Volvo FL

2007-05-08T15:23:58Z

195.195.190.4:

[[Image:Vtm-tv spacelink (volvo) 2001.11.21.jpg|thumb|Volvo FL 6 from the mid-1990s]]

The '''Volvo FL''' is Volvo's smallest truck and is suitable for local and regional distribution operations, refuse collection, construction truck or small format tractor. The Volvo FL is available in two models, The Volvo FL & The New Volvo FL

The Volvo FL is available in the following countries [[Australia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Brunei]], [[China]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Thailand]], [[Turkey]]

The New (2006) Volvo FL is at the moment only available in the following European countries [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia-Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]]

==Technical data==
===Engine - Volvo FL===
The Volvo FL is powered by [[AB Volvo|Volvo’s]] D6B 50 hp, v8-litre in-line -cylinder engine with turbo and intercooler.

The Volvo FL engine is available in one configuration:

{| class="wikitable"
! Power || Torque || Max torque range
|-
| 250 HP (184 [[Kilowatt|kW]])
| 825 [[Newton metre|Nm]]
| 2,400 [[rpm]]
|}

===Engine - New Volvo FL===
The New Volvo FL is powered by the newly developed Volvo D7E 6-cylinder diesel engine with a displacement of 7.2 litres. It is available with 240 or 280 hp, developing peak torque outputs of 920 or 1050Nm respectively.

The New Volvo FL engine is available in two configurations:

{| class="wikitable"
! Power || Torque || Max torque range
|-
| 240 HP (184 [[Kilowatt|kW]])
| 920 [[Newton metre|Nm]]
| 1,050 [[rpm]]
|-
| 280 HP (358 [[Kilowatt|kW]])
| 920 [[Newton metre|Nm]]
| 1,050 [[rpm]]
|}

===Transmission - Volvo FL===
The Volvo FL [[Transmission (mechanics)|transmission]] is offered as an Manual or Automatic. The manual gearbox made by ZF [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZF_Friedrichshafen_AG] for the Volvo FL has full synchromesh, 9-speed and a wide range of gear ratios. The manual gearbox also features an easy-changing gear selector that requires little pressure to operate.

The Automatic gearboxes made by Allison [http://www.allisontransmission.com/] for the Volvo FL are available in several variants adapted to different engine models in 5-speed versions. Volvo FL gearboxes are fitted with a hydraulic torque converter to give superior starting traction and offer a high level of performance and excellent ergonomics.

===Transmission - New Volvo FL===
The new Volvo FL [[Transmission (mechanics)|transmission]] is offered as an Manual or Automatic. The Volvo FL is available with two overdrive manual gearboxes, one with 6 gears and the other with 9. The gearboxes are servo-assisted and light in operation, with a short gear lever. The lever is vibration-free and has a short throw and a very well-defined shift pattern.

The automatic transmission with its 6 speeds is operated smoothly and conveniently with push-buttons on the instrument panel. The automatic transmission is easy on the truck since the engine always operates within its optimum rev. range. This also results in fuel savings. Thanks to a hydraulic torque converter, the transmission provides considerable pulling power when starting off.

==External links==
*[http://www.volvotrucks.com/ Volvo Trucks Official Page]
**[http://www.volvo.com/trucks/global/en-gb/trucks/volvo_FL/volvo_fl.htm/ Direct link to Volvo FL page at volvo.com/trucks]
** [http://www.volvo.com/trucks/global/en-gb/trucks/volvo_fl_2006/ Direct link to New Volvo FL page at volvotrucks.com]

[[Category:Volvo]]
[[Category:Trucks]]

[[sv:Volvo FL]]

Hypothese permanenter Einkommen

2006-11-16T13:34:29Z

195.195.190.4: /* References */

{{cleanup-date|August 2006}}

The '''permanent income hypothesis''' was developed by the American [[economist]] [[Milton Friedman]]. In its simplest form, the permanent income hypothesis states that the choices [[consumer]]s make regarding their [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] [[pattern]]s are determined not by [[Present (time)|current]] income but by their longer-term income [[expectation]]s.

Measured [[income]] and measured consumption contain a [[permanent]] (anticipated and planned) [[wiktionary:element|element]] and a [[transitory]] ([[windfall]]/unexpected) [[wiktionary:element|element]]. Friedman concluded that the individual will consume a constant [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportion]] of his/her [[permanent]] [[income]]; and that low income earners have a higher [[propensity to consume]]; and high income earners have a higher [[transitory]] [[wiktionary:element|element]] to their income and a lower than [[average]] propensity to consume.

The central idea of the permanent-income hypothesis, proposed by Milton Friedman in 1957, is simple: people base consumption on what they consider their "normal" income. In doing this, they attempt to maintain a fairly constant standard of living even though their incomes may vary considerably from month to month or from year to year. As a result, increases and decreases in income that people see as temporary have little effect on their consumption spending.

The idea behind the permanent-income hypothesis is that consumption depends on what people expect to earn over a considerable period of time. As in the life-cycle hypothesis, people smooth out fluctuations in income so that they save during periods of unusually high income and dissave during periods of unusually low income. Thus, a pre-med student should have a higher level of consumption than a graduate student in history if both have the same current income. The pre-med student looks ahead to a much higher future income, and consumes accordingly.

In order to test the theory, Friedman assumed that on the average people would base their idea of normal or permanent income on what had happened over the past several years. Thus, if they computed permanent income as the average of the past four years, and income had been $13,000, $10,000, $15,000, and $8,000, they would consider their permanent income as $11,500.1 Although our expectations of future income do not depend solely on what has happened in the past, these additional factors are almost impossible to include into attempts to test the theory with data.

Both the permanent-income and life-cycle hypotheses loosen the relationship between consumption and income so that an exogenous change in investment may not have a constant multiplier effect. This is more clearly seen in the permanent-income hypothesis, which suggests that people will try to decide whether or not a change of income is temporary. If they decide that it is, it have a small effect on their spending. Only when they become convinced that it is permanent will consumption change by a sizable amount. As is the case with all economic theory, this theory does not describe any particular household, but only what happens on the average.

The life-cycle hypothesis introduced assets into the consumption function, and thereby gave a role to the stock market. A rise in stock prices increases wealth and thus should increase consumption while a fall should reduce consumption. Hence, financial markets matter for consumption as well as for investment. The permanent-income hypothesis introduces lags into the consumption function. An increase in income should not immediately increase consumption spending by very much, but with time it should have a greater and greater effect. Behavior that introduces a lag into the relationship between income and consumption will generate the sort of momentum that business-cycle theories saw. A change in spending changes income, but people only slowly adjust to it. As they do, their extra spending changes income further. An initial increase in spending tends to have effects that take a long time to completely unfold.

The existence of lags also makes government attempts to control the economy more difficult. A change of policy does not have its full effect immediately, but only gradually. By the time it has its full effect, the problem that it was designed to attack may have disappeared.

In Friedman's permanent income hypothesis model, the key determinant of consumption is an individual's real wealth, not his current real disposable income. Permanent income is determined by a consumer's assets; both physical (shares, bonds, property) and human (education and experience). These influence the consumer's ability to earn income. The consumer can then make an estimation of anticipated lifetime income.

The theory suggests that consumers try to smooth out consumer spending based on their estimates of permanent income. Only if there has been a change in permanent income will there be a change in consumption.

The key conclusion of this theory is that transitory changes in income do not affect long run consumer spending behaviour.

Suppose a government cuts taxes prior to a general election. If consumers perceive this to be only a temporary reduction in their tax burden to increase the government's popularity, then consumption will remain unchanged. If the tax cut is seen as permanent then this may cause increased spending.

== Headline text ==
YOU SUCK FAT COCK

Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Volvo FL

Hypothese permanenter Einkommen