Himalayan salt is Pakistan's best known rock salt.<ref name="U.S. Geological Survey"/> It is used for [[cooking]], as [[bath salt]], as [[brine]]<ref name="Dorothy Moore"/> and as a raw material for many industries, including a [[ICI Pakistan#Soda Ash|soda ash plant]] set up by [[AkzoNobel]] in 1940.<ref name="A K Madan">{{cite book|author=A. K. Madan|title=The economic prospects of chemical industries in India|year=1949|publisher=Thacker|asin=B007HDU8LY|page=119|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=a06IT8OWD43V4QT-qZjsCQ&id=pyoEAAAAMAAJ&dq=Soda+Ash+Plant+in+Khewra+1944&q=Khewra#search_anchor |accessdate=13 April 2012}}</ref> Salt from Khewra mine is also used to make decorative items like lamps, vases, ashtrays and statues,<ref name="Daily Times:Salt production">{{cite news |title=Salt production target on track this year |url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_12-11-2003_pg5_11 |agency=[[Associated Press of Pakistan]] |newspaper=Daily Times |date=12 November 2003 |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref> which are exported to the United States, India and many European countries.<ref name="Helen"/><ref name="Dawn: Salt exports">{{cite news|title=PMDC to increase salt exports|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2004/12/29/ebr5.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=29 December 2004}}</ref> The use of rock salt to make artistic and decorative items started during the Mughal era, when many craftsman made tableware and decorations from it.<ref name="Art in Mughal Era">{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel|title=The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture|date=5 February 2004|publisher=Reaktion Books|isbn=978-1-86189-185-3|page=102|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=N7sewQQzOHUC&pg=PA102&dq=Khewra+Salt+Mine&hl=en&sa=X&ei=24OKT5i0HMbO4QSf_4nbCQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref> Warth introduced the use of a [[lathe]] to cut out art pieces from the rock salt, as he found it similar to [[gypsum]] in physical characteristics.<ref name="Joseph Louis Ratton">{{cite book|author=James Joseph Louis Ratton|title=Hand-book Of Common Salt|date=30 August 2011|publisher=Nabu Press|isbn=978-1-178-95413-5|pages=10–11|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?ei=lAaLT8iGM4KJ4gTu0uSQCg&id=jxUAAAAAQAAJ&dq=Mayo+Salt+Mine&q=warth#search_anchor|accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref>

In 2008 the [[Government of Pakistan]] decided to sell off seventeen profitable organizations including Khewra salt mines,<ref name="The Nation: 17 units privatized">{{cite news|title=Steel Mills to be sold this fiscal|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/14-Nov-2008/Steel-Mills-to-be-sold-this-fiscal|accessdate=12 April 2012|newspaper=The Nation|date=14 November 2008}}</ref> but the plan was shelved. The mine is now operated by the [[Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]], a government department.<ref name="PMDC"/>

== Tourism ==
[[Image:SaltMosque.JPG|thumb|right|220px|A small mosque made of salt bricks inside the Khewra salt mine complex]]
Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction, with around 250,000 visitors a year,<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/><ref name="Om Gupta"/> earning it considerable revenue.<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves"/> Visitors are taken into the mine on a train.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour">{{cite news|last=Faisal Khan|first=Zeeshan|title=Khewra: Above the salt|url=http://dawn.com/2010/12/12/khewra-above-the-salt/|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=12 December 2010}}</ref> There are numerous pools of salty water inside. The Badshahi Mosque was built in the mining tunnels with multi-colored salt bricks<ref name="Sarina Singh"/><ref name="Annemarie Schimmel">{{cite book|author=Annemarie Schimmel |title=Islam in the Indian Subcontinent |date=December 1980 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-06117-0 |page=107 |url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=TYImm1TnemwC&pg=PA107&dq=Khewra&hl=en&sa=X&ei=_XCAT-SVGI2HhQe-oYyfBw&ved=0CF8Q6AEwCTgU#v=onepage&q=Khewra&f=false |accessdate=7 April 2012}}</ref> about fifty years ago.<ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place">{{cite news|last=Sheikh|first=FD|title=Khewra Salt Mines: A fascinating place|url=http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/080412/yworld8.htm|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=12 April 2008}}</ref> Other artistic carvings in the mine include a replica of [[Minar-e-Pakistan]], a statue of [[Allama Iqbal]], an accumulation of crystals that form the name of [[Muhammad]] in [[Urdu]] script, a model of the [[Great Wall of China]] and another of the Mall Road of [[Murree]].<ref name="Dawn: Khewra mine tour"/><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/> In 2003 two phases of development of tourist facilities and attractions were carried out, at a total cost of 9 million rupees. A clinical ward with 20 beds was established in 2007, costing 10 million rupees,<ref name="Dawn: Asthma ward">{{cite news|title=Salt mine resort for asthma patients|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2007/03/27/nat18.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=27 March 2007}}</ref> for the treatment of [[asthma]] and other respiratory diseases using [[salt therapy]].<ref name="Telegraph:Asthma treatment">{{cite news|last=Shahzad|first=Khurram|title=Asthma treatment in Pakistani salt mine|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/7527907/Asthma-treatment-in-Pakistani-salt-mine.html|accessdate=6 April 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=26 March 2010}}</ref> The "Visit Pakistan Year 2007" event included a [[Heritage railway|train safari]] visit of Khewra Salt Mine.<ref name="Visit Pakistan 2007">{{cite news|title=Prepare to 'visit Pakistan Year 2007'|url=http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C12%5C08%5Cstory_8-12-2006_pg11_7|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Daily Times|date=8 December 2006}}</ref> In February 2011 [[Pakistan railways]] started operating special trains for tourists from [[Lahore]] and [[Rawalpindi]] to Khewra. For this purpose the railway station of Khewra was refurbished with the help of a private firm.<ref name="Dawn: Tourist train">{{cite news|title=Khewra railway station restored|url=http://dawn.com/2011/02/05/khewra-railway-station-restored/|accessdate=12 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=5 February 2011}}</ref>

Other visitor attractions in the mine include the 75-meter-high Assembly Hall; ''Pul-Saraat'', a salt bridge with no pillars over an 80-foot-deep brine pond; ''Sheesh Mahal'' (Palace of Mirrors), where salt crystals are light pink; and a cafe.<ref name="Dawn: beauty of Khewra">{{cite news|author=F. I. Dar|coauthor=Safdar Vail|title=The beauty of Khewra Salt Range|url=http://archives.dawn.com/weekly/review/archive/051222/review5.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=22 December 2005}}</ref><ref name="Dawn: Khewra, a fascinating place"/>

== Other projects ==
[[Image:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (71).JPG|thumb|right|220px|Students Of Mine Survey Institute Gathered Inside Tunnel]]
The Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation established the Mine Survey Institute at Khewra in 1971.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC">{{cite web|title=Khewra Salt Mines Project|url=http://www.privatisation.gov.pk/industry/PMDC.htm|work=Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation|publisher=Privatisation Commission of Pakistan|accessdate=12 April 2012}}</ref> The institute conducts mine surveys, organizes mining-related courses for the miners<ref name="PMDC: Khewra Services">{{cite web|title=Mine Survey Institute|url=http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/services.htm|work=Khewra Services|publisher=PMDC|accessdate=12 April 2012}}</ref> and has establishes the Khewra Model High School and the Khewra Women College.<ref name="Privatization Commission: PMDC"/><ref name="PMDC: Khewra Services"/> More recently the miners won an important environmental case against the mining company for the provision of unpolluted drinking water.<ref>General Secretary, West Pakistan Salt Miners Labor Union Khewra, Jhelum v. The Director, Industries and Mineral Development, Punjab, Lahora, Human Rights Case No. 120 of 1993, (1994) S.C.M.R. at 2061.</ref> The water available to the residents of Khewra had been polluted by salt, coal and other nearby mining activity. This case is internationally recognised as important with regard to the relationship between humanity and the environment.<ref name="UNESCAP: Summary of Judicial decisions of Environmental cases">{{cite web |url=http://www.unescap.org/drpad/vc/document/compendium/pk1.htm |title=Pakistan - Constitutional Rights, Mining Operations, Water Pollution |date=30 October 2003 |work=UNESCAP Virtual Conference |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=8 April 2012}}</ref><ref>http://www.unhchr.ch/environment/bp4.html [[UNHCR]] paper on Human Rights and the environment</ref><ref name="Louis J Kotzé">{{cite book|author=Louis J Kotzé|coauthor=A. Paterson|title=The Role of Judiciary in Environmental Governance: Comparative Perspectives|date=16 April 2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Law & Business|isbn=978-90-411-2708-2|pages=396–397|url=http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=2IWYb40mQ8oC&pg=PA396&dq=khewra+Alexander&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WyeLT6O0J5T74QTQpt3gCQ&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=khewra&f=false|accessdate=15 April 2012}}</ref>

In 2003, while the Government of Pakistan was looking for ways to increase the country's strategic store of oil to 90 days, the PMDC put forward a proposal to use the Khewra mines to store strategic oil reserves.<ref name="Dawn: Oil reserves">{{cite news|title=PMDC offers salt mine for oil reserves|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2003/02/28/ebr12.htm|accessdate=13 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=28 February 2003}}</ref> Scientific reports confirmed the feasibility of this proposal, but it was turned down.<ref name="Dawn: Building oil reserves">{{cite news|title=Building oil reserves with taxpayers' money|url=http://archives.dawn.com/2006/11/27/ebr2.htm|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=Dawn|date=27 November 2006}}</ref>

== Flooding in 2010 ==
In 2010, during [[2010 Pakistan floods|torrential rain]] all over Pakistan, water from a nearby [[nullah]] entered the mine,<ref name="The Nation: Floods">{{cite news|title=Floodwaters enter Khewra Salt Mines|url=http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/politics/07-Aug-2010/Floodwaters-enter-Khewra-Salt-Mines|accessdate=12 April 2012|newspaper=The Nation|date=7 August 2010}}</ref> reaching a depth of two feet and blocking the exits, after which the mine was closed.<ref name="Tribune:10 villages flooded">{{cite news|title=Breach floods 10 villages|url=http://tribune.com.pk/story/38389/breach-floods-10-villages/|accessdate=14 April 2012|newspaper=The Express Tribune|date=12 August 2012}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="240px" heights="200px">
File:Khewra Salt Mine - Rock salt as ceiling.JPG|Rock salt makes for some beautiful texture on the walls and ceiling
File:Khewra Salt Mine - Mined area from Mughal Times.jpg|It is said that these rooms were mined during the Mughal times
File:KhewRa Mines Salt and Water.jpg|Reflection in salty water at Khewea Salt Mines
File:Crystal Valley (Khewra Salt Mines).JPG|Crystal Valley, a tunnel with crystals in the wall and roof, illuminated by colorful lights
File:Ground floor tunnel (Khewra Salt Mines).jpg|Ground floor tunnel
File:Salt Mosque (Khewra Salt Mines).jpg|Mosque built with salt bricks in a tunnel
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (66).JPG|Another View Of Beautiful Mosque
File:SaltLamps.JPG|Lamps made of salt in Khewra market
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (85).JPG|Artistic Work With Rock Salt
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (49).JPG|Welcome To The Wonder Of World!
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (55).JPG|Copy Of Minaar-e-Pakistan Made Of Rock Salt
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (48).JPG|You Are Welcome.
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (57).JPG |A Salt Rock On Display
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (59).JPG|A Salt Rock On Display
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (61).JPG|Another Display
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (62).JPG|Walls made Of Rock Salt
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (75).JPG|Brief History Of Salt Mines
File:Visit To Hari Pur, Khewra And Kallar Kahar (77).JPG|History Of Khewra
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.pmdc.gov.pk/pmdc-final/sm.htm#1 "Khewra Salt Mines", Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation]

{{PunjabGeography}}

[[Category:Jhelum District]]
[[Category:Salt mines]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mines in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mining companies of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Salt museums]]

[[hi:खेवड़ा नमक खान]]
[[pnb:کھیوڑہ نمک کان]]
[[pt:Khewra]]
[[ur:کھیوڑہ نمک کی کان]]

Woolloomooloo

2012-10-25T16:10:40Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{Use Australian English|date=August 2012}}
{{Infobox Australian Place | type = suburb
| name = Woolloomooloo
| city = Sydney
| state = nsw
| image = Woolloomooloo Bay Sydney.jpg
| caption = Woolloomooloo Bay and Finger Wharf
| lga = City of Sydney
| postcode = 2011
| est =
| pop = 3,038
| area = 0.5
| density = 6076.0
| stategov = [[Electoral district of Sydney|Sydney]]
| fedgov = [[Division of Wentworth|Wentworth]]
| near-nw = Sydney CBD
| near-n = ''[[Port Jackson]]''
| near-ne = [[Potts Point, New South Wales|Potts Point]]
| near-w = Sydney CBD
| near-e = [[Potts Point, New South Wales|Potts Point]]
| near-sw = [[East Sydney, New South Wales|East Sydney]]
| near-s = [[Darlinghurst, New South Wales|Darlinghurst]]
| near-se = [[Kings Cross, New South Wales|Kings Cross]]
| dist1 = 1.5
| dir1 = east
| location1= [[Sydney CBD]]
}}

'''Woolloomooloo''' is a harbourside, inner-city [[Eastern Suburbs (Sydney)|eastern]] [[suburb]] of [[Sydney]], in the state of [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. Woolloomooloo is 1.5 kilometres east of the [[Sydney central business district]], in the [[Local Government Areas in Australia|local government area]] of the [[City of Sydney]]. It is in a low-lying, former docklands area at the head of Woolloomooloo Bay, on [[Sydney Harbour]]. [[The Domain, Sydney|The Domain]] sits to the west, the locality of [[East Sydney, New South Wales|East Sydney]] is near the south-west corner of the suburb and the locality of [[Kings Cross, New South Wales|Kings Cross]] is near the south-east corner. [[Potts Point]] is immediately to the east.

The suburb was a poorer [[working class]] district of Sydney. This has changed only recently with recent [[gentrification]] of the inner city areas of Sydney. The redevelopment of the waterfront, particularly the construction of the housing development on the [[Finger Wharf]], has caused major change. Areas of public housing (housing commission) still exist in the suburb.

==History==

===Aboriginal culture===
The current spelling of Woolloomooloo is derived from the name of the first homestead in area, Wolloomooloo House, built by the first landowner John Palmer. There is debate as to how Palmer came up with the name with different [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] words being suggested. Anthropologist J.D. McCarthy wrote in 'NSW Aboriginal Places Names', in 1946, that Woolloomooloo could be derived from either ''Wallamullah'', meaning ''place of plenty'' or ''Wallabahmullah'', meaning a ''young black kangaroo''.<ref name="Requiem">{{cite book |last=Farwell |first=George |year=1971 |title=Requiem for Woolloomooloo |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |isbn=0-340-15777-1}}</ref>

In 1852, the traveller Col. G.C. Mundy wrote that the name came from ''Wala-mala'', meaning an Aboriginal burial ground. It has also been suggested that the name means ''field of blood'', due to the alleged Aboriginal tribal fights that took place in the area, or that it is from the pronunciation by Aborigines of ''windmill'', from the one that existed on Darlinghurst ridge until the 1850s.
[[File:Woolloomooloo Bay Watercolour 1855.jpg|thumb|left|Woolloomooloo Bay in 1855 (watercolour)]]

===European settlement===
After the [[First Fleet]]'s arrival in Sydney, the area was initially called Garden Cove or Garden Island Cove after the nearby small wooded [[Garden Island, New South Wales|Garden Island]], off the shore. The first land grant was given to John Palmer in 1793 to allow him to run cattle for the fledgling colony.

In the 1840s the farm land was subdivided into what is now Woolloomooloo, [[Darlinghurst, New South Wales|Darlinghurst]] and parts of [[Surry Hills, New South Wales|Surry Hills]]. Originally the area saw affluent residents building grand houses, many with spectacular gardens, attracted by the bay and close proximity to the city and [[Government House, Sydney|Government House]].<ref name="history">{{cite web |url=http://www.warrenfahey.com/articles/woolloomooloo.html |title=Australian Folklore Unit |accessdate=31 December 2006 |last=Fahey |first=Warren}}</ref>

The area slowly started to change after expensive houses were built in [[Elizabeth Bay, New South Wales|Elizabeth Bay]] and further east and a road was needed from Sydney. It was for this reason that [[William Street, Sydney|William Street]] was built, dividing the land for the first time.

===Trams===
{{main|Trams in Sydney}}
The Woolloomooloo tram line opened in stages between 1915 and 1918. This line branched off from [[Park Street, Sydney|Park Street]] and ran north along Haig Avenue, St John Young Crescent and Lincoln Crescent to Brown's Wharf at Woolloomooloo. Through service ran from Circular Quay via Elizabeth and [[Park St, Sydney|Park]] Streets. The line was an early closure, in 1935, being replaced by a bus service from [[Pyrmont, New South Wales|Pyrmont]].

==Landmarks==
{{main|Finger Wharf}}

[[File:1Woolloomooloo.jpg|thumb|350px|Overlooking Woolloomooloo from the Domain Park]]
Woolloomooloo is home to the [[Finger Wharf]], known for its remarkable size. It is {{Convert|400|m|ft|-1}} long and {{Convert|63|m|ft|-1|abbr=on|abbr=on}} wide and stands on 3,600 piles.

The Sydney Harbour Trust built the [[Finger Wharf]], or Woolloomooloo Wharf, between 1911 and 1915 with the charter to bring order to [[Sydney Harbour]]'s foreshore facilities. The wharf became the [[World's largest buildings|largest wooden structure in the world]]. The areas commerce was dominated by shipping at the wharf and by the regular influx of sailors & officers from the [[Garden Island, New South Wales|Garden Island]] base of the [[Royal Australian Navy]].

The wharf's influence diminished for Woolloomooloo during the 1970s when other more modern wharves were preferred. By the 1980s the wharf lay derelict and empty and in 1987, the [[Government of New South Wales|state government]] decided to demolish the Wharf.<ref name="Maju">{{Cite web |title=The Finger Wharf History |publisher=Maju Sequence |url=http://www.maju.com.au/wharf_history.cfm |accessdate=11 February 2007}}</ref> A new complex was approved to replace the wharf in Woolloomooloo Bay, but when demolition work was due to begin in January 1991, locals blocked entrance to the site.<ref name=smh1991>{{Cite news |title=Live and let lie policy for wharf |first=Anne |last=Susskind |publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=15 January 1991 |page=2 |id=ISSN 0312-6315}}</ref> Unions imposed a [[Green ban]] which stopped demolition crews from undertaking work.<ref name=smh1991/>

In the mid-1990s the wharf was renovated into 300 private residential apartments and a boutique hotel with 104 guestrooms. It also has several restaurants and bars, including the popular Water Bar, frequented by many visiting celebrities. At first the hotel was launched as "W Sydney - Woolloomooloo" and was the [[W Hotels]] brands' first internationally launched property outside of the United States. The hotel's licensing expired in 2007 and rebranded as "Blue Hotel", managed by [[Taj Hotels & Resorts]]. Notable residents include actor [[Russell Crowe]], who lives in a $14 million penthouse which as a result has become famous in Australia and abroad and one of the most expensive and sought after places in the country. Another prominent resident is controversial former Australian radio presenter [[John Laws]].<ref>{{cite news |first=Christine |last=Sams |title=On the move with Russell and Danielle |url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/31/1054177765250.html |work=[[The Sun-Herald|Sun-Herald]] |date=1 June 2003 |accessdate=22 October 2006 }}</ref>

The [[Andrew "Boy" Charlton Pool]], sits on the western side of Woolloomooloo Bay, amongst the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney|Royal Botanic Gardens]].

==Popular culture==
* Steve Mullins recorded ''Woolloomooloo'' in 1910 for Jumbo Records in the UK.<ref>National Film and Sound Archive: [http://nfsa.gov.au/collection/sound/sounds-australia/songs-about-towns-and-places/ Does your town have its own song?]</ref>
* The [[Tommy Leonetti]] song "My City Of Sydney", later covered by the post-punk band [[XL Capris]], mentions "That little church steeple in Woolloomooloo."
* The [[Bruces sketch]] by [[Monty Python]] is set in the fictitious University of Woolloomooloo, mainly due to its typical Australian name.
* In the show [[Flight of the Conchords]], Jemaine claims that his short-time girlfriend Keitha ([[Unnatural Love]]) is from Woolloomooloo
* The 1984 album [[Zoolook]] by [[Jean Michel Jarre]] has a track titled ''Wooloomooloo'' [sic].
* In 1970, Australian educator, journalist and politician [[Irina Dunn]] created the phrase "A woman needs a man like a fish needs a bicycle," scribbling the phrase on two bathroom doors: one at Sydney University where she was then a student, and the other at Soren's Wine Bar in Woolloomooloo. The quip is often incorrectly attributed to American feminist [[Gloria Steinem]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://john-s-allen.com/humor/herstory.htm |work=A Bit of Herstory
|title=The Definitive Word on the Origin |publisher=The Fish and Bicycle Page |last=Allen |first=John S |quote=I scribbled the phrase on the backs of two toilet doors, would you believe, one at Sydney University where I was a student, and the other at Soren's Wine Bar at Woolloomooloo, a seedy suburb in south Sydney.}}</ref>
* The 1982 album ''[[Circus Animals]]'' by [[Cold Chisel]] contains the song "Numbers Fall", which refers to Forbes Street and Springfield Avenue, Woolloomooloo. "Letter to Alan", on the same album, also refers to the Wayside Chapel in neighbouring Potts Point.
* The 1989 album ''[[The Big Don't Argue]]'' by [[Weddings Parties Anything]] contains the song "Ticket in Tatts", which refers to Woollomooloo.
* The popular children's book ''The Kangaroo from Wooloomooloo'' (written by [[Joy Cowley]]; illustrated by Rodney McRae, 1985), featured , among a wide variety of other Australian fauna, a kangaroo from Woolloomooloo.
* In the Dutch city of [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], a student's disco is called 'Woolloomooloo', or 'Woo' in brief.

==Notable residents==
* Actor [[Russell Crowe]]
* Actor Kurtis Wakefield
* Radio presenter [[John Laws]]
* Singer [[Delta Goodrem]]
* [[Mark Bosnich]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{commons category}}
{{Coord|-33.8704|151.2223|format=dms|type:city_region:AU-NSW|display=title}}
{{Sydney City of Sydney suburbs}}

[[Category:Australian Aboriginal placenames]]
[[Category:Suburbs of Sydney]]

[[id:Woolloomooloo, New South Wales]]
[[he:וולומולו]]
[[nl:Woolloomooloo (Sydney)]]
[[no:Woolloomooloo]]
[[pl:Woolloomooloo]]
[[ro:Woolloomooloo, New South Wales]]

Keilor Park

2012-10-25T15:16:00Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{Infobox Australian Place | type = suburb
| name = Keilor Park
| city = Melbourne
| state = vic
| image =
| caption =
| lga = City of Brimbank
| alternative_location_map = Australia Victoria metropolitan Melbourne
| longd=144.851|latd=37.719
| postcode = 3042
| pop = 2,540 (2011)<ref name="abs">{{Census 2011 AUS | id = SSC20698 | name = Keilor Park (State Suburb) | accessdate = 21 June 2012 | quick = on}}</ref>
| area = 3.3
| est =
| stategov = [[Electoral district of Niddrie|Niddrie]]
| fedgov = [[Division of Maribyrnong|Maribyrnong]]
| dist1 = 17
| location1= [[Melbourne]]
| dist2 =
| location2=
| near-nw = [[Melbourne Airport]]
| near-n = [[Tullamarine, Victoria|Tullamarine]]
| near-ne = [[Tullamarine, Victoria|Tullamarine]]
| near-w = [[Keilor, Victoria|Keilor]]
| near-e = [[Airport West, Victoria|Airport West]]
| near-sw = [[Kealba, Victoria|Kealba]]
| near-s = [[Keilor East, Victoria|Keilor East]]
| near-se = [[Keilor East, Victoria|Keilor East]]
}}

'''Keilor Park''' is a suburb 17 km north-west of [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]]. Its Local Government Area is the [[City of Brimbank]]. At the [[Census in Australia#2011|2011 Census]], Keilor Park had a population of 2,540.

Keilor Park is bounded in the west by the [[Maribyrnong River]], [[Tullamarine, Victoria|Tullamarine]] & [[Melbourne Airport, Victoria|Melbourne Airport]] in the north, in the east by Steele Creek, and in the south by the [[Calder Freeway]].

According to the 2001 ABS Census, 39% of the population is of Italian or Greek descent. The median age of the area is 37, though more of the population is below 35 or in their 50s. The most common sector of employment for men is manufacturing (25% of men) and for women retail (21% of women).

The suburb contains the [[Keilor Botanic Gardens]].

==Transport==

*'''465''' [[Essendon, Victoria|Essendon]] – [[Keilor Park, Victoria|Keilor Park]] via Buckley Street, Milleara SC, Keilor East (every day). Operated by [[Ryan Brothers Bus Service]].
*'''476''' [[Moonee Ponds, Victoria|Moonee Ponds]] – Hillside via Essendon RS, Keilor, Watergardens SC, Watergardens RS (every day). Operated by [[Kastoria Bus Lines]].

==Sport==

Keilor Park has a number of ovals and sports located in its area. Sports include cricket, football, softball, athletics, tennis, soccer, basketball.

[[Keilor Park Football Club]], an [[Australian Rules]] football team, competes in the [[Essendon District Football League]].<ref name = "footy">{{Citation | last = Full Points Footy | title = Keilor Park | url = http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/keilor_park.htm | accessdate = 15 April 2009 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[City of Keilor]] - A former Local Government Area which Keilor Park was a part of.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Coord|-37.719|144.851|format=dms|type:city_region:AU-VIC|display=title}}

{{City of Brimbank suburbs}}

[[Category:Suburbs of Melbourne]]

Belle Poule (Schiff, 1802)

2012-10-18T15:59:14Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{otherships|HMS Belle Poule|French ship Belle Poule}}
{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
|Ship image=[[Image:HMS Belle Poule (1806), HMS Hermes (1811), and Gipsy.jpg|300px]]
|Ship caption=''Capture of the 'Gypsy', 30 April 1812'': left to right: HMS ''Belle Poule'', ''Gypsy'', and HMS ''Hermes'', by [[Thomas Buttersworth]]
}}
{{Infobox Ship Career
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|Ship flag=[[Image:Civil and Naval Ensign of France.svg|45px|French Navy Ensign]]
|Ship name=''Belle Poule''
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{{Infobox Ship Career
|Hide header=
|Ship country=[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
|Ship flag=[[Image:Naval Ensign of the United Kingdom.svg|60px|Royal Navy Ensign]]
|Ship name=HMS ''Belle Poule''
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{{Infobox ship characteristics
|Hide header=
|Header caption=as built
|Ship class=40-gun [[frigate]]; re-rated as 36-gun [[fifth rate]] after capture
|Ship tons burthen=1076 ([[Builder's Old Measurement|bm]])
|Ship length={{convert|127|ft|8|in|m|1|abbr=on}} (gundeck)
|Ship beam={{convert|39|ft|11|in|m|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship draught={{convert|13|ft|4|in|m|1|abbr=on}}
|Ship hold depth=
|Ship sail plan=[[Full rigged ship]]
|Ship propulsion=Sails
|Ship complement=284 (later 315)
|Ship armament= 
Upper deck: 28 x 18-pounder guns 
[[Quarter deck|QD]]: 14 x 32-pounder carronades
[[Forecastle|Fc]]: 2 x 9-pounder guns & 2 x 32-pounder carronades
|Ship notes=
}}
|}

'''HMS ''Belle Poule''''' was a [[Royal Navy]] [[fifth rate]] [[frigate]], formerly '''''Belle Poule''''', a [[Virginie class frigate|''Virginie''-class frigate]] of the [[French Navy]], which was built by the Crucy family's shipyard at Basse-Indre to a design by [[Jacques-Noël Sané]]. She was launched on 17 April 1802, and saw active service in the East, but in 1806 a British squadron under Sir [[John Borlase Warren]] captured ''Belle Poule''. The [[Admiralty]] commissioned her into the [[Royal Navy]], keeping her name. She was sold in 1816.

==French Navy service==
In March 1803, she joined the fleet of Rear-Admiral [[Charles-Alexandre Léon Durand Linois]], whose mission was to re-take the colonies of the [[Indian Ocean]], given to English at the [[peace of Amiens]]. The fleet included the 74-gun [[ship of the line]] [[French ship Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1795)|''Marengo'']], the frigates ''[[French frigate Atalante (1802)|Atalante]]'', ''Belle Poule'' and ''[[French frigate Sémillante (1792)|Sémillante]]'', troop ships and cargoes with food and ammunition.

On 15 June 1803 ''Belle Poule'' landed troops at [[Pondichéry]] in India. The French fleet however, left the next day and the troops surrendered in September.<ref>René Chartrand; Francis Back. 1989. ''Napoleon's overseas army''. (London : Osprey), p.34.</ref>

At the beginning of November, the division set sail for [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] to protect the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] colonies. En route, Linois destroyed the English counters in [[Bencoolen]], capturing five ships, and sailed for the [[South China Sea]], where the China Fleet of the [[British East India Company]] was expected. The fleets met in the [[Battle of Pulo Aura]], but the greater numbers and aggressive action of the British [[East Indiamen]], some of whom flew [[Royal Navy]] flags, drove the French away. Linois returned to Batavia. He dispatched ''Atalante'' and ''Belle Poule'' to the [[Gulf of Bengal]], where ''Belle Poule'' captured a few ships before returning to [[Mauritius|Ile de France]]).

[[Image:HMS Amazon (1799) pursuing possible Belle Poule.jpg|thumb|left|[[HMS Amazon (1799)|HMS ''Amazon'']] pursuing unnamed French vessel, possibly the ''Belle Poule'', by [[Nicholas Pocock]]]]
In 1805 and 1806, ''Belle Poule'' and some other ships of the division cruised the African coast between the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Cape of Good Hope]], capturing some ships. At the [[Action of 13 March 1806]], Linois met with the division of Vice-Admiral Sir [[John Borlase Warren|John Warren]], with seven ships of the line (including the 108-gun [[HMS London (1766)|''London'']], the 82-gun [[HMS Ramillies (1785)|''Ramilles'']] and [[HMS Repulse (1803)|''Repulse'']], and the 80-gun [[HMS Foudroyant (1798)|''Foudroyant'']]), two frigates (including the 48-gun [[HMS Amazon (1799)|''Amazon'']]) and one corvette. After a fierce duel with ''London'', ''Marengo'' struck her colours; ''Belle Poule'' battled against ''Amazon'' and later against ''Ramillies'', and had to surrender as well.

At the time of her capture ''Belle Polue'' was armed with 40 18-pounder guns, had a crew of 320 men, and was under the command of Captain Brouillac. ''Marengo'' and ''Belle Poule'' had lost 65 men killed and 80 wounded. The British on ''London'' and ''Amazon'' had 13 officers and men killed and 26 officers and men wounded.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=15915|startpage=555|endpage=556|date=7 August 1804}}</ref>

==Royal Navy service==
===Adriatic===
She entered service under the same name in 1808 under captain [[James Brisbane]], joining the forces operating in the [[Adriatic campaign of 1807-1814]] off [[Corfu]], successfully blockading the island. In February 1809 Brisbane captured the [[HMS Chichester (1809)|storeship ''Var'']] in a raid on the harbour at [[Vlorë|Valona]]; the British then used her as a storeship too. ''Var'' was anchored under he guns of two fortresses that nevertheless did not fire their guns, leaving '"Belle Poule'' free to concentrate her fire on the French vessel. ''Var'' was pierced for 32 guns but only had twenty-two 9-pounder guns and four 24-pounder carronades mounted. She had a crew of 200 men and was under the command of Capitaine de Frigate Palin, however Brisbane was unable to ascertain her losses as her crew abandoned her as she [[striking the colours|struck]]. She had been sailing from Corfu for any port in Italy that she could reach.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16253|startpage=621|endpage=622|date=2 May 1809}}</ref>

Between 2 and 12 October of the same year ''Belle Poule'' was involved in the invasions of the Ionian Islands of [[Kythira|Cerigo]], [[Cephalonia]], and [[Zante]], and would share in the booty captured there.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16852|startpage=287|date=5 February 1814}}</ref>

On 10 March 1810 ''Belle Poule'' captured the ''Charlotta''.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16647|startpage=1919|date=19 September 1812}}</ref>

Then a British force attacked the fortress of [[Lefkada|Santa Maura]], which was a French strongpoint off Greece's west coast. ''Belle Poule{{'}}''s marines formed part of the assault on the enemy's lines; the fortress surrendered on 16 April 1810. ''Belle Poule'' had one man, Lieutenant Morrison, of the Royal Marines, wounded at this time.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16380|startpage=897|endpage=900|date=19 June 1810}}</ref> In all, during the siege of Santa Maura, from 31 March to 10 April, ''Belle Poule'' suffered six men wounded.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16392|startpage=1135|endpage=1137|date=31 July 1810}}</ref>

On 21 August 1810 ''Belle Poule'' captured the ''Saint Nicholo''.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16535|startpage=2081|date=26 October 1811}}</ref> Then on 11 December, ''Belle Poule'' captured the Italian brig ''Carlotta'', pierced for 14 guns but with only 10 mounted. She had a crew of 100 men and when captured was sailing from Venice to Corfu.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16462|startpage=460|date=9 March 1811}}</ref> {{HMS|Montague|1779|2}} and {{HMS|Acorn|1808|2}} shared in the prize money for the hull.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16705|startpage=380|date=20 February 1813}}</ref> At around the same time ''Belle Poule'' also assisted at the capture of a French [[schooner]] on the [[Dalmatian Coast]].<ref>''The Gentleman's Magazine'', 1827, p. 84.</ref>

On 30 January 1811 ''Belle Poule'', {{HMS|Leonidas|1807|2}}, {{HMS|Victorious|1808|2}} and {{HMS|Imogene|1805|2}} shared in the capture and destruction of the Italian man-of-war schooner ''Leoben''.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16743|startpage=1209|date=19 June 1813}}</ref> ''Leoben'' was sailing along the Albanian coast from Venice to Corfu with a cargo of ordnance stores when the British caught her. She was armed with ten guns and a crew of 60 men.<ref>''The Gentleman's magazine'', Volume 81, Part 1, p.573.</ref> Her own crew set her on fire and she subsequently blew up.<ref>''The Gentleman's magazine and historical review'', Volume 42, p.319.</ref>

From 4–5 May 1811, ''Belle Poule'' participated with [[HMS Alceste (1806)|''Alceste'']] in an attack on [[Poreč|Parenza]] ([[Istria]]).<ref name=LG16511/> They chased a French 18-gun brig into the harbour but the ships could not close enough to bombard her. Instead, the two vessels landed 200 seamen and all their marines on an island nearby. They then landed two 9-pounders and two howitzers, which they placed in one battery, and a field piece that they placed further away. Eventually, they and the French in Parenza engaged in five hours of mutual bombardment, during which the British were able to sink the brig.<ref name=LG16511/> They then returned men and cannons to their ships. In the action ''Belle Poule'' had one man killed and three wounded and ''Alceste'' had two men killed; all casualties occurred onshore.<ref name=LG16511>{{London Gazette|issue=16511|startpage=1546|endpage=1547|date=6 August 1811}}</ref>

''Belle Poule'' then returned to Britain to join the [[Channel Fleet]]. On 22 December 1811, ''Belle Poule'' and {{HMS|Medusa|1801|2}} captured and destroyed two [[chasse maree]]s.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16673|startpage=2371|date=24 November 1812}}</ref>

===War of 1812===
During 1812 ''Belle Poule'' patrolled the Western Approaches, capturing numerous [[US Navy|American]] merchant vessels and [[privateers]]. On 27 January she detained and sent in the ''Spy'' from New York. Then she captured the ''Prudentia'' on 31 January and the ''Don Roderick'' on 16 February.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16716 |startpage=661|date=30 March 1813}}</ref> At the capture of the ''Don Roderick'', ''Belle Poule'' was in company with {{HMS|Achates|1809|2}}, {{HMS|Dryad|1795|2}} and {{HMS|Lyra|1808|2}}.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16717|startpage=685|date=3 April 1813}}</ref>

On 30 April 1812, ''Belle Poule'' and {{HMS|Hermes|1811|2}} captured the American privateer schooner ''Gipsy'' or ''Gipsey'', out of New York, in the middle of the Atlantic and after a three-day chase.<ref>''Lumley's bibliographical advertiser'', p.120.</ref> ''Gipsey'' surrendered twice to ''Hermes'' and twice got away again before ''Belle Poule'' caught her. ''Gipsey'' was of 300 tons and was armed with twelve 18-pounder carronades and an 18-pounder gun on a pivot mount.

On 26 May, ''Belle Poule'' captured the ''General Gates'' while in company with ''Dryad'' and {{HMS|Abercrombie|1809|2}}. {{HMS|Armide|1806|2}} shared by agreement. Three days later ''Armide'' captured the ''Purse'', and ''Belle Poule'' shared by agreement.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16741 |startpage=1177|date=15 June 1813}}</ref>

In September 1812 George Harris replaced Brisbane and over the next year ''Belle Poule'' captured several American vessels, including four privateers. {{HMS|Warspite|1807|2}} and ''Belle Poule'' captured the ''Mars'' and her cargo, on 26 February 1813.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16766|startpage=1668|date=21 August 1813}}</ref> On 11 March, ''Belle Poule'' and the privateer ''Earl St Vincent'' captured the American ship ''John and Francis'', of 220 tons, two guns and 16 men. She was sailing from Bordeaux to New York with a cargo of brandy and wine.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16715|startpage=629|date=27 March 1813}}</ref>

On 3 April 1813 ''Belle Poule'' took the ''Grand Napoleon'' after a chase of nine hours. She was 29 days from New York, carrying a valuable cargo to Bordeaux. She was a new vessel of 305 tons, pierced for 22 guns but carrying only four, and had a crew of 43 men. Harris described her as "copper-fastened, and in every respect one of the finest vessels I ever saw."<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16719 |startpage=727|date=10 April 1813}}</ref> That same day {{HMS|Dispatch|1812|2}} captured the Prussian vessel ''Enigheidt''. {{HMS|Briton|1812|2}}, ''Belle Poule'' and ''Royalist'' shared by agreement.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16851 |startpage=265|date=1 February 1814}}</ref> ''Belle Poule'' also captured the American schooner ''Napoleon'', which may have been a different vessel than the ''Grand Napoleon''. With respect to the ''Napoleon'', ''Belle Poule'' was in company with ''Briton'' and the [[Hired armed vessels|hired armed]] [[cutter (boat)|cutter]] [[Hired armed cutter Fancy|''Fancy'']], with ''Dispatch'' and ''Royalist'' sharing by agreement.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16905|startpage=1159|date=4 June 1814}}</ref>

''Belle Poule'' and [[HMS Pyramus (1801)|''Pyramus'']] took the 10-gun privateer ''Zebra'' and her crew of 38 men on 20 April 1813. ''Zebra'' was sailing from Bordeaux to New York. At the time of the capture, {{HMS|Andromache|1799|2}} was in sight.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16724|startpage=833|date=27 April 1813}}</ref>

On 11 May ''Belle Poule'' took the ''Revenge'' after a chase that lasted from 5 p.m. the previous evening until 2am. ''Revenge'' was a new vessel, sailing from Charleston to Bordeaux. She had a crew of 32 men and was pierced for 16 guns but carried only four long 9-pounders.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16729|startpage=944|date=15 May 1813}}</ref>

On 20 September ''Belle Poule'' captured two French [[chasse maree]]s. the first was the ''Roze'', of 32 tons and five men, sailing from Bordeaux to Nantes. The second was the ''Ambition'', of 25 tons and three men, sailing from Bordeaux to Rochelle.<ref name=LG16844>{{London Gazette|issue=16844|startpage=129|date=15 January 1814}}</ref>

Lastly, on 14 December ''Belle Poule'' took the brig ''Squirrel'', which was sailing from [[Arcachon|Arcasson]], in the [[Gironde]], to New York. The brig was of 169 tons, armed with two guns and had a crew of 17 men.<ref name=LG16844/> ''Belle Poule'' was in company with {{HMS|Castilian|1808|2}} and {{HMS|Tartarus|1806|2}}.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=16999|startpage=611|date=1 April 1815}}</ref>

In 1814 ''Belle Poule'' was under Captain Edward Williams. Then she entered the Gironde in Southern [[France]]. Before 9 April, a landing party of seamen and marines from''Belle Poule'', under Captain George Harris, marched 50 miles, successively entering and destroying the batteries of Pointe Coubre, Pointe Nègre, [[Royan]], [[Soulac-sur-Mer|Soulac]], and [[Meschers-sur-Gironde|Mèche]].<ref>{{London Gazette|startpage=834|issue=16887|date=19 April 1814}}</ref> In all, the landing party destroyed forty-seven 36-pounder guns and seventeen 13" mortars.<ref>''Naval Chronicle'', Vol. 33 (January–July 1815), p.42.</ref> On his return from this expedition, Harris organized the siege of the fortress at Blaye. Rear Admiral Penrose then had ''Belle Poule'' sail up the Gironde, "in advance of the advanced squadron".<ref>Marshall (1828), Supplement, Part 2, pp.291-2.</ref>

Following a request from the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], ''Belle Poule'' was commissioned as a troopship in June under Captain Francis Baker. She was fitted for that role in August and September. On 15 August she was in Plymouth, having come from Portsmouth with the [[93rd (Sutherland Highlanders) Regiment of Foot|93d Regiment of Foot]]. On 17 September she embarked troops before sailing for Bermuda the next day and then on to New Orleans. The 93rd would then serve at the [[Battle of New Orleans]], where they would take heavy casualties.

''Belle Poule'' was part of the flotilla at the battle of New Orleans. In the run-up to that battle her boats participated in the [[Battle of Lake Borgne]] on 12–14 December 1814. Her only casualties were two men slightly wounded.<ref>{{London Gazette|startpage=446|endpage=449|issue=16991|date=9 March 1815}}</ref> Many years later her crew received a distribution of head-money arising from the capture of American gun-boats and sundry bales of cotton at the battle.{{#tag:ref| A first-class share of the prize money was worth ₤34 12[[Shilling|s]] 9¼[[pence|d]]; a sixth-class share, that of an ordinary seaman, was worth 7s 10¾d.<ref>{{London Gazette|startpage=1561|issue=17730|date=28 July 1821}}</ref>|group=Note}} In 1847, the Admiralty issued the Naval General Service Medal with clasp "14 Dec. Boat Service 1814" to all surviving claimants from the action.

==Fate==
''Belle Poule'' returned to Portsmouth on 17 May 1815. A week later she sailed for Cork. She was converted to a prison hulk in 1815. She was sold on 11 June 1816 for ₤2,700.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=Note}}

==References==
;Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
;Bibliography
* {{Colledge}}
* Lyon, David and Winfield, Rif, The Sail and Steam Navy List, All the Ships of the Royal Navy 1815-1889, pub Chatham, 2004, ISBN 1-86176-032-9

==External links==
* [http://www.ageofnelson.org/MichaelPhillips/info.php?ref=0299 Phillips, Michael - ''Ships of the Old Navy'' - ''Belle Poule'']

{{DEFAULTSORT:Belle Poule (1806)}}
[[Category:Frigates of the Royal Navy]]
[[Category:1802 ships]]
[[Category:Captured ships]]

Organtransplantation in China

2012-10-17T15:04:07Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM, many small consistency fixes

[[File:Transplants.png|thumb|350px|alt=Kidney transplants rose from about 3,000 in 1997 to 11,000 in 2004, falling to 6,000 in 2007. Liver transplants rose from a few hundred in 2000 to 3,500 in 2005, then dropped to 2,000 in 2007|Trend in kidney and liver transplants in the People's Republic of China (1997–2007)<ref>[http://www.thelancetglobalhealthnetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Health-System-Reform-in-China-CMT-11.pdf Government policy and organ transplantation in China] ''The Lancet'' retrieved 24 September 2010</ref>]]

'''Organ transplantation in the People's Republic of China''' has taken place since the 1960s, and is one of the largest [[organ transplant]] programmes in the world, peaking at over 13,000 transplants a year in 2004.<ref name=Lancet/> China is also involved in innovative transplant surgery such as [[face transplantation]] including bone.<ref name=bone/>

Involuntary [[organ harvesting]] is illegal under Chinese law; though, under a 1984 regulation, it became legal to remove organs from executed criminals with the prior consent of the criminal or permission of relatives. Growing concerns about possible ethical abuses arising from coerced consent and corruption led medical groups and human rights organizations, by the 1990s, to start condemning the practice.<ref name=TTS>{{cite web|url=https://www.dafoh.org/TTS__policy_on_Interactions.php |title=TTS' policy on Interactions with China |publisher=Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting |accessdate=24 May 2010 }}</ref> These concerns resurfaced in 2001, when ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported claims by a Chinese asylum-seeking doctor that he had taken part in organ extraction operations. Further, in 2006, there were claims of harvesting of organs from live practitioners of the banned [[Falun Gong]] spiritual movement which led to a disputed report being compiled by former Canadian parliamentarian [[David Kilgour]] and human rights lawyer [[David Matas]]. While not revealing exact figures, the Chinese authorities have not denied the practice of taking organs from executed prisoners, and have taken steps to address international concerns regarding both the State's reliance on executed prisoners for organ donation and the illegal trading of these organs which in 2005 they acknowledged had occurred. They have consistently denied the allegations of removing organs from living Falun Gong practitioners. In 2007, China issued regulations banning the commercial trading of organs,<ref name="www.chinadaily.com.cn">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2010-04/10/content_9711027.htm |title=New system to boost number of organ donors |work=China Daily |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref> and the Chinese Medical Association agreed that the organs of prisoners should not be used for transplantation, except for members of the immediate family of the deceased.<ref name=CMA>Press release, [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/84754.php "Chinese Medical Association Reaches Agreement With World Medical Association Against Transplantation Of Prisioners's (sic) Organs"], ''Medical News Today'', 7 October 2007 retrieved 24 September 2010</ref>

In 2008, a liver-transplant registry system was established in Shanghai, along with a nationwide proposal to incorporate information on individual driving permits for those wishing to donate their organs.<ref name=liver>{{cite web |url=http://www.shanghai.gov.cn/shanghai/node17256/node18151/userobject22ai29524.html |title=shanghai |publisher=www.shanghai.gov.cn |accessdate=25 September 2010 }}</ref> Despite these initiatives, ''[[China Daily]]'' reported in August 2009 that approximately 65% of transplanted organs still came from death row prisoners. The condemned prisoners have been described as "not a proper source for organ transplants" by Vice-Health Minister Huang Jiefu,<ref name=bbc20090826>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8222732.stm |title=China admits death row organ use |work= BBC News |date=26 August 2009 | accessdate=24 September 2010}}</ref> and in March 2010 he announced the trial of China's first [[organ donation]] program starting after [[death]], jointly run by the [[Red Cross Society]] and the Ministry of Health, in 10 pilot regions.

==Background==
Globally, pioneering experimental studies in the surgical technique of human organ transplantation were made in the early 1900s by the French surgeon [[Alexis Carrel]], and successful transplants starting spreading worldwide after the Second World War.<ref name=Geneva>[http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/1991/9241693045.pdf HUMAN ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION – A Report on Developments Under the Auspices of WHO (1987–1991)], page 7, [[World Health Organization]], Geneva, 1991</ref> China herself began organ transplantation in the 1960s, which grew to an annual peak of over 13,000 transplants in 2004;<ref name=Lancet>[http://www.thelancetglobalhealthnetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Health-System-Reform-in-China-CMT-11.pdf "Health-System-Reform-in-China"] ''[[The Lancet]]'', 20 October 2008, retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> and, despite some deaths from infection and hepatitis, the transplant programme has been successful in saving many lives.<ref name=icrc/> Though the number of transplants fell to under 11,000 annually by 2005, China still has one of the largest transplant programmes in the world.<ref name=Lancet/><ref name=TTS/> China explores innovative surgery, such as the world’s first flesh and bone face transplant, performed by Professor Guo Shuzhong.<ref name=bone>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/3534205/Military-hospital-in-China-conducts-world-first-face-transplants.html |title=Military hospital in China conducts world-first face transplants |work=Telegraph |accessdate=24 September 2010 | location=London | date=28 November 2008}}</ref> Organ donation, however, has met resistance, and involuntary organ donation is illegal under Chinese law,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1411389.stm |title=China fury at organ snatching 'lies' |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=21 May 2010 | date=28 June 2001}}</ref> as it is against Chinese tradition and culture, which attach symbolic life affirming importance to the kidney and heart.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dafoh.org/Article_by_Dr.php |title=Article by Dr. Tom Treasure in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |publisher=www.dafoh.org |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref><ref>David N. Weisstub, Guillermo Díaz Pintos, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zIlDmNVlHlAC&pg=PA238&dq=chinese+%22life+after+death%22+%22integrity+of+the+body%22&cd=1#v=onepage&q=chinese%20%22life%20after%20death%22%20%22integrity%20of%20the%20body%22&f=false |title=''Autonomy and Human Rights in Health Care: An International Perspective'' |page= 238|publisher=Springer |year=2007 |ISBN= 1-4020-5840-3 |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref> China is not alone in encountering donation difficulties; demand outstrips supply in most countries. The world-wide shortage has encouraged some countries—such as India—to trade in human organs.<ref name=icrc/><ref>Reddy KC: In Land W, Dossetor JB (eds): Organ Replacement Therapy: Ethics, Justice, Commerce. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1990, p 173, ISBN 3-540-53687-6</ref> Reports of organs being removed from executed prisoners in China for sale internationally had been circulating since the mid-1980s, when a 1984 regulation made it legal to harvest organs from convicted criminals with the consent of the family or if the body goes unclaimed.<ref name=tidyup>Jane Macartney, [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,25689-1901558,00.html "China to 'tidy up' trade in executed prisoners' organs"], ''[[The Times]]'', 3 December 2005</ref> Development of an immunosuppressant drug, [[cyclosporine A]], made transplants a more viable option for patients.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/japans-rich-buy-organs-from-executed-chinese-prisoners-470719.html |title=Japan's rich buy organs from executed Chinese prisoners |work=The Independent |accessdate=21 May 2010 | location=London | first1=Clifford | last1=Coonan | first2=David | last2=McNeill | date=21 March 2006}}</ref>

==Milestones==
The first living related renal transplant was performed in China in 1972;<ref name=chen/> the first allogeneic [[bone marrow transplantation]] was successfully executed in an acute leukaemia patient<ref>Dr LU Daopei, [http://www.hkmj.org/article_pdfs/hkm0906sp3p9.pdf "Blood and marrow transplantation in mainland China (Supplement 3)"]. ''Hong Kong Medical Journal'' (3 June 2009) 15 (Suppl 3):9–12</ref> The first recorded clinical [[Living donor liver transplantation|liver transplant from a living donor]] in China took place in 1995, seven years after the world's first was performed in Sao Paulo, Brazil.<ref>Wang XH, Zhang F, Li XC, Qian JM, Kong LB, Huang J, et al. Clinical report on 12 cases of Living donor partial liver transplantation. Natl Med J Chin (Chin) 2002; 82: 435–439.</ref> Between January 2001 and October 2003, 45 patients received living donor liver transplantation (LDLT) at five different hospitals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cmj.org/periodical/PaperList.asp?id=LW2006620338047306108 |title=Early experiences on living donor liver transplantation in China: multicenter report |publisher=www.cmj.org |accessdate=26 November 2010 }}</ref> In 2002, doctors at Xijing Hospital of the Fourth Military Medical University described three cases of living related liver transplantation. In 2003 a landmark brain-death case involving switched off ventilation came to the attention of the public and made a big impact on medical ethics and legislation. The first successful brain-death organ donation soon followed.<ref name=chen>Professor Dr. Zhonghua Klaus CHEN (6 December 2007). [http://www.cityu.edu.hk/garc/ARC/ARCfile/SSS/SSS06122007.htm "Current Situation of Organ Donation and Transplantation in China"] of the Institute of Organ Transplantation, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College and [[Huazhong University of Science and Technology]], PRC, pub: City University of Hong Kong</ref> From October 2003 to July 2006, 52 LDLT operations were conducted at the [[Sichuan University|West China Hospital, Sichuan University]].<ref>[http://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/13/3752.pdf Donor safety in adult living donor liver transplantation using the right lobe: Single center experience in China], Fu-Gui Li, Lu-Nan Yan, Yong Zeng, Jia-Yin Yang, Qi-Yuan Lin, Xiao-Zhong Jiang, Bin Liu. wjgnet.com</ref> In October 2004, Peking University People's Hospital Liver Transplantation Center executed two cases of living related liver transplantation involving complex blood vessel anatomy.<ref>Wu WH, Wan YL, Lee L, Yang YM, Huang YT, Chen CL, et al. "First two cases of living related liver transplantation with complicated anatomy of blood vessels in Beijing." ''World J Gastroenterol'' (2004); 10: 2854–2858.</ref> In 2002, the Chinese media reported surgeon Dr Zheng Wei successfully transplanted a whole ovary at the Zhejiang Medical Science University to a 34-year-old patient, Tang Fangfang, from her sister.<ref>Woodford, Peter (15 March 2007) [http://www.nationalreviewofmedicine.com/issue/2007/03_15/4_advances_medicine2_5.html "Whole ovary transplant reverses early menopause"], ''National Review of Medicine'' vol 4 no. 5</ref>

In April 2006, the Xijing military hospital in Xian carried out a [[face transplant]] operation covering the cheek, upper lip, and nose of Li Guoxing, who was mauled by an [[Asiatic black bear]] while protecting his sheep.<ref name="titleXinhua - English">{{cite web |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-04/15/content_4426709.htm |title=China's first human face transplant successful|date=15 April 2006 |accessdate=25 November 2007 |work=Xinhua}}</ref><ref name="'First face transplant' for China">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4910372.stm |title='First face transplant' for China |accessdate=25 November 2007 |format= |work= BBC News| date=14 April 2006}}</ref> However, it was reported on 21 December 2008 that Li Guoxing had died in July in his home village in Yunnan Province. Prior to his death, the Discovery Channel filmed a documentary during which showed he had stopped taking immuno-suppressant drugs in favour of herbal medication. His surgeon, Dr Guo Shuzhong, suggested it to be a contributing factor to his death.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

The first successful [[penis transplant]] procedure was performed in September 2006, at a military hospital in [[Guangzhou]]. The patient, a 44-year-old male, had sustained the loss of most of his penis in an accident. The transplanted penis came from a [[brain-dead]] 22-year-old male. Although successful, the patient and his wife suffered [[psychological trauma]] as a result of the procedure, and had the surgery reversed fifteen days later.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2006/sep/18/medicineandhealth.china | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Man rejects first penis transplant | first=Ian | last=Sample | date=18 September 2006 | accessdate=22 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
| url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0302283806008670
| title = A preliminary report of penile transplantation
| year = 2006
| journal = European Urology
| pages = 851–853
| volume = 50
| issue = 4
| last1 = Hu | first1 = Weilie
| last2 = Lu | first2 = Jun
| last3 = Zhang | first3 = Lichao
| last4 = Wu | first4 = Wen
| last5 = Nie | first5 = Haibo
| last6 = Zhu | first6 = Yunsong
| last7 = Deng | first7 = Zhixiong
| last8 = Zhao | first8 = Yongbing
| last9 = Sheng | first9 = Wen
| accessdate =30 March 2009
| doi = 10.1016/j.eururo.2006.07.026
| pmid = 16930814
| last = Bai | first = Ying
}}</ref> Following this, [[Jean-Michel Dubernard]], famous for performing the world's first face transplant, wrote that the case "raises many questions and has some critics". He alluded to a double standard writing, "I cannot imagine what would have been the reactions of the medical profession, ethics specialists, and the media if a European surgical team had performed the same operation."<ref name=Dubernard2006>{{Citation
| url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0302283806008955
| title = Penile transplantation?
| year = 2006
| last1 = Dubernard | first1= Jean-Michel | author1-link = Jean-Michel Dubernard
| journal = European Urology
| pages = 664–665
| volume = 50
| issue = 4
| accessdate =30 March 2009
| pmid = 16930811
| doi = 10.1016/j.eururo.2006.07.055
| last2 = Lu
| first2 = J
| last3 = Zhang
| first3 = L
| last4 = Wu
| first4 = W
| last5 = Nie
| first5 = H
| last6 = Zhu
| first6 = Y
| last7 = Deng
| first7 = Z
| last8 = Zhao
| first8 = Y
| last9 = Sheng
| first9 = W
}}</ref>

==International concerns==
Transplantation first began in the early 1970s China, when organs were sourced from executed prisoners. Although other sources, such as brain-dead donors, had been tried, the lack of legal framework hampered efforts. Dr Klaus Chen said in 2007 that this was still the dominant pool.<ref name=chen/> Concerns that some poorer countries were answering donor shortages by selling organs to richer countries led the [[World Medical Association]] (WMA) to condemn the purchase and sale of human organs for transplantation at Brussels in 1985,<ref name=Geneva/> and at Stockholm in 1994.<ref name=icrc>{{cite web|url=http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList302/87DC95FCA3C3D63EC1256B66005B3F6C |title=The Bellagio Task Force Report on Transplantation, Bodily Integrity, and the International Traffic in Organs |publisher=www.icrc.org |accessdate=14 June 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> In Madrid in 1987, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) condemned the practice of extracting organs from executed prisoners due to the difficulty of knowing if they had given consent.<ref name=Hillman/> Growing concern led other professional societies and human rights organisations to condemn the practice in the 1990s,<ref name=TTS/> and to question the way in which the organs were obtained.<ref name=tidyup/> The WHO starting drafting an international guideline (WHA44.25) on human organ transplants in 1987<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.who.int/ethics/topics/human_transplant_report/en/index.html |title=Human organ and tissue transplantation |publisher=WHO |accessdate=23 September 2010 }}</ref> which resulted in the ''WHO Guiding Principles on Human Organ Transplantation'' being endorsed in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/ethics/topics/transplantation_guiding_principles/en/index.html |title=Draft guiding principles on human organ transplantation |publisher=World Health Organization |accessdate=9 June 2010}}</ref> However, the wording did not allow the international community to draw up any laws preventing China from continuing to trade in human organs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/prisonorgans.htm |title=Illegal Human Organ Trade from Executed Prisoners in China |publisher=www1.american.edu |accessdate=9 June 2010 }}</ref>

The [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] convened a hearing in 1995 on the trade in human body parts in China;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/china-illegal-trade-in-human-body-parts-hearing-before-the-committee-on-foreign-relations-united-states-senate-one-hundred-fourth-congress-first-session-may-4-1995/oclc/33310708 |title=China, illegal trade in human body parts : hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, One Hundred Fourth Congress, first session, May 4, 1995|year=1995) |publisher=www.worldcat.org |accessdate=18 June 2010 }}</ref> receiving evidence from various sources including statements from [[Amnesty International]], the BBC, and Chinese government documents produced by human rights activist [[Harry Wu]].<ref>[http://www.christusrex.org/www1/sdc/vol9e.pdf "Senate Committee Hears How Executed Prisoners’ Organs are Sold for Profit"] ''Laogai Report'', November 1995. The Laogai Research Foundation. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref>

The WMA, the [[Korean Medical Association]], and the [[Chinese Medical Association]] reached an agreement in 1998 that these practices were undesirable and that they would jointly investigate them with a view to stopping them; however, in 2000, the Chinese withdrew their cooperation.<ref name=Hillman>[[Harold Hillman]] in a letter published in the November 2001 issue of ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' {{cite journal|pmc=1121712 |title=Harvesting organs from recently executed prisoners |publisher= | pmid=11758525 |volume=323 |issue=7323 |year=2001 |month=November |author=Hillman H |journal=BMJ |pages=1254}}</ref> Amnesty International claimed to have strong evidence that the police, courts and hospitals were complicit in the organ trade, facilitated by the use of mobile execution chambers, or "death vans".<ref name=calum>Calum MacLeod, [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-06-14-death-van_x.htm China makes ultimate punishment mobile], ''[[USA Today]]'', 15 May 2006. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> Amnesty speculated that this profitable trade might explain China's refusal to consider abolishing the death penalty, which is used on between 1,770 (official figure) and 8,000 (Amnesty estimates) prisoners annually. Corpses are typically cremated before relatives or independent witnesses can view them, fuelling suspicions about the fate of internal organs.<ref name=calum/>

In June 2001, Wang Guoqi, a Chinese doctor applying for [[political asylum]], made contact with Harry Wu and his Laogai Research Foundation, who assisted Wang in testifying to the [[US Congress]] in writing that he had removed skin and corneas from more than 100 executed prisoners for the transplant market at the Tianjin Paramilitary Police General Brigade Hospital, and that during at least one such operation the prisoner was still breathing.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1411389.stm "China fury at organ snatching 'lies'"], BBC News, 28 June 2001. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> Wang, a 'burns specialist', said that he had also seen other doctors remove vital organs from executed prisoners; and the hospital where he worked sold those organs to foreigners. Harry Wu said that he had gone to "great lengths" to verify Wang's identity and that both the foundation and congressional staff members found the doctor's statements "highly credible."<ref name='WashPost'>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A49239-2001Jun26 |title=Chinese Doctor Tells of Organ Removals After Executions |accessdate=21 September 2008 |last=Mufson |first=Steven |date=27 June 2001 |work=Washington Post |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5azlCotB6 |archivedate=21 September 2008 }}</ref>

By 2005 the WMA had specifically demanded that China cease using prisoners as organ donors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wma.net/en/30publications/10policies/30council/cr_5/index.html |title=The World Medical Association Council Resolution on Organ Donation in China |publisher=World Medical Association |accessdate=9 June 2010 }}</ref> In December of that year, China's Deputy Health Minister acknowledged that the practice of removing organs from executed prisoners for transplant was widespread – as many as 95% of all organ transplants in China derived from executions,<ref>Congressional Executive Commission on China Annual Report 2006, p. 59; note 224, p.201</ref> and he promised steps to prevent abuse.<ref name=tidyup/><ref name=lum>Lum, Thomas (11 August 2006). [http://www.usembassy.it/pdf/other/RL33437.pdf Congressional Research Report #RL33437], Congressional Research Service</ref> According to ''Time'', a transplant brokerage in Japan which organised 30–50 operations annually sourced its organs from executed prisoners in China.<ref name=grim>Gerlin, Andrea (23 April 2006) [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1186611,00.html "China's Grim Harvest"], ''Time Magazine''. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> [[Edward McMillan-Scott]], vice president of the [[European Parliament]], said he believed that nearly 400 hospitals in China had been involved in the transplant organ trade, with websites advertising kidney transplants for $60,000.<ref name="yst06">McMillan-Scott, Edward (13 June 2006) [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=97&ArticleID=1560709 "Secret atrocities of Chinese regime"], ''Yorkshire Post'', 13 June 2006. Retrieved 28 June 2006.</ref>

On the eve of a state visit to the United States by President Hu Jintao, the 800-member British Transplantation Society also criticised China's use of death-row prisoners' organs in transplants, on the grounds that as it is impossible to verify that organs are indeed from prisoners who have given consent;<ref name=grim/> the WMA once again condemned the practice on similar grounds.<ref>Press release, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070427100933/http://www.wma.net/e/press/2006_4.htm "World Medical Association demands China stops using prisoners for organ transplants"], World Medical Association, 22 May 2006. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> A BBC news report by Rupert Wingfield-Hayes in September 2006 showed negotiations with doctors in No 1 Central Hospital in Tianjin for a liver transplant.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/5386720.stm |title=BBC NEWS | World | Asia-Pacific | Organ sales 'thriving' in China |publisher=news.bbc.co.uk |accessdate=10 November 2010 | date=27 September 2006}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0wtSV_BEf14 |title=YouTube – Organ selling in China. BBC investigates undercover |publisher=Youtube |accessdate=18 June 2010 }}</ref>

In 2006, claims of harvesting of organs from live practitioners of the banned [[Falun Gong]] spiritual movement at [[Sujiatun Thrombosis Hospital|a research hospital]] led to an investigative report being compiled by former Canadian politician, [[David Kilgour]], and human rights lawyer [[David Matas]].<ref name=orgharv>{{cite web|url=http://organharvestinvestigation.net/ |title=An Independent Investigation into Allegations of Organ Harvesting of Falun Gong Practitioners in China |author=Kilgour & Matas |publisher=organharvestinvestigation.net |accessdate=9 June 2010 }}</ref> The [[Kilgour-Matas report|findings of their investigation]] were controversial as the conclusions were based on circumstantial evidence,<ref name=theage060708>Reuters, AP (8 July 2006) [http://www.theage.com.au/news/world/falun-gong-organ-claim-supported/2006/07/07/1152240489760.html "Falun Gong organ claim supported"], ''The Age'', (Australia). Retrieved 7 July 2006.</ref><ref name=Ottawa>Endemann, Kirstin (6 July 2006) CanWest News Service; ''Ottawa Citizen''[http://www.canada.com/topics/news/national/story.html?id=290fed94-d0c2-4265-8686-54ce75d08eca&k=34245 "Ottawa urged to stop Canadians travelling to China for transplants"]. Retrieved 6 July 2006.</ref><ref>''Calgary Herald'' (5 July 2006). [http://www.canada.com/calgaryherald/news/theeditorialpage/story.html?id=c990936c-e208-4601-888f-810ff73bd994 "Rights concerns bedevil China—Doing trade with regime must be balanced with values"]. Retrieved 8 July 2006.</ref> and investigations, including by dissident [[Harry Wu]], and the U.S. State Department, failed to find evidence to support the allegations,<ref name=lum/><ref>{{cite web|title=Wu Hongda's Statement on the Sujiatun Concentration Camp: My Knowledge and Experience with the Falun Gong media reporting on the Sujiatun Concentration Camp problem |author=Observechina.net |url=http://www.observechina.net/info/artshow.asp?ID=39862 |language=Chinese |date=18 July 2006}} [http://www.zonaeuropa.com/20060806_1.htm Zonaeuropa (English translation)]</ref><ref>Frank Stirk, [http://www.canadianchristianity.com/cgi-bin/bc.cgi?bc/bccn/0606/07chinese Canadians probe Chinese organ harvesting claims], Canadian Christianity. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref><ref name=glen>Glen McGregor, [http://www.canada.com/components/print.aspx?id=2c15d2f0-f0ab-4da9-991a-23e4094de949 "Inside China's 'crematorium'"], ''[[The Ottawa Citizen]]'', 24 November 2007</ref><ref name=usgov1>{{cite web|url=http://www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2006/April/20060416141157uhyggep0.5443231.html |title=U.S. Finds No Evidence of Alleged Concentration Camp in China |publisher=US Government |date=16 April 2006 |accessdate=18 December 2009}}</ref> though Kirk C. Allison, Associate Director of the Program in Human Rights and Medicine in the University of Minnesota, (2006) and Tom Treasure of Guy's Hospital, London (2007), considered the report "plausible from a medical standpoint" based on the numerical gap in the number of transplants and the short waiting times in China compared with other countries.<ref name=treasure>{{cite journal|url=https://www.dafoh.org/Article_by_Dr.php |title=The Falun Gong, organ transplantation, the holocaust and ourselves |author=Treasure, Tom |work=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=100 |date = March 2007|pages=119–121|publisher=Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tc.umn.edu/~falun/document/all092906.pdf |title=Falun Gong, Organ Harvesting in China, and the Human Rights Case for an Independent Congressional Investigation – testimony submitted by Kirk C. Allison |format=PDF |date=29 September 2006 |work=Open Hearing of the Subcommittee on Oversight and
Investigations |accessdate=4 February 2010 |publisher=University of Minnesota}}</ref><ref>[http://www.theepochtimes.com/news/6-8-7/44706.html "Mounting Evidence of Falun Gong Practitioners used as Organ Sources in China and Related Ethical Responsibilities"], ''The Epoch Times'', 7 August 2006. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> In May 2008 two United Nations Special Rapporteurs reiterated their previous request for the Chinese authorities to adequately respond to the allegations,<ref name=marketwireun2>[http://www.theinformationdaily.com/2008/05/09/united-nations-human-rights-special-rapporteurs-reiterate-findings-on-chinas-organ-harvesting-from-falun-gong-practitioners United Nations Human Rights Special Rapporteurs Reiterate Findings on China's Organ Harvesting from Falun Gong Practitioners], 9 May 2008 retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> and to explain the source of organs which would account for the sudden increase in organ transplants in China since 2000. China has repeatedly denied the organ harvesting allegations in the report.<ref name="ctvJuly06">CTV.ca News Staff (6 July 2006)</ref>

==Developments since 2006==

In March 2006, the Ministry of Health issued the ''Interim Provisions on Clinical Application and Management of Human Organ Transplantation'', which stipulated that medical centres must meet new requirements for transplant services; the provinces were made responsible for plans for clinical applications. Establishments performing transplantation were thereby obliged to incorporate considerations for ethics, medical and surgical expertise, and intensive care. In April 2006, the Committee of Clinical Application of Human Organ Transplantation Technologies was created to standardise clinical practice; a national summit on clinical management took place in November 2006 which issued a declaration outlining regulatory steps.<ref name=Lancet/> Professor Guo Shuzhong conducted a series of [[face transplant]] experiments in Xijing hospital, leading in April 2006 to the world’s first face transplant that included bone.<ref name=bone/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9010-worlds-second-face-transplant-performed-in-china.html |title=World's second face transplant performed in China – health – 18 April 2006 – New Scientist |publisher=www.newscientist.com |accessdate=24 September 2010 }}</ref> The donor had been declared brain-dead before the operation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/2210/63 |title=Chinese Man Gets World's Second Face Transplant |publisher=health.dailynewscentral.com |accessdate=25 September 2010 }}</ref>

In May 2007 the Regulation on Human Organ Transplantation came into force, banning organ trading and the removal of a person's organs without their prior written consent,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2007-04/06/content_574120.htm |title=人体器官移植条例 |publisher=www.gov.cn |accessdate=21 May 2010 }}[http://translate.google.com/translate?js=y&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=1&eotf=1&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.cn%2Fzwgk%2F2007-04%2F06%2Fcontent_574120.htm&sl=zh-CN&tl=en Google translation]. Retrieved 24 September 2010</ref> and this has been favourably received by the World Health Organization and The Transplantation Society.<ref name=Lancet/><ref name=TTS/> To curb illegal transplants, doctors involved in commercial trade of organs will face fines and suspensions; only a few hospitals will be certified to perform organ transplants.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6534363.stm|title=China issues new rules on organs|publisher=BBC News|date=7 April 2007|accessdate=7 April 2007}}</ref> As a result of a systematic overhaul, the number of institutions approved for transplants has been reduced from more than 600 in 2007 to 87 as at October 2008; another 77 have received provisional approval from the Ministry of Health.<ref name=Lancet/>

To further combat transplant tourism, the Health Ministry issued a notice in July 2007 in line with the Istanbul Declaration, giving Chinese citizens priority as organ recipients.<ref name=Lancet/> In October 2007, after several years of discussions with the WHO, the Chinese Medical Association agreed to cease commercial organ collection from condemned prisoners, who would only be able to donate to their immediate relatives.<ref name="CMA"/><ref>Pact to block harvesting of inmate organs, Pg 1, ''[[South China Morning Post]]'', 7 October 2007</ref> Other safeguards implemented under the legislation include documentation of consent for organ removal from the donor, and review of all death sentences by the Supreme People’s Court. Transplant professionals are not involved until death is declared. A symposium among legal and medical professionals was held in April 2008 to discuss the diagnostic criteria for brain death for donors of transplant organs.<ref name=Lancet/>

A liver-transplant registry system was established in Shanghai, in 2008, which allows the monitoring of the after-care of liver recipients; at the same time a nationwide proposal was announced that would allow people to note on their driving licence that they wish to donate their organs.<ref name=liver/> Despite these initiatives the ''[[China Daily]]'' newspaper reported in August 2009 that approximately 65% of transplanted organs still came from death row prisoners,<ref name=bbc20090826/> which has been described as "not a proper source for organ transplants" by Vice-Health Minister Huang Jiefu.<ref name="www.chinadaily.com.cn"/> China's first posthumous [[organ donation]] system was jointly launched in March 2010 by the [[Red Cross]] and the Ministry of Health.<ref name=Lancet/> Huang Jiefu announced that the scheme, which will allow people to express their wishes on their driver’s licences, would be trialled in 10 pilot regions including the cities of [[Tianjin]], [[Wuhan]] and [[Shenzhen]].<ref name="www.chinadaily.com.cn"/> Funds will be made available for the families of people who voluntarily donate their organs. Chinese authorities say they hope the pilot program's success will reduce the need to take organs from death row prisoners and stem the tide of black market organs.<ref name=bbc20090826/> In 2012 China officials stated they plan to phase out organ harvesting of death-row inmates.<ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304724404577298661625345898.html China to Stop Harvesting Inmate Organs] 23 March 2012 </ref>

In September 2012, the report "Organ Harvesting of Religious and Political Dissidents by the
Chinese Communist Party" presented to the members of a US Congress Subcommittee by Damon Noto, the spokesperson for the organization Doctors Against Forced Organ Harvesting, opined: "Medical doctors outside China have confirmed that their patients have gone to China and received organs from Falun Gong practitioners".<ref name=Damon>Damon Noto, M.D., [http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/112/HHRG-112-FA17-WState-NotoD-20120912.pdf Organ Harvesting of Religious and Political Dissidents by the
Chinese Communist Party], [[House Committee on Foreign Affairs]], 12 September 2012</ref>

==See also==
*[[Organ transplantation in different countries]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2010}}
{{Organ transplantation}}
{{Health in the People's Republic of China}}
{{People's Republic of China topics}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Organ Transplantation In The People's Republic Of China}}
[[Category:Health in China]]
[[Category:Organ transplantation by country]]

[[es:Trasplante de órganos en la República Popular China]]

Selbstverbrennungsvorfall auf dem Tian’anmen-Platz

2012-10-17T15:02:34Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}
{{Chinese
|s=天安门自焚事件
|t=天安門自焚事件
|pic=Selfimmowflag.jpg
|piccap=A man identified in state-run media as Wang Jindong sits on Tiananmen Square as police stand nearby
|p=Tiān'ānmén Zìfén Shìjiàn
|order=st }}

The '''Tiananmen Square self-immolation incident''' took place in [[Tiananmen Square]] in central Beijing, on the eve of [[Chinese New Year]] on 23 January 2001. The incident is disputed: the official Chinese press agency, [[Xinhua News Agency]], stated that five members of [[Falun Gong]], a banned spiritual movement, set themselves on fire to protest the treatment of Falun Gong by the Chinese government. Falun Gong sources disputed the accuracy of these portrayals, noting that Falun Gong's teachings explicitly forbid violence or [[suicide]]. The Falun Dafa Information Center suggested the incident was staged by the Chinese government to turn public opinion against the group and to justify the [[persecution of Falun Gong|campaign against it]].<ref name="FDI_PressRelease"/><ref>[http://faluninfo.net/article/1114/?cid=84 "On Ten Year Anniversary, Tiananmen Square Self-Immolation Continues to Be Deadly Frame-up,"] Falun Dafa Information Center, 19 January 2011</ref>

According to Chinese state media, the five people were part of a group of seven who had travelled to the square together.<ref name=xinhua1/> One of them, Liu Chunling, died at Tiananmen under disputed circumstances and another, her 12-year-old daughter, Liu Siying, died in hospital several weeks later; three survived. A CNN crew present at the scene witnessed the five setting themselves ablaze and had just started filming when police intervened and detained the crew.<ref name=tense/> The incident received international news coverage, and video footage was broadcast later in the People's Republic of China by [[China Central Television]] (CCTV).<ref name=oneway>{{cite news |first=Philip P. |last=Pan |url= |title=One-Way Trip to the End in Beijing |work=International Herald Tribune |date=5 February 2001}}</ref> The coverage in the CCTV showed images of Liu Siying burning and interviews with the others in which they stated their belief that self-immolation would lead them to paradise,<ref name=oneway/> a belief that is not supported by Falun Gong’s teachings. Two weeks after the event, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' published an investigation into the identity of the two self-immolation victims who were killed, and found that "no one ever saw [them] practice Falun Gong."<ref name=Pan>{{cite news|url= http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A23596-2001Feb3 |author=[[Philip P. Pan]] |title= Human Fire Ignites Chinese Mystery |newspaper=Washington Post|date=4 February 2001|accessdate=13 February 2012}}</ref>

[[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) believed the incident was among one of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing at the time to report on because of a lack of independent information available.<ref name=hrw-chn43081/> A wide variety of opinions and interpretations of what may have happened emerged: the event may have been set up by the government,<ref name=schechter1/> it may have been an authentic protest,<ref>[http://www.hum.leidenuniv.nl/chinees/organisatie/medewerkers-alfabetisch/haarbjter.html Barend ter Haar], Chair of Chinese History at Leiden University (Sinological Institute) Retrieved 29 September 2009</ref> the self-immolators "new or unschooled" practitioners,<ref name=ownbyfalungong218/> and other views. Journalist Danny Schechter notes that the Chinese government's claims about the incident remain unsubstantiated by outside parties, because no independent investigation has been allowed.<ref name=schechter1>Falun Gong's Challenge to China - A report by Danny Schechter</ref>

The campaign of state propaganda that followed the event eroded public sympathy for Falun Gong, and the government began sanctioning "systematic use of violence" against the group.<ref name=breaking>{{cite news|author=Philip Pan and John Pomfret|title=Torture is Breaking Falun Gong|newspaper= Washington Post|date= 5 August 2001| url=http://faluninfo.net/article/566/ | accessdate=10 April 2012 }}</ref> Posters, leaflets and videos were produced detailing the supposed detrimental effects of Falun Gong practice, and regular anti-Falun Gong classes were scheduled in schools to expose the "dangers" of the practice.<ref name=oneway/><ref name=dangerous>{{cite book |first=Mickey |last=Spiegel |url=http://hrw.org/reports/2002/china/ |title=Dangerous Meditation: China's Campaign Against Falungong |publisher=Human Rights Watch |year=2002 |isbn=1-56432-270-X|accessdate=28 September 2007}}</ref><ref name=chrandra>{{cite journal |first=Chrandra D. |last=Smith |url=http://org.law.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/new_devs/RJLR_ND_66.pdf | format=PDF |title=Chinese Persecution of Falun Gong |publisher=Rutgers School of Law |journal=Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion |date=October 2004 |accessdate=28 September 2009}}</ref>

== Background ==
{{See also|History of Falun Gong}}
[[Image:April25Zhognanhai.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Falun Gong practitioners demonstrate outside the [[Zhongnanhai]] government compound in April 1999 to request official recognition. Soon thereafter, a crackdown on the practice began.]]
Falun Gong, also known as Falun Dafa, is a form of spiritual [[qigong]] practice that involves meditation, energy exercises, and a philosophy drawing on [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[Taoism|Taoist]] tradition. The practice was introduced by [[Li Hongzhi]] in Northeast China in the spring of 1992, and by the late 1990s had attracted tens of millions of followers.<ref>Faison, Seth "In Beijing: A Roar of Silent Protestors," ''New York Times'', 27 April 1999</ref><ref>Kahn, Joseph "Notoriety Now for Movement's Leader," ''New York Times'', 27 April 1999</ref><ref name="Chang4">{{cite book|last=Chang|first=Maria Hsia|title=Falun Gong – The End of Days|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2004|page=4|isbn=978-0-300-10227-7}}</ref><ref name=Ownby>David Ownby, “Falun Gong and the Future of China,” Oxford University Press (2008)</ref> Falun Gong initially enjoyed official recognition support during the early years of its development.<ref name=Ownby/> By the mid-1990s, however, Chinese authorities sought to rein in the influence of qigong practices, enacting more stringent requirements on the country’s various qigong denominations.<ref name=Ownby/><ref name=Palmer>David Palmer, “Qigong Fever: Body, Science and Utopia in China,” Columbia University Press (2007).</ref> In 1996, Falun Gong came under increasing criticism and surveillance from the country’s security apparatus.<ref name=Tong>James Tong, “Revenge of the Forbidden City,” Oxford University Press (2009).</ref>

0n 15 April 1999, more than ten thousand practitioners congregated outside [[Communist Party of China]] headquarters in [[Zhongnanhai]] to request legal recognition.<ref name=Tong/><ref name=Fuyou>Ethan Gutmann, [http://www.david-kilgour.com/2009/Jul_05_2009_04.php ‘An Occurrence on Fuyou Street’], National Review, 13 July 2009.</ref> That evening, then-Communist Party leader [[Jiang Zemin]] issued a decision to eradicate Falun Gong. At Jiang's direction, on 7 June 1999 a special leading group was established within the party’s [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China|Central Committee]] to manage the suppression.<ref name=Jamestown>Sarah Cook and Leeshai Lemish, [http://www.jamestown.org/programs/chinabrief/single/?tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=38411&cHash=2dff246d80ffd78112de97e280ce9725 ‘The 610 Office:Policing the Chinese Spirit’], China Brief , Volume 11 Issue 17 (9 November 2011).</ref> The resulting organisation, called the [[6-10 Office]], assumed the role of coordinating the anti-Falun Gong media coverage in the state-run press, as well influencing other party and state entities such as the courts and security agencies.<ref name=Jamestown/><ref name=Tong>James Tong, “Revenge of the Forbidden City,” Oxford University Press (2009).</ref> On 19 July, the Central Committee of the Communist Party issued a document effectively banning the practice of Falun Gong. The following day, hundreds of adherents were detained by security forces.<ref name=Tong/><ref name=Amnesty/>

The suppression that followed was characterised by what Amnesty International called a "massive propaganda campaign" intended to justify the suppression by portraying Falun Gong as superstitious, dangerous, and incompatible with the official ideology.<ref name=Amnesty>Amnesty International [http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/011/2000/en/7a361a8e-df70-11dd-acaa-7d9091d4638f/asa170112000en.html 'China: The crackdown on Falun Gong and other so-called "heretical organization"'] 23 March 2000</ref> Tens of thousands of Falun Gong adherents were imprisoned, and by the end of 1999, reports began to emerge of torture in custody. According to Ian Johnson, authorities were given broad mandates to eliminate Falun Gong and pursue the coercive conversion of practitioners, but were not scrutinized for the methods they used. This resulted in the widespread use of torture, sometimes resulting in death.<ref>Ian Johnson, "Death Trap - How One Chinese City Resorted to Atrocities To Control Falun Dafa," Wall Street Journal, 26 December 2000</ref>

Following the ban, [[Tiananmen Square]]—a central point for [[Tiananmen Square protests|several major historical protests]]—was one of the main venues where Falun Gong practitioners protested the suppression. The Falun Gong protests were characterised as peaceful "appeals," and typically involved raising banners in defence of the group, or staging meditation sit-ins.<ref>Elisabeth Rosenthal, "Falun Gong Holds Protests On Anniversary of Big Sit-In." New York Times. 26 April 2001.</ref> By 25 April 2000, more than 30,000 practitioners had been arrested.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pulitzer.org/archives/6464 |title=Defiant Falun Dafa Members Converge on Tiananmen |first=Ian |last=Johnson |date=25 April 2000 |work=The Wall Street Journal |publisher=Pulitzer.org |page= A21}}</ref> Seven hundred Falun Gong followers were arrested during a demonstration in the Square on 1 January 2001.<ref name="Perry">{{cite book |first=Elizabeth J. |last=Selden |coauthor=Perry, Mark |title=Chinese Society: Change, Conflict and Resistance |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=041530170X}}</ref>

== The incident ==

On 23 January 2001, the eve of [[Chinese New Year]], five people on Tiananmen Square poured gasoline over their clothes and set themselves on fire; another two people were prevented from igniting the gasoline.<ref name=dangerous/><ref name=missions/>

A [[CNN]] film crew, who were there on a routine check for a possible Falun Gong protest,<ref name=mulls/> observed a man sitting down on the pavement north-east of the [[Monument to the People's Heroes]] at the centre of the square.<ref name=tense>{{cite news |author=Staff and wire reports |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/24/asia.falun.03/ |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070222110517/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/east/01/24/asia.falun.03/ |archivedate=22 February 2007 |title=Tiananmen tense after fiery protests |publisher=CNN |date=24 January 2001 |accessdate=9 February 2007}}{{Dead link|date=February 2010}}</ref> He proceeded to pour gasoline over himself and set himself ablaze.<ref name=tense /> Police officers on the square noticed what was happening, quickly approached the man and extinguished the flames.<ref name=tense /> Shortly afterwards, another four people on the square set themselves alight. One of the four, a man, was detained and driven away in a police van. <ref name=tense /> According to the CNN report, there were at least two males among the five people, and there was no children on the site. But CCP medias claimed the five people were four females and one male, including a 12-year-old girl. The CNN crew was filming these events when military police stepped in and detained the crew.<ref name=tense /> The authorities then put out the flames consuming the other four people's clothing.<ref name=tense /> A police van came to collect the badly burnt man, and two ambulances arrived almost 25 minutes later to collect the other four.<ref name=tense /> The square was completely closed,<ref>Mickey Spiegel, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=klyC1eH97pQC&pg=PA33&dq=%22China+responded+to+the+even+unusually+quickly,+completely+shutting+down+Tiananment+Square%22&q= |title=DANGEROUS MEDITATION China's Campaign Against Falungong, page 33 |publisher=Human Rights Watch, 2002, ISBN 1-56432-270-X |accessdate=14 October 2009 |isbn=978-1-56432-269-2 |date=2002-01 }}</ref> and security was tight the next day, the most important of the traditional Chinese holidays; police monitored public access to the square for the New Year celebrations, had fire extinguishers ready, and prevented Falun Gong members from opening banners.<ref name=tense/>

Of the five people who set themselves alight, one, Liu Chunling, died at the scene; another, her 12-year-old daughter, Liu Siying, died in Beijing hospital two months later, in March;<ref name=Siying>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1228576.stm |title= Tiananmen 'suicide' girl dies |accessdate=10 October 2009 | date=18 March 2001 | work=BBC News}}</ref> the other three were left severely disfigured.

== People involved ==

The official news agency, Xinhua, gave the participants' details as follows:<ref name=xinhua1/>

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:10%;"| Romanised name
! style="width:5%;"| Chinese name
! style="width:20%;"| Description
! style="width:20%;"| Outcome
|-
| Wang Jindong || 王進東 || Male, former driver || Hospitalised
|-
| Liu Chunling || 劉春玲 || Female, mother of Siying ||Died on scene ([[#Falun_Gong_response|circumstances disputed]])
|-
| Liu Siying || 劉思影 || 12-year-old girl, daughter of Chunling || Died two months after the event<ref name=Siying/>
|-
| Chen Guo || 陳果 || Daughter of Hao Huijun || Treated at Beijing Jishuitan Hospital; severely disfigured
|-
| Hao Huijun || 郝惠君 || Female, mother of Chen Guo, music teacher|| Hospitalised; severely disfigured
|-
| Liu Baorong || 劉葆榮 || Female, former textile factory worker|| Did not set herself alight
|-
| Liu Yunfang || 劉雲芳 || 57-year-old male, part-time paint shop worker || Did not set himself alight
|-
|}

Xinhua further alleged that Wang Jindong had practised Falun Gong since 1996, Hao Huijin since 1997, and Liu Baorong since 1994.

== Chinese state media reports ==

Xinhua released details of the incident to foreign media 2 hours after the self-immolation occurred.<ref>David Ownby, {{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Bwqkwx4SWS0C&pg=PT231&dq=%22Xinhua+offered+a+brief+report+of+the+events+that+very+evening%22&q=%22Xinhua%20offered%20a%20brief%20report%20of%20the%20events%20that%20very%20evening%22 |title=Falun Gong and the future of China, page 216 |publisher=Oxford University Press US, 2008, ISBN 0-19-532905-8 |accessdate=11 October 2009 |isbn=978-0-19-532905-6 |year=2008 }}</ref> Xinhua then distributed a fuller press release seven days later on Tuesday, 30 January,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zhihui.com.cn/storydb/truth/0130.htm |title=zhihui.com.cn |publisher=www.zhihui.com.cn |accessdate=11 October 2009 }}</ref> in response to other media reports on the incident.<ref name=missions/>

On 31 January, a 30-minute special edition of the current affairs programme ''Forum'' told the state's version of the events to the Chinese public.<ref name=ownbyfalungong>{{cite book |first=David |last=Ownby |title=Falun Gong and the future of China |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2008 |pages= 215–216 |isbn=0-19-532905-8}}</ref> [[China Central Television]] aired footage, said to be taken by nearby surveillance cameras, of five people in flames.<ref name=mediachannel/>

Filming by the CNN crew on Tiananmen Square was stopped by the police almost immediately after it began, and their tapes were confiscated.<ref name=mulls/> Articles in the ''[[Yangcheng Evening News]]'' and the ''[[Southern Daily]]'' reported that police had evidence that a few foreign reporters had advance knowledge of the incident, and suggested that such reporters could be charged with "instigating and abetting a suicide."<ref name=mulls/><ref name=laogai>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/commentprint021301a.html
|title=Beijing is Burning — More lies from the PRC
|work=National Review |first= Ann |last=Noonan
|author=policy director for the Laogai Foundation
|date=13 February 2001}}</ref> State media claimed surveillance video showed six or seven reporters from CNN, the Associated Press and Agence France-Presse arriving just 10 minutes before the self-immolations took place; however, all three agencies denied advance knowledge of the incident{{mdash}}AP and AFP said they had no reporters in the square at the time, while CNN's chief news executive, [[Eason Jordan]], said the CNN crew were there on a routine check for a possible Falun Gong protest.<ref name=mulls/>

The Chinese authorities stated that the seven people who had come to Tiananmen Square with the intention of committing suicide were all from the city of [[Kaifeng]] in [[Henan|Henan province]]. The state-run Xinhua News Agency asserted that the self-immolators were "avid practitioners" of Falun Gong who had taken up the practice between 1994 and 1997, and that they fantasised during the preceding week about "how wonderful it would be to enter heaven".<ref name=xinhua1/> Six of them reportedly took the train on 16 January, meeting Chen Guo, the daughter of one of them, upon their arrival in Beijing. The seven agreed to light themselves in different parts of the Square at 2:30 pm on the designated day with gasoline smuggled there in plastic soda bottles; each had been armed with two lighters in case one would fail.<ref name=xinhua1>{{cite web |author=Xinhua |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/7474.htm |title=The Tragedy of Falun Gong Practitioners- Rescue: Doctors, Nurses Rush to Save Life |publisher=China.org.cn |date=31 January 2001 |accessdate=1 August 2007}}</ref> According to the government-run China Association For Cultic Studies website, Wang Jindong stated afterwards that the group arrived in Tiananmen Square by two taxis, and were dropped off at the south of the [[Great Hall of the People]], from where they walked to the spot where they would ignite themselves. Wang said he was approached by police as he was splitting open the soda bottles, and ignited himself hurriedly without assuming the [[lotus position]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.facts.org.cn/Words/200907/t95505.htm |title=Wang Jindong: Blindness, death and rebirth (Excerpt) |date=November 2007 |author= China Association For Cultic Studies |publisher=facts.org |accessdate=5 October 2009}}</ref> A press release from the Chinese government says that Liu Yunfang felt that the police were able to stop him burning himself because he had not attained the "required spiritual level."<ref name=missions>{{cite web |url=http://missions.itu.int/~china/pressrelease/archives/pressrelease01.htm |title=Press Release: Suicidal Blaze, Another Crime of Falun Gong |publisher=Government of the People's Republic of China |date=31 January 2001}}</ref>

== Falun Gong response ==
[[File:Liu chunling frames.jpg|thumb |200px |Stills sequence taken from CCTV footage allegedly proves Liu Chunling was killed by a man in military uniform, rather than by the flames. Frames 1–5 follow the course of a baton-like object (circled) first connecting with and then rebounding from her head; frames 6–8 focus on the soldier|alt=Composite image of a sequence of eight screen shots differentially highlighted to show the movement of a baton in relation to a person in military uniform]]

Immediately following the self-immolation, the Falun Dafa Information Center denied that the self-immolators could have been Falun Gong practitioners, emphatically pointing out that Falun Gong’s teachings do not sanction any form of violence, and that suicide is considered a sin.<ref name="FDI_PressRelease">{{cite web |url=http://www.clearwisdom.net/eng/2001/jan/23/vsf012301_3.html |title=Press Statement |publisher=Clearwisdom |date=23 January 2001 |accessdate=9 February 2007}}</ref>

Falun Gong sources overseas questioned the official Chinese government account of the event, and produced a critical analysis of the footage of the event aired on CCTV. Apparent inconsistencies in Chinese government’s official narrative led to a hypothesis that the self-immolation was staged by the government to justify the persecution against Falun Gong by portraying Falun Gong adherents as irrational and suicidal. According to this hypothesis, the self-immolation participants were paid actors, and were presumably assured that the flames would be extinguished before doing real harm.

Falun Gong-affiliated New Tang Dynasty Television produced a programme called ''False Fire'',<ref name="falsefire_a">{{cite web |url=http://www.falsefire.com |publisher= falsefire.com |author=NTDTV |year=2001 |title=False Fire: China's Tragic New Standard in State Deception |format=Digital Video Disc}}</ref> which analyses the inconsistencies in the accounts of the event in the official Chinese media.

Based on a review of CCTV footage, the programme purports to demonstrate that the self-immolators donned fire-proof clothing and masks, and raises the question of why the participants’ hair and the apparently gasoline-filled bottles they carried did not catch fire.<ref name="falsefire_a" /> Falun Gong sources also noted that the self-immolators’ behaviour, the slogans they shouted, and their meditation postures were not consistent with the teachings or practices of Falun Gong.<ref name=WOIPFG2>{{cite web |url=http://www.upholdjustice.org/English.2/S_I_second_report.htm |title=Second Investigation Report on the 'Tiananmen Square Self-Immolation Incident |author=World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong |publisher=upholdjustice.org |date=August 2003 |accessdate=6 February 2007}}</ref>

Among the issues highlighted by the False Fire documentary is the conditions surrounding the deaths of self-immolators Liu Chunling and her daughter. A frame-by-frame analysis of the CCTV footage purportedly shows that Liu was not killed on scene by the flames, but by a deadly blow to the head from a man in a military overcoat.<ref name=clw39928>{{cite web |url=http://www.clearwisdom.net/emh/articles/2003/9/5/39928.html |title=Report from the "World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong" Reveals Chinese Government Lies – Official Government Media Seriously Violate Basic Reporting Principles and Professional Ethics |publisher=Clearwisdom |date=5 September 2003 |accessdate=4 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Yu|first=Haiqing|title=Media and Cultural Transformation in China|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|year=2009|pages=133–134|isbn=978-0-415-44755-3|url=http://books.google.com/?id=xUWC188UoVcC&pg=PA133&dq=%22false+fire%22+falun+gong&q=%22false%20fire%22%20falun%20gong}}</ref> The documentary also addresses the medical treatment and ultimate death of Liu’s 12-year-old daughter.<ref name="FalseFire_video">{{cite web | url=http://www.falsefire.com/download/ff.wmv | title=False Fire — CCP's Tragic New Standard in State Deception |format=wmv |publisher=falsefire.com}}</ref><ref name="FalseFire">{{cite web | url=http://www.falsefire.com/ | title=Analysis and Insights about the "self-Immolation" |publisher=New Tang Dynasty Television |accessdate=26 September 2009}}</ref>

Falun Gong sources suggest that the reaction times of state-run television crews and police on Tiananmen Square demonstrates they had advanced knowledge of the event. They observed that officers arrived almost immediately on the scene equipped with numerous fire extinguishers. Fire extinguishers are not standard equipment for police on Tiananmen Square, the nearest building that would house them was several minutes away from the scene.<ref name="falsefire_a" /><ref name="FalseFire_video" />

The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong stated that the Speech Processing Laboratory at [[National Taiwan University]] analysed the broadcasts on CCTV, and claimed that the first 'Wang Jindong' on CCTV was not the same person who appeared in subsequent interviews<ref name=woipfghighlights>{{cite web |publisher=World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong |url=http://www.upholdjustice.org/English.2/S.I._highlights_report.htm |title=Highlights of Investigation of the Alleged Self-Immolation in Tiananmen Square |accessdate=4 October 2007}}</ref>

== Third-party findings ==
[[File:Wjd3photos.jpg|thumb|left|250px|alt=composite image of three portraits and a table comparing them |Three pictures broadcast by state-media, presented by Falun Gong as evidence that Wang Jindong "was played by different people".]]
The identities of some of the self-immolators, and their relationship to Falun Gong, was called into question by an investigation in Washington Post by reporter Philip Pan. The state-run Xinhua News Agency had reported that Liu Chunling's adoptive mother spoke of her daughter's "obsession with Falun Gong", her "worshipping of Li Hongzhi", and that Liu would teach her daughter Falun Gong.<ref>{{cite web |author=Xinhua |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/7490.htm |title=Families of Falun Gong Victims After Tragedy |publisher=china.org.cn |date=1 February 2001}}</ref> Yet two weeks after the event took place, Pan travelled to Kaifeng, the hometown of the Liu and her daughter, both of whom died in connection with the self-immolation. Pan interviewed neighbours and those close to the participants, and found that Liu worked in a nightclub, took money to keep men company, and beat her mother and daughter. No one ever saw her practise Falun Gong.<ref name=Pan/> According to David Ownby, a University of Montreal historian and expert on Falun Gong, Pan’s portrayal of Liu Chunlin is highly inconsistent with the typical profile of a Falun Gong practitioner.

The identities of participants on Tiananmen Square was also called into question by a CNN producer on the scene. While the Chinese government claimed that a 12-year-old Liu Siying had set herself on fire at the urging of her mother, the CNN producer said that she did not see any children among the self-immolators.<ref name="Schechter2001"/>

Several foreign observers have noted that foreign journalists were not allowed to interview the self-immolation victims recovering in hospitals. Even the victims’ relatives were not permitted to speak with them, according to David Ownby.<ref>David Ownby, Falun Gong and the Future of China. (Oxford University Press, 2008), p 217</ref>

The survivors were interviewed by the state-run press, however. In one such interview, CCTV interviewed the 12-year-old Liu Siying. Government sources reported Liu Siying had undergone a [[tracheotomy]] shortly before the interview. Speaking through approved media outlets, she said that her own mother told her to set herself on fire to reach the "heavenly golden kingdom";<ref name=mediachannel/> journalist Danny Schechter doubted that the child would have been able to speak to the Chinese media so soon after a tracheotomy, yet Liu Siying appeared to be speaking clearly and singing in the interview.<ref name="Schechter2001" />

Danny Schechter also drew attention to the fact that Xinhua had released a statement on the self-immolation to foreign media only hours after the event occurred. He noted that this was unusual because sensitive subjects in the Chinese press are almost never reported on a timely basis;<ref name=mediachannel>{{cite web |first=Danny |last=Schechter |url=http://www.mediachannel.org/views/dissector/falungong2.shtml |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20021202162929/http://www.mediachannel.org/views/dissector/falungong2.shtml |archivedate=2 December 2002 |title=The Fires This Time: Immolation or Deception In Beijing? |publisher=Mediachannel |date=22 February 2001}}</ref> the usual protocol is approval by several party officials before publication.<ref name=mulls/>

Questions were also raised over where the footage of the event came from, and the speed with which camera crews appeared on scene. Chinese government media reported that the close-up shots in its video footage came from confiscated CNN tapes.<ref name=mulls /> CNN representatives argued that this was impossible, however, as their reporters were detained shortly after the event began. Philip Pan of the ''[[Washington Post]]'' was also suspicious of the positioning of the cameras, and the fact that the close-up shots shown on Chinese television were taken without police interference.<ref name=mulls /> In addition, overhead surveillance camera footage seemed to show a man filming the scene using a small hand-held camera, rather than a large camera of the type used for TV news reporting.<ref name=mulls>{{cite news |first=Philip |last=Pan |work=The Washington Post |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A44880-2001Feb8?language=printer |title=China Mulls Murder Charges for Foreign Journalists |date=8 February 2001 |publisher= }}</ref>

''[[The Age]]'' commented that the "ready availability of fire-extinguishers and official TV teams and the lack of verification about the victims" raised questions about whether authorities had advanced knowledge of the self-immolation.<ref name=hamish>{{cite web |first=Hamish |last=Mcdonald |url=http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/10/15/1097784013251.html?oneclick=true |title=What's wrong with Falun Gong |work=The Age |date=16 October 2004}}</ref> John Gittings of ''[[The Guardian]]'' noted it was common practice in many countries for police camera operators to be on hand when a public disturbance is anticipated; the police used small-scale fire-extinguishers of the type carried in public vehicles, many of which are routinely on the square.<ref name="gittings2"/>

== Dispute ==

Following the incident, the details of why the individuals were involved has been and remains the subject of dispute between representatives of Falun Gong, the Chinese government, and other observers.

A significant challenge to arriving at a definitive assessment of the event is that independent corroboration of the government’s claims has not been possible. According to [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW), the lack of independent information and difficulties in ascertaining the extent of control of the information made the incident one of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing to report.<ref name=hrw-chn43081>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=search&docid=42df60bb11&skip=0&query=CHN43081.E |title=Responses To Information Requests "CHN43081.E" |author=Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada |publisher=UNHCR |accessdate= 6 February 2007 |quote=In a 23 November 2004 telephone interview with the Research Directorate, the senior researcher on China for HRW asserted that it would not have been possible for independent organisations to conduct an independent investigation of the incident. According to the senior researcher, the incident was among one of the most difficult stories for reporters in Beijing at the time to report on because of a lack of information and difficulties in ascertaining the extent of control of the information}}</ref> ''[[The New York Times]]'' stated that conflicting claims were difficult to assess "[w]ith propaganda streaming in from seemingly opposite ends of the universe ... especially since the remaining Falun Gong practitioners have been driven underground." <ref>{{cite news |first=Elisabeth |last=Rosenthal |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/world/former-falun-gong-followers-enlisted-in-china-s-war-on-sect.html |title=Former Falun Gong Followers Enlisted in China's War on Sect |work=New York Times |date=5 April 2002}}</ref>

In his 2001 book on Falun Gong, journalist Danny Schechter drew on evidence from Falun Gong sources, from Philip Pan, and interviews with other journalists to argue that the self-immolation was staged by the Chinese government.<ref name="Schechter2001">Danny Schechter, "Falun Gong’s Challenge to China" (Akashic Books, 2001). pp 20 - 23</ref> Citing Schechter’s research, anthropologist Noah Porter wrote that "convincing evidence has been provided that the events described by the Chinese media are at least deceptive, if not a complete hoax," also stating "even if there were people who lit themselves on fire and considered themselves Falun Gong practitioners, they would not be representative of Falun Gong practitioners."<ref name="Porter">Noah Porter (Masters thesis for the University of South Florida),''[http://www.lib.usf.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-06122003-113105/unrestricted/FalunGongInTheUS-NoahPorter-Thesis.pdf Falun Gong in the United States: An Ethnographic Study]''. 2003. p 105</ref> Beatrice Turpin, a China correspondent with Associated Press Television, said of the self-immolation that "There was a big brouhaha with Falun Gong protests and footage of police beating practitioners last Chinese New Year and it would certainly fit in with typical China strategy to stage an event this year [2001] and make the show their own."

Reviewing the divergent narratives on the identity of the self-immolation victims, historian David Ownby concluded that "although the arguments of Falun Gong practitioners seem cogent, it is very difficult to arrive at a final judgment about the self-immolation. [...] there are desperate people in China (and elsewhere) who will do anything for money (which would go to their families in this case, one supposes, unless the authorities had promised to rescue them before the flames could do harm). Or the entire event could have been staged. But it seems just as possible that those who set themselves on fire might have been new or unschooled Falun Gong practitioners, had discovered and practised Falun Gong on their own (and badly) in the post-suppression period, and, for whatever reason, decided to make the ultimate sacrifice."<ref name=ownbyfalungong218>{{cite book |first=David |last=Ownby |title=Falun Gong and the future of China |publisher= Oxford University Press |year=2008 |page=218 |isbn=0-19-532905-8}}</ref>

Philip Pan’s investigation, and other inconsistencies highlighted by Falun Gong organisations, led some observers to entertain the possibility that the self-immolation was not as straightforward as the Chinese official media accounts suggested. In the ''[[National Review]]'', Ann Noonan of the [[Laogai Research Foundation]] suggested that it was "hardly a far-fetched hypothesis" that the government allowed or staged the incident to discredit Falun Gong, as the government vowed to crush the practice before the eightieth anniversary celebrations of the Communist Party in July.<ref name=noonan>Ann Noonan in the ''[[National Review]]'', [http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment021301a.shtml Beijing is Burning: More lies from the PRC]. Retrieved 21/5/08</ref> Barend ter Haar was open to the idea that the self-immolators were Falun Gong practitioners, but sought to account for the inconsistencies by suggesting that the government may have fabricated a video of their own when they realised the mediatic potential of the suicides.<ref name="Haar">{{cite web |last=Haar |first=Barend ter |url=http://website.leidenuniv.nl/~haarbjter/faluntext2.html |title=Part One: Introductory remarks |publisher=Barend ter Haar, Leiden University |year=2001 |accessdate=29 September 2009}}</ref>

Other human rights activists speculated that the five who set themselves on fire did so to protest the government's crackdown on Falun Gong.<ref name=oneway/> ter Haar (2001) postulated that former Buddhists may have brought with them the "respectable Buddhist tradition of self-immolation as a sacrifice to the Buddha".<ref name="Haar"/>

Francesco Sisci, Asia editor of ''[[La Stampa]]'', supported the possibility that the self-immolators were Falun Gong practitioners, writing in the ''[[Asia Times]]'' that "no one believed that the government could have paid a mother to torch herself and her daughter, or that she was so loyal to the Communist Party that she pretended to be a Falungong member and kill herself and her only daughter, even if Falungong master Li Hongzhi forbade suicide ..."<ref name=sisci>{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/china/DD10Ad01.html |title=The burning issue of Falungong |work=Asia Times |first=Francesco |last=Sisci |year=2002}}</ref>

The CNN producer on the site said that she did not see any children among the self-immolators.<ref name="Schechter2001"/> In Sisci’s view, Chinese officials made a mistake by arresting foreign journalists on Tiananmen —"independently filmed news footage of the proceedings could have been the best proof of Falungong madness. Instead, when the government reported the episode, it looked like propaganda."<ref name=sisci/>

''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' noted some of the confusion surrounding the conflicting views on the self-immolation; one Beijing Falun Gong practitioner interviewed appeared to accept that the self-immolators were practitioners engaged in protest, while Falun Gong organisations overseas denied any involvement.<ref name=time20010129>{{cite news |first=Hannah |last=Beech |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,97124,00.html |title=Too Hot to Handle |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=29 January 2001 |accessdate=9 February 2007}}</ref> ''Time'' also speculated that the "lack of solidarity" in Falun Gong was contributing to the sense of desperation of Mainland Chinese practitioners who may feel out of touch with the exiled leadership.<ref name=time20010129/> Guardian reporter John Gittings reported that some observers believed it was possible that the self-immolators acted in desperation and confusion.<ref name="gittings">{{cite news |first=John |last=Gittings |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/jan/29/china.johngittings |title=China prepares for new offensive against 'dangerous' sect |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=29 January 2001 | location=London}}</ref>

Some observers have speculated that if the participants were Falun Gong practitioners, they may have resorted to self-immolation in response to the publication of a new scripture by Li Hongzhi released on 1 January 2001, "Beyond the Limits of Forbearance." An article authored by a collection of Mainland Chinese Falun Gong practitioners and published on the main Chinese-language Falun Gong website noted that the scripture had caused confusion both among Falun Gong practitioners and "in society," and that some people wondered whether Falun Gong would resort to violence to resist persecution. The authors wrote that this would not occur, as violence would be both counterproductive and contrary to the teachings of the practice.<ref>Minghui, [http://en.minghui.org/emh/special_column/cultivation/harmonizing-dafa-010111.pdf ‘Harmonizing Dafa, Not Going to Extremes’], 10 January 2001.</ref> A Falun Gong spokesperson clarified that the new scripture simply meant it was time to "bring truth to light" about human rights abuses committed by the Chinese government.<ref name="gittings"/> Nonetheless, Gittings posited that the scripture may have confused Falun Gong followers, particularly in Mainland China.<ref name="gittings"/> Matthew Forney wrote in ''Time'' magazine that Li’s message had spread into China via the internet and informal networks of followers, and speculated that it may have galvanised more radical practitioners there.<ref name=breakingpoint>{{cite news |first=Matthew |last=Forney |url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,165163,00.html |title=The Breaking Point |work=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=25 June 2001}}</ref> David Ownby wrote that he found the brief message to be "difficult to interpret": on its surface, the scripture resembled a "call to arms" against what Li described as "evil beings who no longer have any human nature or righteous thoughts." Yet Ownby said no practitioners he talked to had seen the scripture as a "green light" for violent action. Instead, practitioners had interpreted it to mean that they could resist suppression without guilt; they could stop "simply surrendering to the police at the first moment of a confrontation. They could run away, they could organize, they were, in a word, free of whatever constraints the necessity to "forbear" had previously placed upon them."<ref name="ownbyfalungong"/> In an interview with the Washington Post, Ownby noted that Li does not endorse suicide in any of his recent statements, "But a practitioner at the end of his or her rope in China could certainly see [the statements] as an endorsement for martyrdom, and perhaps choose his or her own means to achieve that."<ref>{{cite news |title=A Foe Rattles Beijing From Abroad |first=John |last=Pomfret |work=Washington Post |date=9 March 2001}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
===Media campaign and public opinion===
The self-immolation incident was given prominent coverage in the official Chinese media as evidence of the alleged dangers of Falun Gong practice. Coverage of the event resulted in increased support for the Party's suppression efforts against Falun Gong, and eroded public sympathy for the group. According to Philip Pan, the Communist Party "launched an all-out campaign to use the incident to prove its claim that Falun Gong is a dangerous cult, and to turn public opinion in China and abroad against the group[...] Every morning and night, the state-controlled media carry fresh attacks against Falun Gong and its U.S.-based leader, Li Hongzhi."<ref name=Pan/> Posters, leaflets and videos were produced, detailing the supposed detrimental effects of Falun Gong practice. The New York Times reported that the public was "bombarded with graphic images of the act on television and in newspapers."<ref>Erik Eckholm, "Beijing Judge Jails 4 for Promoting Falun Gong's Public Suicides", New York Times, 18 August 2001.</ref> In China's schools, regular anti-Falun Gong classes were scheduled.<ref name=oneway/> Eight million students joined the ''"Anti-Cult Action by the Youth Civilized Communities Across the Nation"''.<ref name=dangerous/> Twelve million children submitted writings disapproving of the practice.<ref name=dangerous/>

Within a month of the Tiananmen Square incident, authorities issued a document entitled ''The whole story of the self-immolation incident created by Falun Gong addicts in Tiananmen Square'', containing colour photographs of charred bodies.<ref name=dangerous/> The [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]]'s "Office for the Prevention and Handling of Evil Cults" declared after the event that it was now ready to form a united front with the global anti-cult struggle.<ref name=dangerous/> Meetings took place in factories, offices, universities and schools to educate people about Falun Gong. The Government announced that religious leaders from across the country had delivered denunciations of Falun Gong. In Kaifeng, the post office issued an anti-Falun Gong postmark, and 10,000 people signed a petition denouncing the group.<ref name=oneway/>

''Time'' reported that prior to the self-immolation incident, many Chinese had felt that Falun Gong posed no real threat, and that the state's crackdown had gone too far. After the event, however, China's media campaign against Falun Gong gained significant traction.<ref name=breakingpoint/> The World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong reported that hostility toward Falun Gong from the general public escalated, the government had stepped up its campaign, and alleged that "hate crimes" targeting Falun Gong increased.<ref name="WOIPFGpaper">{{cite web |author=WOIPFG |url=http://www.upholdjustice.org/English.2/S.I._highlights_report.htm |title=Investigation Reports on the Persecution of Falun Gong: Volume 1 |year=2003–2004 |publisher=World Organization to Investigate the Persecution of Falun Gong |accessdate=4 October 2007}}{{dead link|date=March 2012}}</ref> One western diplomat commented that the public changed from sympathising with Falun Gong to siding with the Government, popular consensus seemingly shifted by human-interest stories and accounts of rehabilitation efforts of former practitioners.<ref name=ansfield>{{cite news |first=Jonathan |last=Ansfield |publisher=Reuters |url= |title=After Olympic win, China takes new aim at Falun Gong |date=23 July 2001}}</ref> Østergaard believes that, in retrospect, the New Year scripture was Li's greatest gift to the state, as the self-immolations marked a turning point which ended domestic support for the movement.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=H80YZqSj7EEC&pg=PA208&dq=Ostergaard+falun&client=firefox-a&cd=3#v=onepage&q=New%20Year%27s%20Day%202001&f=false |title=Governance in China |editor= Jude Howell |first=Clemens Stubbe |last=Østergaard |pages=220 (Governance and the Political Challenge of Falun Gong) |year=2003 |isbn=0-7425-1988-0}}</ref>

===Violence and reeducation===
In the aftermath of the event, the government began sanctioning more severe forms of torture and punishment against Falun Gong adherents in an effort to have them renounce the practice. ''The Washington Post'' reported that Chinese authorities benefited from the turn in public opinion against Falun Gong that followed the self-immolation, seizing on the opportunity to sanction "the systematic use of violence against the group." According to ''the Post'', authorities "established a network of brainwashing classes and embarked on a painstaking effort to weed out followers neighbourhood by neighbourhood and workplace by workplace." The "reeducation" tactics employed included beatings, shocks with electric truncheons, and intensive anti-Falun Gong study classes.<ref name=breaking/>

According to a report published in the Wall Street Journal, in February 2001 the [[6-10 Office]] "stepped up pressure on local governments" to implement the anti-Falun Gong campaign. In particular, it issued new, detailed instructions requiring that all who continued to actively practice Falun Gong were to be sent to prison or labour camps, and individuals who refused to renounce the practice were to be socially isolated and monitored by their families and workplaces. This was a shift from the past, when local officials sometimes tolerated Falun Gong on the condition that it was practised privately.<ref>Charles Hutzler, "Falun Gong Feels Effect Of China's Tighter Grip --- Shift Means Even Private Practice Is Banned," Asian Wall Street Journal, 26 April 2001.</ref>

===Impact on Falun Gong's resistance===
The self-immolation necessitated a change in tactics for Falun Gong. Tiananmen Square had been "permanently contaminated" as a venue for protest, according to journalist Ethan Gutmann, and Falun Gong's daily demonstrations in Beijing nearly ceased altogether.<ref name=dangerous/><ref name=ThinAir>Gutmann, Ethan. (6 December 2010) [http://www.weeklystandard.com/articles/thin-airwaves_519589.html 'Into Thin Airwaves']. ''The Weekly Standard''</ref> According to Human Rights Watch, practitioners may have concluded "the protests had outlived their usefulness for demonstrating Chinese abuses or for informing an overseas audience of Falungong's harmlessness."<ref name=dangerous/> Diaspora practitioners living oversees focused their attentions on getting the word out about the treatment of practitioners by the Chinese government, issuing reports to the United Nations and human rights organisations, staging public marches and hunger strikes outside of China, and documenting human rights abuses on websites.<ref name=dangerous/> Within China, practitioners used mass mailings and handed out literature to "spread the truth" and counter the government's charges against them.<ref name=dangerous/> In an August 2001 press release, the U.S.-based Falun Dafa Information Center noted this shift in strategy, and said that Chinese practitioners "sometimes also manage to post large posters and banners in major thoroughfares. They even set up loudspeakers on rooftops or trees around labour camps and in densely populated areas to broadcast news about the human rights abuses."<ref name=dangerous/>

In 2002, Falun Gong practitioners in [[Changchun]] successfully broadcast the ''False Fire'' video on Chinese television, interrupting the station's scheduled programming for 50 minutes.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200203/s499227.htm |date=8 March 2002 |title=Falun Gong hijack Chinese TV station |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref> Liu Chengjun, a Falun Gong practitioner who hacked into the satellite feed, was arrested and sentenced to prison, where he was allegedly beaten to death 21 months later.<ref name=USDOS2003-2005>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27768.htm|title=2003 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)|last=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|publisher=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=3 October 2009}} {{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51509.htm|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2005: China (includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau)|last=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor|publisher=U.S. Department of State|accessdate=3 October 2009}} The United States Department of State said Liu Chengjun had reportedly been "abused in custody" and "beaten to death by police in Jilin City Prison".</ref> The remaining five individuals behind the television hijacking were also imprisoned, and all have reportedly died or been tortured to death in custody.<ref name=ThinAir/>

===Fate of the self-immolators===
Five of the people involved in the incident were tried in mid-2001. Liu Yunfang, named as the mastermind, was given a life sentence; Wang Jindong was given 15 years. Two other accomplices – a 49-year-old man named Xue Hongjun, and a 34-year-old Beijing woman named Liu Xiuqin who apparently provided the group with lodging and helped in the preparation of the incident – were sentenced to 10 and 7 years in prison respectively.<ref name=embassy36594>{{cite web|url=http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/ppflg/t36594.htm|title=Organizers of Tian'anmen Self-Burning Incident Sentenced|date=17 August 2001|publisher=Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States|accessdate=4 October 2009}}</ref><ref name=real/> Liu Baorong, who had "acknowledged her crime", escaped punishment because her role in planning the event was minor.<ref name=xinhua1 /><ref name="gittings2">{{cite web |first=John |last=Gittings |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2001/aug/21/worlddispatch.china |title=Chinese whispers surround Falun Gong trial |work=The Guardian |date=21 August 2001}}</ref> ''The Guardian'' reported that on the last day of the one-month trial, Xinhua had, by mid-morning, issued a full report of the verdicts; the ''[[People's Daily]]'' had produced its own editorial by the afternoon.<ref name="gittings2"/>

After having long denied foreign media access to the self-immolation victims, in April 2002 the Government arranged for foreign press to interview the purported survivors of the self-immolation in the presence of state officials. The interviewees refuted claims that the self-immolation was staged, showing their burn injuries as evidence, and denounced Falun Gong while expressing support for the authorities' handling of the group.<ref name=real>{{cite web |first=Jeremy |last=Page |author=Reuters |url=http://www.facts.org.cn/Reports/World/200708/t60322.htm |title=Survivors say China Falun Gong immolations real |date=4 April 2002 |publisher= Facts.org |accessdate=9 February 2007}}</ref> When asked why they set themselves on fire, Hao Huijun replied that she had realised the futility of writing letters and demonstrating by waving banners, "so finally, we decided ... to make a big event to show our will to the world. ... We wanted to show the government that Falun Gong was good."<ref name=real/> At the time of the interview, Chen Guo and her mother were said to still be in the hospital, both having lost their hands, ears and noses.<ref name=real/> Both her mother's eyes were covered with skin grafts. Wang Jindong, showing burns to his face, said he felt "humiliated because of my stupidity and fanatical ideas."<ref name=real/> Liu Baorong, who did not set fire to herself, spent months in "[[Laogai|reform through labour and reeducation]]."

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.falsefire.com/ falsefire.com (Falun Gong site)]
*[http://www.facts.org.cn/Feature/tsi/ Facts.org.cn (Website of China Association For Cultic Studies)]
{{Falun Gong}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{Featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tiananmen Square Self-Immolation Incident}}
[[Category:Falun Gong]]
[[Category:2001 in China]]
[[Category:History of Beijing]]
[[Category:Political repression in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Suicides in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Self-immolations]]
[[Category:Tiananmen Square]]

[[cs:Upálení na náměstí Tchien-an-men]]
[[es:Incidente de la autoinmolación en Tiananmen]]
[[eo:Membruligoj de la placo Tian An Men]]
[[ja:天安門焼身自殺事件]]
[[ru:Групповое самосожжение в Пекине (2001)]]
[[zh:天安门自焚事件]]

Vinyan

2012-10-17T14:14:43Z

1exec1: date formats per WP:MOSNUM

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2012}}
{{unreferenced|date=August 2010}}
{{Infobox film
| image = Vinyan_poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical Poster
| director = [[Fabrice du Welz]]
| producer = {{unbulleted list | [[Cédric Jimenez]] | [[Nadia Khamlichi]] | [[Adrian Politowski]]}}
| writer = {{unbulleted list | Fabrice du Welz | [[Oliver Blackburn]] | [[David Greig (dramatist)|David Greig]]}}
| starring = {{unbulleted list | [[Emmanuelle Béart]] | [[Rufus Sewell]] | [[Julie Dreyfus]]}}
| music = [[François-Eudes Chanfrault]]
| cinematography = [[Benoît Debie]]
| editing = [[Colin Monie]]
| studio = [[The Film]]
| distributor = {{unbulleted list | [[Wild Bunch Distribution]] (France) | [[Sony Pictures Releasing]] (United States)}}
| released = {{film date|df=yes|2008|10|01|France|2009|04|07|United States}}
| runtime = 96 minutes
| country = {{unbulleted list | [[France]] | [[Belgium]] | [[United Kingdom]] | [[Australia]]}}
| language = English
}}
'''''Vinyan''''' is a 2008 [[drama film]] with [[horror fiction|horror]] themes directed and co-written by [[Fabrice du Welz]]. The film was du Welz' second as a director. The film premiered at the [[Venice Film Festival]] on 30 August 2008.

Reviews towards the film were slightly positive, receiving an aggregated score of 56% from [[Rotten Tomatoes]].

==Plot==
Jeanne and Paul are a wealthy couple who were in Thailand helping to establish an orphanage when the 2004 tsunami leveled the island. Jeanne and Paul had a young son who disappeared in the storm, and since his body has never been found, Jeanne holds out hope that he might still be alive, a hope that becomes a desperate concern when she sees a video of children being held by kidnappers in Burma which shows a child who looks like her boy. Eager to find out the truth, Paul pays a hefty fee to local outlaw Mr. Gao to escort him and Jeanne into a forbidden zone known only to Thailand's criminal underclass near the Burmese border. Jeanne and Paul soon find themselves out of their depth in a strange land they do not understand where dangerous men commune with the spirits of the dead.

==Cast==
* [[Emmanuelle Béart]] as ''Jeanne Bellmer''
* [[Rufus Sewell]] as "Paul Bellmer"
* [[Petch Osathanugrah]] as ''Thaksin Gao''
* [[Julie Dreyfus]] as "Kim"

==Release==
The film first appeared in North America at the [[Toronto International Film Festival]], where it premiered on 5 September 2008.

== External links ==
*{{official|http://www.vinyan-lefilm.com/}} {{fr}}
* {{imdb title|1029241}}
* {{Amg movie|467375}}

[[Category:2008 films]]
[[Category:2000s drama films]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:Films set in Thailand]]
[[Category:French films]]
[[Category:2000s thriller films]]
[[Category:Films set in 2004]]
[[Category:Buddy films]]
[[Category:Films set in Burma]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Belgian films]]
[[Category:Australian films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Fabrice Du Welz]]
[[Category:2000s horror films]]

[[fr:Vinyan]]
[[it:Vinyan]]
[[nl:Vinyan]]
[[ja:変態島]]