Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Pontcysyllte-Aquädukt

2007-10-08T17:00:20Z

193.195.0.102: /* Further reading= */

{{coor title dms|52|58|13.31|N|3|5|15.60|W|type:landmark_scale:20000_region:GB}}

[[Image:WalesC0047.JPG|thumbnail|The Aqueduct, view from the ground]]
[[Image:Under Pontcysyllte.jpg|thumb|The [[River Dee, Wales|River Dee]] runs beneath]]
[[Image:WalesC0171.JPG|thumbnail|A view of the ground below from the aqueduct ]]
The '''Pontcysyllte Aqueduct''' {{pronounced|ˌpɔntkəˈsʌɬtɛ}}) is a navigable [[aqueduct]] that carries the [[Llangollen Canal]] over the valley of the [[River_Dee, _Wales|River Dee]], between the villages of [[Trevor]] and [[Froncysyllte]], [[Wrexham]] in north east [[Wales]]. Completed in 1805, it is both the longest and highest aqueduct in [[Great Britain|Britain]], and is a Grade I [[Listed Building]].<ref>[http://www.wrexham.gov.uk/english/planning_portal/publications/listed_build_exhib/pontcysyllte_aque.htm "Listed Buildings: Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, Trevor"], [[Wrexham County Borough Council]], viewed on 2007-05-25</ref>

The aqueduct, built by Thomas Telford and William Jessop, is 1,007 feet long, 11 feet wide and 5 feet 3 inches deep. It consists of a cast iron trough supported 126 feet above the river by 19 hollow masonry piers (pillars). Each span is 53 feet wide. Many people were sceptical, but Telford was confident: he had built at least one previous cast iron trough aqueduct (the [[Longdon-on-Tern]] aqueduct on the [[Shrewsbury Canal]], still visible in the middle of a field, though the canal was abandoned years ago).

The mortar used comprised lime, water and ox blood. The iron castings were produced at the [[Plaskynaston Foundry]], and each casting dovetails into the next. To caulk the joints, [[Welsh flannel]] was dipped in boiling sugar, after which the joints were sealed with lead. Then it was left for six months with water inside to see if the trough was watertight.

Part of what was originally called the [[Ellesmere Canal]], it was one of the first major feats of [[civil engineering]] undertaken by leading [[civil engineer]] [[Thomas Telford]] (supervised by the more experienced canal engineer [[William Jessop]]). The iron was supplied by William Hazeldine from his foundries at [[Shrewsbury]] and nearby [[Cefn Mawr]]. It was opened on [[26 November]] [[1805]], having taken around ten years to design and build at a total cost of [[Pound sterling|GB£]]47,000.

The towpath is cantilevered over the trough, which is the full width of the aqueduct, so that narrowboats are able to move more freely through the water. Walkers are protected by railings on the outside edge of the towpath, but the holes to fit railings on the other side of the aqueduct were never used. As the edge of the trough is only about 6 inches above the water level, and therefore '''below''' the deck of a narrowboat, the boat steerer has nothing between them and the sheer drop.

There used to be an accessible small handle in a recess on the footpath in the middle of the centre span {{Fact|date=September 2007}}, the pulling of which would cause a cascade of water to tumble into the River Dee below. This cascade can still be seen every few years when the aqueduct is emptied for maintenance.

The aqueduct was suggested as a contender for [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage]] status in 2005, its 200th anniversary year,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/north_east/4470534.stm |title=Aqueduct's big bicentenary party |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[2005-11-27]]}}</ref> and formally nominated in 2006.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/north_east/6037203.stm |title=Aqueduct set for heritage status |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[2006-10-10]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Canals of the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of canal aqueducts in Great Britain]]

==Further reading==
* "Memories of Pontcysyllte" by Amy Douglas and Fiona Collins (2006)

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/panoramas/pontcysyllte_aqueduct_360.shtml 360 Degree Panoramic View at BBC Shropshire] (Java Applet Required)
*[http://local.live.com/default.aspx?v=2&cp=52.97014~-3.088328&style=h&lvl=17&scene=4254555 Aerial photo at Windows Live Local]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/49078.stm There really is a plug in the bottom! (BBC local news pictures.)]
*[http://www.wrexham.gov.uk/english/leisure_tourism/Wrexham_Tour/Content/aqueduct_still.htm Wrexham On-line Tour: Pontcysyllte Aqueduct]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Aqueducts in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1805]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Denbighshire]]
[[Category:Canals in Wales]]
[[Category:Grade I listed bridges]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Wales]]
[[Category:Tourist Attractions in Wrexham county borough]]
[[Category:Works of Thomas Telford]]

[[fr:Pontcysyllte Aqueduct]]

Pontcysyllte-Aquädukt

2007-10-08T16:59:50Z

193.195.0.102:

{{coor title dms|52|58|13.31|N|3|5|15.60|W|type:landmark_scale:20000_region:GB}}

[[Image:WalesC0047.JPG|thumbnail|The Aqueduct, view from the ground]]
[[Image:Under Pontcysyllte.jpg|thumb|The [[River Dee, Wales|River Dee]] runs beneath]]
[[Image:WalesC0171.JPG|thumbnail|A view of the ground below from the aqueduct ]]
The '''Pontcysyllte Aqueduct''' {{pronounced|ˌpɔntkəˈsʌɬtɛ}}) is a navigable [[aqueduct]] that carries the [[Llangollen Canal]] over the valley of the [[River_Dee, _Wales|River Dee]], between the villages of [[Trevor]] and [[Froncysyllte]], [[Wrexham]] in north east [[Wales]]. Completed in 1805, it is both the longest and highest aqueduct in [[Great Britain|Britain]], and is a Grade I [[Listed Building]].<ref>[http://www.wrexham.gov.uk/english/planning_portal/publications/listed_build_exhib/pontcysyllte_aque.htm "Listed Buildings: Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, Trevor"], [[Wrexham County Borough Council]], viewed on 2007-05-25</ref>

The aqueduct, built by Thomas Telford and William Jessop, is 1,007 feet long, 11 feet wide and 5 feet 3 inches deep. It consists of a cast iron trough supported 126 feet above the river by 19 hollow masonry piers (pillars). Each span is 53 feet wide. Many people were sceptical, but Telford was confident: he had built at least one previous cast iron trough aqueduct (the [[Longdon-on-Tern]] aqueduct on the [[Shrewsbury Canal]], still visible in the middle of a field, though the canal was abandoned years ago).

The mortar used comprised lime, water and ox blood. The iron castings were produced at the [[Plaskynaston Foundry]], and each casting dovetails into the next. To caulk the joints, [[Welsh flannel]] was dipped in boiling sugar, after which the joints were sealed with lead. Then it was left for six months with water inside to see if the trough was watertight.

Part of what was originally called the [[Ellesmere Canal]], it was one of the first major feats of [[civil engineering]] undertaken by leading [[civil engineer]] [[Thomas Telford]] (supervised by the more experienced canal engineer [[William Jessop]]). The iron was supplied by William Hazeldine from his foundries at [[Shrewsbury]] and nearby [[Cefn Mawr]]. It was opened on [[26 November]] [[1805]], having taken around ten years to design and build at a total cost of [[Pound sterling|GB£]]47,000.

The towpath is cantilevered over the trough, which is the full width of the aqueduct, so that narrowboats are able to move more freely through the water. Walkers are protected by railings on the outside edge of the towpath, but the holes to fit railings on the other side of the aqueduct were never used. As the edge of the trough is only about 6 inches above the water level, and therefore '''below''' the deck of a narrowboat, the boat steerer has nothing between them and the sheer drop.

There used to be an accessible small handle in a recess on the footpath in the middle of the centre span {{Fact|date=September 2007}}, the pulling of which would cause a cascade of water to tumble into the River Dee below. This cascade can still be seen every few years when the aqueduct is emptied for maintenance.

The aqueduct was suggested as a contender for [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage]] status in 2005, its 200th anniversary year,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/north_east/4470534.stm |title=Aqueduct's big bicentenary party |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[2005-11-27]]}}</ref> and formally nominated in 2006.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/north_east/6037203.stm |title=Aqueduct set for heritage status |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[2006-10-10]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Canals of the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of canal aqueducts in Great Britain]]

==Further reading===
* "Memories of Pontcysyllte" by Amy Douglas and Fiona Collins (2006)

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/panoramas/pontcysyllte_aqueduct_360.shtml 360 Degree Panoramic View at BBC Shropshire] (Java Applet Required)
*[http://local.live.com/default.aspx?v=2&cp=52.97014~-3.088328&style=h&lvl=17&scene=4254555 Aerial photo at Windows Live Local]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/49078.stm There really is a plug in the bottom! (BBC local news pictures.)]
*[http://www.wrexham.gov.uk/english/leisure_tourism/Wrexham_Tour/Content/aqueduct_still.htm Wrexham On-line Tour: Pontcysyllte Aqueduct]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Aqueducts in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1805]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Denbighshire]]
[[Category:Canals in Wales]]
[[Category:Grade I listed bridges]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Wales]]
[[Category:Tourist Attractions in Wrexham county borough]]
[[Category:Works of Thomas Telford]]

[[fr:Pontcysyllte Aqueduct]]

Pontcysyllte-Aquädukt

2007-10-08T16:56:45Z

193.195.0.102: added biblio

{{coor title dms|52|58|13.31|N|3|5|15.60|W|type:landmark_scale:20000_region:GB}}

[[Image:WalesC0047.JPG|thumbnail|The Aqueduct, view from the ground]]
[[Image:Under Pontcysyllte.jpg|thumb|The [[River Dee, Wales|River Dee]] runs beneath]]
[[Image:WalesC0171.JPG|thumbnail|A view of the ground below from the aqueduct ]]
The '''Pontcysyllte Aqueduct''' {{pronounced|ˌpɔntkəˈsʌɬtɛ}}) is a navigable [[aqueduct]] that carries the [[Llangollen Canal]] over the valley of the [[River_Dee, _Wales|River Dee]], between the villages of [[Trevor]] and [[Froncysyllte]], [[Wrexham]] in north [[Wales]]. Completed in 1805, it is both the longest and highest aqueduct in [[Great Britain|Britain]], and is a Grade I [[Listed Building]].<ref>[http://www.wrexham.gov.uk/english/planning_portal/publications/listed_build_exhib/pontcysyllte_aque.htm "Listed Buildings: Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, Trevor"], [[Wrexham County Borough Council]], viewed on 2007-05-25</ref>

The aqueduct, built by Thomas Telford and William Jessop, is 1,007 feet long, 11 feet wide and 5 feet 3 inches deep. It consists of a cast iron trough supported 126 feet above the river by 19 hollow masonry piers (pillars). Each span is 53 feet wide. Many people were sceptical, but Telford was confident: he had built at least one previous cast iron trough aqueduct (the [[Longdon-on-Tern]] aqueduct on the [[Shrewsbury Canal]], still visible in the middle of a field, though the canal was abandoned years ago).

The mortar used comprised lime, water and ox blood. The iron castings were produced at the [[Plaskynaston Foundry]], and each casting dovetails into the next. To caulk the joints, [[Welsh flannel]] was dipped in boiling sugar, after which the joints were sealed with lead. Then it was left for six months with water inside to see if the trough was watertight.

Part of what was originally called the [[Ellesmere Canal]], it was one of the first major feats of [[civil engineering]] undertaken by leading [[civil engineer]] [[Thomas Telford]] (supervised by the more experienced canal engineer [[William Jessop]]). The iron was supplied by William Hazeldine from his foundries at [[Shrewsbury]] and nearby [[Cefn Mawr]]. It was opened on [[26 November]] [[1805]], having taken around ten years to design and build at a total cost of [[Pound sterling|GB£]]47,000.

The towpath is cantilevered over the trough, which is the full width of the aqueduct, so that narrowboats are able to move more freely through the water. Walkers are protected by railings on the outside edge of the towpath, but the holes to fit railings on the other side of the aqueduct were never used. As the edge of the trough is only about 6 inches above the water level, and therefore '''below''' the deck of a narrowboat, the boat steerer has nothing between them and the sheer drop.

There used to be an accessible small handle in a recess on the footpath in the middle of the centre span {{Fact|date=September 2007}}, the pulling of which would cause a cascade of water to tumble into the River Dee below. This cascade can still be seen every few years when the aqueduct is emptied for maintenance.

The aqueduct was suggested as a contender for [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage]] status in 2005, its 200th anniversary year,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/north_east/4470534.stm |title=Aqueduct's big bicentenary party |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[2005-11-27]]}}</ref> and formally nominated in 2006.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/north_east/6037203.stm |title=Aqueduct set for heritage status |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[2006-10-10]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Canals of the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of canal aqueducts in Great Britain]]

==Further reading===
* "Memories of Pontcysyllte" by Amy Douglas and Fiona Collins (2006)

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/content/panoramas/pontcysyllte_aqueduct_360.shtml 360 Degree Panoramic View at BBC Shropshire] (Java Applet Required)
*[http://local.live.com/default.aspx?v=2&cp=52.97014~-3.088328&style=h&lvl=17&scene=4254555 Aerial photo at Windows Live Local]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/49078.stm There really is a plug in the bottom! (BBC local news pictures.)]
*[http://www.wrexham.gov.uk/english/leisure_tourism/Wrexham_Tour/Content/aqueduct_still.htm Wrexham On-line Tour: Pontcysyllte Aqueduct]

==References==
<references/>

[[Category:Aqueducts in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1805]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Denbighshire]]
[[Category:Canals in Wales]]
[[Category:Grade I listed bridges]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in Wales]]
[[Category:Tourist Attractions in Wrexham county borough]]
[[Category:Works of Thomas Telford]]

[[fr:Pontcysyllte Aqueduct]]

Rhosllannerchrugog

2007-10-06T13:42:05Z

193.195.0.102: /* Notable people */ incorrect int link

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!colspan="2"|<div style="position: relative; background:#ffffff" class="toccolours">[[Image:WalesWrexham.png]]<div style="position: absolute; left: 195px; top: 55px">[[Image:Red Dot.svg]]</div></div>
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#efefef"|Ordnance Survey
|-
|style="width:50%;"|[[British national grid reference system|OS grid reference]]:||SJ295465
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#efefef"|Administration
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Constituent country|Country]]:||[[Wales]]
|-
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Subdivisions of Wales|Principal area]]:||[[Wrexham County Borough]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Preserved counties of Wales|Ceremonial county]]:||[[Clwyd]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Traditional counties of Wales|Historic county]]:||[[Denbighshire]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#efefef"|Post office and telephone
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[Post town]]:||WREXHAM
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[UK postcodes|Postal district]]:||LL14 1xx
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[UK telephone numbering plan|Dialling code]]:||01978
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#efefef"|Politics
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom|UK Parliament]]:||[[Clwyd South (UK Parliament constituency)|Clwyd South]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[National Assembly for Wales|National Assembly]]:||[[Clwyd South (National Assembly for Wales constituency)|Clwyd South]] <br />& [[North Wales (National Assembly for Wales constituency)|North Wales]]
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
|[[European Parliament]]:|| [[Wales (European Parliament constituency)|Wales]]
|-
!colspan="2" bgcolor="#efefef"|[[Image:Flag of Wales 2.svg|40px|Flag of Wales]]
|}
'''Rhosllanerchrugog''' ({{lang-cy|Rhosllannerchrugog}}) is a village in the county borough of [[Wrexham (county borough)|Wrexham]] in north-east [[Wales]]. It is often known simply as ''Rhos''. Literally translated the name comes from the [[Welsh language|Welsh]]: '''rhos''' "''moor''"; '''llannerch''' "''glade''"; '''grugog''' "''heathery''" hence "Moor of the Heathery Glade." Rhos has a population of approximately 10,000 which makes it one of the largest villages in Wales.

==History==
The village was part of the ancient parish of [[Ruabon]] and the district was referred to as '''Moreton Above''' (i.e. Moreton, or moor town, above [[Offa's Dyke]]) or '''Moreton Wallichorum''' (the “Welsh Moreton”). In 1844 Moreton Above became part of the newly created parish of Rhosllanerchrugog.

Residents of Rhosllanerchrugog are often referred to as 'Jackos'. The original settlers in the area were believed to be [[Jacobitism|Jacobites]], banished from Wrexham town centre. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

The development of the village may be largely attributed to the [[coal]] seams of north-east Wales that pass beneath the village. A large mining community was established during the 18th century. A symbol of Rhos' coal-mining and labour movement heritage is seen in the "Stiwt", the Miners' Institute of Broad Street. This fine structure was erected and paid for by the miners as a social and cultural centre for the community. It was built during the [[UK General Strike of 1926|general strike of 1926]].

The Welsh Religious Revival of 1904 left a major impact on Rhosllanerchrugog. The famous bardic line ''Beibl a Rhaw i Bobl y Rhos'' (a Bible and a Spade - i.e. the mining implement - for the people of Rhos) reflect the importance of both coal-mining and the chapels on the village's culture and heritage.

The influence of the - predominantly [[Welsh language]] - churches and chapels impacted greatly on the linguistic and cultural profile of the area, and until the early [[1980s]] chapel-going was significantly higher in Rhos than in most other parts of Wales or the UK. One result of this is that although only nine miles from the English border and surrounded by English-speaking villages, Welsh is still spoken as a community language in Rhosllanerchrugog.

The village had its own weekly newspaper, the [[Rhos Herald]]. The paper was founded by Richard Mills, originally from [[Llanidloes]], who set up his printing business in Hall Street. He produced 3737 issues between 18 August 1894 and 31 December 1966. Since the mid-1970s, a Welsh language community newspaper featuring local news and other features, ''[[Nene]]'', has been produced in the village.

Approximately 40% of the village is Welsh Speaking. (2001 Census)

Rhosllanerchrugog hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1945]] and [[1961]] and the [[Celtic League (political organisation)|Celtic League]] was founded here in [[1961]] during the Eisteddfod.
The 1961 event was immortalised in the poem and song ''The Cross Foxes'' by [[Harri Webb]] remembering the night when "In Rhosllanerchrugog we drank the pub dry"!

==Architecture==

'''Notable buildings include:'''
[[Image:StiwtTheatreRhosllanerchrugog.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Stiwt Theatre, Broad Street]]
[[Image:CoachAndHorsesRhosllanerchrugog.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Coach & Horses Public House, Vinegar Hill]]
[[Image:HighSt1Rhosllanerchrugog.jpg|right|thumb|200px|High Street]]

The Stiwt Theatre. Formerly the "Miner's Institute" (Plas Mwynwyr) which was built in 1926 and dominated the social and cultural life of the village until 1977 when it closed. The local council, which had purchased the building in 1978, decided to demolish the building in 1985, but the building was saved as a result of local campaigning. As a result of local fundraising efforts, the building has been renovated and reopened, and now operates as a community theatre.

Church of St John Evangelist. A grade II listed building, built in 1852. Norman style in coursed and squared sand stone with slate roofs. It has a cruciform plan with nave, transept and chancel and bell tower in angle of south transept and chancel. A good example of a Romanesque Revival Church.

Penuel Chapel (Capel Penuel). Two storey Welsh chapel built in 1856-9 with a brick facade installed during renovations performed 1856-91. The chapel was the starting point site of R.B. Jones's campaign in the village during the religious revival in 1904-1905. One of the chapel's ministers was [[Lewis Valentine]].

==Religious Revival 1904-1905==
Rhos was one of the centres of the Welsh religious revival of 1904-5. R. B. Jones, a visiting Baptist preacher, held a campaign in Penuel Baptist Chapel, Rhosllanerchrugog in November 1904.

==Musical Heritage==
Rhos is also renowned for its rich musical heritage.

Composers from the village include the Welsh composer of hymn-tunes Dr [[Caradog Roberts]], most well known as composer of the hymn tune "Rachie". [[Arwel Hughes]], father of the conductor [[Owain Arwel Hughes]], and composer of the hymn tune "Tydi a Roddaist" also came from the village.

Notable performers from the village include the baritone [[James Sauvage]] and pianist [[Llŷr Williams]].

Rhos is also home of several choirs, including the Rhos Male Voice Choir/Côr Meibion Rhosllannerchrugog; the Rhos Orpheus Male Voice Choir/Côr Orffiws Y Rhos; a Pensioner's Choir, Côr Pensiynwyr Rhosllannerchrugog; a Girl's Choir, Côr Merched Rhosllanerchrugog, a mixed voice choir currently celebrating 25 years in existence, Cantorion Rhos/The Rhos Singers, and formerly a Brass Band, the Rhos Silver Band. Unfortunately, lack of rehearsal facilities saw the Brass Band move to the neighbouring town of Wrexham, under the new name, Wrexham Brass, but they continue to excel at competitions throughout Wales and the United Kingdom consistently.
The Male Voice Choirs are known throughout the world, following many tours to many countries, and consistently enjoy success at national, and international level. The choirs have benefitted from exceptional leadership from world-class conductors, the most notable of recent years being John Glyn Williams, John Daniel and Emyr James.

Today the village has its own concert hall at the Stiwt Theatre.

== Unique Dialect ==
The village has always had a reputation, especially amomgst other Welsh speaking communities, for its' unique dialect of the Welsh language. The main example, is a word that has become synonymous with the village: "Nene", meaning "that".
It is so highly associated with the village, that the local, monthly paper is simply titled "Nene". The word "Nene" is pronounced as "nair-nair", and is sometimes used in association with another unique word, "Ene" (air-nair), meaning "there". As in the question:
"Be 'di nene ene?"
Which translates as:
"What's that there?"
There are of course, many other examples. However, "nene" and "ene", are probably the most famous of them all.

==Cemetery Debacle==
In September 2006, letters were sent by Rhos Community Council to relatives of people buried in the town's cemetery, where former Miss World Rosmarie Frankland is buried, asking the relative to limit the number of memorials left at gravesites. Relatives, who claimed the issue had been handled "insensitively" collected an 850-signature petition against the council's move to clean up the cemetery. In September 2006, some 60 families turned out to protest the actions of a "power hungry" community council, which threatened to confiscate the graveside tribues left by families. The community council, reportedly planned to lawn the cemetery and feared that too many graveside tributes would breach health and safety rules.

==Notable people==
Notable people from Rhosllanerchrugog include:
* [[Meredith Edwards (actor)|Meredith Edwards]] - actor
* [[Rosemarie Frankland]] - Miss World, 1961 [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northeast/guides/halloffame/showbiz/rosemarie_frankland.shtml]
* [[Isaac Daniel Hooson]] - poet
* [[Arwel Hughes]] - composer
* [[Llŷr Williams]] - pianist [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northeast/guides/halloffame/showbiz/llyr_williams.shtml]
* Colin Jones - conductor, pianist

==Transport==
The village was once linked to the [[Great Western Railway]] by a branch line which ran to the village from nearby [[Wrexham]] via Rhostyllen and Legacy. The passenger service continued for a short period to halts at Brook Street, Pant and [[Wynn Hall]] although goods trains ran through to [[Pontcysyllte]] wharf on the [[Shropshire Union Canal]] via Plas Bennion and Acrefair. A second line also passed through nearby [[Ponciau]], branching off from Legacy, with halts at Fennant Road, Aberderfyn and Ponkey Crossing, and joining the main line again at Wynnville, [[Ruabon]]. Since the closure of regular passenger service on all of these lines by the 1930s, the village has relied on road transport.

The village was also the end of the line of the [[Wrexham and District Electric Tramway Company]]. The tram service began operating in 1903 and originally ran from Penybryn in [[Wrexham]] to the New Inn in [[Johnstown]] but this was soon extended up Gutter Hill to Duke Street in Rhos. The company had its depot and staging area in nearby [[Johnstown]]. The trams were eventually and gradually replaced by buses owned by the same company which was renamed The Wrexham & District Transport Company.

Several local companies operated bus services in the village. The red and cream buses of '''Phillips & Son''' of Rhostyllen ran from Wrexham to Rhos via Johnstown and, at one time on to Tainant, from 1927 until it was taken over by '''[[Crosville Motor Services|Crosville]]''' in 1979. '''T. Williams & Sons''' ran a service from Rhos to Wrexham from the 1920s until 1986. The last surviving independent local company, '''Wright & Son''', ran a service from Penycae to Wrexham via Rhos, and later via Ponciau also. When the bus industry was de-regulated in 1986 there was fierce competition between Wright's and the much larger Crosville. Wrights' ceased operations in 1993 leaving Crosville as the sole service provider in the area. Crosville itself became part of the [[Arriva]] group, who still operate a frequent bus service between Rhos and Wrexham town centre.
[[Image:rhos_bus_tickets.jpg|center|thumb|400px|Tickets from local bus services]]
<br style="clear:both;" />

The nearby [[A483 road]] provides links to [[Liverpool]] and [[Manchester]] to the north and [[Birmingham]], [[Swansea]] and [[Cardiff]] to the south.

==Bibliography==
Books about Rhosllannerchrugog include:
* "Hanes Rhosllannerchrugog" (The History of Rhosllannerchrugog) (1945) J. Rhosydd Williams
* "Through These Windows, A Place and Its People" (1981) Bill Portmadoc-Jones.
* "Rhos-Llannerch-Rugog: Atgofion" (Memories of Rhosllannerchrugog) (1955) William Phillips (1880-1969)
* "Rhosllannerchrugog, Johnstown, Ponciau, Pen-y-cae, a collection of pictures" (2 Volumes, 1991-92), Dennis W Gilpin
* "Language Obsolescence and Revitalization: Linguistic Change in Two Sociolinguistically Contrasting Welsh Communities" (1998) Mari Jones (study of the language of Rhosllanerchrugog)

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/cymru/gogleddddwyrain/safle/rhos/ Gwefan Rhosllannerchrugog (BBC)]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northeast/sites/wrexham/pages/rhos.shtml Rhos/Wrexham History (BBC)]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/cymru/gogleddddwyrain/papurau_bro/nene/ Nene (BBC)]
*[http://www.rmvc.co.uk/ Rhos Male Voice Choir]
*[http://www.rhosorpheus-mc.co.uk/ Rhos Orpheus Male Voice Choir]
*[http://www.stiwt.co.uk/ Y Stiwt]
*[http://www.gtj.org.uk/en/item1/20433 'Twm Sbaen' (LLGC)]
*[http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/wal/DEN/Rhosllanerchrugog/ GenUKI page for Rhos]
*[http://www.bangor.ac.uk/is/llyfrcym/newspapers.htm#R Rhos Herald index at Bangor]
*{{oscoor gbx|SJ295465}}
*[http://www.tmcnet.com/usubmit/-wales-take-flowers-off-our-graves-/2006/09/12/1879128.htm News report of cemetery debacle]
*[http://www.capeli.org.uk/english/local_05_rhosllanerchrugog.pdf Leaflet Describing Chapels of Rhosllanerchrugog]

{{coor title d|53.01115|N|3.05221|W|region:GB_source:enwiki-osgb36(SJ295465)}}

[[Category:Traditional county of Denbighshire]]
[[Category:Villages in Wrexham county borough]]

[[cy:Rhosllannerchrugog]]
[[no:Rhosllanerchrugog]]

Thomas Jones, Baron Maelor

2007-10-03T18:17:11Z

193.195.0.102:

#RENAME [[Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor]]

'''Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor''' ([[10 February]] [[1898]], [[Ponciau]], [[Wrexham]], [[Wales]] - [[18 November]] [[1984]], [[Ponciau]], [[Wrexham]], [[Wales]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] politician. He was [[Member of Parliament]] for Merioneth from 1951 until his retirement in 1966. Subsequently, he was given a [[life peerage]] as '''Baron Maelor''', of [[Rhosllannerchrugog]] in the County of [[Denbighshire]].

Born into a mining family, he was educated at Ponciau School before becoming a [[coal miner]] at the nearby Bersham colliery. He later attended Normal College [[Bangor|Bangor, Gwynedd]] and qualified as a teacher.

During [[World War I]] he was a [[conscientious objector]] but served in the army as a [[non-combatant]]. He was received a six-month prison sentence by [[court-martial]] for refusing to obey orders, on grounds of conscience, which he served at [[Wormwood Scrubs (HM Prison)|Wormwood Scrubs]] prison in [[London]] and [[Dartmoor (HM Prison)|Dartmoor]] prison in Devon.

Jones firstly stood as a Labour candidate in 1935 but was unsuccessful. However, in the 1951 general election he was elected as [[Member of Parliament]] for Merioneth, a position he held until 1966.

He was a poet and a member of the [[Gorsedd]] of [[Bards]] at the [[National Eisteddfod of Wales]] and served as President of the [[International Eisteddfod]] at [[Llangollen]].

Lord Maelor died in a fire at his home in Ponciau in 1984.

He was the brother of [[James Idwal Jones]], who was Member of Parliament (Labour) for Wrexham from 1955 to 1970.

==References==
*{{rayment}}

{{start box}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Merionethshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Merionethshire]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|1951]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1966|1966]]
| before = [[Emrys Owain Roberts]]
| after = [[William Edwards (politician)|William Edwards]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{UK-MP-stub}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jones, Thomas William}}
[[Category:1898 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:Labour MPs (UK)]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Welsh constituencies]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1951-1955]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1955-1959]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1959-1964]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1964-1966]]
[[Category:Life peers|Maelor]]

Thomas Jones, Baron Maelor

2007-09-20T15:58:53Z

193.195.0.102: added info

#RENAME [[Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor]]

'''Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor''' ([[10 February]] [[1898]], [[Ponciau]], [[Wrexham]], [[Wales]] - [[18 November]] [[1984]], [[Ponciau]], [[Wrexham]], [[Wales]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] politician. He was [[Member of Parliament]] for Merioneth from 1951 until his retirement in 1966. Subsequently, he was given a [[life peerage]] as '''Baron Maelor''', of [[Rhosllannerchrugog]] in the County of [[Denbighshire]].

Born into a mining family, he was educated at Ponciau School before becoming a [[coal miner]] at the nearby Bersham colliery. He later attended Normal College [[Bangor|Bangor, Gwynedd]] and qualified as a teacher.

During [[World War I]] he was a [[conscientious objector]] but served in the army as a [[non-combatant]]. He was received a six-month prison sentence by [[court-martial]] for refusing to obey orders, on grounds of conscience, which he served at [[Wormwood Scrubs|Wormwood Scrubs (HM Prison)]] prison in [[London]] and [[Dartmoor|Dartmoor (HM Prison)]] prison in Devon.

Jones firstly stood as a Labour candidate in 1935 but was unsuccessful. However, in the 1951 general election he was elected as [[Member of Parliament]] for Merioneth, a position he held until 1966.

He was a poet and a member of the [[Gorsedd]] of [[Bards]] at the [[National Eisteddfod of Wales]] and served as President of the [[International Eisteddfod]] at [[Llangollen]].

Lord Maelor died in a fire at his home in Ponciau in 1984.

He was the brother of [[James Idwal Jones]], who was Member of Parliament (Labour) for Wrexham from 1955 to 1970.

==References==
*{{rayment}}

{{start box}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Merionethshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Merionethshire]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|1951]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1966|1966]]
| before = [[Emrys Owain Roberts]]
| after = [[William Edwards (politician)|William Edwards]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{UK-MP-stub}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jones, Thomas William}}
[[Category:1898 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:Labour MPs (UK)]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Welsh constituencies]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1951-1955]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1955-1959]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1959-1964]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1964-1966]]
[[Category:Life peers|Maelor]]

Thomas Jones, Baron Maelor

2007-09-19T18:10:26Z

193.195.0.102: added def sort

'''Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor''' ([[10 February]] [[1898]] - [[18 November]] [[1984]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] politician. He was [[Member of Parliament]] for Merioneth from 1951 until his retirement in 1966. Subsequently, he was given a [[life peerage]] as '''Baron Maelor''', of [[Rhosllanerchrugog]] in the County of [[Denbighshire]].

He was the brother of James Idwal Jones, Member of Parliament (Labour) for Wrexham from 1955 to 1970.

==References==
*{{rayment}}

{{start box}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Merionethshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Merionethshire]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|1951]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1966|1966]]
| before = [[Emrys Owain Roberts]]
| after = [[William Edwards (politician)|William Edwards]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{UK-MP-stub}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Jones, Thomas William}}
[[Category:1898 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:Labour MPs (UK)]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Welsh constituencies]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1951-1955]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1955-1959]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1959-1964]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1964-1966]]
[[Category:Life peers|Maelor]]

Thomas Jones, Baron Maelor

2007-09-19T17:56:51Z

193.195.0.102: added info

'''Thomas William Jones, Baron Maelor''' ([[10 February]] [[1898]] - [[18 November]] [[1984]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] politician. He was [[Member of Parliament]] for Merioneth from 1951 until his retirement in 1966. Subsequently, he was given a [[life peerage]] as '''Baron Maelor''', of [[Rhosllanerchrugog]] in the County of [[Denbighshire]].

He was the brother of James Idwal Jones, Member of Parliament (Labour) for Wrexham from 1955 to 1970.

==References==
*{{rayment}}

{{start box}}
{{s-par|uk}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Merionethshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Merionethshire]]
| years = [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|1951]]–[[United Kingdom general election, 1966|1966]]
| before = [[Emrys Owain Roberts]]
| after = [[William Edwards (politician)|William Edwards]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{UK-MP-stub}}
[[Category:1898 births|Jones, Thomas]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Jones, Thomas]]
[[Category:Life peers|Maelor]] 
[[Category:Labour MPs (UK)|Jones, Thomas]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for Welsh constituencies|Jones, Thomas]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1951-1955|Jones, Thomas]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1955-1959|Jones, Thomas]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1959-1964|Jones, Thomas]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1964-1966|Jones, Thomas]]

Amlwch

2007-09-16T12:22:42Z

193.195.0.102:

{{infobox UK place|
|country =Wales
|welsh_name=
|constituency_welsh_assembly=[[Ynys Môn (National Assembly for Wales constituency)|Ynys Môn]]
|official_name=Amlwch
|os_grid_reference=SH439930
|unitary_wales=[[Anglesey]]
|lieutenancy_wales=[[Gwynedd]]
|constituency_westminster=[[Ynys Môn (UK Parliament constituency)|Ynys Môn]]
|post_town=AMLWCH
|postcode_district=LL68
|postcode_area=LL
|dial_code=01407
|population=3,438 (2001 census)
|map_type=
}}

'''Amlwch''' is the most northerly [[town]] in [[Wales]]. It is in the north east of the Isle of [[Anglesey]], just off the north Wales coast and on the [[A5025 road|A5025]].
The meaning of Amlwch translated in English is 'Around dust' as it is well known for its industrial heritage.

According to legend in the Middle Ages the town developed on a site that had a harbour but was not visible from the sea which helped to reduce the chance of Viking attacks.

It grew in the [[eighteenth century]] around what was then the world's biggest [[copper]] mine at the nearby [[Parys Mountain]]. By the late eighteenth century, Amlwch had a population of around 10,000 and was the second largest town in Wales after [[Merthyr Tydfil]]. It was at this time that its harbour was also extended to allow for the ships needed to transport the ore. It is currently only the [[List of Anglesey towns by population|fourth largest settlement on the island]] with 3,438 inhabitants!

When copper mining began to decline in the mid 1850s shipbuilding became the main industry with many people also becoming involved in the ship repair and other sea going industries. Even after the decline of the copper mine some chemical industries remained, and in 1953 a chemical plant to extract [[bromine]] from sea water ( for use in petrol engines ) was built but this closed in 2004. The imminent closure of nearby [[Wylfa]] nuclear power station will have a further detrimental effect on the local economy.

At the peak of the copper mining, it is believed that Amlwch had a record of [[public house]] to person [[ratio]], with there being one pub for every 4 people. Today the ratio is nowhere near that mark but you can find pubs such as [[The Kings Head, Amlwch|The King's Head]], The Queen's Head, The Mariner, Dinorben Arms Hotel, The Bull and Market Tavern in the town, and The Adelphi Vaults and Liverpool Arms down in the port area. It also used to have a station which was the northern terminus for the [[Anglesey Central Railway]] which was open between [[1864]] and [[1993]].

Attractions in Amlwch include its restored [[port]], the [[Anglesey Coastal Path]] which passes through it, its [[watch house]] containing a small Heritage centre, and the [[reinforced concrete]] church [[Our Lady of the Sea]]. The town's [[leisure centre]] is one of the few on Anglesey and has a swimming pool, sports centre and [[Squash (sport)|squash]] courts.

The town also has a [[football]] team, [[Amlwch Town F.C.]], that play in the [[Welsh Alliance League|Welsh Alliance]] League.

It is also home to the local [[secondary school]], ''Ysgol Syr Thomas Jones''.

==External links==
*[http://y2u.co.uk/&002_Images/Parys_Mountain_01.htm Photos of the Parys Mountain Copper Mine near Amlwch]
*[http://www.amlwchtownfc.co.uk Amlwch Town Football Club Website]
*[http://www.parysmountain.co.uk History of Copper mining at Parys Mountain]
*[http://www.copperkingdom.co.uk Industrial History of Amlwch]
*[http://www.amlwch.net Amlwch's Community Website]

{{coor title dm|53|24|N|4|20|W|region:GB_type:city}}

[[Category:Towns in Anglesey]]

[[cy:Amlwch]]
[[lt:Amlwch]]
[[nl:Amlwch]]
[[sv:Amlwch]]

Finsternis bei der Kreuzigung Jesu

2007-06-15T17:59:58Z

193.195.0.102:

'''Crucifixion eclipse''' refers to the three-hour period of darkness that was reported to have transpired during the crucifixion of [[Jesus Christ]] at [[Calvary]] ([[Golgotha]]). [[Total solar eclipse]]s and meteorological obscurations have failed to satisfy its salient features. The ancient meaning of the word [[eclipse]] was not restricted to the obscuration of light by either the Earth or Moon.
== Time reckoning conventions ==
Recorded descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse were expressed in terms of the Roman time reckoning system. Judea, like many Mediterranean nations, was under the rule of the Roman Empire at the time of the crucifixion. Judeans measured time in terms of the Roman twelve divisions of daylight: [[hours]]. The first hour occurred at sunrise; the twelfth occurred at sunset; noon, the sixth hour, occurred when the sun reached its highest point in the sky; and the ninth hour corresponded to midway between noon and sunset. The length of an hour would vary with the seasons. It could be twenty minutes during the winter and ninety minutes in the summer. It was close to sixty minutes during the crucifixion. According to Duncan (1998, p. 48), the Roman soldiers announced the third hour of the morning (tertia hora), the sixth of midday (sexta hora), and the ninth of the afternoon (nona hora). Biblical and extra-biblical records indicate the darkness commenced when the Sun was at zenith, the sixth hour, and radiance resumed when the sun was approximately forty-five degrees above the horizon, the ninth hour.

Witnesses of the crucifixion darkness could distinguish between short and long events. Ancient cultures tracked the passage of time by pointing to specific positions of the sun in the sky (Aveni, 1995, 90-92). The witnesses did not need a sundial or hourglass to know when the sixth and ninth hours had occurred. Praying at three-hour intervals was an old Jewish practice (Richards, 1998, p. 44).

== Biblical descriptions ==
The earliest descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse appeared in biblical documents.
=== Prophetic scriptures ===
A prophecy recorded in Amos states the sun would be darkened at noon in a cloudless sky.

:And it shall come to pass in that day, saith the Lord God, that I will cause the sun to go down at noon, and I will darken the earth in the clear day (Amos 8:9).

Some have used the following prophecy as grounds for a lunar eclipse explanation of the crucifixion eclipse:

:The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and the terrible day of the Lord come (Joel 2:31).

Joel had stated the darkening of the Sun and the reddening of the Moon would be a sign before the great and dreadful day of the Lord (Walvoord 1991). Apostle Peter cited Joel’s prophecy after the crucifixion on the Day of Pentecost to explain the [[glossolalia]] phenomena accompanying the baptism of the Holy Ghost. The phenomena triggered by the opening of the sixth seal in Revelation 6:12-17 was a further elaboration of Joel’s prophecy.

=== Synoptic Gospels ===
The [[synoptic gospels]] indicate the darkness commenced at noon Jerusalem time; transpired for three hours during the afternoon preceding the first day of Passover; was accompanied with an earthquake; and coincided with the crucifixion of Jesus. Apostle John’s account of the crucifixion does not describe the loss of sunlight.

:Now from the sixth hour there was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour. … And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks rent; And the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints which slept arose, And came out of the graves after his resurrection, and went into the holy city, and appeared unto many. Now when the centurion, and they that were with him, watching Jesus, saw the earthquake, and those things that were done, they feared greatly, saying, Truly this was the Son of God (Matthew 27: 45, 51-54).

:And when the sixth hour was come, there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour (Mark 15:33).

:And it was about the sixth hour, and there was a darkness over all the earth until the ninth hour. And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was rent in the midst (Luke 23: 44, 45).

== Secular descriptions ==
This section presents the recognized and spurious secular documents that contain descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse. The abundance and diversity of these writings support the physical, not allegorical, interpretations of the descriptive and prophetic biblical accounts of the crucifixion darkness phenomenon. An explanation is provided for the lack of comment by some historians about those descriptions.

==== Tertiary documents ====
Copies of the ''Histories'' by [[Thallus]] have not survived. But, several quotations from its passages were made by other writers. [[Julius Africanus]] seems to have been the first scholar to argue against a solar eclipse as the crucifixion darkness mechanism. Several Christian authors have commented on Julius Africanus’ criticism of Thallus’ use of the word eclipse to describe the darkening. Africanus’ argument stems from the fact that a solar eclipse can not occur during [[Passover]]: the earth is between the sun and the moon during that holiday. Carrier (1999) had provided the verbatim quotation by [[George Syncellus]], a 9th century monk, of Africanus’ argument against Thallus’ description. Africanus’ record indicates the darkness was extremely unusual and had covered the whole world. He emphasized the fact that rock shattering earthquakes, three hours of darkness, and resurrections were not the normal accompaniments of eclipses.

The “Father of Church History,” [[Eusebius]] (264 – 340), Bishop of Caesarea, linked two extra-biblical accounts to the crucifixion events in his ''Chronicle''. According to Carrier (1999), Eusebius was among the very few scholars to quote [[Phlegon]] verbatim. Eusebius recorded an account from a Greek compendium describing a solar eclipse and earthquake that had occurred in [[Bithynia]] and the city of [[Nicaea (city)|Nicaea]] during the eighteenth year of Tiberias. And, within the same passage, Eusebius quoted Phlegon’s detailed version of the solar blackout and earthquake. According to Eusebius, Phlegon had placed the phenomena in the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad, during a clear sky. Eusebius argued the two records had documented events that were simultaneous with the crucifixion of Jesus.

Phlegon’s account supports Amos’ prediction that the darkening would start at noon and transpire in clear skies. According to Eusebius, Phlegon stated the “great eclipse” had started at the sixth hour with stars becoming visible in the night sky. The stars would not have been visible if the sky had been cloudy. Carrier (1999) notes that “another Greek compendium,” which Eusebius refers to, may have been written by Thallus. Eusebius listed Thallus as one of his sources. Duration was the probable cause for them to describe the eclipse as great. Neither Phlegon nor Thallus had cited its duration. But, Eusebius had made the connection between the biblical and secular reports for a complete account of the crucifixion darkness and earthquake.

[[Tertullian]], in his ''Apologeticus'', provided a brief description of the darkness that had commenced at noon during the crucifixion. He also indicated that those who were unaware of the prediction for the noontide onset of darkness had called it an eclipse (Bouw 1998).

==== New Testament Apocrypha ====
A Roman guard by the name of Ananias discovered records by Nicodemus describing the trial, crucifixion, and events surrounding the resurrection of Jesus (Barnstone, 1984, p. 368). The documents were not intended to serve as another book of the Bible. Ananias’ discovery became known as the ''[[Gospel of Nicodemus]]''. The first two sections of Chapter 11 of the segment of the Gospel of Nicodemus entitled the “Acts of Pilate” contains a description of the solar darkening (James,1924).

Nicodemus stated the darkness had started during the noon, lasted three hours, and was caused by the darkening of the Sun. He did not describe it as a solar eclipse. Nicodemus’ account contained the testimonies of Judeans who had been summoned by Pilate. They said it was an ordinary solar eclipse. Neither the witnesses nor the governor and his wife responded to it as an ordinary eclipse.

The apocryphal ''[[Gospel of Peter]]'' (Fragment I, V, 15-20) contains another extra-biblical record of the crucifixion darkness (James, 1924). It is a record of three physical facts. The sun had not set, the darkness had endured much longer than a solar eclipse, and it explicitly indicated the level of darkness was that of night. It described people stumbling in the darkness and going about to light their lamps.

Some spurious extra-biblical sources contain references to the crucifixion eclipse. Commentaries by [[Matthew Henry]] cited a statement made by Dionysius the Areopagite at Heliopolis, Egypt, but Clarke’s Commentary (2002) indicated Dionysius’ writings had been proven to be spurious and forgeries of the fifth or sixth century. Bouw (1998) provided a review of crucifixion darkness accounts in ''The Report of Pilate the Governor, Concerning our Lord Jesus Christ; Which Was Sent to Augustus, in Rome, The Report of Pilate the Governor, Concerning our Lord Jesus Christ; Which Was Sent to Tiberius Caesar in Rome'', and ''The Acts Pilate''. The ''[[Gospel of Bartholomew]]'' states Jesus vanished from the cross to appear in hell during the solar blackout. The ''Report of Pilate'' (also known as the ''Archko Library'') is an alleged report by Pontius Pilate about the crucifixion events. According to Stewart (n.d.), the Reverend W. D. Mahan of Boonville, Missouri, was the actual author and 1879 was the year it was published.

==== Secular non-descriptions ====
A contention Carrier (1999) raised against the crucifixion darkness was the absence of corroborative works by prominent Roman historians like [[Seneca the Elder]] (45 BC – 39 AD), [[Pliny the Elder]] (23 AD – 79 AD), and [[Flavius Josephus]] (37 AD – 100 AD). Their silence was consistent with political policies of that region and era. The Roman Empire aggressively discouraged the proliferation of stories about miraculous Christian events until Emperor Constantine issued the [[Edict of Toleration]] in 313 AD (Halley, 1965, p. 759).

Egypt had been silent about earlier solar eclipses. Brewer (1991, p. 14) listed twenty-two, unreported, total solar eclipses that had crossed the Nile Valley from 2861 BC to 1063 BC. Amir Bey (1999) cited both the rapid decay rate of papyrus in the Nile region and religious embarrassment as reasonable causes for their silence. The latter is the more applicable of the two arguments. Egyptians were Sun worshippers. They would have regarded solar darkenings as signs of weakness against their god. Documenting solar eclipses was politically incorrect for the Egyptian culture.

== Dating the crucifixion ==

Research to determine the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ [[Good Friday]] by means of solar eclipses, has yielded inconclusive results (Humphreys & Waddington 1983). Astronomical determinations of the date of the crucifixion have been derived from calculating the dates when the crescent of the new moon would be first visible over Jerusalem. Popular estimates have been April 7, 30 AD, April 3, 33 AD, and April 23, 34 AD (Schafer, 1990; Pratt, 1991).

Extra-biblical records have been incorporated with the determinations of the year of the crucifixion. Eusebius connected the solar darkening with the 18th year of Tiberius’ reign and the earthquakes to the year of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Since Tiberius Claudius Nero (42 BC – 37 AD) ascended the throne in 14 AD, the 18th year of his reign would have occurred in 32 AD. Also, the darkening recorded by Phlegon yielded 32 AD. The fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad is 32 AD because the first Olympiad occurred in 776 BC. The Olympics had been conducted every four years after 796 BC until 394 AD.

Africanus had connected the date of the crucifixion with the fulfillment of one of Daniel’s prophecies. Those predictions indicated the number of years, in groups of sevens, that would transpire between the command to rebuild Jerusalem and the [[Triumphal Entry]] (Palm Sunday) of Jesus Christ. Sir Robert Anderson determined 32 A.D. as the year of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ from an examination of that prophecy. His calculation used March 14, 445 B.C. as the date of the decree by Artaxerxes Longimus to rebuild Jerusalem. It served as the start date for the fulfillment of Daniel 9:24-27 (Anderson 1895). His work received concurrences (McClain 1969; Missler 1999). Their works yielded April 6, 32 AD as the date of the [[Triumphal Entry]]. Recent corrective analyses by Rickard, the Bible Studies of The Moorings web site, yielded 33 A.D.[http://www.themoorings.org/apologetics/69weeks/weeks1.html]

== Candidates for similar solar blackouts ==
David Le Conte (1998) obtained copyright clearances for over two hundred eclipse quotations from the [http://MrEclipse.com MrEclipse.com web site]. A simple search of those citations yielded several candidates that could be reclassified as solar blackouts. Multiple accounts of totalities exceeding a blackout period of thirty minutes were the primary criteria for selecting potential candidates. The following is a brief description of four sets of accounts possessing the characteristics of solar blackouts:

; October 29, 878 AD : An hour long solar blackout had been attributed to a total solar eclipse. According to Espenak, 879 AD was void of total solar eclipses.
; August 2, 1133 : A half-hour solar blackout was accompanied with a great and loud earthquake. Many stars became visible after the Sun had suddenly lost its light. Le Conte cited the accounts from England, Augsburg, Heilsbronn, and Salzburg.
; April 11, 1176 : A two-hour solar blackout. The stars were visible and the Moon was seen near to the Sun. Livestock and people were disturbed by the darkening.
; June 3, 1239 : The cities of Toledo, Arezzo, Cesena, Coimbra, Florence, Siena, Split, and Montipellier recorded a three-hour blackout. Livestock and wild animals were very disturbed by this event. Birds and beasts were caught with ease. Writers recorded the visibility of the stars, the planet Mercury, and the Moon. People in Coimbra, Portugal, rushed to their church.

Storms on the sun effect the amount of cosmic radiation bombarding the Earth. Subsequently, the production of [[carbon-14]] varies with the intensity of solar activity. Historical [[sunspot]] minima such as the [[Maunder Minimum]], [[Sporer Minimum]], and [[Dalton Minimum]] were evinced by the analyses of carbon-14 abundance in [[tree rings]]. The prospective dates of the crucifixion eclipse and the dates of the four similar solar blackouts fell within the Roman Maximum and Medieveal Maximum, respectively. Those events were evinced by analyses of carbon-14 abundances in tree rings (Eddy 1977). A blackout during the [[Modern Maximum]] could establish a causal relationship with periods of great solar activity. One of the many forms of solar activity could be the key to understanding the crucifixion eclipse and similar solar blackouts.

== Crucifixion eclipse models ==
=== Total solar eclipse ===
Attempts to attribute the crucifixion eclipse to a solar eclipse have been unsuccessful. Several astrophysical features contradict the recorded characteristics of the solar blackout.

Solar eclipses are too brief to account for the crucifixion darkness. The length of the crucifixion darkness described by biblical and extra-biblical sources was more than a full order of magnitude for the totality of solar eclipses. Seven minutes and thirty-one seconds has been the established maximum limit of solar eclipse totality (Brewer, 1991, p. 62). The maximum duration of the total eclipse of November 3, 31 AD, was only one minute and four seconds. The maximum duration of the total eclipse of March 19, 33 AD, was only four minutes six seconds. Neither one had paths of totality passing near Jerusalem. Eclipses lasting at least six minutes, that were close to the crucifixion year, occurred on July 22, 27 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty-one seconds and on August 1, 45 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty seconds. None of them could satisfy the three-hour criterion.

Mark Kidger (1999), an astronomer, compared the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter passage with historical eclipses. He indicated the total eclipse of November 24, 29 AD had the greatest geographical proximity to the site of the crucifixion. He determined its path of totality had passed slightly north of Jerusalem at 11:05 AM (see the NASA diagram of the path of totality for that eclipse [http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhistory/SE0029Nov24T.3.gif]). Kidger indicated the maximum level of darkness at totality was just 95% for the eclipsed over Jerusalem. His research indicated that level of darkness would have been unnoticeable for people outdoors. His calculations indicated the eclipse had been total in Nazareth and Galilee for one minute and forty-nine seconds. Kidger (1999, p.71-72) concluded the population in Jerusalem lacked the necessity and the time to light their lamps for that total solar eclipse. Their behavior, as recorded in the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter, had been caused by a considerably longer period of darkness.

Another indicator of greatness of an eclipse is its width of totality. The shadow of the Moon cast by the Sun onto the Earth can reach a maximum North to South width of 230 miles (Brewer, 1991, p. 64). The general path of totality sweeps along a curve from West to East. Phlegon’s account states the great eclipse was witnessed by the city of Nicea in the Roman province of Bithynia. The observers in Jerusalem and Nicea were separated by a north north-west distance that exceeded 600 miles. That was approximately three times wider than the maximum width of totality.

Finally, as many other scholars and astronomers had reported, the crucifixion was at the time of Passover which is always celebrated during full moon. Solar eclipses can only occur at new moon, so it is questionable to attribute the three hours of darkness to a solar eclipse.

=== Lunar eclipse ===
Some speculation had been put forth to explain the crucifixion eclipse in terms of heavy cloud cover. Humphreys and Waddington (1983) suggested a meteorological darkening followed by a lunar eclipse could have been interpreted as fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy. Subsequently, they set the date of the crucifixion to be April 3, 33 AD. Schaefer’s (1990) calculations indicated that lunar eclipse could not have been seen from Jerusalem. Gaskel (1993) had argued a lunar eclipse during the day of the crucifixion could have received significant attention. Neither biblical nor secular sources have provided accounts of bad weather and/or volcanic clouds that could satisfy the features of that darkness.

=== Sudden noon sunset ===
Dodds (2003, p. 103) tried to explain the crucifixion blackout in terms of the Sun rapidly dropping beneath the horizon. He asserted a collision with an asteroid caused the axis of the Earth to temporarily tilt. The strength of his argument stemmed from an explanation by Flavio Barbiero for the disaster at the end of the Pleistocene era (Dodds). Barbiero’s analyses were based on a twenty degree shift in the rotational axis. But, a shift of ninety degrees would have been necessary for the crucifixion darkness. The Sun would have to be concealed by the horizon to provide the described level of darkness. The tilt would have had to rapidly transpire. Neither biblical nor extra-biblical accounts had described sharp movements of the Sun. A ninety degree precession in the Earth’s axis, transpiring within seconds, would have caused global floods, tremendous wind shears, and gigantic scaring by the heat of friction. Neither geophysical evidence nor historical records support this model.

=== Bouw global sunspots ===
Gerardus D. Bouw (1998) had proposed, with skepticism, global sunspots as an explanation for the crucifixion blackout. His deduction was offered as a last resort after comparing other models with the criteria presented by biblical and extra-biblical texts. He did not offer any arguments in support of his suggestion.

The Sun is not the only star to have a record of severe dimming. Other stars with starspots covering over half of their surfaces have been observed. For example, two stars with mega-spots were [[Lambda Andromedae]] (Magnetic Field, 1983) and the K0 spectral class giant star XX [[Triangulum]] (HD 12545) (Pilachowski, 1999). Vogt, Hatzes, Misch, and Kurster (1997) studied the behavior of the large polar spot on the RS CVn star HR 1099. It had persisted for eleven years. Those celestial objects normally belong to a stellar classification that excluded the Sun.

The tremendous progress made in space physics, Sun-Earth connections, planetary science, and current avenues of research in heliophysics may provide explanations for the crucifixion eclipse, similar recorded solar darkenings, and predicted blackouts by [[Christian eschatology]].

==== Seismic triggers ====
During the darkness, an unusual earthquake hit the area. Its shock waves caused rocks to split without collapsing the entire city. The great veil in the temple was split from top to bottom. That phenomenon slightly resembled the snapped off tops of trees that had been caused by the violent concussive ground motions at the epicenter of the Alaskan earthquake of 1964. The tearing mechanism applied against the great curtain was very localized – it did not destroy the temple. The veil of the Temple was “60 feet long, 30 feet high, and about 4 inches thick; composed of 72 squares sewn together; so heavy it required 300 men to lift it” (DeLashmutt, 2005). And, selective graves were uncovered by the peculiar quake (Matthews 27:51-53). All of these occurred during the three hours of darkness.

The peculiar crucifixion earthquake may be an essential product of the solar darkening mechanism. Researchers have found correlations between a set of great earthquakes and the geomagnetic storms that have been caused by solar activity such as sunspots (Mazazarella and Palumbo, 1988; Palumbo, 1989; Shatashvili, Sikharulidze, and Khazaradze, 2000; Mukherjee and Mukherjee, 2002; Mukherjee, 2003; Mukherjee and Körtvélyessy, 2005). [[Sunspots]] are regions of the [[photosphere]] that have been slightly darkened by very strong magnetic storms.

==== Animal behavior ====
The unusual behavior of the birds during the solar blackout of June 3, 1239 could be a clue for the nature of the solar darkening mechanism. Wide varieties of animals and plants have displayed their reactions to small variations in the strength and direction of magnetic fields (Winklhofer, 2005; Walker, Dennis, & Kirschvink, 2002; Muheim, 2001; Kirschvink, Walker, & Diebel, 2001; Lohmann, Hester, & Lohmann, 1999). Magnetoreceptors have been identified in the beaks of homing pigeons (Fleissner, et al., 2003). Geomagnetic fluctuations induced by the Sun may have disoriented the birds during the blackout of the third of June. A global magnetic storm on the Sun may have been the darkening mechanism.

==== Christian eschatological applications ====
According to Lockyear (1961, p. 243) "Such darkening of the Sun was an [[earnest]] of 'the great and terrible day of the Lord' ((Joel 2:31, 32)." The [[Day of the Lord]] is an eschatological period of wrath that has been described by such biblical passages as Amos 5:18 and Zephaniah 1:14-18 and that was to be ushered in by a solar blackout and lunar reddening (Acts 2:20-21; Revelation 6:12). [[Heliophysical]] explanations of the Bouw global sunspots may be applicable to the solar and lunar blackout associated with the second coming of Jesus Christ (Matthew 24:29-30; Mark 13:24-26; Luke 21:25-28). But, the Bouw model would have to be modified to explain the lunar red glow associated with the solar blackout described in Joel 2:31; Acts 2:20; and the sixth seal events of the Book of [[Revelation]]:

::And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became as blood (Revelation 6:12).

For example, the onset of the global sunspot storm generates heliomagnetic disturbances that trigger earthquakes. As the sunspot storms rapidly reach totality, the emission of visible light by the photosphere would be severely reduced. The strength and structure of the magnetic storms would transform the surface of the photosphere from granular to woven. Hughes, Paczuski, Dendy, Helander, and McClements (2002) had proposed a magnetic carpet as a model of the photospheric magnetic fields. Their computational modeling treated the stability of random distributions of magnetic loops as products of self-organized criticality. A crisscross arrangement of magnetic flux tubes may yield greater stability and strength than a random and/or parallel distribution of bands.

The global solar storm intensifies the density and speed of [[Solar Energetic Particles]] (SEP). SEP bombardment of the Moon would cause its surface to luminesce in red. Kopal and Rackham (1963) and Sekiguchi (1977) have recorded red, wide area lunar luminescences. They were too weak to be seen by the naked eye, but could serve as a precedent for the Moon glowing deep red during the sixth seal solar blackout. Kopal's and Rackham's work, like other astronomers, examined the luminescence role of solar activity. Lunar [[luminescence]] is one of the mechanisms of lunar transient phenomena. [[Transient lunar phenomenon]] went from fringe science to mainstream in 1963 (Greenacre 1963; Ley 1965; Cameron 1978).

Several observations have recorded the emission of coronal mass ejections in the absence of solar flares (Reames, 1995a, 1995b, & Reames, Tylka & Ng, 2001). Bright solar flares have not been the sole source of CME’s. Subsequently, the darkened Sun of Revelation 6:12 will be able to produce an intensified SEP flux.

Totality will be long enough for global populations to seek shelter beneath cliffs and within underground dens (Revelation 6:15). Causes for the world wide migrations and physical phenomena described by Revelation 6:12-15 can be explained by [[heliophysical]] applications of Bouw's global sunspot model.

The explanations may seem to be farfetched, but the seismic disruptions and red irradiance of the Moon are consistent with Heliophysical phenomena. Irregular variable stars and mega starspots are an established reality. These can promote an understanding of the mechanisms that had caused past and prophesied solar blackouts. And, the Bouw model is consistent with the [[pre-tribulation]] and [[premillenial]] theology within [[Christian eschatology]].

==References==
*Anderson, R. (1895). Chapter VIII – Messiah the prince. In The Coming Prince. London, England: Hodder & Stoughton. Available at Philogos Religious Online Books, retrieved on April 19, 2007[http://philologos.org/__eb-tcp/chap08.htm].
*Aveni, A. F. (1995). ''Empires of Time: Calendars, Clocks, and Cultures'' (pp. 90-92). New York, New York: Kodansha America, Inc.
*Barnston, W. (Ed.) (1984). ''The Other Bible'' (p. 368). New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
*Berman, L. & Evans, J. C. (1977). ''Exploring the Cosmos'' (2nd ed., p. 26). Toronto, Canada: Little, Brown and Company.
*Bey, A. (1999). Eclipses over Egypt. Retrieved June 21, 2002 [http://abey.jome.mindspring.com/eclipses.htm].
*Bouw, G. D. (1998, Spring). The darkness during the crucifixion. ''The Biblical Astronomer'', '''8'''(84). Retrieved November 30, 2006 from [http://www.geocentricity.com/ba1/no84/crucifixn.html].
*Brewer, B. (1991). ''Eclipse'' (2nd ed.). Seattle, WA: Earth View, Inc.
*Carrier, R. (1999). Thallus: an analysis (1999). Retrieved May 24, 2002 [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/thallus.html].
*Clarke’s Commentary – Matthew 27 (2002). Retrieved on May 28, 2002 [http://www.godrules.net/commentary.html].
*Cameron, W. S. (1978, July). ''Lunar Transient Phenomena Catalog'' (NSSDC/WDC-A-R&S 78-03). Greenbelt, MD: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
*DeLashmutt, G. (2005). Chapter 19 (Matthew 27:45-54) The events accompanying Jesus’ crucifixion. In Teaching outlines of the gospel of John. Xenos Christian Fellowship. Retrieved on March 10, 2005 [http://www.xenos.org/teachings/nt/john/gary/john19-2.htm].
*Dodds, R. T. (2003). ''The First Church of Rome''. (Available from Christian Hospitality, P.O. Box 810732, Dallas, TX). Retrieved on April 15, 2004, [http://www.christianhospitality.org].
*Duncan, D. E. (1998). ''Calendar: Humanity’s Epic Struggle to Determine a True and Accurate Year'' (p. 48). New York: Avon Books, Inc.
*Eddy, J. (1977, May). The case of the missing sunspots. ''Scientific American'', '''236'''(5), 88.
*Espenak, F. (2000, July 25). Eclipse home page. Retrieved May 27, 2002, from the NASA/Goddard Spaceflight Center [http:sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/elcipse/].
*Fleissner, G., Holtkamp-Rötzler, E., Hanzlik, M., Winklhofer, M., Fleissner, G., Petersen, N., & Wiltschko, W. (2003). Ultrastructural analysis of a putative magnetoreceptor in the beak of homing pigeons. ''The Journal of Comparative Neurology'', '''458''', 350-360.
*Greenacre, J. A. (1963, December). A recent observation of lunar color phenomena. ''Sky & Telescope'', '''26'''(6), 316-317.
*Humphreys, C. J., & W. G. Waddington, W. G. (1983, December 22). Dating the crucifixion. ''Nature'', '''306'''(5945), 743-746.
*James, M. R., (Trans.). (1924). The gospel of Nicodemus, or acts of Pilate. In ''The apocryphal New Testament''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved May 28, 2002 from the Wesley Center for Applied Theology Noncanonical Homepage [http://wesley.nnu.edu/noncanon/gospels.htm].
*Kidger, M. (1999). ''The Star of Bethlehem: An astronomer’s View'' (p. 68-72). Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press.
*Kirschvink, J. L., Walker, M. M., & Diebel, C. E. (2001). Magnetite-based magnetoreception. ''Current Opinion in Neurobiology'', '''11''', 462-467.
*Kopal, Z. & Rackham, T. W. (1963). Excitation of lunar luminescence by solar activity. ''Icarus'', '''2''', 481-500.
*Le Conte, D. (1998, December 6). Quotations about eclipses. Retrieved May 24, 2002 from MrEclipse.com [http://mreclipse.com/Special/quotes.html].
*Ley, W. (1965). ''Ranger to the Moon'' (p. 71). New York: The New American Library of World Literature, Inc.
*Lockyer, H. (1961). ''All of the Miracles of the Bible''. [eleventh printing, December 1971] Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.
*Lohmann, K. J., Hester, J. T., & Lohmann, C. M. F., (1999). ''Ethology Ecology & Evolution'', '''11''', 1-23.
*Magnetic field of Lambda Andromedae, The (1983, November). ''Sky &'' ''Telescope'', '''66'''(5), 397-398.
*McClain, A. J. (1969). ''Daniel’s Prophecy of the 70 Weeks'' (pp. 17-27). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.
*Mazzarella, A., & Palumbo, A. (1988, July-August). Solar, geomagnetic and seismic activity. ''IL Nuovo Cimento'', '''11-C'''(4), 353-364.
*Missler, C. (1999). ''Cosmic Codes'' (pp. 17-27). Coeur d’Alene: Idaho.
*Muheim, R. (2001). Animal magnetoreception – Models, physiology and behaviour [Introductory Paper No 128]. Lund, Skåne, Sweden: Lund University.
*Mukherjee, S. (2003, January 28). 26th January 2001 earthquake of Gujarat, India was triggered by change in Kp and electron flux induced by Sun [Abstract]. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Earth System Processes Related to Gujarat Earthquake Using Space Technology, Kanpur, India. Retrieved April 6, 2005 [http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Eramesh/abstract_workshop.html].
*Mukherjee, S., & Körtvélyessy (2005, April). Sudden fluctuation in Kp triggers earthquakes and tectonics [Abstract EGU05-A-00137]. Paper presented at the European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2005, Vienna, Austria. Retrieved April 6, 2005 from Geophysical Research Abstracts, 7, 00137 [http://www.copernicus.org/EGU/ga/egu05/].
*Mukherjee, S. & Mukherjee, A. (2002). Change in magnetic field: an early warning system to understand seismtectonics. In, K. G. Strassmeier & A. Washuettl (Eds.), 1st Potsdam Thinkshop Poster Proceedings (139-142). Potsdam, Germany: Astrophysical Institute Potsdam.
*Palumbo, A. (1989, November-December). Gravitational and geomagnetic tidal source of earthquake triggering. ''IL Nuovo Cimento'', '''12-C'''(6), 685-693.
* Pilachowski, C. (1999, December). XX marks the spot. ''NOAO'' ''Newsletter'', '''60'''. Retrieved May 31, 2002 [http://www.noao.edu/noaonews/dec99/node2.html].
*Pratt, J. P. (1991). Newton’s date for the crucifixion [correspondence]. ''Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''32''', 301-304.
*Reames, D. V. (1995b). The dark side of the solar flare myth. ''Eos'', '''76''', 405.
*Reames, D. V. (1999). Solar energetic particles: is there time to hide. ''Radiation Measurements'', '''30''', 297-308.
*Reames, D. V., Tylka, A. J., & Ng, C. K. (2001). Solar energetic particles and space weather. In M. S. El-Genk (Ed.), ''AIP'' ''Conference Proceedings'', '''552''', 1185.
*Richards, E. G. (1998). ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its'' ''History'' (p. 44). New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
*Sekiguchi, N. (1977, March). A photometric and polarmetric study of the Moon’s surface II: On the possibility of the brightness fluctuations of the Moon. ''Earth, Moon, and Planets'', '''16''', 199-213.[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1977Moon...16..199S&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf]
*Schaefer, B. E. (1990). Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. ''Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''31''', 53-67.
*Shatashvili, L. Kh., Sikharulidze, D. I., & Khazaradze, N. G. (2000, January). Dynamics of changes in the IMF sector structure in the vicinity of the Earth and the problem of earthquakes. ''International Journal of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy'', '''1'''(4). Retrieved May 16, 2003 [http://www.izmiran.rssi.ru/magnetism/SSIMF/PAPERS/GAI99329/GAI99329.HTM].
*Stewart, D. (n.d.). ''What Everyone Needs to Know About the Bible''. Orange, CA: Dart Press. Retrieved May 28, 2002 from the Blue Letter Bible web site [http://blueletterbible.org/faq/canon.html].
*Vogt, S. S., Hatzes, A. P., Misch, A. A., & Kürster, M. (1999, April). Doppler imagery of the spotted RS Canum Venaticorum star HR 1099 (V711 Tauri) from 1981 to 1992. ''Astrophysical Journal'' ''Supplemental Series'', '''121'''(2), 547-589.
*Walker, M. M., Dennis, T. E., & Kirschvink, J. L. (2002). The magnetic sense and its use in long-distance navigation by animals. ''Current Opinion in Neurology'', '''12''', 735-744.
*Walvoord, J. F. (1991). ''Major Bible Prophecies''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, p. 272.
*Winklhofer, M. (2005). Biogenic magnetite and magnetic sensitivity in organisms – From magnetic bacteria to pigeons [Invited Lecture]. Joint 15th Riga and 6th PAMIR Conference on Fundamental and Applied MHD. Institute of Physics, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia. Also, available in ''Magnetohydrodynamics'' ''Journal'', '''41'''(4), 295-304.

==See also==
*[[Christian eschatology]]
*[[Computus]]
*[[Good Friday]]
*[[International Heliophysical Year]]
*[[Palm Sunday]]
*[[Solar eclipse]]
*[[Transient lunar phenomenon]]
*[[Triumphal entry]]
[[Category:Book of Revelation]]
[[Category:Christian apocalyptic writings]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian miracle narrative]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Dramatic portrayals of Jesus]]
[[Category:Eclipses]]
[[Category:Glorious Mysteries]]
[[Category:Gospel episodes]]
[[Category:History of astronomy]]
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]
[[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]
[[Category:New Testament books]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative]]
[[Category:Oneness Pentecostalism]]
[[Category:Passion Gospels]]
[[Category:Prediction]]
[[Category:Prophecy]]
[[Category:Solar eclipses]]
[[Category:Space]]
[[Category:Timekeeping]]
[[Category:Variable stars]]

Finsternis bei der Kreuzigung Jesu

2007-06-15T17:58:45Z

193.195.0.102:

'''Crucifixion eclipse''' refers to the three-hour period of darkness that was reported to have transpired during the crucifixion of [[Jesus Christ]] at [[Calvary]] ([[Golgotha]]). [[Total solar eclipse]]s and meteorological obscurations have failed to satisfy its salient features. The ancient meaning of the word [[eclipse]] was not restricted to the obscuration of light by either the Earth or Moon.
== Time reckoning conventions ==
Recorded descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse were expressed in terms of the Roman time reckoning system. Judea, like many Mediterranean nations, was under the rule of the Roman Empire at the time of the crucifixion. Judeans measured time in terms of the Roman twelve divisions of daylight: [[hours]]. The first hour occurred at sunrise; the twelfth occurred at sunset; noon, the sixth hour, occurred when the sun reached its highest point in the sky; and the ninth hour corresponded to midway between noon and sunset. The length of an hour would vary with the seasons. It could be twenty minutes during the winter and ninety minutes in the summer. It was close to sixty minutes during the crucifixion. According to Duncan (1998, p. 48), the Roman soldiers announced the third hour of the morning (tertia hora), the sixth of midday (sexta hora), and the ninth of the afternoon (nona hora). Biblical and extra-biblical records indicate the darkness commenced when the Sun was at zenith, the sixth hour, and radiance resumed when the sun was approximately forty-five degrees above the horizon, the ninth hour.

Witnesses of the crucifixion darkness could distinguish between short and long events. Ancient cultures tracked the passage of time by pointing to specific positions of the sun in the sky (Aveni, 1995, 90-92). The witnesses did not need a sundial or hourglass to know when the sixth and ninth hours had occurred. Praying at three-hour intervals was an old Jewish practice (Richards, 1998, p. 44).

== Biblical descriptions ==
The earliest descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse appeared in biblical documents.
=== Prophetic scriptures ===
A prophecy recorded in Amos states the sun would be darkened at noon in a cloudless sky.

:And it shall come to pass in that day, saith the Lord God, that I will cause the sun to go down at noon, and I will darken the earth in the clear day (Amos 8:9).

Some have used the following prophecy as grounds for a lunar eclipse explanation of the crucifixion eclipse:

:The sun shall be turned into darkness, and the moon into blood, before the great and the terrible day of the Lord come (Joel 2:31).

Joel had stated the darkening of the Sun and the reddening of the Moon would be a sign before the great and dreadful day of the Lord (Walvoord 1991). Apostle Peter cited Joel’s prophecy after the crucifixion on the Day of Pentecost to explain the [[glossolalia]] phenomena accompanying the baptism of the Holy Ghost. The phenomena triggered by the opening of the sixth seal in Revelation 6:12-17 was a further elaboration of Joel’s prophecy.

=== Synoptic Gospels ===
The [[synoptic gospels]] indicate the darkness commenced at noon Jerusalem time; transpired for three hours during the afternoon preceding the first day of Passover; was accompanied with an earthquake; and coincided with the crucifixion of Jesus. Apostle John’s account of the crucifixion does not describe the loss of sunlight.

:Now from the sixth hour there was darkness over all the land unto the ninth hour. … And, behold, the veil of the temple was rent in twain from the top to the bottom; and the earth did quake, and the rocks rent; And the graves were opened; and many bodies of the saints which slept arose, And came out of the graves after his resurrection, and went into the holy city, and appeared unto many. Now when the centurion, and they that were with him, watching Jesus, saw the earthquake, and those things that were done, they feared greatly, saying, Truly this was the Son of God (Matthew 27: 45, 51-54).

:And when the sixth hour was come, there was darkness over the whole land until the ninth hour (Mark 15:33).

:And it was about the sixth hour, and there was a darkness over all the earth until the ninth hour. And the sun was darkened, and the veil of the temple was rent in the midst (Luke 23: 44, 45).

== Secular descriptions ==
This section presents the recognized and spurious secular documents that contain descriptions of the crucifixion eclipse. The abundance and diversity of these writings support the physical, not allegorical, interpretations of the descriptive and prophetic biblical accounts of the crucifixion darkness phenomenon. An explanation is provided for the lack of comment by some historians about those descriptions.

==== Tertiary documents ====
Copies of the ''Histories'' by [[Thallus]] have not survived. But, several quotations from its passages were made by other writers. [[Julius Africanus]] seems to have been the first scholar to argue against a solar eclipse as the crucifixion darkness mechanism. Several Christian authors have commented on Julius Africanus’ criticism of Thallus’ use of the word eclipse to describe the darkening. Africanus’ argument stems from the fact that a solar eclipse can not occur during [[Passover]]: the earth is between the sun and the moon during that holiday. Carrier (1999) had provided the verbatim quotation by [[George Syncellus]], a 9th century monk, of Africanus’ argument against Thallus’ description. Africanus’ record indicates the darkness was extremely unusual and had covered the whole world. He emphasized the fact that rock shattering earthquakes, three hours of darkness, and resurrections were not the normal accompaniments of eclipses.

The “Father of Church History,” [[Eusebius]] (264 – 340), Bishop of Caesarea, linked two extra-biblical accounts to the crucifixion events in his ''Chronicle''. According to Carrier (1999), Eusebius was among the very few scholars to quote [[Phlegon]] verbatim. Eusebius recorded an account from a Greek compendium describing a solar eclipse and earthquake that had occurred in [[Bithynia]] and the city of [[Nicaea (city)|Nicaea]] during the eighteenth year of Tiberias. And, within the same passage, Eusebius quoted Phlegon’s detailed version of the solar blackout and earthquake. According to Eusebius, Phlegon had placed the phenomena in the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad, during a clear sky. Eusebius argued the two records had documented events that were simultaneous with the crucifixion of Jesus.

Phlegon’s account supports Amos’ prediction that the darkening would start at noon and transpire in clear skies. According to Eusebius, Phlegon stated the “great eclipse” had started at the sixth hour with stars becoming visible in the night sky. The stars would not have been visible if the sky had been cloudy. Carrier (1999) notes that “another Greek compendium,” which Eusebius refers to, may have been written by Thallus. Eusebius listed Thallus as one of his sources. Duration was the probable cause for them to describe the eclipse as great. Neither Phlegon nor Thallus had cited its duration. But, Eusebius had made the connection between the biblical and secular reports for a complete account of the crucifixion darkness and earthquake.

[[Tertullian]], in his ''Apologeticus'', provided a brief description of the darkness that had commenced at noon during the crucifixion. He also indicated that those who were unaware of the prediction for the noontide onset of darkness had called it an eclipse (Bouw 1998).

==== New Testament Apocrypha ====
A Roman guard by the name of Ananias discovered records by Nicodemus describing the trial, crucifixion, and events surrounding the resurrection of Jesus (Barnstone, 1984, p. 368). The documents were not intended to serve as another book of the Bible. Ananias’ discovery became known as the ''[[Gospel of Nicodemus]]''. The first two sections of Chapter 11 of the segment of the Gospel of Nicodemus entitled the “Acts of Pilate” contains a description of the solar darkening (James,1924).

Nicodemus stated the darkness had started during the noon, lasted three hours, and was caused by the darkening of the Sun. He did not describe it as a solar eclipse. Nicodemus’ account contained the testimonies of Judeans who had been summoned by Pilate. They said it was an ordinary solar eclipse. Neither the witnesses nor the governor and his wife responded to it as an ordinary eclipse.

The apocryphal ''[[Gospel of Peter]]'' (Fragment I, V, 15-20) contains another extra-biblical record of the crucifixion darkness (James, 1924). It is a record of three physical facts. The sun had not set, the darkness had endured much longer than a solar eclipse, and it explicitly indicated the level of darkness was that of night. It described people stumbling in the darkness and going about to light their lamps.

Some spurious extra-biblical sources contain references to the crucifixion eclipse. Commentaries by [[Matthew Henry]] cited a statement made by Dionysius the Areopagite at Heliopolis, Egypt, but Clarke’s Commentary (2002) indicated Dionysius’ writings had been proven to be spurious and forgeries of the fifth or sixth century. Bouw (1998) provided a review of crucifixion darkness accounts in ''The Report of Pilate the Governor, Concerning our Lord Jesus Christ; Which Was Sent to Augustus, in Rome, The Report of Pilate the Governor, Concerning our Lord Jesus Christ; Which Was Sent to Tiberius Caesar in Rome'', and ''The Acts Pilate''. The ''[[Gospel of Bartholomew]]'' states Jesus vanished from the cross to appear in hell during the solar blackout. The ''Report of Pilate'' (also known as the ''Archko Library'') is an alleged report by Pontius Pilate about the crucifixion events. According to Stewart (n.d.), the Reverend W. D. Mahan of Boonville, Missouri, was the actual author and 1879 was the year it was published.

==== Secular non-descriptions ====
A contention Carrier (1999) raised against the crucifixion darkness was the absence of corroborative works by prominent Roman historians like [[Seneca the Elder]] (45 BC – 39 AD), [[Pliny the Elder]] (23 AD – 79 AD), and [[Flavius Josephus]] (37 AD – 100 AD). Their silence was consistent with political policies of that region and era. The Roman Empire aggressively discouraged the proliferation of stories about miraculous Christian events until Emperor Constantine issued the [[Edict of Toleration]] in 313 AD (Halley, 1965, p. 759).

Egypt had been silent about earlier solar eclipses. Brewer (1991, p. 14) listed twenty-two, unreported, total solar eclipses that had crossed the Nile Valley from 2861 BC to 1063 BC. Amir Bey (1999) cited both the rapid decay rate of papyrus in the Nile region and religious embarrassment as reasonable causes for their silence. The latter is the more applicable of the two arguments. Egyptians were Sun worshippers. They would have regarded solar darkenings as signs of weakness against their god. Documenting solar eclipses was politically incorrect for the Egyptian culture.

== Dating the crucifixion ==

Research to determine the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ [[Good Friday]] by means of solar eclipses, has yielded inconclusive results (Humphreys & Waddington 1983). Astronomical determinations of the date of the crucifixion have been derived from calculating the dates when the crescent of the new moon would be first visible over Jerusalem. Popular estimates have been April 7, 30 AD, April 3, 33 AD, and April 23, 34 AD (Schafer, 1990; Pratt, 1991).

Extra-biblical records have been incorporated with the determinations of the year of the crucifixion. Eusebius connected the solar darkening with the 18th year of Tiberius’ reign and the earthquakes to the year of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Since Tiberius Claudius Nero (42 BC – 37 AD) ascended the throne in 14 AD, the 18th year of his reign would have occurred in 32 AD. Also, the darkening recorded by Phlegon yielded 32 AD. The fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad is 32 AD because the first Olympiad occurred in 776 BC. The Olympics had been conducted every four years after 796 BC until 394 AD.

Africanus had connected the date of the crucifixion with the fulfillment of one of Daniel’s prophecies. Those predictions indicated the number of years, in groups of sevens, that would transpire between the command to rebuild Jerusalem and the [[Triumphal Entry]] (Palm Sunday) of Jesus Christ. Sir Robert Anderson determined 32 A.D. as the year of the crucifixion of [[penis|Jesus Christ]] from an examination of that prophecy. His calculation used March 14, 445 B.C. as the date of the decree by Artaxerxes Longimus to rebuild Jerusalem. It served as the start date for the fulfillment of Daniel 9:24-27 (Anderson 1895). His work received concurrences (McClain 1969; Missler 1999). Their works yielded April 6, 32 AD as the date of the [[Triumphal Entry]]. Recent corrective analyses by Rickard, the Bible Studies of The Moorings web site, yielded 33 A.D.[http://www.themoorings.org/apologetics/69weeks/weeks1.html]

== Candidates for similar solar blackouts ==
David Le Conte (1998) obtained copyright clearances for over two hundred eclipse quotations from the [http://MrEclipse.com MrEclipse.com web site]. A simple search of those citations yielded several candidates that could be reclassified as solar blackouts. Multiple accounts of totalities exceeding a blackout period of thirty minutes were the primary criteria for selecting potential candidates. The following is a brief description of four sets of accounts possessing the characteristics of solar blackouts:

; October 29, 878 AD : An hour long solar blackout had been attributed to a total solar eclipse. According to Espenak, 879 AD was void of total solar eclipses.
; August 2, 1133 : A half-hour solar blackout was accompanied with a great and loud earthquake. Many stars became visible after the Sun had suddenly lost its light. Le Conte cited the accounts from England, Augsburg, Heilsbronn, and Salzburg.
; April 11, 1176 : A two-hour solar blackout. The stars were visible and the Moon was seen near to the Sun. Livestock and people were disturbed by the darkening.
; June 3, 1239 : The cities of Toledo, Arezzo, Cesena, Coimbra, Florence, Siena, Split, and Montipellier recorded a three-hour blackout. Livestock and wild animals were very disturbed by this event. Birds and beasts were caught with ease. Writers recorded the visibility of the stars, the planet Mercury, and the Moon. People in Coimbra, Portugal, rushed to their church.

Storms on the sun effect the amount of cosmic radiation bombarding the Earth. Subsequently, the production of [[carbon-14]] varies with the intensity of solar activity. Historical [[sunspot]] minima such as the [[Maunder Minimum]], [[Sporer Minimum]], and [[Dalton Minimum]] were evinced by the analyses of carbon-14 abundance in [[tree rings]]. The prospective dates of the crucifixion eclipse and the dates of the four similar solar blackouts fell within the Roman Maximum and Medieveal Maximum, respectively. Those events were evinced by analyses of carbon-14 abundances in tree rings (Eddy 1977). A blackout during the [[Modern Maximum]] could establish a causal relationship with periods of great solar activity. One of the many forms of solar activity could be the key to understanding the crucifixion eclipse and similar solar blackouts.

== Crucifixion eclipse models ==
=== Total solar eclipse ===
Attempts to attribute the crucifixion eclipse to a solar eclipse have been unsuccessful. Several astrophysical features contradict the recorded characteristics of the solar blackout.

Solar eclipses are too brief to account for the crucifixion darkness. The length of the crucifixion darkness described by biblical and extra-biblical sources was more than a full order of magnitude for the totality of solar eclipses. Seven minutes and thirty-one seconds has been the established maximum limit of solar eclipse totality (Brewer, 1991, p. 62). The maximum duration of the total eclipse of November 3, 31 AD, was only one minute and four seconds. The maximum duration of the total eclipse of March 19, 33 AD, was only four minutes six seconds. Neither one had paths of totality passing near Jerusalem. Eclipses lasting at least six minutes, that were close to the crucifixion year, occurred on July 22, 27 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty-one seconds and on August 1, 45 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty seconds. None of them could satisfy the three-hour criterion.

Mark Kidger (1999), an astronomer, compared the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter passage with historical eclipses. He indicated the total eclipse of November 24, 29 AD had the greatest geographical proximity to the site of the crucifixion. He determined its path of totality had passed slightly north of Jerusalem at 11:05 AM (see the NASA diagram of the path of totality for that eclipse [http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhistory/SE0029Nov24T.3.gif]). Kidger indicated the maximum level of darkness at totality was just 95% for the eclipsed over Jerusalem. His research indicated that level of darkness would have been unnoticeable for people outdoors. His calculations indicated the eclipse had been total in Nazareth and Galilee for one minute and forty-nine seconds. Kidger (1999, p.71-72) concluded the population in Jerusalem lacked the necessity and the time to light their lamps for that total solar eclipse. Their behavior, as recorded in the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter, had been caused by a considerably longer period of darkness.

Another indicator of greatness of an eclipse is its width of totality. The shadow of the Moon cast by the Sun onto the Earth can reach a maximum North to South width of 230 miles (Brewer, 1991, p. 64). The general path of totality sweeps along a curve from West to East. Phlegon’s account states the great eclipse was witnessed by the city of Nicea in the Roman province of Bithynia. The observers in Jerusalem and Nicea were separated by a north north-west distance that exceeded 600 miles. That was approximately three times wider than the maximum width of totality.

Finally, as many other scholars and astronomers had reported, the crucifixion was at the time of Passover which is always celebrated during full moon. Solar eclipses can only occur at new moon, so it is questionable to attribute the three hours of darkness to a solar eclipse.

=== Lunar eclipse ===
Some speculation had been put forth to explain the crucifixion eclipse in terms of heavy cloud cover. Humphreys and Waddington (1983) suggested a meteorological darkening followed by a lunar eclipse could have been interpreted as fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy. Subsequently, they set the date of the crucifixion to be April 3, 33 AD. Schaefer’s (1990) calculations indicated that lunar eclipse could not have been seen from Jerusalem. Gaskel (1993) had argued a lunar eclipse during the day of the crucifixion could have received significant attention. Neither biblical nor secular sources have provided accounts of bad weather and/or volcanic clouds that could satisfy the features of that darkness.

=== Sudden noon sunset ===
Dodds (2003, p. 103) tried to explain the crucifixion blackout in terms of the Sun rapidly dropping beneath the horizon. He asserted a collision with an asteroid caused the axis of the Earth to temporarily tilt. The strength of his argument stemmed from an explanation by Flavio Barbiero for the disaster at the end of the Pleistocene era (Dodds). Barbiero’s analyses were based on a twenty degree shift in the rotational axis. But, a shift of ninety degrees would have been necessary for the crucifixion darkness. The Sun would have to be concealed by the horizon to provide the described level of darkness. The tilt would have had to rapidly transpire. Neither biblical nor extra-biblical accounts had described sharp movements of the Sun. A ninety degree precession in the Earth’s axis, transpiring within seconds, would have caused global floods, tremendous wind shears, and gigantic scaring by the heat of friction. Neither geophysical evidence nor historical records support this model.

=== Bouw global sunspots ===
Gerardus D. Bouw (1998) had proposed, with skepticism, global sunspots as an explanation for the crucifixion blackout. His deduction was offered as a last resort after comparing other models with the criteria presented by biblical and extra-biblical texts. He did not offer any arguments in support of his suggestion.

The Sun is not the only star to have a record of severe dimming. Other stars with starspots covering over half of their surfaces have been observed. For example, two stars with mega-spots were [[Lambda Andromedae]] (Magnetic Field, 1983) and the K0 spectral class giant star XX [[Triangulum]] (HD 12545) (Pilachowski, 1999). Vogt, Hatzes, Misch, and Kurster (1997) studied the behavior of the large polar spot on the RS CVn star HR 1099. It had persisted for eleven years. Those celestial objects normally belong to a stellar classification that excluded the Sun.

The tremendous progress made in space physics, Sun-Earth connections, planetary science, and current avenues of research in heliophysics may provide explanations for the crucifixion eclipse, similar recorded solar darkenings, and predicted blackouts by [[Christian eschatology]].

==== Seismic triggers ====
During the darkness, an unusual earthquake hit the area. Its shock waves caused rocks to split without collapsing the entire city. The great veil in the temple was split from top to bottom. That phenomenon slightly resembled the snapped off tops of trees that had been caused by the violent concussive ground motions at the epicenter of the Alaskan earthquake of 1964. The tearing mechanism applied against the great curtain was very localized – it did not destroy the temple. The veil of the Temple was “60 feet long, 30 feet high, and about 4 inches thick; composed of 72 squares sewn together; so heavy it required 300 men to lift it” (DeLashmutt, 2005). And, selective graves were uncovered by the peculiar quake (Matthews 27:51-53). All of these occurred during the three hours of darkness.

The peculiar crucifixion earthquake may be an essential product of the solar darkening mechanism. Researchers have found correlations between a set of great earthquakes and the geomagnetic storms that have been caused by solar activity such as sunspots (Mazazarella and Palumbo, 1988; Palumbo, 1989; Shatashvili, Sikharulidze, and Khazaradze, 2000; Mukherjee and Mukherjee, 2002; Mukherjee, 2003; Mukherjee and Körtvélyessy, 2005). [[Sunspots]] are regions of the [[photosphere]] that have been slightly darkened by very strong magnetic storms.

==== Animal behavior ====
The unusual behavior of the birds during the solar blackout of June 3, 1239 could be a clue for the nature of the solar darkening mechanism. Wide varieties of animals and plants have displayed their reactions to small variations in the strength and direction of magnetic fields (Winklhofer, 2005; Walker, Dennis, & Kirschvink, 2002; Muheim, 2001; Kirschvink, Walker, & Diebel, 2001; Lohmann, Hester, & Lohmann, 1999). Magnetoreceptors have been identified in the beaks of homing pigeons (Fleissner, et al., 2003). Geomagnetic fluctuations induced by the Sun may have disoriented the birds during the blackout of the third of June. A global magnetic storm on the Sun may have been the darkening mechanism.

==== Christian eschatological applications ====
According to Lockyear (1961, p. 243) "Such darkening of the Sun was an [[earnest]] of 'the great and terrible day of the Lord' ((Joel 2:31, 32)." The [[Day of the Lord]] is an eschatological period of wrath that has been described by such biblical passages as Amos 5:18 and Zephaniah 1:14-18 and that was to be ushered in by a solar blackout and lunar reddening (Acts 2:20-21; Revelation 6:12). [[Heliophysical]] explanations of the Bouw global sunspots may be applicable to the solar and lunar blackout associated with the second coming of Jesus Christ (Matthew 24:29-30; Mark 13:24-26; Luke 21:25-28). But, the Bouw model would have to be modified to explain the lunar red glow associated with the solar blackout described in Joel 2:31; Acts 2:20; and the sixth seal events of the Book of [[Revelation]]:

::And I beheld when he had opened the sixth seal, and, lo, there was a great earthquake; and the sun became black as sackcloth of hair, and the moon became as blood (Revelation 6:12).

For example, the onset of the global sunspot storm generates heliomagnetic disturbances that trigger earthquakes. As the sunspot storms rapidly reach totality, the emission of visible light by the photosphere would be severely reduced. The strength and structure of the magnetic storms would transform the surface of the photosphere from granular to woven. Hughes, Paczuski, Dendy, Helander, and McClements (2002) had proposed a magnetic carpet as a model of the photospheric magnetic fields. Their computational modeling treated the stability of random distributions of magnetic loops as products of self-organized criticality. A crisscross arrangement of magnetic flux tubes may yield greater stability and strength than a random and/or parallel distribution of bands.

The global solar storm intensifies the density and speed of [[Solar Energetic Particles]] (SEP). SEP bombardment of the Moon would cause its surface to luminesce in red. Kopal and Rackham (1963) and Sekiguchi (1977) have recorded red, wide area lunar luminescences. They were too weak to be seen by the naked eye, but could serve as a precedent for the Moon glowing deep red during the sixth seal solar blackout. Kopal's and Rackham's work, like other astronomers, examined the luminescence role of solar activity. Lunar [[luminescence]] is one of the mechanisms of lunar transient phenomena. [[Transient lunar phenomenon]] went from fringe science to mainstream in 1963 (Greenacre 1963; Ley 1965; Cameron 1978).

Several observations have recorded the emission of coronal mass ejections in the absence of solar flares (Reames, 1995a, 1995b, & Reames, Tylka & Ng, 2001). Bright solar flares have not been the sole source of CME’s. Subsequently, the darkened Sun of Revelation 6:12 will be able to produce an intensified SEP flux.

Totality will be long enough for global populations to seek shelter beneath cliffs and within underground dens (Revelation 6:15). Causes for the world wide migrations and physical phenomena described by Revelation 6:12-15 can be explained by [[heliophysical]] applications of Bouw's global sunspot model.

The explanations may seem to be farfetched, but the seismic disruptions and red irradiance of the Moon are consistent with Heliophysical phenomena. Irregular variable stars and mega starspots are an established reality. These can promote an understanding of the mechanisms that had caused past and prophesied solar blackouts. And, the Bouw model is consistent with the [[pre-tribulation]] and [[premillenial]] theology within [[Christian eschatology]].

==References==
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*Aveni, A. F. (1995). ''Empires of Time: Calendars, Clocks, and Cultures'' (pp. 90-92). New York, New York: Kodansha America, Inc.
*Barnston, W. (Ed.) (1984). ''The Other Bible'' (p. 368). New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
*Berman, L. & Evans, J. C. (1977). ''Exploring the Cosmos'' (2nd ed., p. 26). Toronto, Canada: Little, Brown and Company.
*Bey, A. (1999). Eclipses over Egypt. Retrieved June 21, 2002 [http://abey.jome.mindspring.com/eclipses.htm].
*Bouw, G. D. (1998, Spring). The darkness during the crucifixion. ''The Biblical Astronomer'', '''8'''(84). Retrieved November 30, 2006 from [http://www.geocentricity.com/ba1/no84/crucifixn.html].
*Brewer, B. (1991). ''Eclipse'' (2nd ed.). Seattle, WA: Earth View, Inc.
*Carrier, R. (1999). Thallus: an analysis (1999). Retrieved May 24, 2002 [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/thallus.html].
*Clarke’s Commentary – Matthew 27 (2002). Retrieved on May 28, 2002 [http://www.godrules.net/commentary.html].
*Cameron, W. S. (1978, July). ''Lunar Transient Phenomena Catalog'' (NSSDC/WDC-A-R&S 78-03). Greenbelt, MD: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
*DeLashmutt, G. (2005). Chapter 19 (Matthew 27:45-54) The events accompanying Jesus’ crucifixion. In Teaching outlines of the gospel of John. Xenos Christian Fellowship. Retrieved on March 10, 2005 [http://www.xenos.org/teachings/nt/john/gary/john19-2.htm].
*Dodds, R. T. (2003). ''The First Church of Rome''. (Available from Christian Hospitality, P.O. Box 810732, Dallas, TX). Retrieved on April 15, 2004, [http://www.christianhospitality.org].
*Duncan, D. E. (1998). ''Calendar: Humanity’s Epic Struggle to Determine a True and Accurate Year'' (p. 48). New York: Avon Books, Inc.
*Eddy, J. (1977, May). The case of the missing sunspots. ''Scientific American'', '''236'''(5), 88.
*Espenak, F. (2000, July 25). Eclipse home page. Retrieved May 27, 2002, from the NASA/Goddard Spaceflight Center [http:sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/elcipse/].
*Fleissner, G., Holtkamp-Rötzler, E., Hanzlik, M., Winklhofer, M., Fleissner, G., Petersen, N., & Wiltschko, W. (2003). Ultrastructural analysis of a putative magnetoreceptor in the beak of homing pigeons. ''The Journal of Comparative Neurology'', '''458''', 350-360.
*Greenacre, J. A. (1963, December). A recent observation of lunar color phenomena. ''Sky & Telescope'', '''26'''(6), 316-317.
*Humphreys, C. J., & W. G. Waddington, W. G. (1983, December 22). Dating the crucifixion. ''Nature'', '''306'''(5945), 743-746.
*James, M. R., (Trans.). (1924). The gospel of Nicodemus, or acts of Pilate. In ''The apocryphal New Testament''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved May 28, 2002 from the Wesley Center for Applied Theology Noncanonical Homepage [http://wesley.nnu.edu/noncanon/gospels.htm].
*Kidger, M. (1999). ''The Star of Bethlehem: An astronomer’s View'' (p. 68-72). Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press.
*Kirschvink, J. L., Walker, M. M., & Diebel, C. E. (2001). Magnetite-based magnetoreception. ''Current Opinion in Neurobiology'', '''11''', 462-467.
*Kopal, Z. & Rackham, T. W. (1963). Excitation of lunar luminescence by solar activity. ''Icarus'', '''2''', 481-500.
*Le Conte, D. (1998, December 6). Quotations about eclipses. Retrieved May 24, 2002 from MrEclipse.com [http://mreclipse.com/Special/quotes.html].
*Ley, W. (1965). ''Ranger to the Moon'' (p. 71). New York: The New American Library of World Literature, Inc.
*Lockyer, H. (1961). ''All of the Miracles of the Bible''. [eleventh printing, December 1971] Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.
*Lohmann, K. J., Hester, J. T., & Lohmann, C. M. F., (1999). ''Ethology Ecology & Evolution'', '''11''', 1-23.
*Magnetic field of Lambda Andromedae, The (1983, November). ''Sky &'' ''Telescope'', '''66'''(5), 397-398.
*McClain, A. J. (1969). ''Daniel’s Prophecy of the 70 Weeks'' (pp. 17-27). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.
*Mazzarella, A., & Palumbo, A. (1988, July-August). Solar, geomagnetic and seismic activity. ''IL Nuovo Cimento'', '''11-C'''(4), 353-364.
*Missler, C. (1999). ''Cosmic Codes'' (pp. 17-27). Coeur d’Alene: Idaho.
*Muheim, R. (2001). Animal magnetoreception – Models, physiology and behaviour [Introductory Paper No 128]. Lund, Skåne, Sweden: Lund University.
*Mukherjee, S. (2003, January 28). 26th January 2001 earthquake of Gujarat, India was triggered by change in Kp and electron flux induced by Sun [Abstract]. Paper presented at the International Workshop on Earth System Processes Related to Gujarat Earthquake Using Space Technology, Kanpur, India. Retrieved April 6, 2005 [http://home.iitk.ac.in/%7Eramesh/abstract_workshop.html].
*Mukherjee, S., & Körtvélyessy (2005, April). Sudden fluctuation in Kp triggers earthquakes and tectonics [Abstract EGU05-A-00137]. Paper presented at the European Geosciences Union, General Assembly 2005, Vienna, Austria. Retrieved April 6, 2005 from Geophysical Research Abstracts, 7, 00137 [http://www.copernicus.org/EGU/ga/egu05/].
*Mukherjee, S. & Mukherjee, A. (2002). Change in magnetic field: an early warning system to understand seismtectonics. In, K. G. Strassmeier & A. Washuettl (Eds.), 1st Potsdam Thinkshop Poster Proceedings (139-142). Potsdam, Germany: Astrophysical Institute Potsdam.
*Palumbo, A. (1989, November-December). Gravitational and geomagnetic tidal source of earthquake triggering. ''IL Nuovo Cimento'', '''12-C'''(6), 685-693.
* Pilachowski, C. (1999, December). XX marks the spot. ''NOAO'' ''Newsletter'', '''60'''. Retrieved May 31, 2002 [http://www.noao.edu/noaonews/dec99/node2.html].
*Pratt, J. P. (1991). Newton’s date for the crucifixion [correspondence]. ''Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''32''', 301-304.
*Reames, D. V. (1995b). The dark side of the solar flare myth. ''Eos'', '''76''', 405.
*Reames, D. V. (1999). Solar energetic particles: is there time to hide. ''Radiation Measurements'', '''30''', 297-308.
*Reames, D. V., Tylka, A. J., & Ng, C. K. (2001). Solar energetic particles and space weather. In M. S. El-Genk (Ed.), ''AIP'' ''Conference Proceedings'', '''552''', 1185.
*Richards, E. G. (1998). ''Mapping Time: The Calendar and its'' ''History'' (p. 44). New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.
*Sekiguchi, N. (1977, March). A photometric and polarmetric study of the Moon’s surface II: On the possibility of the brightness fluctuations of the Moon. ''Earth, Moon, and Planets'', '''16''', 199-213.[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?1977Moon...16..199S&data_type=PDF_HIGH&whole_paper=YES&type=PRINTER&filetype=.pdf]
*Schaefer, B. E. (1990). Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. ''Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''31''', 53-67.
*Shatashvili, L. Kh., Sikharulidze, D. I., & Khazaradze, N. G. (2000, January). Dynamics of changes in the IMF sector structure in the vicinity of the Earth and the problem of earthquakes. ''International Journal of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy'', '''1'''(4). Retrieved May 16, 2003 [http://www.izmiran.rssi.ru/magnetism/SSIMF/PAPERS/GAI99329/GAI99329.HTM].
*Stewart, D. (n.d.). ''What Everyone Needs to Know About the Bible''. Orange, CA: Dart Press. Retrieved May 28, 2002 from the Blue Letter Bible web site [http://blueletterbible.org/faq/canon.html].
*Vogt, S. S., Hatzes, A. P., Misch, A. A., & Kürster, M. (1999, April). Doppler imagery of the spotted RS Canum Venaticorum star HR 1099 (V711 Tauri) from 1981 to 1992. ''Astrophysical Journal'' ''Supplemental Series'', '''121'''(2), 547-589.
*Walker, M. M., Dennis, T. E., & Kirschvink, J. L. (2002). The magnetic sense and its use in long-distance navigation by animals. ''Current Opinion in Neurology'', '''12''', 735-744.
*Walvoord, J. F. (1991). ''Major Bible Prophecies''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, p. 272.
*Winklhofer, M. (2005). Biogenic magnetite and magnetic sensitivity in organisms – From magnetic bacteria to pigeons [Invited Lecture]. Joint 15th Riga and 6th PAMIR Conference on Fundamental and Applied MHD. Institute of Physics, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia. Also, available in ''Magnetohydrodynamics'' ''Journal'', '''41'''(4), 295-304.

==See also==
*[[Christian eschatology]]
*[[Computus]]
*[[Good Friday]]
*[[International Heliophysical Year]]
*[[Palm Sunday]]
*[[Solar eclipse]]
*[[Transient lunar phenomenon]]
*[[Triumphal entry]]
[[Category:Book of Revelation]]
[[Category:Christian apocalyptic writings]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian miracle narrative]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Dramatic portrayals of Jesus]]
[[Category:Eclipses]]
[[Category:Glorious Mysteries]]
[[Category:Gospel episodes]]
[[Category:History of astronomy]]
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]
[[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]
[[Category:New Testament books]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative]]
[[Category:Oneness Pentecostalism]]
[[Category:Passion Gospels]]
[[Category:Prediction]]
[[Category:Prophecy]]
[[Category:Solar eclipses]]
[[Category:Space]]
[[Category:Timekeeping]]
[[Category:Variable stars]]

Unofficial Football World Championships

2007-03-28T20:41:31Z

193.195.0.102: /* Return to Europe */

{| class="infobox" style="font-size: 85%;"
!bgcolor="FF8800" colspan="3"|Current Champions
|-
|colspan="3" valign="top" align="center" style="font-size: 100%;"| '''{{SCOf}}'''
|-
|-
!bgcolor="FF8800" colspan="3"|Current Title
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Won
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[March 24]], [[2007]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Opponents
|colspan="2" valign="top"| [[Georgia national football team|Georgia]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Venue
|colspan="2" valign="top"| [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Competition
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[2008 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying|2008 European Chamionship qualifier]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Score
|colspan="2" valign="top"|2-1
|-
!bgcolor="FF8800" colspan="3"|Title Defences
|-
|colspan="3" valign="top"|
|}

The '''Unofficial Football World Championships''' ('''UFWC''') is a novel way of calculating the world's best [[football (soccer)|football]] team, using a knock-out title system similar to that used in [[boxing]] and [[wrestling]]. The title is currently held by [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] and the next defence of the title will take place against {{nft|Italy}} at [[Stadio San Nicola]] on [[28 March]] [[2007]].

The idea stemmed originally from some [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] fans jokingly asserting that as they beat [[England national football team|England]] (who had won the [[1966 FIFA World Cup|1966 World Cup]]) in a [[British Home Championship]] match on [[April 15]] [[1967]] - England's first loss after their World Cup victory - they were the Unofficial World Champions.

Many years later, a website was created to show results of research triggered by this idea. The [[website]] was featured in respected football magazine [[FourFourTwo]], which gained it extra publicity. The FourFourTwo feature also suggested the compilation of an unofficial clubs world championship.

It is not [[FIFA]]-sanctioned, nor does it have any sort of official backing.

Scotland's defeat of Georgia on [[24 March]][[2007]], made them title holders for the first time since 1967, and the game that had provoked this championship. Scotland has spent the most time as the champion and have won the most matches as the champion. Their first title defence of their current reign will be against [[Italy national football team|Italy]] on [[March 28]][[2007]], which allows the official World champions a chance to unite the two titles for the first time since [[France national football team|France]] did so in 1998.

==History==
===Early days===
{| class="infobox" style="font-size: 85%"
! bgcolor="FF8800" colspan="3"|Next Title Match
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Date
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[28 March]], [[2007]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Title Holders
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Scotland national football team|Scotland]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Challengers
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Italy national football team|Italy]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Venue
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[Stadio San Nicola]], [[Bari]]
|-
!align="left" valign="top"|Competition
|colspan="2" valign="top"|[[2008 UEFA European Football Championship qualifying|Euro 2008 Qualifying Competition]]
|}
The first ever international match was a "rather unexciting" 0-0 draw between England and Scotland, on [[November 30]] [[1872]] at [[Hamilton Crescent]]. The Unofficial World Championship thus remained undecided until the same two teams met again at the [[Kennington Oval]] on [[March 8]] [[1873]]. England won 4-2, and so are regarded as having become the Unofficial Football World Champions. [[Wales national football team|Wales]] entered the 'competition' in 1876, and [[Northern Ireland national football team|Ireland]] in 1882. The Championship however, continued to swap between Scotland and England until March 1903, when Ireland beat Scotland 2-0. Wales won the title for the first time in March 1907, beating Scotland 1-0.

Scotland regained the Championship the following year, which saw England playing internationally. Scotland however, didn't do the same and so retained the title. By the end of 1909, England had taken the title and defended it outside of the [[British Isles]] for the first time.

Following [[partition of Ireland|partition]], Ireland was to compete as [[Northern Ireland]] for the first time in 1923. The team went on to win for the first time in 1927, beating England 2-0.

The fact that none of the [[Home Nations]] teams competed in the [[1930 FIFA World Cup|1930]], [[1934 FIFA World Cup|1934]] or [[1938 FIFA World Cup|1938]] [[FIFA World Cup|World Cups]] kept the title from travelling too far abroad, and the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars hindered football's globalisation process further.

===1930s-2000===
It was 1931 when the title was first passed outside the [[British Isles]], to [[Austria national football team|Austria]]. It was back with the home nations within four months, and enjoyed the rest of the decade held by those five teams. In the 1940s the title was held by numerous continental teams, but was recaptured by England in time for the [[1950 FIFA World Cup|1950 World Cup]]. Here, in a shock result, they lost to the [[United States men's national soccer team|United States]] in one of the [[England v United States (1950)|biggest upsets ever]]. This was the first venture of the title onto the [[Americas]], where it soon headed south to [[Chile national football team|Chile]].
[[Image:World Map FIFA.png|thumb|200px|left|FIFA's divisions]]
In 1961, following ten years away from [[Europe]], the title came home to its native continent, and [[Spain national football team|Spain]]. Two years later the UFWC was won by the [[Netherlands Antilles national football team|Netherlands Antilles]], the smallest country ever to hold the title, when they beat [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]] 2-1 in a [[CONCACAF Gold Cup|CONCACAF Championship]] match. The UFWC returned to Europe in 1966 with the [[USSR national football team|Soviet Union]]. As it happened, the England v Scotland match of 1967, which first gave rise to the idea of an unofficial world championship, really was a UFWC title match. The title stayed in Europe until 1978, when it was taken by [[Argentina national football team|Argentina's]] [[1978 FIFA World Cup|1978 World Cup]] winning side. It remained in South America until the [[1982 FIFA World Cup|1982 World Cup]] where [[Peru national football team|Peru]] lost to [[Poland national football team|Poland]]. The UFWC remained in Europe for a decade.

In 1992, the title returned to the United States and then was held for one match by [[Australia national football team|Australia]], and then worked its way through several [[South America]]n nations, back through Europe and to its first [[Asia]]n holders, [[Korea Republic national football team|South Korea]]. The Koreans lost the title to [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] at the first time of asking, and the UFWC remained in Europe until March 1998 when [[Germany national football team|Germany]] lost it to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in a friendly. [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] then defeated Brazil in a friendly to carry the UFWC into the [[1998 FIFA World Cup|1998 World Cup]].

[[France national football team|France]] repeated the feat of Argentina in 1978 by taking the title as they won the World Cup on home turf, beating [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]. England took the title for the last time at [[Euro 2000]]. France and Spain enjoyed spells as champions before the [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] won the title in March 2002. As the Dutch had failed to qualify for the [[2002 FIFA World Cup|2002 World Cup]], the UFWC was, unusually, not at stake at the official World Cup. The Netherlands retained the title until [[September 10]] [[2003]], when they lost 3-1 to the [[Czech Republic national football team|Czech Republic]].

===Full globalisation===
The Czechs defended their title a few times, before losing it to the Republic of Ireland in a friendly. The title then went to an [[Africa]]n nation for the first time, as they lost it to [[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria]]. Minnows [[Angola national football team|Angola]] won and kept this title through late 2004 and early 2005. They were then beaten by [[Zimbabwe national football team|Zimbabwe]], who held the title for six months before [[Nigeria national football team|Nigeria]] re-gained it in October 2005. Nigeria were beaten by [[Romania national football team|Romania]] who lost it to [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] within six months. Uruguay became the highest ranked team to hold the title since 2004, but their failure to qualify for the [[2006 FIFA World Cup|World Cup finals]] meant that, for the second time in a row, the unofficial title was not available at the official championships.

===Return to Europe===
The title was won by [[Georgia national football team|Georgia]] on [[15 November]] [[2006]], who retained it in friendlies to bring the title back to Europe and the qualifying tournament for the [[Euro 2008|2008 European Championship]]. They lost the title to the highest ranked team in the UWFC of all time, [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]], on [[March 24]] [[2007]], nearly forty years since Scotland had previously gained the title in the game against [[England national football team|England]] at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] that had inspired the competition. Scotland's latest reign lasted only four days, before losing 2-0 to [[World Cup]] holders [[Italy]] on [[March 28]] [[2007]] in [[Bari]], [[Italy]].

==Rankings table==

Because of the unofficial nature of the title, there is no authoritative criteria for ranking the historical holders of the title. The UFWC website sorts teams by how many championship deciding matches they have won: others have used cumulative length of time holding the title, a points system for matches won, drawn and lost, or other methods.

This table ranks the teams according to the number of matches that they have started as title holders, and in the event of a tie, uses cumulative days as title holder and then length of time since the title was last held as second and third criteria.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Rank!! Country!! Matches as<br> champion!! | Days as<br> champion!! | Reigns as<br> champion!! | Title matches<br>won* !! | Title last held<br>YYYY-MM-DD
|-
|1||{{SCOf}}||102||13,000†<ref>Scotland's next defence will be on 28th March 2007, by which time they will have held the title for a cumulative total of 13,003 days</ref>||20 ||86 ||current holder
|-
|2||{{ENGf}}||88||7,506 ||21 ||74 ||2000-06-20
|-
|3||{{ARGf}}||61||2,443 ||10 ||50 ||1998-07-04
|-
|4||{{RUSf}}<ref>Russia's statistics include figures for the [[USSR national football team|Soviet Union]] before 1990</ref>||50||1,580 ||6 ||41 || 2000-02-23
|-
|5||{{NEDf}}||44||1,700 ||8 ||32 || 2003-09-10
|-
|6||{{BRAf}}||37||1,251 ||7 ||29 ||1988-04-29
|-
|7||{{GERf}}<ref>Germany's statistics include figures for [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 1945-1990</ref>||36||1,198 ||9 ||27 ||2000-06-17
|-
|8||{{FRAf}}||34||1,333 ||6 ||25 ||2001-03-28
|-
|9||{{ITAf}}||27||855 ||8 ||24 ||2000-07-02
|-
|10||{{SWEf}}||26||1,435 ||5 ||25 ||1989-06-14
|-
|11||{{CZEf}}<ref>Czech Republic's statistics include figures for [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] before 1990</ref>||23||648||5 ||15 || 2004-03-31
|-
|12||{{SPAf}}||21||1,198 ||4 ||15 ||2002-03-27
|-
|13||{{HUNf}}||21||1,008 ||5 ||14 ||1972-01-12
|-
|14||{{URUf}}||20||1,031 ||6 ||16 || 2006-11-15
|-
|15||{{SWIf}}||14||1,124 ||7 ||9 ||1994-06-26
|-
|16||{{AUTf}}||14||816 ||2 ||12 ||1968-06-16
|-
|17||{{WALf}}||13||1,821 ||8 ||12 ||1988-09-14
|-
|18||{{COLf}}||13||1,109 ||3 ||8 ||1995-01-31
|-
|19||{{CHIf}}||13||1,066 ||4 ||11 ||1982-03-30
|-
|20||{{PARf}}||11||452 ||2 ||7 ||1979-12-05
|-
|21||{{PERf}}||11||308 ||4 ||7 ||1982-06-22
|-
|22||{{ROMf}}||10||269 ||4 ||8 ||2006-05-23
|-
|23||{{BULf}}||9||422 ||3 ||6 ||1985-09-04
|-
|24||{{NIRf}}<ref>Northern Ireland's statistics include figures for [[Ireland national football team (IFA)|Ireland]] before 1921</ref>||8||2,709 ||4 ||5 ||1933-10-14
|-
|25||{{ANGf}}||8||280 ||1 ||7 ||2005-03-27
|-
|26||{{ZIMf}}||8||195 ||1 ||7 ||2005-10-08
|-
|27||{{BELf}}||7||188 ||4 ||5 ||1990-01-17
|-
|28||{{GREf}}||6||308 ||1 ||5 ||1990-11-21
|-
|29||{{CRCf}}||6||160 ||1 ||5 ||1963 09-04
|-
|30||{{SRBf}}<ref>Serbia has never held the title in its own right, but is credited by FIFA with the records of the national teams of [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] (title holders in 1939), [[SFR Yugoslavia]] (holders in 1984) and [[FR Yugoslavia]] (holders in 1995)</ref>||5||144 ||3 ||5 ||1995-05-31
|-
|31||{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Republic of Ireland national football team|Republic of Ireland]]||5||122 ||2 ||3 ||2004-05-29
|-
|32||{{BOLf}}||5||55 ||3 ||5 ||1994-04-20
|-
|33||{{POLf}}||5||41 ||2 ||4 ||1989-05-07
|-
|34||{{NGRf}}||4||61 ||2 ||4 ||2005-11-16
|-
|35||{{PORf}}||3||314 ||2 ||2 ||1992-06-04
|-
|36||{{DENf}}||3||75 ||2 ||3 ||1989-08-23
|-
|37||{{ECUf}}||3||63 ||1 ||2 ||1965-08-22
|-
|38||{{USAf}}||3||13 ||2 ||2 ||1992-06-14
|-
|39||{{GEOf}}||2||129 ||1||2||2007-03-24
|-
|40||{{ISRf}}||2||63 ||1 ||1 ||2000-04-26
|-
|41||{{MEXf}}||1||290 ||1 ||1 ||1963-03-24
|-
|42||{{VENf}}||1||21 ||1 ||1 ||2006-10-18
|-
|43||{{KORf}}||1||4 ||1 ||1 ||1995-02-04
|-
|44||{{AUSf}}||1||4 ||1 ||1 ||1992-06-18
|-
|45||{{ANTf}}||1||4 ||1 ||1 ||1963-03-28
|-
|}*: Including matches won on extra time and penalties.
† As of 25th March 2007

==Rules==
*The first team to win an international football match were declared first ever ''Football World Champions''.
*The next match this team competes in is considered a title match, with the winners taking the title.
**In the event of a title match being a draw, the current holders of the title remain champions. UFWC title matches are decided by their ultimate outcome, including extra time and penalties.
*The title is passed on like so, with any sanctioned match involving a title holder being considered a title match.
*Title matches are contested under the rules of the governing body which they are sanctioned by.

==Nasazzi's Baton==
A similar virtual title, [[José Nasazzi|Nasazzi]]'s Baton, traces the "championship" from the first [[FIFA World Cup|World Cup]] winners Uruguay, after whose captain it is named. Nasazzi's Baton follows the same rules as the UFWC, except that it treats all matches according to their result after 90 minutes. [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] are the current holders of this title as well as the UFWC, the two titles having most recently been united when [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], the UFWC holders, beat Nasazzi's baton champions [[Norway national football team|Norway]] 1-0 in Oslo in a friendly on [[21 August]] 2002.

== Virtual World Championship==
Another virtual title, the Virtual World Championship, operates along the same boxing-style lines but only counts matches in FIFA-recognised championships and their qualifying stages. This is to circumvent the criticism of the UFWC that because countries do not always play their strongest teams in non-competitive matches, the honour could be unwittingly lost by a sub-strength team. This title is traced from the 1908 Olympic final. Olympic competitions since 1936 are not considered, as full international teams ceased to take part after that tournament. The honour is currently held by [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], who won it from [[Côte d'Ivoire national football team|Côte d'Ivoire]] at the [[2006 FIFA World Cup|World Cup]] on [[10 June]][[2006]] and will next defend it against the [[United States national football team|United States]] at the [[Copa América 2007|Copa América]] on [[28 June]] [[2007]]. The Virtual World Championship treats all matches according to their result after 90 minutes.

==Criticisms==
There are several potential criticisms of the Unofficial Football World Championships:
*Title matches are infrequent, and even then the nature of qualifying groups means that the title may remain on the same continent for quite long periods.
*It is possible for weak teams to attain (and then retain) the title.
*As the tournament is not sanctioned by [[FIFA]] or any other football governing body, this Championship has no real status. (FIFA have, however, said they have no objection to the UFWC and sent its promoters their best wishes as long as they respect the laws of the game, sportsmanship and fair play.)<ref>[http://www.ufwc.co.uk/faq.html#18]</ref>
*Many teams do not play their strongest teams in non-competitive matches, and the honour could be unwittingly lost by a sub-strength team (as happened to Nigeria in November 2005).
*There is no trophy, although the UFWC's promoters are hoping to rectify this.
*There is sometimes dispute over which matches are to be considered full internationals, and therefore whether the title should be considered under contention in a game. Some observers, including RSSSF and WPFC, do not consider a match in January 1995, in which South Korea defeated title holders Colombia, to be a full international, and so plot a different route for the honour from that game until June 1996, when the two routes reconverge.

==References==
<references/>

==See also==
*[[List of winners of Unofficial Football World Championships]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ufwc.co.uk/ Unofficial Football World Championships]
*[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/nasazzibaton.html RSSSF - Nasazzi's Baton]
*[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/virtualwc.html RSSSF - Virtual World Championship]
*[http://www.ufwc.co.uk/book.html Unofficial Football World Championships book]

[[Category:International national football (soccer) competitions]]

[[de:Nasazzi-Stab]]
[[pt:Campeonato do Mundo (Oficioso) de Futebol]]

Unofficial Football World Championships

2007-03-28T20:41:31Z

193.195.0.102: /* Return to Europe */

Kuckuckskinder (Roman)

2006-10-30T17:36:16Z

193.195.0.102: /* Allusions/references from other works */

'''''The Midwich Cuckoos''''' is a [[science fiction]] [[novel]] written by English author [[John Wyndham]] in [[1957 in literature|1957]].

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}

The novel is set largely within the titular Midwich, a typical small English village. A series of incidents near to the village one day establishes that anybody who approaches past a certain boundary line falls instantly unconscious; the effect extends completely around Midwich, with the unconsciousness vanishing as soon as a person re-crosses the boundary. Experimentation rules out any chemical or biological effect, whilst aerial photography reveals a peculiar silver object on the ground in the village itself.

After a period of one day the effect vanishes. The villagers wake, apparently with no ill effects. Some months later a follow up study reveals that every woman of child-bearing age is pregnant, with all indications that the pregnancies were initiated on the "Dayout".

When the children are born they appear normal, except every child in the village is born with blonde hair, and unusual golden eyes, having no genetic characteristics of their parents. And as they grow up it becomes apparent that they are at least in some respects inhuman. They experience accelerated growth and are able to force their will on others, controlling their actions, as well as sharing two distinct group minds, one for the boys, and one for the girls. The children gradually begin to exert a bigger and bigger effect on the villagers, killing several of them in retaliation for perceived attacks.

Ultimately, the villagers and government authorities decide that the clearly non-Human children cannot co-exist with the rest of Humanity. An elderly professor uses their trust in him to gather them together and detonate a large bomb, killing himself and all of the children.

The title is a reference to the [[cuckoos|Cuckoo]] bird, which lays its eggs in the nest of other birds in the hopes that they will expend resources raising the Cuckoo's children.

==Major themes==
The novel is sometimes described as a British version of ''[[The Body Snatchers]]'', and has a similar theme of society being subverted from within by a force which infiltrates one of the most cherished aspects of life — in this case our children rather than our own bodies.

The subtext of the book is subtle and can easily be lost in the text of the book. Throughout the book, many different types of SF and their merits are discussed and argued through as a way of coming to terms with the events told of in the story. Also, we see the Russian/Communist reaction to what is an exactly paralleled plot situation.

While the book could be criticised for neglecting its large number of female characters (two central female characters leave the narrative halfway through, never to come back), some of them are well-developed. Most notable is Angela Zellaby who is continually reining in her high-minded and sentimentally modern husband/academic into the true nature and facts of the situation at hand. She is also the first to grasp the realities of the situation. But it is true to say that no female character takes a direct hand in changing matters or effecting the situation.

Wyndham's writing style is quite accessible and the novel remains popular.

==Film, TV or theatrical adaptations==
The novel was filmed as ''[[Village of the Damned (1960 movie)|Village of the Damned]]'' in 1960, with (unusual for a [[science fiction film]]) a script that was fairly faithful to the book. A sequel followed shortly after, and there was also a colour [[Village of the Damned (1995 movie)|remake ]] of the original in [[1995]] by [[John Carpenter]] set in "Midwich, California", and starring [[Christopher Reeve]] in one of his last film roles before he was paralysed in a riding accident. This movie also included [[Kirstie Alley]] as a government official, the female character which the original novel lacked. There have also been several radio adaptations by the [[BBC]], the most recent in [[2003]]. Wyndham began work on a sequel novel, ''Midwich Main'', which he abandoned after only a few chapters.

==Allusions/references from other works==
The [[Stepford Cuckoos]], a group of [[New X-Men]] characters were partly inspired by the Midwich Cuckoos.

{{John Wyndham}}

[[Category:Science fiction novels|Midwich Cuckoos, The]]
[[Category:1957 novels|Midwich Cuckoos, The]]

[[fr:Le Village des damnés (roman)]]

Kuckuckskinder (Roman)

2006-10-30T17:35:48Z

193.195.0.102: /* Allusions/references from other works */

Eileen Blair

2006-09-15T21:52:46Z

193.195.0.102:

'''Eileen Maud O'Shaughnessy''' ([[September 25]], [[1905]] - [[March 29]], [[1945]]) was the first wife of British [[writer]] [[George Orwell]] (Eric Arthur Blair).

O'Shaughnessy was born in [[South Shields]], [[Tyne and Wear]], in northeast [[England]], the only daughter of Marie O'Shaughnessy and Lawrence O'Shaughnessy (of apparent Irish origin), who was a customs collector. She had an older brother, Lawrence O'Shaughnessy.

She attended Sunderland Church High School. In the late [[1920s]] she attended university at [[Oxford]] where she attained a degree in [[psychology]].

O'Shaughnessy was also an amateur poet. She met Orwell in 1935 and married him the following year. Soon after their marriage she joined Orwell when he went to fight in the [[Spanish Civil War]], returning the following year after he was wounded by a sniper.

In June of [[1944]] Orwell and O'Shaughnessy adopted a three-week old boy they named Richard Horatio Blair. Tragically, she died in the spring of [[1945]] in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]] whilst undergoing routine surgery.

==Influence on Orwell's writing==
Some scholars believe that Eileen had a large influence on Orwell's writing. It is suggested that Orwell's classic novel [[1984 (book)|1984]] may have been influenced by one of O'Shaughnessy's poems, ''End of the Century, 1984'' [http://www.arlindo-correia.com/101103.html], although this theory cannot be proven. The poem was written in 1934, to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of [[Sunderland Church High School]], which she had attended, and to look ahead 50 years to the school's centenary in 1984. [http://www.k-1.com/Orwell/messages/833.sht]

Although the poem was written a year before she met Orwell, there are striking similarities between the futuristic vision of O'Shaughnessy's poem and that of Orwell's ''1984'', including the use of mind control, and the eradication of personal freedom by a police state.

O'Shaughnessy is also believed to have helped Orwell write [[Animal Farm]].

[[Category:1905 births|O'Shaughnessy, Eileen]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|O'Shaughnessy, Eileen]]

Pollok Castle

2004-03-07T10:45:13Z

193.195.0.102:

'''Pollock''' is a predominantly [[working class]] district on the southside of the city of [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]].

The main feature of the area is the nearby park, [[Pollock Country Park]].

The area is currently represented on the [[City of Glasgow]] council by one of two [[Scottish Socialist Party]] councillors that have been elected across the whole of Scotland.

Pollok Castle

2004-03-07T10:45:02Z

193.195.0.102:

'''Pollock''' is a predominantly [[working class]] district on the southside of the city of [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]].

The main feature of the area is the nearby park, [[Pollok Country Park]].

The area is currently represented on the [[City of Glasgow]] council by one of two [[Scottish Socialist Party]] councillors that have been elected across the whole of Scotland.

Pollok Castle

2004-03-07T10:44:14Z

193.195.0.102: