Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Game Designer

2008-09-23T17:13:58Z

165.29.244.6:

A "game maker" is a person who designs [[video game]]s, or one who designs traditional games such as [[board game]]s.

==Video and computer==
A video or computer game designer develops the layout, concept and [[gameplay]] of a video or computer game. This may include playfield design, specification writing, and entry of numeric properties that balance and tune the gameplay. A game designer works for a [[video game developer|developer]] (which may additionally be the game's [[video game publisher]]).

This person usually has a lot of [[writer|writing]] experience and may even have a degree in writing or a related field (such as [[English language|English]]). This person's primary job function is writing, so the more experience they have with that activity, the better. Some [[artist|art]] and [[programmer|programming]] skills are also helpful for this job, but are not strictly necessary. In addition game designers often study relevant liberal arts such as [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[drama]], [[fine art]] or [[philosophy]]. Due to the increasing complexity of the game design process, many young game designers may also come from a [[computer science]] or other computer engineering background.

In larger companies entry level game designers will typically be given simpler tasks such as level design and object placement, while the role of lead designer will be reserved for a designer with more experience and a history of successful titles. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

===History===
The first video games were designed in the 1960s and 1970s by programmers for whom creating games was a [[hobby]], since there was no way to sell them or earn money from creating games (the games required large [[mainframe computer]]s to play). Some were designed by electrical engineers as exhibits for visitors to computer labs (''[[OXO]]'', ''[[Tennis for Two]]''), others by college students who wrote games for their friends to play (''[[Spacewar!]]'', ''[[Star Trek (text game)|Star Trek]]'', ''[[Dungeon (computer game)|Dungeon]]'').

Some of the games designed during this era, such as ''[[Zork]]'', ''[[Baseball (computer game)|Baseball]]'', ''[[Air Warrior]]'' and ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure|Adventure]]'' later made the transition with their game designers into the early [[video game industry]].

Early in the [[history of computer and video games|history of video games]], game designers were often the [[lead programmer]] or the ''only'' programmer for a game, and this remained true as the video game industry dawned in the 1970s. This person also sometimes comprised the entire art team. This is the case of such noted designers as [[Sid Meier]], [[Chris Sawyer]] and [[Will Wright (game designer)|Will Wright]]. A notable exception to this policy was [[Coleco]], which from its very start separated the function of design and programming.

As games became more complex and [[home computer|computers]] and [[video game console|console]]s became more powerful (allowing more features), the job of the game designer became a separate job function, with the lead programmer splitting his time between the two functions, moving from one role to the other. Later, game complexity escalated to the point where it required someone who concentrated solely on game design. Many early veterans chose the game design path eschewing programming and delegating those tasks to others.

Today, it is rare to find a video or computer game where the principal programmer is also the principal designer, except in the case of [[casual game]]s, such as ''[[Tetris]]'' or ''[[Bejeweled]]''. With very complex games, such as [[MMORPG]]s, or a big budget action or sports title, designers may number in the dozens. In these cases, there are generally one or two principal designers and many junior designers who specify subsets or subsystems of the game. In larger companies like [[Electronic Arts]], each aspect of the game (control, level design or vehicles) may have a separate producer, lead designer and several general designers.

==See also==

* [[List of video game designers]]
* [[List of designers of role-playing games]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gamespot.com/features/6129276/index.html "So You Wanna Be a Game Designer"] at ''[[GameSpot]]''
*[http://www.eurocom.co.uk/content/view/102/81/ The Designer] at [[Eurocom]]

===Newsgroups===
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&group=comp.games.development.design comp.games.development.design via Google Groups]
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-8&group=rec.games.design rec.games.design via Google Groups]

{{vg-industry}}

[[Category:Game designers| ]]
[[Category:Game design]]
[[Category:Arts occupations]]

[[es:Diseñador de juegos]]
[[fr:Game designer]]
[[ko:게임 디자이너]]
[[hr:Dizajner igara]]
[[id:Perancang permainan]]
[[ms:Pereka permainan]]
[[ja:ゲームデザイナー]]
[[pl:Projektant gier]]
[[pt:Designer de jogos]]
[[ro:Designer de jocuri]]
[[ru:Геймдизайнер]]
[[simple:Game designer]]
[[sr:Дизајнер игара]]
[[fi:Pelisuunnittelija]]
[[zh:遊戲設計師]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2008-09-16T16:33:09Z

165.29.244.6: /* Canada */

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as having been disrespectful of the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt", or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court itself.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt. These are

* existence of a lawful order
* the contemnor's knowledge of the order
* the contemnor's ability to comply
* the contemnor's failure to comply.

==Canada== the home of the fags
canada is america's top hat. that is were america hides all its fags and lezbians

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GB£]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

"Direct" contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.

"Indirect" contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court itself.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Books about Contempt of Court==
*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

==See also==

*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] or a [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]].
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] and [[Obstruction of justice]] - A criminal offence where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings or official investigations.

==External links==
UK [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) – [http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section12/chapter_g.html Guidance on contempt of court]

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Benutzer:Rogi.Official/Artikel/Werkstatt/Missachtung des Gerichts

2008-09-15T16:58:43Z

165.29.244.6: stupied amarican top hat a.k.a. canada

{{worldview}}

'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as having been disrespectful of the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as "in contempt", or a person "held in contempt", it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which excessively or in a wanton manner disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial. A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or [[prison|jail]] for someone found guilty of contempt of court. Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

In civil cases involving relations between private citizens, the intended victim of the act of contempt is usually the party for whose benefit the ruling was implemented, rather than the court itself.

A person found in contempt of court is called a "contemnor." To prove contempt, the prosecutor or complainant must prove the four elements of contempt. These are

* existence of a lawful order
* the contemnor's knowledge of the order
* the contemnor's ability to comply
* the contemnor's failure to comply.

==Canada: The home of the fags.==
Criminal offences are found within the Criminal Code of Canada and all they get introuble for is not being gay enough. All Canadisn should stop being so gay. ya. im right

==United Kingdom==

In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[Crime|criminal]] or [[civil]] offence. The maximum sentence for criminal contempt is two years.

Disorderly, contemptuous, or insolent behavior toward the judge while holding the court, tending to interrupt the due course of a trial or other judicial proceeding, may be prosecuted as "direct" contempt. The term "direct" means that the court itself cites the person in contempt by describing the behavior observed on the record. Direct contempt is distinctly different from indirect contempt, wherein another individual affected by a court order may file papers alleging contempt against a person who has willfully violated a lawful court order.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt "in the face of the court" (not to be taken literally; the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court);
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt.

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates' Court]]s are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court or otherwise disrupts its proceedings until the end of the sitting. Upon the contempt being either admitted or proved the court may imprison the offender for a maximum of one month, fine them up to [[Pound sterling|GB£]]2500, or do both.

It is contempt of court to bring an audio recording device or picture-taking device of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is "necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime."

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney General for England and Wales|Attorney General]] has issued guidance as to when he believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict.

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[bench warrant]] is issued, authorizing the [[tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a groveling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a "penal notice" - i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment - is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this rarely happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is significant and in practice imprisonment is rarely ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American [[jurisprudence]], acts of contempt are divided into two types.

"Direct" contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.

"Indirect" contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal.

Contempt of court in a civil suit is generally not considered to be a criminal offense, with the party benefiting from the order also holding responsibility for the enforcement of the order. However, some cases of civil contempt have been perceived as intending to harm the reputation of the plaintiff, or to a lesser degree, the judge or the court itself.

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[Burden of proof|reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[Fine (penalty)|fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the [[sheriff]] or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The imposed party is said to "hold the keys" to his or her own cell, thus conventional [[due process of law|due process]] is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Books about Contempt of Court==
*Scarce, Rik. "Contempt of Court: A Scholar's Battle for Free Speech from behind Bars" (2005) (ISBN 0759106436).

==See also==

*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] or a [[state legislature (United States)|state legislature]].
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] and [[Obstruction of justice]] - A criminal offence where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings or official investigations.

==External links==
UK [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) – [http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section12/chapter_g.html Guidance on contempt of court]

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]
[[ur:توہین عدالت]]
[[zh:藐視法庭]]

Jesus-Mythos

2006-10-31T17:54:52Z

165.29.244.6: /* Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century */

{{not verified}}

{{jesus}}
:''This article is part of the [[Jesus and history]] series of articles.
'''Jesus as myth''' or '''The Jesus Myth''' is a collection of ideas that have in common the central theme that elements of beliefs about [[Jesus]], and the Jesus narrative in the New Testament, are actually [[syncretism]]s from older myths. It is usually associated with a [[Religious skepticism|skeptical]] position on the existence of Jesus as [[historicity of Jesus|an actual historical figure]].

The theory is based on apparent similarities between early Christian accounts of Jesus and pre-existing [[mystery religion]]s, and at the more extreme limit of the theory is also based in part on the lack of extant evidence about his life outside the [[Gospels]] in the view of the holders of the theory. The extreme limit of the theory has not found widespread acceptance among Bible scholars and historians.<ref name=opponents>[[Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels''; [[Rudolf Bultmann]], ''Jesus and the Word''; Robert Van Voorst, ''Jesus Outside the Gospels'', and Graham Stanton, ''The Gospels and Jesus''.</ref>

The debate over the truth of Jesus' existence requires academic analysis of the available evidence from times near-contemporary with the dates for Jesus' life, and it depends on the reliability and biases of such evidence. It includes the use of [[historiography]], [[philology]], and to an extent [[hermeneutics]] as tools for analyzing the evidence. The relevant evidence itself can be broken down into Christian and non-Christian texts; the only surviving Christian texts close enough to the era being the books within the New Testament itself. The earliest part of the New Testament, and thus the most important to answer the question, are the [[Pauline Epistles]], though as these contain very little actual narrative concerning Jesus. It is important to note that the majority of scholars believe that Paul has quoted Jesus several times<ref>Society of Biblical Studies, The Harper Collins NRSV Study Bible, San Francsco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1989, 2141, see Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10, and 1 Corinthians 9:14</ref> and if the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] was made before the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], it too has several passages where Jesus struggles with opposition and speaks.<ref>http://www.abu.nb.ca/courses/NTIntro/Heb.htm. See Hebrews 10:5-9 for Jesus' vocal ministry, and Hebrews 5:7 and Hebrews 12:3 for descriptions of hostility towards Jesus.</ref> The later accounts in the Gospels are also of significance. The purpose of this article is not to provide said academic analysis, but rather to provide an account of research that has been performed into the subject thus far.

==History of the theory==

Some have suggested that the idea dates to New Testament times, citing {{bibleverse|2|John|1:7|}}'s "many deceivers [who] are entered into the world, who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh." Some scholars studying this period believe that these early quotes refer to [[docetism]], the belief that Jesus appeared to people but lacked a genuinely physical body, rather than a belief that Jesus was a completely fabricated figure.

The first modern, published proponent of this theory was probably [[19th century|nineteenth century]] [[historian]] [[Bruno Bauer]], a [[Hegelian]] thinker who argued that the true founder of [[Christianity]] was the Alexandrian [[Jew]] [[Philo]], who had adapted Judaic ideas to Hellenic philosophy. His arguments made little impact at the time. Other authors included [[Edwin Johnson (historian)|Edwin Johnson]], who argued that Christianity emerged from a combination of liberal trends in Judaism with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] [[mysticism]]. Less speculative versions of the theory developed under writers such as A.D. Loman and [[Gerardus Johannes Petrus Josephus Bolland|G.J.P.J. Bolland]]. Loman argued that episodes in Jesus's life, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]], were in reality fictions to justify compilations of pre-existing liberal Jewish sayings. Bolland developed the theory that Christianity developed from Gnosticism and that "Jesus" was a symbolic figure representing Gnostic ideas about godhood.

Jesus-Myth theories often draw on nineteenth century scholarship on the formation of myth, in the work of writers such as [[Max Müller]] and [[James Frazer]]. Müller argued that religions originated in mythic stories of the birth, death and rebirth of the sun. Frazer further attempted to explain the origins of humanity's beliefs in the idea of a "sacrificial king", associated with the sun, vegetation, or a "year-daemon" as a dying and reviving god. According to his major book on the subject, ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', the king's death and rebirth was connected to the regeneration of the earth in springtime and was often required for the continuity of a ritual-based community. A critic of the religious beliefs of his contemporaries, Frazer wrote ''The Golden Bough'' partly to discredit Christianity by illustrating its similarity to the beliefs and rituals of other cultures.<ref>[[Ronald Hutton]], ''Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'' (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 113-117.</ref>

By the early [[20th century|twentieth century]] a number of writers had published arguments in favor of the Jesus-Myth theory. These treatments were sufficiently influential to merit several book-length responses by traditional historians and [[New Testament]] [[scholars]]. The most influential of the books arguing for a mythic Jesus was [[Arthur Drews]]'s ''The Christ-Myth'' (1909) which argued that Christianity had been a Jewish Gnostic cult that spread by appropriating aspects of Greek philosophy and Frazerian death-rebirth deities. This combination of arguments became the standard form of the mythic Christ theory.

While aspects of the theory were influential, mainstream scholars at the time rejected the notion. Because much of Frazer's work has since been discredited, and the priority of Gnosticism seriously questioned, the Jesus-Myth theory has dwindled in importance.{{citationneeded}} Mainstream late twentieth century scholars, such as theologian and historian [[John P. Meier]] and the author and theologian [[A.N Wilson]], have evaluated the historical evidence for many individual details of Jesus' biography and teachings, separating the probable and the plausible from the demonstrably mythical. The evidence seems quite strong for the existence of a historical person corresponding to the Jesus of the gospels, but few facts about him are better attested by Meier's criteria than certain miracle stories. This may perhaps be taken as commentary on the reliability of recorded history at two thousand years' remove.

In recent years, the Jesus-Myth has had few proponents in academia but has been advanced by [[William B. Smith]], [[George Albert Wells]] (''The Jesus Legend'' and ''The Jesus Myth''), and [[John Marco Allegro]] (''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' and ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''), as well as by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]] (co-authors of ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'' and ''Jesus and the Lost Goddess''), and [[Earl Doherty]] (author of ''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]''), and Larry Wright, author of ''Christianity, Astrology & Myth''.

== Influences on the earliest Christianity ==

According to the traditional Christian intepretation of Christianity's beginnings, the [[Early Christianity|earliest Christian Church]] developed directly from the ministry of Jesus and his Twelve Apostles, without much in the way of external influences. Evangelical Christians also believe that the New Testament is an accurate historic record of Jesus. More critical and secular approaches argue that the earliest Christianity did not develop in a religious vacuum, but in the cosmopolitan and multi-religious world of hellenised Judea under the Roman Empire. Consequently critical approaches, including those associated with the theory of Jesus as myth, argue that it remains plausible for early Christianity to have developed under the influence of external religions, and that it would be unusual for the New Testament narratives to have not even been remotely touched by such a cosmopolitan background.

===The influence of the Old Testament===

It is widely accepted that the Gospel accounts were influenced by the Old Testament. In particular, many quotations attributed to the [[Q document]], which the Gospels attribute to Jesus{{cite needed}}, find parallels in several places of the Old Testament. Some scholars believe that certain elements of the gospels are not history but a type of [[midrash]]{{cite needed}}, creative narratives based on the stories, prophecies, and quotes in the Hebrew Bible.

The Gospel of Matthew is widely considered the most "Jewish" of the canonical Gospels, and in the small amount of material unique to the Gospel of Matthew (i.e. not mentioned by the other canonical Gospels), Jesus is presented in a way that often has strong parallels with significant Old Testament figures. Most noticeable are the similarities with [[Moses]], whose birth narrative and sojourn in the wilderness as a youth are alleged by textual critics to have been the basis from which Matthew derived its account of the [[nativity of Jesus]], rather than Matthew basing it on the actual events of the birth of Jesus.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/partthre.htm</ref>

Though conceding that the gospels may contain some creativity and midrash, scholarly opponents of the Jesus-as-myth stance argue that the gospels are more akin to ancient Graeco-Roman biographies. Although scholars do not agree on the exact nature of this genre, associated works attempted to impart historical information about historical figures, but were not comprehensive and could include legendary developments. Nevertheless, as ancient biographies, proponents of Jesus' existence believe they contain sufficient historical information to establish his historicity.

Although there are many types of midrash, the [[Toledot Yeshu]] jumps out as being the most similar to the proposal that characters and situations were invented wholesale according to religious dogma and Old Testament prophecy. However, those opposed to the existence of such strong Old Testament influences have argued that the closest parallels, to potential Moses-based embellishment of the Jesus narrative, are inapplicable. Although agreeing that there are many examples of ancient Jewish and Christian literature that shaped their stories and accounts according to Old Testament influence, such opponents argue that even under this influence there is nevertheless often some accurate historical information at the core;<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price6.htm</ref> for example, in [[1 Maccabees]], Judas and his battles are described in terms which parallel those of Saul's and David's battles against the Philistines in [[Books of Samuel|1 and 2 Samuel]], but nevertheless 1 Maccabees has a degree of respect amongst historians as having a reasonable degree of historical reliability.<ref>John R. Bartlett, ''The First and Second Books of Maccabees'', p. 15-17</ref>

===Gnostic themes===

Although there are occasional references in the [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|''disputed'' group of Pauline Epistles]] to a flesh-and-blood Jesus, the ''undisputed epistles'' contain only limited mention of Jesus as a historic figure. Even though Paul's letters are widely regarded as the earliest Christian documents, they contain very few references to Jesus' actual life and ministry, which only appear in detail in the later Gospels. Christian apologists claim that Paul's letters were written in response to specific problems unrelated to the details of the life of Jesus, and so the occasional and epistolary nature of Paul's correspondence are sufficient explanations for the lack of detail of Jesus' life. However, proponents of the theory that Jesus has a basis in myth counter that there are an abundance of missed rhetorical opportunities in his epistles to reinforce points by quoting statements that the Gospels later claim that Jesus said, or citing events in his life mentioned later by the Gospels that were directly relevant to the topics Paul was discussing, and presumably must have been known about in the period between the events happening and the Gospels being written.

Several commentators, from writers whose theories have not received widespread acceptance, such as [[Earl Doherty]], to widely respected academics and experts in the field, such as Harvard professor [[Elaine Pagels]], have argued that the Pauline epistles, or at least the genuine ones, should be interpreted as [[gnosticism]]. Christianity arose under a heavy Hellenic culture, Paul himself growing up in [[Tarsus]], the center of one of the major [[mystery religion]]s of the time, and Pagels and Doherty (and others) believe that Paul's writing should be viewed in the context of the Hellenic culture which formed his background. One consequence of [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|parts of the New Testament being written as Gnostic documents]] is that the narratives involved would not have been intended as descriptions of historic events but as non-historic [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]].

Gnosticism, an umbrella term for a diverse set of groups within early Christianity (that were ultimately suppressed), frequently used allegory and metaphor to guide its initiates towards an [[esoteric]] ''salvation'', which Gnosticism viewed as a form of knowledge (''[[gnosis]]''), not unlike [[Bodhi|Buddhist enlightenment]]. Many of the most prominent strands of Gnosticism interpreted the Gospels as Gnostic documents, and their narratives as allegorical rather than historic, often drawing profound meaning from the events in Jesus' life. Many Gnostic groups even regarded Jesus himself as an allegory, rather than historic, and [[docetism]] was rife in Gnostic groups. Thus whether or not parts of the New Testament were written as Gnostic documents, is a matter of substantial impact on the question of the [[historicity of Jesus]], and on what elements can be considered to be based on a historic figure.

How much influence gnosticism had on Christianity, and how much Christianity originated in gnosticism, are thus questions which have historically been quite volatile. Advocates of a position arguing that many elements of Jesus are derived from myth hold<ref>http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/marshall_gauvin/did_jesus_really_live.html</ref> that those references in the undisputed epistles that appear to refer to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should instead be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp08.htm</ref> Their opponents, often but not always conservative Christians, regard such interpretations, of for example {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:19}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:16|}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|4:4|}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|1:3|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|3:1|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|15:8|}}, and {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23-25|}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:4|}}, as based on forced and erroneous translations.<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price7.htm</ref>

===Parallels with Mediterranean mystery religions and other non-Abrahamic sources===
The question of what connection Christianity has to Mediterranean [[mystery religion]]s has been a controversy since the early centuries of Christianity. Although such questions subsided and were suppressed as the power of the Church grew, they have returned as the knowledge about the mystery religions was rediscovered. Whether this connection exists, and who copied whom, is at the core of the question of Jesus as myth.

Most of the mystery religions of the Mediterranean in the time of early Christianity were centred on a single divine figure (in the case of [[Orphism (religion)|Orphism]], the central figure is essentially an avatar of his own master, [[Dionysus]]), who had in most cases originally been a minor deity, whose mythology contained a narrative involving the deities death. In several cases, the original mythology seems to have been completely hijacked and abruptly altered, often bearing very little relation to the original myth; this is particularly noticeable in the way that [[Mithra]] somehow became [[Mithras]]. A number of the Mediterranean mystery religions of the period contain several similarities to each other, such as a prominent [[Life-death-rebirth deity|life-death-rebirth narrative]], and the central ''deity'' being semi-human; this group (including the religions of [[Legend of Osiris and Isis|Osiris-Horus]], [[Dionysus]], [[Mithras]], [[Aion (deity)|Aion]], [[Adonis]], and [[Attis]]) were identified as connected in early times, and as a group were named [[Osiris-Dionysus]] after the two earliest groups.

Modern scholars have argued that most of these Osiris-Dionysus religions evolved when earlier Osiris-Dionysus religions spread into a new region and localised themselves by hijacking convenient local deities; this is most evident in how [[Sabazios]], originally a [[Phrygia]]n deity, became another name for Dionysus, it is also evident in how [[Orphicism]] developed with the central figure of [[Orpheus]], supposedly a priest of Dionysus, but essentially Dionysus himself. Most scholars that have an opinion on the matter argue that the earliest form of this religion was the Osiris-Horus form of ancient Egyptian religions, and that the others developed from there, having been transferred by merchants. Notably, although a form of Osiris-Dionysus was present in most nations around the Mediterranean, particularly in the east, at first glance no such form appears to have existed in Roman Palestine. A central contention of the Jesus-as-myth argument is that Jesus, or at least much of the Gospel narrative about him, and early Christian tradition concerning him, is the form of Osiris-Dionysus localised for Roman Palestine.

====Pythagorean elements====

Enough has survived from the comments of their enemies (for example, [[Origen]] and [[Irenaeus]]), and a few relics of their own, for scholars to be fairly certain that many of the mystery religions were, at least by the first century, [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreanist]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonic]] reinterpretations of earlier myths; i.e. earlier myths became, in the mystery religions, [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]], concerning universal truths, rather than something considered literally true. Exactly what connection exists between Gnosticism and the Mediterranean mystery religions is an unsolved question, but it is certain that they would have shared considerably similar teaching methods, [[soteriology]], and [[mysticism]]. Thus to approach the question of whether Christianity borrowed from mystery religions (and vice versa), comparisons should be made not only between early Christianity and Mediterranean myths, but also between early Christianity and Pythagoreanism.

Aside from potential parallels with Gnosticism, which can be investigated more directly, other significant features of Pythagoreanism might have entered into early Christianity, and their presence would add support to a position advocating that significant parts of early Christianity, or all of it, derived from mystery religion. Pythagoreans were [[vegetarian]], so much so that until the 18th century all vegetarians were not called ''vegetarian'' but ''Pythagorean''. Many scholars and theologians believe that the earliest Christians were vegetarian, as the [[Desert Fathers]] almost definitely were, and some significant early Christian groups even had versions of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] that clearly point to Jesus being vegetarian - the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] differs from the now traditional version of Matthew in places referring to meat by using similarly spelt vegetarian friendly terms; there is no academic consensus as to which version has the more original wording. As the canonical New Testament seems to argue that vegetarianism is a personal choice, and many early Christian writers also stated that it was, the early Christians would seem to have taken this position without a New Testament based theological motivation for doing so. Modern [[Christian vegetarianism]] argues that passages from the Old Testament and [[Book of Enoch]] assert that vegetarianism was God's ideal, but there is no evidence either for or against the idea that early Christians used the same argument, and there is the alternative possibility that early Christian vegetarianism originated due to the influence of Pythagoreanism.

Pythagoreanism also saw deep value in [[mathematics]]; [[geometry]] was seen as having a high spiritual significance in and of itself, as well as being a mechanism to encode mystical teachings. The [[Feeding the multitude|Feeding of the 5000 and of the 4000]] have long been thought to encode some deeper meaning; more mainstream interpretations regard the numbers involved as references to the Torah ''feeding'' the Jews and Jesus' ministry ''feeding'' the Gentiles, but it has also been argued that they encode instructions for a mystical diagram. The use of numbers as cryptic references to deeper teaching could be argued to demonstrate Pythagorean influence in and of itself, but the encrypted presence of mystical diagrams would be a much stronger argument in favour of the existence of such influence. The [[Catch of 153 fish]] is one of the most notable situations where a diagram can be derived from the text following basic consistent rules; using the [[Isopsephia]] of the text to dictate sizes, the account of the event can be described geometrically - the resulting diagram not only describes the event, but simultaneously has another, more mystical, interpretation as described in [[Plato]]'s [[Timaeus]]. 153 itself is a significant number in Pythagoreanism, and had a strong connection to fish, as it was one part of the '''measure of the fish'' - a reference to the [[Vesica Piscis]] (whose name means ''flesh of the fish'') and the [[square root]] of 3.

====Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century====

Parallels between Jesus and the various religions of the Osiris-Dionysus group are a popular topic for internet sites skeptical of Christianity. A more constrained set of parallels have also been proposed by various scholars advocating the Jesus-as-myth theory. The most powerful groups in early Christianity were the Christians centered in Alexandria (in Egypt) and those in Rome, and so the form of Osiris-Dionysus at these two locations could reasonably be expected to have had the greatest influence. In Alexandria it was Osiris-Horus, a partial merging of the identities of [[Osiris]] and [[Horus]] (usually seen as fairly separate in more traditional [[ancient Egyptian religion]]); Osiris dying and being resurrected as Horus. In Rome, it was originally [[Dionysus]], but by the third century the state religion was that of [[Sol Invictus]], originally just a standard [[Solar Deity]], but by then had formed a [[syncretism]] with [[Mithraism]], which also continued to exist separately among males in the military of the Roman Empire.

[[Image:LuxorAmenhetep.gif|frame|none|According to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]s, this image of Horus' nativity depicts annunciation (frame 1), impregnation by the holy spirit (frame 2), and the birth and receipt of gifts from 3 visitors (frame 3)]]
The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Osiris-Horus are mostly centred around the earlier part of Jesus' life:
*[[Christ]] as a title - when treated as a partial merge of Osiris and Horus, Osiris-Horus was sometimes referred to as ''the embalmed Horus'', describing Horus taking the place of Osiris in the death parts of the narrative. ''The embalmed Horus'' was written in Egyptian as HR KRST (probably pronounced ''har karast''), and although ''Christ'' has a highly plausible [[etymology]] making it a cognate with [[Chrism]] (''ointment''), as a Greek attempt at translating the Hebrew term ''[[Messiah]]'', a number of advocates of the Jesus as myth theory, including [[theology]] professor [[Tom Harpur]], argue that this was just a happy co-incidence, and the term is actually derived from the ''Karast'' title of Horus. Use of this title, rather than directly copying any of the other titles of Horus, is argued by advocates of the Jesus myth, to be due to the convenient implications of its [[false cognate]] ''Chrism''. If this is true, rather than ''covered in ointment'', i.e. ''anointed'', the literal meaning of ''Christ'' would really be ''covered in balm'', i.e. ''embalmed''.
*Parentage
**By the first century the identity of Osiris had absorbed that of [[Ptah]] (with early stages of this absorption being known as ''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''), the great creator deity. In traditional Egyptian religion Osiris had become seen as the father of Horus, and hence Horus was the son of the creator deity, like Jesus was seen as son of [[God the Father]].
**By the first century Isis was seen as the mother of Horus. She was traditionally known as ''Meri'', meaning ''beloved'', which is phonetically near-identical to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|''Mary'', the name of the mother of Jesus]], and was the most common recipient of the [[epithet]] - if ''Meri'' was used without a particular deity being mentioned it usually referred to Isis.
**Pharaohs sometimes portrayed themselves or their children as an incarnation of Horus. The mother involved was usually referred to as ''Meri'' (i.e. ''beloved''), and was human, hence giving a semi-human incarnation of Horus a human mother called ''Meri''.
*The [[Nativity of Jesus]] - some of the more detailed versions of the birth of Horus have been argued to parallel the Nativity of Jesus, namely the versions of Horus' birth that derive from when Horus' mother was said to be [[Neith]] (whose identity later became absorbed into that of Isis). This is most obvious in a set of pre-Christian carvings from a temple in [[Luxor]] portraying [[Akhenaten]] as an incarnation of Horus, according to which:
**The future birth of ''Horus'' was announced in advance (an ''[[annunciation]]'') by [[Thoth]], whom the Greeks identified as [[Hermes]] and was in the first century seen as the messenger of the Gods, a role taken by the [[Archangel Gabriel]] in Jewish thought.
**The mother became pregnant by virtue of the ''breath of life'' being sent into her. The ''breath of life'' in question was [[Kneph]], a concept depicted [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]] (like Mediaeval depictions of death) rather than a deity, which [[Plutarch]] states had the same meaning to the Egyptians as ''[[Pneuma]]'' had to the Greeks. ''Pneuma'' translates as ''spirit'', so one can argue that the mother is being depicted as becoming pregnant by the ''holy spirit'', which Christians usually argue is how Mary became pregnant.
**The mother became pregnant while remaining a virgin (particularly as Neith was believed to have given birth to the first males, and hence existing before them). The doctrine of [[Virgin Birth]] is prominent in early Christianity.
**The mother is human (at least in the Luxor carving)
**There is a star which signifies his birth. In the Jesus narrative this is the [[Star of Bethlehem]], which isn't identified very clearly and there is much debate as to what it was meant to refer to though Christian interpreters have viewed it within the context of the Old Testament prophecy in Numbers 24:17, with perceived messianic allusions: "I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near. A ''star'' will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel." In the Osiris-Horus narrative this is [[Sothis]], a not-completely identified star generally thought to be the same as [[Sirius]]. Sirius gained its importance in relation to Osiris-Hours as its first appearance each year coincides with the date of the annual [[Nile]] flooding. Sirius reaches its highest [[Zenith]] on January 6th, the day that some ancient Christian traditions (including modern [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches) believe Jesus was born.
**Three visitors aim for a star, indicating where the birth is, and after the birth the three visitors each give gifts; in the Jesus narrative there are three gifts and an unidentified number of visitors ([[Biblical Magi|who are Magi]]), the number of visitors simply being a very long-standing tradition; in the Osiris-Horus narrative the three visitors are anthropomorphisms of the three stars in the ''belt'' of [[Orion (constellation)|the constellation Orion]], which point directly towards Sirius,<ref>http://www.usbible.com/Astrology/gospel_zodiac.htm</ref> and were named ''Mintaka'', ''Anilam'', and ''Alnitak'' (more accurately, [[consonant]]-only records name them as ''MNTK'', ''ANLM'' and ''ALNTK'', and [[Egyptologists]] estimate the full spelling).
**Being placed in a manger - according to {{bibleverse||luke|2:7}} Jesus rested in a manger shortly after his birth. Horus was also said to have been placed in a manger as a baby, though in earlier times the feature had been attributed to [[Ra]] instead, having transferred to Horus when the identities of Horus and Ra merged as ''Ra-harakhty''; the belief originated due to the Egyptian word for ''manger'', ''Apta'', being a [[homonym]] for the Egyptian word for ''mountain peak'', a location that Ra, as a [[solar deity]], was considered to have been born at. The Egyptian belief concerning Horus/Ra's birth in a manger was so prominent that mangers were for a time annually paraded around the streets in a festival celebrating the Sun.<ref>H. P. Blavatsky: ''Collected Writings''</ref>
*Birth town - Horus was, by the first century, considered to have been born at [[Heliopolis]], the main center of his cult. Heliopolis had been the Egyptian capital and winter grain store, and hence was regarded as the ''house of bread'' (several copies of the [[Book of the dead]] refer to it by this name). In Hebrew, ''house of bread'' is ''[[Bethlehem]]'', the same name as the town that Jesus was said to have been born in. The narratives explaining why Jesus came to be born in Bethlehem, but didn't grow up there are often regarded by critical scholars as peculiarly contrived (and don't seem to agree), suggesting non-historicity, particularly as a number of archaeologists think that the Palestinian Bethlehem didn't even exist during the first century. Christian interpreters see it rather within the context of what they perceive as a messianic prophecy drawn from the Old Testament: "But you, ''Bethlehem'' Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." Micah 5:2
*The feeding of the multitude - a similar narrative is told of Horus in some versions of the [[Book of the Dead]], as Horus was the patron deity of [[Heliopolis]], at one point the Egyptian capital, and hence grain store, the source of bread in winter and poor harvests.
*The [[raising of Lazarus]] - many versions of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] see Horus as having raised Osiris from the dead. However, Elijah raised a child from the dead according to an account in [[Kings]], so such an event also had origins in Judaism.<ref>Kings 17:17-24</ref>
**In Egyptian Osiris was named A-S-R (as a [[consonantal language]], [[vowel]]s were not written down), thought to be pronounced ''Aser'' or ''Asar'' (''Osiris'' is the Greek version of the name), and by merely adding Hebrew [[theophory]] to convert it to a normal Hebrew name, and adding a standard Greek suffix to then convert it to the [[Koine Greek]] of the New Testament, one arrives at ''Elazaros''; by a standard [[Elision]] this turns into ''Lazaros'' (''Lazarus'' is how this was translated into [[Latin]] for the [[Vulgate]], on which early English translations were based)
**The location of the resurrection of Osiris is Heliopolis (a Greek name), which the Egyptians called ''Annu'' (and the [[Hebrew Bible]] refers to as ''On''). Treating Annu as a proper name, and regarding ''house of Annu'' as the place, this becomes ''BethAnnu'' in Hebrew. This is phonetically near-identical to ''Bethany'' in first century Hebrew (''u'' and ''y'' being difficult to distinguish, in the same way as modern Japanese speakers find ''r'' and ''l'' difficult to distinguish), which is where Jesus is said to have raised Lazarus.
*The divine opponent - the similarity in name between ''[[Satan]]'', the adversary of Jesus in [[Temptation of Jesus|the narrative of his temptation]], and ''[[Set (god)|Set]]'', the adversary of [[Horus]], has not been lost on advocates of the Jesus as myth position. Among the narratives describing the contest between Horus and Set for the crown of all Egypt (thought to be based on the historic rivalry between [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] and [[Lower Egypt]]) are a number of narratives in which Set tempts Horus to renounce his claim in return for various gifts. Although conservative Christians and Jews argue that Judaism, and hence the idea of Satan, developed completely independently of Egyptian religion, the fact that the ancient Egyptian Empire extended into the Levant during the [[New Kingdom]] has lead a number of scholars to argue that a total lack of influence on Judaism from the Egyptian religion is implausible.

The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Dionysus are, conversely, centred on later aspects of Jesus' life:
*The [[Marriage at Cana]], during which the New Testament states that Jesus turned water into wine, is similar to a narrative concerning Dionysus, who was originally the god of wine. In the pre-Christian Dionysus version, priests attending to a wedding at which Dionysus is present bring vessels of water to a building, which is then sealed, and when later reopened the water has been turned to wine. As the earliest surviving record of this ''miracle'' of Dionysus is from the late first century writings of Tatius, Christian apologists have argued that it was copied from Jesus' actions. However, as Jesus' ''miracle'' is only reported by the Gospel of John, which is dated by most scholars to 95-115 AD, advocates of the Jesus myth counter that the earliest surviving evidence, of a water into wine at a wedding miracle, concerns Dionysus not Jesus.<ref>Bowersock [Bow.FH, 125-8]; [[Morton Smith]]</ref> In the case of Dionysus it is his own marriage to [[Ariadne]], which differs from the traditional explanation of Jesus simply being a guest at the Cana wedding, though a minority of modern scholars (and a few notable fiction writers) have suggested the Cana marriage was actually that of Jesus to [[Mary Magdalene]]. In contrast Christian interpreters have taken what they perceived to be the deeper meaning of this passage in the context of the Old Testament, such as from the book of Isaiah, with the symbolic acting out Christ's marriage to his people: "as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you." (Isaiah 62:5)
[[Image:Dionysus Crucifixion.gif|thumb|Amulet which depicts the crucifixion of [[Dionysus]] dated to the 3rd century CE, although it authenticity is questioned by many modern archeologist.<ref name="tektonics dionysus">http://www.tektonics.org/copycat/dionysus.html</ref>]]
*The [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] of Jesus has a number of features which are argued by Jesus-Myth-theory advocates to be borrowed from Dionysus. Just before his actual [[crucifixion]], the narrative portrays Jesus as being tortured - during which his captors make him wear a purple robe and crown of foliage, both of which were said to be ordinarily worn by Dionysus (due to being imperial symbols). According to Christian apologists the temporary similarity is co-incidental and due to ''universals'',<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> but advocates of the theory that Jesus was derived from myth contend that although temporary, the similar appearance during the torture scene was a deliberate reference by the early gospel writers to Dionysus, in a similar manner to plays and dramas when an actor breaks the [[fourth wall]] and reveals their disguise to the audience.
**Apologists would argue that the resurrection of [[Dionysus]]/[[Bacchus]] was different than that of Jesus, because [[Bacchus]] had the help of [[Pegasus]] to escort him to heaven.<ref>http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*In nearly all [[Christology|Christologies]], Jesus is a mortal man, but in some way also divine (the most popular Christologies in modern Christianity, including [[Trinitarian|Trinitarianism]], argue that he was also fully a deity, while even [[docetism]] and [[adoptionism]] argues that the divine ''[[possession|possessed]]'' the mortal). In the play, Dionysus, a deity, comes to earth as a fully mortal man, claiming to have done so in order to make his ''Godhead'' manifest to the mortals.
*The return to Jerusalem, subsequent [[Pilate|Trial of Jesus before Pilate]], and execution, have supposed parallels with an account of Dionysus in a pre-Christian play named ''[[The Bacchae]]''. In both the Gospels and the play, the central character (Jesus/Dionysus) rides into the royal town on the back of a donkey and is greeted by crowds waving foliage, is soon after arrested by the authorities, put on trial before the ruler, during which he mostly avoids answering the questions, and is condemned and executed, before returning from the dead. Unlike the later Gospels, the play argues that Dionysus willingly let these things happen in order to later humiliate (and ultimately kill) [[Pentheus]], the ruler who tried him; though some Christian apologists argue that this purpose invalidates the parallel, it is perfectly possible for the Gospel writers to simply have dropped this purpose in order to adopt the narrative for their own aims. Christian interpreters see the foreshadowing of the gospel accounts, e.g the riding into a royal town on a donkey, being greeted by the crowds, the condemnation and execution as being directly linked to O.T prophecies rather than myths surrounding Dionysus. It is also possible that [[Euripides]], the author of the play, based his narrative on stories from the Dionysus mystery religion, but, in order to keep the actual teachings of the mystery religion a mystery, and to improve the dramatic appeal, changed the reasoning behind it.
:Christian apologists have also argued that since the foliage waved during entry into the town (in Jesus' case being Jerusalem) were palm fronds, rather than the ivy of ''The Bacchae'', this is merely a ''universal'' narrative, especially as ivy are plants of religious significance to the Dionysus mysteries, while palms are of national significance to Judaism;<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> their opponents contest that the intertwining of religion and nation in Judaism has meant that the palms are simply the plants which Judaism gives the same religious significance to as the Dionysus religion gave to ivy. Donkeys, and mules, also were strongly associated with Dionysus, in particular due to the [[Sileni]], but they have very little significance to Judaism, and are merely a form of transport.

Mithraism, according to the Jesus-as-myth theory, adds to these further elements of the nativity. While the alleged Osiris-Horus parallels mostly concern the nativity according to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], the alleged Mithras parallels mostly concern the version of the nativity in the [[Gospel of Luke]]; this somewhat reflects the groups who appear to be these Gospels' intended audiences - Matthew's audience being closer to Egypt (where Osiris-Horus was prominent), and Luke's being the ''Hellenic world'' (where Mithras was more significant):
*Birth in a cave - although modern traditions depict the event happening in a free-standing structure, in early Christian tradition Jesus was depicted as being born in a cave, and the official location of his birth in Roman Catholicism, Islam, and Eastern Orthodoxy, remains the particular cave which lies at the heart of the 4th century [[Church of the Nativity]]. This early tradition is thought to derive from the Bible, which does not mention a stable, but instead only refers to the location with a term ambiguously meaning either ''gathering room'' (which was an upstairs room) or ''cave''. In Mithraism, Mithras was said to have been born in a cave, which scholars think was an allegory for the universe, as well as a meta-reference to Plato's [[Allegory of the cave]].
*Birth in a stable - though the Bible does not specifically mention an inn or a stable, Jesus is traditionally depicted as having been born in a stable. Though it would be odd for a stable to be placed in a ''gathering room'' (an upstairs meeting-room), in Roman Palestine, caves (which are common in the region) often housed stables, and it is plausible that the association between caves and stables lead to the tradition of Jesus being born in a stable. An alternative origin for the tradition is that advocated by supporters of the Jesus-as-myth theory, namely that it originates with the belief that Mithras was born in a stable. Mithras was considered, allegorically, to be a solar deity, and hence was said to have been born during the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] (the darkest point of the year); in the classical era the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] occurred when the sun was in the [[constellation]] that was then known as the ''Augean Stable'' (and is now named ''[[Capricorn]]''). Early Christian apologists admitted the parallel involved, [[Justin Martyr]], for example, stated that Jesus was born when the sun had its birth in the ''Augean Stable''.
*Ox and Ass - Traditionally Jesus' birth is depicted as being accompanied by an [[ass]] and an [[ox]], and though this is not mentioned in the canonical Gospels, the tradition is long-standing and has its first written mention in the [[Arabic Infancy Gospel]] and most likely has its roots in a passage from the Old Testament: "The ''ox'' knows his master, the ''donkey'' his owner's manger, but Israel does not know, my people do not understand." (Isaiah 1:3). Mithras was also, metaphorically, said to be born in the company of an ass and an ox, as aside from Capricorn, the ''Augean Stable'', [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]] was also known as a stable, since in classical times this was the constellation in which the sun reached the [[summer solstice]] (the other point on the ecliptic at which the sun's zenith appears to ''rest'' for about 3 days); either side of Auriga are constellations that the classical world named ''[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]'', meaning ''bull'', which in a more feminine scene is depicted as an ox, and ''Ass of [[Typhon]]'' (now known as [[Ursa Major]]). In Mithraism they had a greater significance - the bull was the one which Mithras [[Tauroctony|was destined to slay]] (and was considered to be a meta-reference to Mithras himself), and Typhon was the closest figure in Greek mythology to [[Satan]], hence his Ass was seen as a sort-of spy.
*Burial in a cave, and subsequent resurrection. The Gospels state that after [[death of Jesus|his death]], Jesus was buried in a cave, and subsequent narratives state that after this tomb [[empty tomb|was found to be empty]], Jesus [[resurrection of Jesus|was seen to be resurrected]]. Mithraism also sometimes held that after the death of Mithras, he was buried in a cave, from where he was resurrected; this is thought by scholars to derive from the earlier idea that Mithras had been born from a rock, an allegory for the universe as seen from outside it, while the cave represented the universe from the inside, hence the death in the cave being the in-universe equivalent to the birth from the rock - thus birth coming from death.

====Priorities and Practices====

If Christianity had originally evolved as a localised mystery religion, then not only should there be parallels between the scriptural narratives of Christianity and myths from the mystery religions, but there should also be parallels with more outwardly things such as religious rituals, and imagery. The existence of such parallels has been admitted by prominent Christian apologists since ancient times, for example, [[Tertullian]], arguing that the devil had founded the mystery religions, wrote
:''The devil, whose business is to pervert the truth, mimics the exact circumstances of the Divine Sacraments. He baptises his believers and promises forgiveness of sins from the Sacred Fount, and thereby initiates them into the religion of Mithras. Thus he celebrates the oblation of bread, and brings in the symbol of the resurrection.''

Many art historians acknowledge that [[Christianised Myths and Imagery#Saint Mary, Theotokos|early Marian Iconography was heavily influenced]] by Egyptian depictions of Isis and Horus as a baby, [[hyperdulia|veneration of Mary]] having first rose to prominence among the Alexandrian Christians (Christians based in the see of Alexandria, Egypt); the Jesus-as-myth position goes one step further and argue that this is due to Mary herself deriving from worship of Isis. Historians in general have often argued that [[Christianised rituals|many religious rituals]], images, [[The Christianised calendar|and festivals associated with Christianity]], are a result of [[Christianization]] of elements from earlier non-Christian religions; this has historically lead to some of these features being criticised by certain Christian groups, particularly protestants, as being ''[[heathen]] [[superstitions]]'', with, for example, the [[Puritans]] banning [[Christmas]] for this reason. It is the contention of the Jesus-as-myth theory that certain of these parallels (such as the date of Christmas, importance of Sunday, and use of the [[labarum]]) are not borrowings, as many historians see them, or co-incidences, as Christian apologists see them, but instead are due to Christianity being just another form of the mystery religions and thus sharing a common source.

The question ultimately comes down to priority - who copied from whom. Although a few modern Christian apologists argue that such parallels as do exist were copied ''by'' the mystery religions ''from'' Christianity, ancient Christian apologists openly acknowledged that the mystery religions had got there first; however, to the early apologists such as Tertullian and [[Justin Martyr]], this wasn't evidence that Christianity was derived from the mystery religions, but that the mystery religions had been an evil-hearted prophecy of Christianity:
:''Having heard it proclaimed through the prophets that the Christ was to come and that the ungodly among men were to be punished by fire, the wicked spirits put forward many to be called Sons of God, under the impression that they would be able to produce in men the idea that the things that were said with regard to Christ were merely marvellous tales'' - Justin Martyr, ''First Apology''

The opponents of early Christianity suggested that Christianity was a result of failure to correctly interpret the mystery religions, and the attempts to circumvent the fact that the beliefs of the mystery religions pre-dated it, by claiming that they were simply prophecies, were cases of simply ignoring the obvious (i.e. ignoring [[Ockham's Razor]]).
[[Celsus]], a second century anti-Christian writer, wrote that Christianity:
:''continues to spread amongst the vulgar, nay one can even say it spreads because of its vulgarity, and the illiteracy of its adherents. And while there are a few moderate, reasonable, and intelligent people who are inclined to interpret its beliefs allegorically, yet it thrives in its purer form among the ignorant''<ref>[[Origen]], ''Contra Celsum'' (Origen was anti-Celsus)</ref>

More recently, advocates of the Jesus-as-myth theory have argued that the ease with which Christianity was abruptly imposed by the [[Theodosian decree]] - the lack of anti-Christian riots, and [[Christianised sites|the smooth change]] of [[mithraeum]]s (and other pre-Christian holy places) into Churches - points to a high degree of similarity between Christianity and its main rival at the time (''Mithras Sol Invictus''). Many historians argue that this similarity was partly due to the influence of [[Constantine I]], life-long chief priest (''pontifex maximus'') of the Sol Invictus religion, and, according to Christian legend, a convert to Christianity on his death-bed; Constantine viewed variety as a dangerous political risk, and spent a great deal of time standardising things, including convening the [[Council of Nicea|First Ecumenical Council]] in order to resolve a dispute within early Christianity over the nature of Jesus. According to Christian apologists, Constantine was secretly a Christian for much longer than his last breath, and his influence was mostly one way, remoulding the religion of Mithras Sol Invictus to closely mirror Christianity. According to advocates of the Jesus-as-myth position, Constantine did very little remoulding, the two religions had always been similar, due to Christianity being based on that of Mithras Sol Invictus; as [[Thomas Paine]] put it:
''The Christian religion is a parody on the worship of the Sun, in which they put a man whom they call Christ in the place of the Sun, and pay him the same adoration which was originally paid to the Sun''.<ref>Thomas Paine, ''[[The Age of Reason]]''</ref>

===Parallels with Astrology===
====The Great Year====
The [[Great Year]] (or [[Astrological Age]]) is measured by the Sun's apparent backward movement or [[precession]] through the [[Zodiac]].<ref>http://www.templeofsolomon.org/Preces.htg/precession.htm</ref> (Note: The [[Gregorian Calendar]] ignores the precession of the equinoxes and determines that the Sun enters the first degree of Aries at every vernal equinox.) The sign which represents the current age is determined by the constellation of the zodiac that the sun actually occupies at the [[vernal equinox]]. The rate at which the Sun progresses through each of these signs is thought to have first been measured by the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]], in the 2nd century BCE. The discovery of the precession of the equinoxes was a revelation that some interpreted as being the act of a powerful new god moving the entire universe.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples">http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/h/helios_christos_the_sun_ferrying_the_archetypal_zodiac_disciples.html</ref>

It [[Discovery of precession#The Mithraic Question|has been proposed]] that the cult of [[Mithraism]] was inspired by Hipparchus' discovery of precession. The centerpiece of this theory is the [[tauroctony]] an image of Mithras sacrificing a bull. According to [[David Ulansey]], the tauroctony is a [[star chart]]. Mithras is the constellation [[Perseus]], and the bull is [[Taurus]], a constellation of the zodiac. In an earlier [[astrological age]], the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in Taurus. The tauroctony, by this reasoning, commemorated Mithras-Perseus ending the "Age of Taurus" about 2000 BCE.

In turn it has been suggested that Christianity was inspired by the dawning of the [[Age of Pisces]], which is symbolized by the fish. The fish has also been used as a symbol used in Christianity. The use of the fish to symbolize Christianity actually predated the use of the [[crucifix]].<ref>http://www.seiyaku.com/customs/fish/fish.html</ref> In Matthew 14:17, Jesus is said to have fed the multitudes with only two fishes. The constellation of [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] is symbolized by two fishes.

This comparison of Jesus' life to the Astrological Ages continues even further, all the way into the age which follows Pisces, the [[Age of Aquarius]]. Chapter 22 of the [[Gospel of Luke]] describe the events which occur prior to Jesus' arrest and subsequent crucifixion. The disciples ask Jesus where they shall meet him to prepare for his final Passover ([[The Last Supper]]). In Luke 22:10 Jesus responds, ''"Behold, when ye are entered into the city, there shall a man meet you, bearing a pitcher of water; follow him into the house where he entereth in."'' Some proponents of the Jesus Myth interpret the "man bearing a pitcher of water" to be a direct reference to the symbol of [[Aquarius]], the water-bearer. And furthermore, Jesus' instructions to his followers that they follow this man "into the '''house''' where he entereth in" seems to strengthen the connection to astrological symbolism. Proponents claim that Jesus is literally stating that at Jesus' last Passover (the end of the [[Age of Pisces]]) that his followers should continue on and follow the man with the water pitcher ([[Aquarius]]) into the “house where he entereth” (the next Astrological Age).<ref name="naked">http://www.truthbeknown.com/naked.htm</ref>

The very last line of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] alludes to this idea that Jesus is the ruler of the [[Age of Pisces]] (and that this reign will eventually end and lead to a "New age") when he states in verse 28:20, ''"I am with you always, even to the end of the age"''. The are several other references to the "end of the age" and the "coming age" spread throughout the gospels — two in ''Mark'', six in ''Matthew'', and three in ''Luke'' (depending on the translation).<ref>http://www.studylight.org/lex/grk/view.cgi?number=165</ref> Some proponents of the Jesus Myth theory interpret these phrases as a reference to various [[Astrological Ages]]. However these passages have traditionally been interpreted as referring to "The end of the world" and the [[Second coming of Christ]].

====Twelve Apostles====
The [[Twelve Apostles]], according to Jesus Myth proponents, represent the twelve signs of the zodiac,<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> although attempts to relate all their names to particular signs have not been very successful.<ref>http://www.atheists.org/christianity/twelve.html</ref>

However, the standard explanation among scholars is that "The Twelve" is not a coincidental name for the number of apostles that were part of Jesus' disciples. According to biblical scholar Dennis C. Duling, "The number twelve symbolizes a new Israel."<ref>Society of Biblical Literature, The Harper Collins Study Bible (Harper Collins Publishing: USA, 1993,) 1874 (cf 10:1.)</ref> Most scholars concur that the [[Twelve Apostles]] represent the new [[twelve tribes of Israel]].<ref>Meeks, Wayne A. "Messianism among Jews and Christians: Twelve Biblical and Historical Studies (review)"
Jewish Quarterly Review - Volume 95, Number 2, Spring 2005, pp. 336-340.</ref> But even if this is the case, the connection to astrology is not completely lost since some scholars believe that the legend of the twelve tribes was originally derived from the twelve signs of the zodiac.<ref>http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/lds/meridian/2005/12sons.html</ref>

====Astrological Houses====
In the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, John 14:2 states, "In my Father's house are many mansions". The proponents of the Jesus myth point out that, taken from a literal interpretation, this makes little sense. How can a house contain many mansions?<ref name="naked"/> They claim that the correct translation should be rendered as "In my father's abode are many houses", which they interpret as being a direct reference to the [[House (astrology)|houses of the zodiac]].<ref name="naked"/>

====Timeline of Jesus' Life====
Jesus in said to have started his ministry at the age of 30, which some have connected to the fact that each sign of the zodiac occupies 30 degrees of the elliptic. Jesus' ministry is said to have lasted for one year, similar to the Sun completing its circuit of the Zodiac in a year. The story of Jesus' life is circular, in that he is said to have been born in a cave, and then is finally laid to rest in a cave.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> This tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is preserved in several of the [[apocryphal]] [[Infancy Gospels]], such as the ''[[Protevangelion of James]]'' and the ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]''. However, neither of the canonical accounts of [[Jesus]]' life mentions him being born in a cave. Matthew says he was born in a house,<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/mt/2.html#11</ref> and Luke claims he was born in a stable<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/lk/2.html#7</ref> (which may or may not have been in a cave). However, near [[Bethlehem]] there are many natural caves. It was easier, safer and more economical to block off a cave’s entrance to shelter animals than to build a freestanding stable. The tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is so strong that in the fourth century, [[Helena of Constantinople|St. Helena]] built the [[Church of the Nativity]] over the cave said to be the birthplace of Jesus.<ref>http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Dec2004/Wiseman.asp</ref>

====Resurrected after three days====
Jesus is said to be resurrected after 3 days in the cave. We celebrate Jesus' birthday on December 25, three days after the Winter Solstice of December 22. The Sun "dies" on December 22, the Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year. As the sun's declination shifts from a southerly direction to a northerly direction at the time of the solstice, it appears to nearly halt completely. Three days after the solstice the Sun rises 1/10 of a degree further North, just barely detectable by observing shadows. It can then be said that the Sun has been resurrected after being "dead" for three days, and has now been reborn to begin the next year.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/>

It should be noted that no early records mention the date of [[Jesus]]' birth and that the date was agreed upon during the third century CE. At the time, it was believed that Jewish prophets lived in a life cycle that began and ended at their death. Because it was believed [[Jesus]] died on March 25th, [[Christians]] asserted this was also the date of [[Jesus]]' conception (see: [[Annunciation]].) They then added nine months to the date of the [[Annunciation]] to determine roughly the day [[Jesus]] was born— December 25th.<ref>[[Christmas#Origin of holiday]]{{citation needed}}</ref>

==Criticism of the theory==
The idea of Jesus as simply a religious [[meme]] based on non-Abrahamic myths has received strong criticism from biblical scholars and historians. The points below highlight some of these criticisms, but to what degree the dispute is grounded in historical accuracy versus Christian apologetics is unclear.

*The majority of [[scholarship]], including historians, believes there was a [[historical Jesus]]<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005.htm</ref><ref>http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html</ref> The reason scholars give is that for an ancient person and event, there are a relative plethora (by ancient historical standards) of sources from the same century. According to [[JP Holding]], "Support for the "Jesus-myth" comes not from historians, but usually from writers operating far out of their field."<ref>http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html]</ref>
*Most scholars, such as [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], do not see significant similarity between the pagan myths and Christianity. Grant states in ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/origins.html</ref>
*Parallels between [[Christianity]] and [[Mystery Religions]] are not considered compelling evidence by most scholarship. According to a [[Christian]] apologist, Michael Licona, has summed up the viewpoint of this era's historiography:
:: Most scholars have abandoned the ''religionsgeschichtliche'' or what was known as the “history of religions” school that regarded parallels as conclusive signs that Christianity was cut from the same cloth as ancient myth. Further research has revealed that many of the parallels to which they refer postdate the Gospels.<ref> http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*[[Celsus]], a second century critic of [[Christianity]], accused [[Jesus]] of being a bastard child and a sorcerer. He never questions Jesus' historicity even though he hated [[Christianity]] and [[Jesus]].<ref>Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician: Charlatan or Son of God? (1978) pp. 78-79.</ref> He is quoted as saying that Jesus was a "mere man."<ref>http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu/Ap0301/CELSUS.htm</ref> Furthermore, there is debate whether [[Suetonius]], who wrote in the second century, made reference to [[Christianity]] existing in 41 CE, though the majority of scholars believe that the reference cannot be interpreted in this fashion.<ref>http://www.mystae.com/restricted/reflections/messiah/sources.htm</ref> Lastly, there are passages of debatable significance from the historian [[Tacitus]] and satirist [[Lucian of Samosata]], which credit "Christ" as the founder of [[Christianity]].<ref>Ibid.  For scholarly discussion, refer to source.</ref>
*Proponents of the Jesus Myth disagree with the notion that the [[Apostle Paul]] did speak of [[Jesus]] as a physical being. This is largely an [[argument from silence]]. Furthermore, it is slightly a distortion, because the Apostle Paul contradicts this viewpoint. He claims that Jesus "descended from David according to the flesh",<ref>Romans 1:3</ref> took "the form of a slave, being born in human likeness, And being found in human form,".<ref>Philippians 2:7.</ref> Paul also states that " God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law."<ref>Galatians 4:4.</ref> and "the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being."<ref>1 Corinthians 15:21.</ref> Furthermore, he invokes the "command," "charge," or "word" of [[Jesus]] four times<ref>Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10 and 9:14, and 1 Thessalonians 4:15.</ref> in the [[Epistles]]. Scholars believe that the [[apostle Paul]] did not quote [[Jesus]] more often, because he took for granted that [[Christians]] knew what [[Jesus]] said. Jesus Myth proponents believe this is a weak [[argument from silence]].
*The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] is debatably an early source, which some, but not all, scholars put before 70 CE. Their reasoning is that the [[Epistle]] makes mention of [[animal sacrifice]], which was a practice that fell out of favor in [[Judaism]] after the destruction of the temple. In Hebrews, Jesus is mentioned several times in physical form<ref>Hebrews 5:7, 7:14, and 12:3.</ref> and even speaks.<ref>Hebrews 10:5-9.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Jesus and history]]
*[[Historicity of Jesus]]
*[[John of Gamala]]
*[[Jus Asaf]]
*[[Radical Criticism]]
*[[life-death-rebirth deity]]
*[[Harrowing of Hell]]
*[[The God Who Wasn%27t There]]

==References==
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1970. ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross''. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-12875-5
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1992. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''. Prometheus Books; 2nd revised edition. ISBN 0-87975-757-4
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''The Roman Origins of Christianity.''
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''Caesar's Messiah.''
* Brodie, Thomas L. 2000. ''The Crucial Bridge: the Elijah-Elisha Narrative as an interpretive synthesis of Genesis-Kings and a literary model for the Gospels''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.
* [[Earl Doherty|Doherty, E.]],''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]'' ([[1999]]; revised edition [[2000]]) ISBN 0-9686014-0-5
* Ellegard, Alvar. 1999. ''Jesus: One Hundred Years Before Christ.'' London: Century.
* France, R. T. ''The Evidence for Jesus.''
* Freke, T. and Gandy, P. ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'', by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]], ISBN 0-609-80798-6
*McDowell, Josh & Wilson, Bill. ''He Walked Among Us, Evidence for the Historical Jesus.'' San Bernardino, CA, Here’s Life Publishers, Inc. 1988, ISBN 0-89840-230-1
* [[John P. Meier|Meier, John P.]], ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'', New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
: v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
: v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2004. New Testament Narrative as Old Testament Midrash. In Neusner, J., Avery-Peck, A., eds. ''The Encyclopedia of Midrash: Biblical Interpretation of Formative Judaism.''
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2003. ''The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2000. ''Deconstructing Jesus.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* Sanders, E. P. 1995. ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' Penguin.
* Sherwin-White, A. N. 1963. ''Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament.'' Oxford.
* Theissen, G., and Merz, A. 1998. ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide.'' Minneapolis: Fortress
* Thompson, Thomas L. 2005. ''The Messiah Myth.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Van Voorst, Robert E. 2000. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
* Wells, G. A. 1999. ''The Jesus Myth.'' Peru, IL: Open Court (Carus Publishing)
* Wells, G. A. ''The Historical Evidence for Jesus.''
* Whealey, Alice. 2003. ''Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times''. Peter Lang Publishing.
* G.L. Borchert, "Docetism" in ''Elwell Evangelical Dictionary''; ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]'', 1909/2003; D.C. Duling & N. Perrin, ''The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History'', 1993; "Docetism", ''[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754 Encyclopædia Britannica]'', 2006; J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines''. [http://www.ccel.org/bible/phillips/CPn24John2.htm "Book 24 - John's Second Letter". J.B.Phillips, "The New Testament in Modern English", 1962 edition].

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==External links==
===Supporting a Jesus-Myth theory===

* [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/home.htm Earl Doherty's Website]
* [http://www.medmalexperts.com/POCM/index.html POCM: Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth]
* [http://www.truthbeknown.com/origins.htm "The Origins of Christianity and Search for the Historical Jesus Christ"] by [[Acharya S]]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/earliest.html "Earliest Christianity"] by G.A. Wells
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/jesuspuzzle.shtml "Did Jesus Exist? Earl Doherty and the Argument to Ahistoricity"] by Richard Carrier
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/ Jesus never existed] by Kenneth Humphreys
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_wheless/forgery_in_christianity/ Forgery In Christianity (1930)] by Joseph Wheless
* [http://www.geocities.com/inquisitive79/refute.html "Refuting Missionaries"] by Hayyim ben Yehoshua
* [http://www.christianism.com/ Jesus (was) is a Fictional character (not "historical")] Rt. Rev. Lino Sanchez
* [http://www.egodeath.com/#_The_Non-Historicity_of The Non-Historicity of Jesus] Michael Hoffman
* [http://www.radikalkritik.de/ Hermann Detering's RadikalKritik] (partially in German)
* [http://www.ffrf.org/news/2006/debunkingJesus.php Debunking the Historical Jesus] by Dan Barker
* [http://www.ffrf.org/about/bybarker/rise.php Did Jesus Really Rise From The Dead?] by Dan Barker - Why the Jesus Myth is respectful of the first Christians.
* [http://www.vexen.co.uk/books/jesusmysteries.html "The Jesus Mysteries"] by Freke/Gandy
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/news/09/21/jesus.mysteries/index.html CNN interview] Freke and Gandy on "The Jesus Mysteries"
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/beginnings/09/21/excerpt.jesus.mysteries/index.html "The Jesus Mysteries" - book summary/excerpt]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/jesus_myth.htm Debunking the "Da Vinci Code" Debunkers and the Jesus Myth] Overview of the case against a historical Jesus, including many pictures
*[http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0660MysteryReligions.html Christian Objections] Similarity of Christian myths to Pagan religions
*[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dp5/christian.htm Origins of Christianity] Reinventing the pagan godman
*[http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/jesus_similar.html Wilson's Almanac] Comparison of Pagan Gods to Jesus Myth

===Supporting a historical Jesus===
* [http://www.geocities.com/nephilimnot/historical_jesus_christ.html Historical Jesus A logical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was a Guerilla chieftain opposed to Rome.
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/ Jesus, a historical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was not divine, very minimal, and accidentally sparked the development (by others) of Christianity.

===Critical of the Jesus-Myth theory===
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/price8.htm "A History of Scholarly Refutations of the Jesus Myth"] by Christopher Price (A Christian apologetic website)
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/jesusindex.htm "Did Jesus Exist"] a page devoted to the issues raised by the Jesus Myth
* [http://tektonics.org/copycat/osy.html Walk Like an Egyptian] A comparison of Osiris, Horus, and Jesus.
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/copycat.html Was Jesus Christ just a CopyCat Savior Myth?] Examines in detail the claims of Jesus being copied from characters of other religions (Osiris, Horus, Mithra, Dionysus, and numerous others) also briefly explains the criteria professional scholars use to determine if copying took place
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html "Shattering the Jesus Myth"] by J.P. Holding
* [http://www.answeringinfidels.com/content/category/5/73/49/ "Answering Acharya S"] by Mike Licona
** [http://truthbeknown.com/licona.htm Acharya rebuttal to Licona]
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/djp1.html Critique of Two Major Points of The Jesus Puzzle] by Bernard D. Muller - Against the crucifixion in heaven and Jesus as not an earthly human.

[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Biblical criticism]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]

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Jesus-Mythos

2006-10-31T17:50:44Z

165.29.244.6: /* Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century */

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{{jesus}}
:''This article is part of the [[Jesus and history]] series of articles.
'''Jesus as myth''' or '''The Jesus Myth''' is a collection of ideas that have in common the central theme that elements of beliefs about [[Jesus]], and the Jesus narrative in the New Testament, are actually [[syncretism]]s from older myths. It is usually associated with a [[Religious skepticism|skeptical]] position on the existence of Jesus as [[historicity of Jesus|an actual historical figure]].

The theory is based on apparent similarities between early Christian accounts of Jesus and pre-existing [[mystery religion]]s, and at the more extreme limit of the theory is also based in part on the lack of extant evidence about his life outside the [[Gospels]] in the view of the holders of the theory. The extreme limit of the theory has not found widespread acceptance among Bible scholars and historians.<ref name=opponents>[[Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels''; [[Rudolf Bultmann]], ''Jesus and the Word''; Robert Van Voorst, ''Jesus Outside the Gospels'', and Graham Stanton, ''The Gospels and Jesus''.</ref>

The debate over the truth of Jesus' existence requires academic analysis of the available evidence from times near-contemporary with the dates for Jesus' life, and it depends on the reliability and biases of such evidence. It includes the use of [[historiography]], [[philology]], and to an extent [[hermeneutics]] as tools for analyzing the evidence. The relevant evidence itself can be broken down into Christian and non-Christian texts; the only surviving Christian texts close enough to the era being the books within the New Testament itself. The earliest part of the New Testament, and thus the most important to answer the question, are the [[Pauline Epistles]], though as these contain very little actual narrative concerning Jesus. It is important to note that the majority of scholars believe that Paul has quoted Jesus several times<ref>Society of Biblical Studies, The Harper Collins NRSV Study Bible, San Francsco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1989, 2141, see Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10, and 1 Corinthians 9:14</ref> and if the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] was made before the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], it too has several passages where Jesus struggles with opposition and speaks.<ref>http://www.abu.nb.ca/courses/NTIntro/Heb.htm. See Hebrews 10:5-9 for Jesus' vocal ministry, and Hebrews 5:7 and Hebrews 12:3 for descriptions of hostility towards Jesus.</ref> The later accounts in the Gospels are also of significance. The purpose of this article is not to provide said academic analysis, but rather to provide an account of research that has been performed into the subject thus far.

==History of the theory==

Some have suggested that the idea dates to New Testament times, citing {{bibleverse|2|John|1:7|}}'s "many deceivers [who] are entered into the world, who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh." Some scholars studying this period believe that these early quotes refer to [[docetism]], the belief that Jesus appeared to people but lacked a genuinely physical body, rather than a belief that Jesus was a completely fabricated figure.

The first modern, published proponent of this theory was probably [[19th century|nineteenth century]] [[historian]] [[Bruno Bauer]], a [[Hegelian]] thinker who argued that the true founder of [[Christianity]] was the Alexandrian [[Jew]] [[Philo]], who had adapted Judaic ideas to Hellenic philosophy. His arguments made little impact at the time. Other authors included [[Edwin Johnson (historian)|Edwin Johnson]], who argued that Christianity emerged from a combination of liberal trends in Judaism with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] [[mysticism]]. Less speculative versions of the theory developed under writers such as A.D. Loman and [[Gerardus Johannes Petrus Josephus Bolland|G.J.P.J. Bolland]]. Loman argued that episodes in Jesus's life, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]], were in reality fictions to justify compilations of pre-existing liberal Jewish sayings. Bolland developed the theory that Christianity developed from Gnosticism and that "Jesus" was a symbolic figure representing Gnostic ideas about godhood.

Jesus-Myth theories often draw on nineteenth century scholarship on the formation of myth, in the work of writers such as [[Max Müller]] and [[James Frazer]]. Müller argued that religions originated in mythic stories of the birth, death and rebirth of the sun. Frazer further attempted to explain the origins of humanity's beliefs in the idea of a "sacrificial king", associated with the sun, vegetation, or a "year-daemon" as a dying and reviving god. According to his major book on the subject, ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', the king's death and rebirth was connected to the regeneration of the earth in springtime and was often required for the continuity of a ritual-based community. A critic of the religious beliefs of his contemporaries, Frazer wrote ''The Golden Bough'' partly to discredit Christianity by illustrating its similarity to the beliefs and rituals of other cultures.<ref>[[Ronald Hutton]], ''Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'' (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 113-117.</ref>

By the early [[20th century|twentieth century]] a number of writers had published arguments in favor of the Jesus-Myth theory. These treatments were sufficiently influential to merit several book-length responses by traditional historians and [[New Testament]] [[scholars]]. The most influential of the books arguing for a mythic Jesus was [[Arthur Drews]]'s ''The Christ-Myth'' (1909) which argued that Christianity had been a Jewish Gnostic cult that spread by appropriating aspects of Greek philosophy and Frazerian death-rebirth deities. This combination of arguments became the standard form of the mythic Christ theory.

While aspects of the theory were influential, mainstream scholars at the time rejected the notion. Because much of Frazer's work has since been discredited, and the priority of Gnosticism seriously questioned, the Jesus-Myth theory has dwindled in importance.{{citationneeded}} Mainstream late twentieth century scholars, such as theologian and historian [[John P. Meier]] and the author and theologian [[A.N Wilson]], have evaluated the historical evidence for many individual details of Jesus' biography and teachings, separating the probable and the plausible from the demonstrably mythical. The evidence seems quite strong for the existence of a historical person corresponding to the Jesus of the gospels, but few facts about him are better attested by Meier's criteria than certain miracle stories. This may perhaps be taken as commentary on the reliability of recorded history at two thousand years' remove.

In recent years, the Jesus-Myth has had few proponents in academia but has been advanced by [[William B. Smith]], [[George Albert Wells]] (''The Jesus Legend'' and ''The Jesus Myth''), and [[John Marco Allegro]] (''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' and ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''), as well as by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]] (co-authors of ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'' and ''Jesus and the Lost Goddess''), and [[Earl Doherty]] (author of ''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]''), and Larry Wright, author of ''Christianity, Astrology & Myth''.

== Influences on the earliest Christianity ==

According to the traditional Christian intepretation of Christianity's beginnings, the [[Early Christianity|earliest Christian Church]] developed directly from the ministry of Jesus and his Twelve Apostles, without much in the way of external influences. Evangelical Christians also believe that the New Testament is an accurate historic record of Jesus. More critical and secular approaches argue that the earliest Christianity did not develop in a religious vacuum, but in the cosmopolitan and multi-religious world of hellenised Judea under the Roman Empire. Consequently critical approaches, including those associated with the theory of Jesus as myth, argue that it remains plausible for early Christianity to have developed under the influence of external religions, and that it would be unusual for the New Testament narratives to have not even been remotely touched by such a cosmopolitan background.

===The influence of the Old Testament===

It is widely accepted that the Gospel accounts were influenced by the Old Testament. In particular, many quotations attributed to the [[Q document]], which the Gospels attribute to Jesus{{cite needed}}, find parallels in several places of the Old Testament. Some scholars believe that certain elements of the gospels are not history but a type of [[midrash]]{{cite needed}}, creative narratives based on the stories, prophecies, and quotes in the Hebrew Bible.

The Gospel of Matthew is widely considered the most "Jewish" of the canonical Gospels, and in the small amount of material unique to the Gospel of Matthew (i.e. not mentioned by the other canonical Gospels), Jesus is presented in a way that often has strong parallels with significant Old Testament figures. Most noticeable are the similarities with [[Moses]], whose birth narrative and sojourn in the wilderness as a youth are alleged by textual critics to have been the basis from which Matthew derived its account of the [[nativity of Jesus]], rather than Matthew basing it on the actual events of the birth of Jesus.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/partthre.htm</ref>

Though conceding that the gospels may contain some creativity and midrash, scholarly opponents of the Jesus-as-myth stance argue that the gospels are more akin to ancient Graeco-Roman biographies. Although scholars do not agree on the exact nature of this genre, associated works attempted to impart historical information about historical figures, but were not comprehensive and could include legendary developments. Nevertheless, as ancient biographies, proponents of Jesus' existence believe they contain sufficient historical information to establish his historicity.

Although there are many types of midrash, the [[Toledot Yeshu]] jumps out as being the most similar to the proposal that characters and situations were invented wholesale according to religious dogma and Old Testament prophecy. However, those opposed to the existence of such strong Old Testament influences have argued that the closest parallels, to potential Moses-based embellishment of the Jesus narrative, are inapplicable. Although agreeing that there are many examples of ancient Jewish and Christian literature that shaped their stories and accounts according to Old Testament influence, such opponents argue that even under this influence there is nevertheless often some accurate historical information at the core;<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price6.htm</ref> for example, in [[1 Maccabees]], Judas and his battles are described in terms which parallel those of Saul's and David's battles against the Philistines in [[Books of Samuel|1 and 2 Samuel]], but nevertheless 1 Maccabees has a degree of respect amongst historians as having a reasonable degree of historical reliability.<ref>John R. Bartlett, ''The First and Second Books of Maccabees'', p. 15-17</ref>

===Gnostic themes===

Although there are occasional references in the [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|''disputed'' group of Pauline Epistles]] to a flesh-and-blood Jesus, the ''undisputed epistles'' contain only limited mention of Jesus as a historic figure. Even though Paul's letters are widely regarded as the earliest Christian documents, they contain very few references to Jesus' actual life and ministry, which only appear in detail in the later Gospels. Christian apologists claim that Paul's letters were written in response to specific problems unrelated to the details of the life of Jesus, and so the occasional and epistolary nature of Paul's correspondence are sufficient explanations for the lack of detail of Jesus' life. However, proponents of the theory that Jesus has a basis in myth counter that there are an abundance of missed rhetorical opportunities in his epistles to reinforce points by quoting statements that the Gospels later claim that Jesus said, or citing events in his life mentioned later by the Gospels that were directly relevant to the topics Paul was discussing, and presumably must have been known about in the period between the events happening and the Gospels being written.

Several commentators, from writers whose theories have not received widespread acceptance, such as [[Earl Doherty]], to widely respected academics and experts in the field, such as Harvard professor [[Elaine Pagels]], have argued that the Pauline epistles, or at least the genuine ones, should be interpreted as [[gnosticism]]. Christianity arose under a heavy Hellenic culture, Paul himself growing up in [[Tarsus]], the center of one of the major [[mystery religion]]s of the time, and Pagels and Doherty (and others) believe that Paul's writing should be viewed in the context of the Hellenic culture which formed his background. One consequence of [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|parts of the New Testament being written as Gnostic documents]] is that the narratives involved would not have been intended as descriptions of historic events but as non-historic [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]].

Gnosticism, an umbrella term for a diverse set of groups within early Christianity (that were ultimately suppressed), frequently used allegory and metaphor to guide its initiates towards an [[esoteric]] ''salvation'', which Gnosticism viewed as a form of knowledge (''[[gnosis]]''), not unlike [[Bodhi|Buddhist enlightenment]]. Many of the most prominent strands of Gnosticism interpreted the Gospels as Gnostic documents, and their narratives as allegorical rather than historic, often drawing profound meaning from the events in Jesus' life. Many Gnostic groups even regarded Jesus himself as an allegory, rather than historic, and [[docetism]] was rife in Gnostic groups. Thus whether or not parts of the New Testament were written as Gnostic documents, is a matter of substantial impact on the question of the [[historicity of Jesus]], and on what elements can be considered to be based on a historic figure.

How much influence gnosticism had on Christianity, and how much Christianity originated in gnosticism, are thus questions which have historically been quite volatile. Advocates of a position arguing that many elements of Jesus are derived from myth hold<ref>http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/marshall_gauvin/did_jesus_really_live.html</ref> that those references in the undisputed epistles that appear to refer to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should instead be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp08.htm</ref> Their opponents, often but not always conservative Christians, regard such interpretations, of for example {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:19}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:16|}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|4:4|}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|1:3|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|3:1|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|15:8|}}, and {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23-25|}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:4|}}, as based on forced and erroneous translations.<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price7.htm</ref>

===Parallels with Mediterranean mystery religions and other non-Abrahamic sources===
The question of what connection Christianity has to Mediterranean [[mystery religion]]s has been a controversy since the early centuries of Christianity. Although such questions subsided and were suppressed as the power of the Church grew, they have returned as the knowledge about the mystery religions was rediscovered. Whether this connection exists, and who copied whom, is at the core of the question of Jesus as myth.

Most of the mystery religions of the Mediterranean in the time of early Christianity were centred on a single divine figure (in the case of [[Orphism (religion)|Orphism]], the central figure is essentially an avatar of his own master, [[Dionysus]]), who had in most cases originally been a minor deity, whose mythology contained a narrative involving the deities death. In several cases, the original mythology seems to have been completely hijacked and abruptly altered, often bearing very little relation to the original myth; this is particularly noticeable in the way that [[Mithra]] somehow became [[Mithras]]. A number of the Mediterranean mystery religions of the period contain several similarities to each other, such as a prominent [[Life-death-rebirth deity|life-death-rebirth narrative]], and the central ''deity'' being semi-human; this group (including the religions of [[Legend of Osiris and Isis|Osiris-Horus]], [[Dionysus]], [[Mithras]], [[Aion (deity)|Aion]], [[Adonis]], and [[Attis]]) were identified as connected in early times, and as a group were named [[Osiris-Dionysus]] after the two earliest groups.

Modern scholars have argued that most of these Osiris-Dionysus religions evolved when earlier Osiris-Dionysus religions spread into a new region and localised themselves by hijacking convenient local deities; this is most evident in how [[Sabazios]], originally a [[Phrygia]]n deity, became another name for Dionysus, it is also evident in how [[Orphicism]] developed with the central figure of [[Orpheus]], supposedly a priest of Dionysus, but essentially Dionysus himself. Most scholars that have an opinion on the matter argue that the earliest form of this religion was the Osiris-Horus form of ancient Egyptian religions, and that the others developed from there, having been transferred by merchants. Notably, although a form of Osiris-Dionysus was present in most nations around the Mediterranean, particularly in the east, at first glance no such form appears to have existed in Roman Palestine. A central contention of the Jesus-as-myth argument is that Jesus, or at least much of the Gospel narrative about him, and early Christian tradition concerning him, is the form of Osiris-Dionysus localised for Roman Palestine.

====Pythagorean elements====

Enough has survived from the comments of their enemies (for example, [[Origen]] and [[Irenaeus]]), and a few relics of their own, for scholars to be fairly certain that many of the mystery religions were, at least by the first century, [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreanist]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonic]] reinterpretations of earlier myths; i.e. earlier myths became, in the mystery religions, [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]], concerning universal truths, rather than something considered literally true. Exactly what connection exists between Gnosticism and the Mediterranean mystery religions is an unsolved question, but it is certain that they would have shared considerably similar teaching methods, [[soteriology]], and [[mysticism]]. Thus to approach the question of whether Christianity borrowed from mystery religions (and vice versa), comparisons should be made not only between early Christianity and Mediterranean myths, but also between early Christianity and Pythagoreanism.

Aside from potential parallels with Gnosticism, which can be investigated more directly, other significant features of Pythagoreanism might have entered into early Christianity, and their presence would add support to a position advocating that significant parts of early Christianity, or all of it, derived from mystery religion. Pythagoreans were [[vegetarian]], so much so that until the 18th century all vegetarians were not called ''vegetarian'' but ''Pythagorean''. Many scholars and theologians believe that the earliest Christians were vegetarian, as the [[Desert Fathers]] almost definitely were, and some significant early Christian groups even had versions of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] that clearly point to Jesus being vegetarian - the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] differs from the now traditional version of Matthew in places referring to meat by using similarly spelt vegetarian friendly terms; there is no academic consensus as to which version has the more original wording. As the canonical New Testament seems to argue that vegetarianism is a personal choice, and many early Christian writers also stated that it was, the early Christians would seem to have taken this position without a New Testament based theological motivation for doing so. Modern [[Christian vegetarianism]] argues that passages from the Old Testament and [[Book of Enoch]] assert that vegetarianism was God's ideal, but there is no evidence either for or against the idea that early Christians used the same argument, and there is the alternative possibility that early Christian vegetarianism originated due to the influence of Pythagoreanism.

Pythagoreanism also saw deep value in [[mathematics]]; [[geometry]] was seen as having a high spiritual significance in and of itself, as well as being a mechanism to encode mystical teachings. The [[Feeding the multitude|Feeding of the 5000 and of the 4000]] have long been thought to encode some deeper meaning; more mainstream interpretations regard the numbers involved as references to the Torah ''feeding'' the Jews and Jesus' ministry ''feeding'' the Gentiles, but it has also been argued that they encode instructions for a mystical diagram. The use of numbers as cryptic references to deeper teaching could be argued to demonstrate Pythagorean influence in and of itself, but the encrypted presence of mystical diagrams would be a much stronger argument in favour of the existence of such influence. The [[Catch of 153 fish]] is one of the most notable situations where a diagram can be derived from the text following basic consistent rules; using the [[Isopsephia]] of the text to dictate sizes, the account of the event can be described geometrically - the resulting diagram not only describes the event, but simultaneously has another, more mystical, interpretation as described in [[Plato]]'s [[Timaeus]]. 153 itself is a significant number in Pythagoreanism, and had a strong connection to fish, as it was one part of the '''measure of the fish'' - a reference to the [[Vesica Piscis]] (whose name means ''flesh of the fish'') and the [[square root]] of 3.

====Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century====

Parallels between Jesus and the various religions of the Osiris-Dionysus group are a popular topic for internet sites skeptical of Christianity. A more constrained set of parallels have also been proposed by various scholars advocating the Jesus-as-myth theory. The most powerful groups in early Christianity were the Christians centered in Alexandria (in Egypt) and those in Rome, and so the form of Osiris-Dionysus at these two locations could reasonably be expected to have had the greatest influence. In Alexandria it was Osiris-Horus, a partial merging of the identities of [[Osiris]] and [[Horus]] (usually seen as fairly separate in more traditional [[ancient Egyptian religion]]); Osiris dying and being resurrected as Horus. In Rome, it was originally [[Dionysus]], but by the third century the state religion was that of [[Sol Invictus]], originally just a standard [[Solar Deity]], but by then had formed a [[syncretism]] with [[Mithraism]], which also continued to exist separately among males in the military of the Roman Empire.

[[Image:LuxorAmenhetep.gif|frame|none|According to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]s, this image of Horus' nativity depicts annunciation (frame 1), impregnation by the holy spirit (frame 2), and the birth and receipt of gifts from 3 visitors (frame 3)]]
The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Osiris-Horus are mostly centred around the earlier part of Jesus' life:
*[[Christ]] as a title - when treated as a partial merge of Osiris and Horus, Osiris-Horus was sometimes referred to as ''the embalmed Horus'', describing Horus taking the place of Osiris in the death parts of the narrative. ''The embalmed Horus'' was written in Egyptian as HR KRST (probably pronounced ''har karast''), and although ''Christ'' has a highly plausible [[etymology]] making it a cognate with [[Chrism]] (''ointment''), as a Greek attempt at translating the Hebrew term ''[[Messiah]]'', a number of advocates of the Jesus as myth theory, including [[theology]] professor [[Tom Harpur]], argue that this was just a happy co-incidence, and the term is actually derived from the ''Karast'' title of Horus. Use of this title, rather than directly copying any of the other titles of Horus, is argued by advocates of the Jesus myth, to be due to the convenient implications of its [[false cognate]] ''Chrism''. If this is true, rather than ''covered in ointment'', i.e. ''anointed'', the literal meaning of ''Christ'' would really be ''covered in balm'', i.e. ''embalmed''.
*Parentage
**By the first century the identity of Osiris had absorbed that of [[Ptah]] (with early stages of this absorption being known as ''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''), the great creator deity. In traditional Egyptian religion Osiris had become seen as the father of Horus, and hence Horus was the son of the creator deity, like Jesus was seen as son of [[God the Father]].
**By the first century Isis was seen as the mother of Horus. She was traditionally known as ''Meri'', meaning ''beloved'', which is phonetically near-identical to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|''Mary'', the name of the mother of Jesus]], and was the most common recipient of the [[epithet]] - if ''Meri'' was used without a particular deity being mentioned it usually referred to Isis.
**Pharaohs sometimes portrayed themselves or their children as an incarnation of Horus. The mother involved was usually referred to as ''Meri'' (i.e. ''beloved''), and was human, hence giving a semi-human incarnation of Horus a human mother called ''Meri''.
*The [[Nativity of Jesus]] - some of the more detailed versions of the birth of Horus have been argued to parallel the Nativity of Jesus, namely the versions of Horus' birth that derive from when Horus' mother was said to be [[Neith]] (whose identity later became absorbed into that of Isis). This is most obvious in a set of pre-Christian carvings from a temple in [[Luxor]] portraying [[Akhenaten]] as an incarnation of Horus, according to which:
**The future birth of ''Horus'' was announced in advance (an ''[[annunciation]]'') by [[Thoth]], whom the Greeks identified as [[Hermes]] and was in the first century seen as the messenger of the Gods, a role taken by the [[Archangel Gabriel]] in Jewish thought.
**The mother became pregnant by virtue of the ''breath of life'' being sent into her. The ''breath of life'' in question was [[Kneph]], a concept depicted [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]] (like Mediaeval depictions of death) rather than a deity, which [[Plutarch]] states had the same meaning to the Egyptians as ''[[Pneuma]]'' had to the Greeks. ''Pneuma'' translates as ''spirit'', so one can argue that the mother is being depicted as becoming pregnant by the ''holy spirit'', which Christians usually argue is how Mary became pregnant.
**The mother became pregnant while remaining a virgin (particularly as Neith was believed to have given birth to the first males, and hence existing before them). The doctrine of [[Virgin Birth]] is prominent in early Christianity.
**The mother is human (at least in the Luxor carving)
**There is a star which signifies his birth. In the Jesus narrative this is the [[Star of Bethlehem]], which isn't identified very clearly and there is much debate as to what it was meant to refer to though Christian interpreters have viewed it within the context of the Old Testament prophecy in Numbers 24:17, with perceived messianic allusions: "I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near. A ''star'' will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel." In the Osiris-Horus narrative this is [[Sothis]], a not-completely identified star generally thought to be the same as [[Sirius]]. Sirius gained its importance in relation to Osiris-Hours as its first appearance each year coincides with the date of the annual [[Nile]] flooding. Sirius reaches its highest [[Zenith]] on January 6th, the day that some ancient Christian traditions (including modern [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches) believe Jesus was born.
**Three visitors aim for a star, indicating where the birth is, and after the birth the three visitors each give gifts; in the Jesus narrative there are three gifts and an unidentified number of visitors ([[Biblical Magi|who are Magi]]), the number of visitors simply being a very long-standing tradition; in the Osiris-Horus narrative the three visitors are anthropomorphisms of the three stars in the ''belt'' of [[Orion (constellation)|the constellation Orion]], which point directly towards Sirius,<ref>http://www.usbible.com/Astrology/gospel_zodiac.htm</ref> and were named ''Mintaka'', ''Anilam'', and ''Alnitak'' (more accurately, [[consonant]]-only records name them as ''MNTK'', ''ANLM'' and ''ALNTK'', and [[Egyptologists]] estimate the full spelling).
**Being placed in a manger - according to {{bibleverse||luke|2:7}} Jesus rested in a manger shortly after his birth. Horus was also said to have been placed in a manger as a baby, though in earlier times the feature had been attributed to [[Ra]] instead, having transferred to Horus when the identities of Horus and Ra merged as ''Ra-harakhty''; the belief originated due to the Egyptian word for ''manger'', ''Apta'', being a [[homonym]] for the Egyptian word for ''mountain peak'', a location that Ra, as a [[solar deity]], was considered to have been born at. The Egyptian belief concerning Horus/Ra's birth in a manger was so prominent that mangers were for a time annually paraded around the streets in a festival celebrating the Sun.<ref>H. P. Blavatsky: ''Collected Writings''</ref>
*Birth town - Horus was, by the first century, considered to have been born at [[Heliopolis]], the main centre of his cult. Heliopolis had been the Egyptian capital and winter grain store, and hence was regarded as the ''house of bread'' (several copies of the [[Book of the dead]] refer to it by this name). In Hebrew, ''house of bread'' is ''[[Bethlehem]]'', the same name as the town that Jesus was said to have been born in. The narratives explaining why Jesus came to be born in Bethlehem, but didn't grow up there are often regarded by critical scholars as peculiarly contrived (and don't seem to agree), suggesting non-historicity, particularly as a number of archaeologists think that the Palestinian Bethlehem didn't even exist during the first century. Christian interpreters see it rather within the context of what they perceive as a messianic prophecy drawn from the Old Testament: "But you, ''Bethlehem'' Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." Micah 5:2
*The feeding of the multitude - a similar narrative is told of Horus in some versions of the [[Book of the Dead]], as Horus was the patron deity of [[Heliopolis]], at one point the Egyptian capital, and hence grain store, the source of bread in winter and poor harvests.
*The [[raising of Lazarus]] - many versions of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] see Horus as having raised Osiris from the dead. However, Elijah raised a child from the dead according to an account in [[Kings]], so such an event also had origins in Judaism.<ref>Kings 17:17-24</ref>
**In Egyptian Osiris was named A-S-R (as a [[consonantal language]], [[vowel]]s were not written down), thought to be pronounced ''Aser'' or ''Asar'' (''Osiris'' is the Greek version of the name), and by merely adding Hebrew [[theophory]] to convert it to a normal Hebrew name, and adding a standard Greek suffix to then convert it to the [[Koine Greek]] of the New Testament, one arrives at ''Elazaros''; by a standard [[Elision]] this turns into ''Lazaros'' (''Lazarus'' is how this was translated into [[Latin]] for the [[Vulgate]], on which early English translations were based)
**The location of the resurrection of Osiris is Heliopolis (a Greek name), which the Egyptians called ''Annu'' (and the [[Hebrew Bible]] refers to as ''On''). Treating Annu as a proper name, and regarding ''house of Annu'' as the place, this becomes ''BethAnnu'' in Hebrew. This is phonetically near-identical to ''Bethany'' in first century Hebrew (''u'' and ''y'' being difficult to distinguish, in the same way as modern Japanese speakers find ''r'' and ''l'' difficult to distinguish), which is where Jesus is said to have raised Lazarus.
*The divine opponent - the similarity in name between ''[[Satan]]'', the adversary of Jesus in [[Temptation of Jesus|the narrative of his temptation]], and ''[[Set (god)|Set]]'', the adversary of [[Horus]], has not been lost on advocates of the Jesus as myth position. Among the narratives describing the contest between Horus and Set for the crown of all Egypt (thought to be based on the historic rivalry between [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] and [[Lower Egypt]]) are a number of narratives in which Set tempts Horus to renounce his claim in return for various gifts. Although conservative Christians and Jews argue that Judaism, and hence the idea of Satan, developed completely independently of Egyptian religion, the fact that the ancient Egyptian Empire extended into the Levant during the [[New Kingdom]] has lead a number of scholars to argue that a total lack of influence on Judaism from the Egyptian religion is implausible.

The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Dionysus are, conversely, centred on later aspects of Jesus' life:
*The [[Marriage at Cana]], during which the New Testament states that Jesus turned water into wine, is similar to a narrative concerning Dionysus, who was originally the god of wine. In the pre-Christian Dionysus version, priests attending to a wedding at which Dionysus is present bring vessels of water to a building, which is then sealed, and when later reopened the water has been turned to wine. As the earliest surviving record of this ''miracle'' of Dionysus is from the late first century writings of Tatius, Christian apologists have argued that it was copied from Jesus' actions. However, as Jesus' ''miracle'' is only reported by the Gospel of John, which is dated by most scholars to 95-115 AD, advocates of the Jesus myth counter that the earliest surviving evidence, of a water into wine at a wedding miracle, concerns Dionysus not Jesus.<ref>Bowersock [Bow.FH, 125-8]; [[Morton Smith]]</ref> In the case of Dionysus it is his own marriage to [[Ariadne]], which differs from the traditional explanation of Jesus simply being a guest at the Cana wedding, though a minority of modern scholars (and a few notable fiction writers) have suggested the Cana marriage was actually that of Jesus to [[Mary Magdalene]]. In contrast Christian interpreters have taken what they perceived to be the deeper meaning of this passage in the context of the Old Testament, such as from the book of Isaiah, with the symbolic acting out Christ's marriage to his people: "as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you." (Isaiah 62:5)
[[Image:Dionysus Crucifixion.gif|thumb|Amulet which depicts the crucifixion of [[Dionysus]] dated to the 3rd century CE, although it authenticity is questioned by many modern archeologist.<ref name="tektonics dionysus">http://www.tektonics.org/copycat/dionysus.html</ref>]]
*The [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] of Jesus has a number of features which are argued by Jesus-Myth-theory advocates to be borrowed from Dionysus. Just before his actual [[crucifixion]], the narrative portrays Jesus as being tortured - during which his captors make him wear a purple robe and crown of foliage, both of which were said to be ordinarily worn by Dionysus (due to being imperial symbols). According to Christian apologists the temporary similarity is co-incidental and due to ''universals'',<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> but advocates of the theory that Jesus was derived from myth contend that although temporary, the similar appearance during the torture scene was a deliberate reference by the early gospel writers to Dionysus, in a similar manner to plays and dramas when an actor breaks the [[fourth wall]] and reveals their disguise to the audience.
**Apologists would argue that the resurrection of [[Dionysus]]/[[Bacchus]] was different than that of Jesus, because [[Bacchus]] had the help of [[Pegasus]] to escort him to heaven.<ref>http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*In nearly all [[Christology|Christologies]], Jesus is a mortal man, but in some way also divine (the most popular Christologies in modern Christianity, including [[Trinitarian|Trinitarianism]], argue that he was also fully a deity, while even [[docetism]] and [[adoptionism]] argues that the divine ''[[possession|possessed]]'' the mortal). In the play, Dionysus, a deity, comes to earth as a fully mortal man, claiming to have done so in order to make his ''Godhead'' manifest to the mortals.
*The return to Jerusalem, subsequent [[Pilate|Trial of Jesus before Pilate]], and execution, have supposed parallels with an account of Dionysus in a pre-Christian play named ''[[The Bacchae]]''. In both the Gospels and the play, the central character (Jesus/Dionysus) rides into the royal town on the back of a donkey and is greeted by crowds waving foliage, is soon after arrested by the authorities, put on trial before the ruler, during which he mostly avoids answering the questions, and is condemned and executed, before returning from the dead. Unlike the later Gospels, the play argues that Dionysus willingly let these things happen in order to later humiliate (and ultimately kill) [[Pentheus]], the ruler who tried him; though some Christian apologists argue that this purpose invalidates the parallel, it is perfectly possible for the Gospel writers to simply have dropped this purpose in order to adopt the narrative for their own aims. Christian interpreters see the foreshadowing of the gospel accounts, e.g the riding into a royal town on a donkey, being greeted by the crowds, the condemnation and execution as being directly linked to O.T prophecies rather than myths surrounding Dionysus. It is also possible that [[Euripides]], the author of the play, based his narrative on stories from the Dionysus mystery religion, but, in order to keep the actual teachings of the mystery religion a mystery, and to improve the dramatic appeal, changed the reasoning behind it.
:Christian apologists have also argued that since the foliage waved during entry into the town (in Jesus' case being Jerusalem) were palm fronds, rather than the ivy of ''The Bacchae'', this is merely a ''universal'' narrative, especially as ivy are plants of religious significance to the Dionysus mysteries, while palms are of national significance to Judaism;<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> their opponents contest that the intertwining of religion and nation in Judaism has meant that the palms are simply the plants which Judaism gives the same religious significance to as the Dionysus religion gave to ivy. Donkeys, and mules, also were strongly associated with Dionysus, in particular due to the [[Sileni]], but they have very little significance to Judaism, and are merely a form of transport.

Mithraism, according to the Jesus-as-myth theory, adds to these further elements of the nativity. While the alleged Osiris-Horus parallels mostly concern the nativity according to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], the alleged Mithras parallels mostly concern the version of the nativity in the [[Gospel of Luke]]; this somewhat reflects the groups who appear to be these Gospels' intended audiences - Matthew's audience being closer to Egypt (where Osiris-Horus was prominent), and Luke's being the ''Hellenic world'' (where Mithras was more significant):
*Birth in a cave - although modern traditions depict the event happening in a free-standing structure, in early Christian tradition Jesus was depicted as being born in a cave, and the official location of his birth in Roman Catholicism, Islam, and Eastern Orthodoxy, remains the particular cave which lies at the heart of the 4th century [[Church of the Nativity]]. This early tradition is thought to derive from the Bible, which does not mention a stable, but instead only refers to the location with a term ambiguously meaning either ''gathering room'' (which was an upstairs room) or ''cave''. In Mithraism, Mithras was said to have been born in a cave, which scholars think was an allegory for the universe, as well as a meta-reference to Plato's [[Allegory of the cave]].
*Birth in a stable - though the Bible does not specifically mention an inn or a stable, Jesus is traditionally depicted as having been born in a stable. Though it would be odd for a stable to be placed in a ''gathering room'' (an upstairs meeting-room), in Roman Palestine, caves (which are common in the region) often housed stables, and it is plausible that the association between caves and stables lead to the tradition of Jesus being born in a stable. An alternative origin for the tradition is that advocated by supporters of the Jesus-as-myth theory, namely that it originates with the belief that Mithras was born in a stable. Mithras was considered, allegorically, to be a solar deity, and hence was said to have been born during the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] (the darkest point of the year); in the classical era the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] occurred when the sun was in the [[constellation]] that was then known as the ''Augean Stable'' (and is now named ''[[Capricorn]]''). Early Christian apologists admitted the parallel involved, [[Justin Martyr]], for example, stated that Jesus was born when the sun had its birth in the ''Augean Stable''.
*Ox and Ass - Traditionally Jesus' birth is depicted as being accompanied by an [[ass]] and an [[ox]], and though this is not mentioned in the canonical Gospels, the tradition is long-standing and has its first written mention in the [[Arabic Infancy Gospel]] and most likely has its roots in a passage from the Old Testament: "The ''ox'' knows his master, the ''donkey'' his owner's manger, but Israel does not know, my people do not understand." (Isaiah 1:3). Mithras was also, metaphorically, said to be born in the company of an ass and an ox, as aside from Capricorn, the ''Augean Stable'', [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]] was also known as a stable, since in classical times this was the constellation in which the sun reached the [[summer solstice]] (the other point on the ecliptic at which the sun's zenith appears to ''rest'' for about 3 days); either side of Auriga are constellations that the classical world named ''[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]'', meaning ''bull'', which in a more feminine scene is depicted as an ox, and ''Ass of [[Typhon]]'' (now known as [[Ursa Major]]). In Mithraism they had a greater significance - the bull was the one which Mithras [[Tauroctony|was destined to slay]] (and was considered to be a meta-reference to Mithras himself), and Typhon was the closest figure in Greek mythology to [[Satan]], hence his Ass was seen as a sort-of spy.
*Burial in a cave, and subsequent resurrection. The Gospels state that after [[death of Jesus|his death]], Jesus was buried in a cave, and subsequent narratives state that after this tomb [[empty tomb|was found to be empty]], Jesus [[resurrection of Jesus|was seen to be resurrected]]. Mithraism also sometimes held that after the death of Mithras, he was buried in a cave, from where he was resurrected; this is thought by scholars to derive from the earlier idea that Mithras had been born from a rock, an allegory for the universe as seen from outside it, while the cave represented the universe from the inside, hence the death in the cave being the in-universe equivalent to the birth from the rock - thus birth coming from death.

====Priorities and Practices====

If Christianity had originally evolved as a localised mystery religion, then not only should there be parallels between the scriptural narratives of Christianity and myths from the mystery religions, but there should also be parallels with more outwardly things such as religious rituals, and imagery. The existence of such parallels has been admitted by prominent Christian apologists since ancient times, for example, [[Tertullian]], arguing that the devil had founded the mystery religions, wrote
:''The devil, whose business is to pervert the truth, mimics the exact circumstances of the Divine Sacraments. He baptises his believers and promises forgiveness of sins from the Sacred Fount, and thereby initiates them into the religion of Mithras. Thus he celebrates the oblation of bread, and brings in the symbol of the resurrection.''

Many art historians acknowledge that [[Christianised Myths and Imagery#Saint Mary, Theotokos|early Marian Iconography was heavily influenced]] by Egyptian depictions of Isis and Horus as a baby, [[hyperdulia|veneration of Mary]] having first rose to prominence among the Alexandrian Christians (Christians based in the see of Alexandria, Egypt); the Jesus-as-myth position goes one step further and argue that this is due to Mary herself deriving from worship of Isis. Historians in general have often argued that [[Christianised rituals|many religious rituals]], images, [[The Christianised calendar|and festivals associated with Christianity]], are a result of [[Christianization]] of elements from earlier non-Christian religions; this has historically lead to some of these features being criticised by certain Christian groups, particularly protestants, as being ''[[heathen]] [[superstitions]]'', with, for example, the [[Puritans]] banning [[Christmas]] for this reason. It is the contention of the Jesus-as-myth theory that certain of these parallels (such as the date of Christmas, importance of Sunday, and use of the [[labarum]]) are not borrowings, as many historians see them, or co-incidences, as Christian apologists see them, but instead are due to Christianity being just another form of the mystery religions and thus sharing a common source.

The question ultimately comes down to priority - who copied from whom. Although a few modern Christian apologists argue that such parallels as do exist were copied ''by'' the mystery religions ''from'' Christianity, ancient Christian apologists openly acknowledged that the mystery religions had got there first; however, to the early apologists such as Tertullian and [[Justin Martyr]], this wasn't evidence that Christianity was derived from the mystery religions, but that the mystery religions had been an evil-hearted prophecy of Christianity:
:''Having heard it proclaimed through the prophets that the Christ was to come and that the ungodly among men were to be punished by fire, the wicked spirits put forward many to be called Sons of God, under the impression that they would be able to produce in men the idea that the things that were said with regard to Christ were merely marvellous tales'' - Justin Martyr, ''First Apology''

The opponents of early Christianity suggested that Christianity was a result of failure to correctly interpret the mystery religions, and the attempts to circumvent the fact that the beliefs of the mystery religions pre-dated it, by claiming that they were simply prophecies, were cases of simply ignoring the obvious (i.e. ignoring [[Ockham's Razor]]).
[[Celsus]], a second century anti-Christian writer, wrote that Christianity:
:''continues to spread amongst the vulgar, nay one can even say it spreads because of its vulgarity, and the illiteracy of its adherents. And while there are a few moderate, reasonable, and intelligent people who are inclined to interpret its beliefs allegorically, yet it thrives in its purer form among the ignorant''<ref>[[Origen]], ''Contra Celsum'' (Origen was anti-Celsus)</ref>

More recently, advocates of the Jesus-as-myth theory have argued that the ease with which Christianity was abruptly imposed by the [[Theodosian decree]] - the lack of anti-Christian riots, and [[Christianised sites|the smooth change]] of [[mithraeum]]s (and other pre-Christian holy places) into Churches - points to a high degree of similarity between Christianity and its main rival at the time (''Mithras Sol Invictus''). Many historians argue that this similarity was partly due to the influence of [[Constantine I]], life-long chief priest (''pontifex maximus'') of the Sol Invictus religion, and, according to Christian legend, a convert to Christianity on his death-bed; Constantine viewed variety as a dangerous political risk, and spent a great deal of time standardising things, including convening the [[Council of Nicea|First Ecumenical Council]] in order to resolve a dispute within early Christianity over the nature of Jesus. According to Christian apologists, Constantine was secretly a Christian for much longer than his last breath, and his influence was mostly one way, remoulding the religion of Mithras Sol Invictus to closely mirror Christianity. According to advocates of the Jesus-as-myth position, Constantine did very little remoulding, the two religions had always been similar, due to Christianity being based on that of Mithras Sol Invictus; as [[Thomas Paine]] put it:
''The Christian religion is a parody on the worship of the Sun, in which they put a man whom they call Christ in the place of the Sun, and pay him the same adoration which was originally paid to the Sun''.<ref>Thomas Paine, ''[[The Age of Reason]]''</ref>

===Parallels with Astrology===
====The Great Year====
The [[Great Year]] (or [[Astrological Age]]) is measured by the Sun's apparent backward movement or [[precession]] through the [[Zodiac]].<ref>http://www.templeofsolomon.org/Preces.htg/precession.htm</ref> (Note: The [[Gregorian Calendar]] ignores the precession of the equinoxes and determines that the Sun enters the first degree of Aries at every vernal equinox.) The sign which represents the current age is determined by the constellation of the zodiac that the sun actually occupies at the [[vernal equinox]]. The rate at which the Sun progresses through each of these signs is thought to have first been measured by the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]], in the 2nd century BCE. The discovery of the precession of the equinoxes was a revelation that some interpreted as being the act of a powerful new god moving the entire universe.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples">http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/h/helios_christos_the_sun_ferrying_the_archetypal_zodiac_disciples.html</ref>

It [[Discovery of precession#The Mithraic Question|has been proposed]] that the cult of [[Mithraism]] was inspired by Hipparchus' discovery of precession. The centerpiece of this theory is the [[tauroctony]] an image of Mithras sacrificing a bull. According to [[David Ulansey]], the tauroctony is a [[star chart]]. Mithras is the constellation [[Perseus]], and the bull is [[Taurus]], a constellation of the zodiac. In an earlier [[astrological age]], the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in Taurus. The tauroctony, by this reasoning, commemorated Mithras-Perseus ending the "Age of Taurus" about 2000 BCE.

In turn it has been suggested that Christianity was inspired by the dawning of the [[Age of Pisces]], which is symbolized by the fish. The fish has also been used as a symbol used in Christianity. The use of the fish to symbolize Christianity actually predated the use of the [[crucifix]].<ref>http://www.seiyaku.com/customs/fish/fish.html</ref> In Matthew 14:17, Jesus is said to have fed the multitudes with only two fishes. The constellation of [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] is symbolized by two fishes.

This comparison of Jesus' life to the Astrological Ages continues even further, all the way into the age which follows Pisces, the [[Age of Aquarius]]. Chapter 22 of the [[Gospel of Luke]] describe the events which occur prior to Jesus' arrest and subsequent crucifixion. The disciples ask Jesus where they shall meet him to prepare for his final Passover ([[The Last Supper]]). In Luke 22:10 Jesus responds, ''"Behold, when ye are entered into the city, there shall a man meet you, bearing a pitcher of water; follow him into the house where he entereth in."'' Some proponents of the Jesus Myth interpret the "man bearing a pitcher of water" to be a direct reference to the symbol of [[Aquarius]], the water-bearer. And furthermore, Jesus' instructions to his followers that they follow this man "into the '''house''' where he entereth in" seems to strengthen the connection to astrological symbolism. Proponents claim that Jesus is literally stating that at Jesus' last Passover (the end of the [[Age of Pisces]]) that his followers should continue on and follow the man with the water pitcher ([[Aquarius]]) into the “house where he entereth” (the next Astrological Age).<ref name="naked">http://www.truthbeknown.com/naked.htm</ref>

The very last line of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] alludes to this idea that Jesus is the ruler of the [[Age of Pisces]] (and that this reign will eventually end and lead to a "New age") when he states in verse 28:20, ''"I am with you always, even to the end of the age"''. The are several other references to the "end of the age" and the "coming age" spread throughout the gospels — two in ''Mark'', six in ''Matthew'', and three in ''Luke'' (depending on the translation).<ref>http://www.studylight.org/lex/grk/view.cgi?number=165</ref> Some proponents of the Jesus Myth theory interpret these phrases as a reference to various [[Astrological Ages]]. However these passages have traditionally been interpreted as referring to "The end of the world" and the [[Second coming of Christ]].

====Twelve Apostles====
The [[Twelve Apostles]], according to Jesus Myth proponents, represent the twelve signs of the zodiac,<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> although attempts to relate all their names to particular signs have not been very successful.<ref>http://www.atheists.org/christianity/twelve.html</ref>

However, the standard explanation among scholars is that "The Twelve" is not a coincidental name for the number of apostles that were part of Jesus' disciples. According to biblical scholar Dennis C. Duling, "The number twelve symbolizes a new Israel."<ref>Society of Biblical Literature, The Harper Collins Study Bible (Harper Collins Publishing: USA, 1993,) 1874 (cf 10:1.)</ref> Most scholars concur that the [[Twelve Apostles]] represent the new [[twelve tribes of Israel]].<ref>Meeks, Wayne A. "Messianism among Jews and Christians: Twelve Biblical and Historical Studies (review)"
Jewish Quarterly Review - Volume 95, Number 2, Spring 2005, pp. 336-340.</ref> But even if this is the case, the connection to astrology is not completely lost since some scholars believe that the legend of the twelve tribes was originally derived from the twelve signs of the zodiac.<ref>http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/lds/meridian/2005/12sons.html</ref>

====Astrological Houses====
In the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, John 14:2 states, "In my Father's house are many mansions". The proponents of the Jesus myth point out that, taken from a literal interpretation, this makes little sense. How can a house contain many mansions?<ref name="naked"/> They claim that the correct translation should be rendered as "In my father's abode are many houses", which they interpret as being a direct reference to the [[House (astrology)|houses of the zodiac]].<ref name="naked"/>

====Timeline of Jesus' Life====
Jesus in said to have started his ministry at the age of 30, which some have connected to the fact that each sign of the zodiac occupies 30 degrees of the elliptic. Jesus' ministry is said to have lasted for one year, similar to the Sun completing its circuit of the Zodiac in a year. The story of Jesus' life is circular, in that he is said to have been born in a cave, and then is finally laid to rest in a cave.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> This tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is preserved in several of the [[apocryphal]] [[Infancy Gospels]], such as the ''[[Protevangelion of James]]'' and the ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]''. However, neither of the canonical accounts of [[Jesus]]' life mentions him being born in a cave. Matthew says he was born in a house,<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/mt/2.html#11</ref> and Luke claims he was born in a stable<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/lk/2.html#7</ref> (which may or may not have been in a cave). However, near [[Bethlehem]] there are many natural caves. It was easier, safer and more economical to block off a cave’s entrance to shelter animals than to build a freestanding stable. The tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is so strong that in the fourth century, [[Helena of Constantinople|St. Helena]] built the [[Church of the Nativity]] over the cave said to be the birthplace of Jesus.<ref>http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Dec2004/Wiseman.asp</ref>

====Resurrected after three days====
Jesus is said to be resurrected after 3 days in the cave. We celebrate Jesus' birthday on December 25, three days after the Winter Solstice of December 22. The Sun "dies" on December 22, the Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year. As the sun's declination shifts from a southerly direction to a northerly direction at the time of the solstice, it appears to nearly halt completely. Three days after the solstice the Sun rises 1/10 of a degree further North, just barely detectable by observing shadows. It can then be said that the Sun has been resurrected after being "dead" for three days, and has now been reborn to begin the next year.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/>

It should be noted that no early records mention the date of [[Jesus]]' birth and that the date was agreed upon during the third century CE. At the time, it was believed that Jewish prophets lived in a life cycle that began and ended at their death. Because it was believed [[Jesus]] died on March 25th, [[Christians]] asserted this was also the date of [[Jesus]]' conception (see: [[Annunciation]].) They then added nine months to the date of the [[Annunciation]] to determine roughly the day [[Jesus]] was born— December 25th.<ref>[[Christmas#Origin of holiday]]{{citation needed}}</ref>

==Criticism of the theory==
The idea of Jesus as simply a religious [[meme]] based on non-Abrahamic myths has received strong criticism from biblical scholars and historians. The points below highlight some of these criticisms, but to what degree the dispute is grounded in historical accuracy versus Christian apologetics is unclear.

*The majority of [[scholarship]], including historians, believes there was a [[historical Jesus]]<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005.htm</ref><ref>http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html</ref> The reason scholars give is that for an ancient person and event, there are a relative plethora (by ancient historical standards) of sources from the same century. According to [[JP Holding]], "Support for the "Jesus-myth" comes not from historians, but usually from writers operating far out of their field."<ref>http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html]</ref>
*Most scholars, such as [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], do not see significant similarity between the pagan myths and Christianity. Grant states in ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/origins.html</ref>
*Parallels between [[Christianity]] and [[Mystery Religions]] are not considered compelling evidence by most scholarship. According to a [[Christian]] apologist, Michael Licona, has summed up the viewpoint of this era's historiography:
:: Most scholars have abandoned the ''religionsgeschichtliche'' or what was known as the “history of religions” school that regarded parallels as conclusive signs that Christianity was cut from the same cloth as ancient myth. Further research has revealed that many of the parallels to which they refer postdate the Gospels.<ref> http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*[[Celsus]], a second century critic of [[Christianity]], accused [[Jesus]] of being a bastard child and a sorcerer. He never questions Jesus' historicity even though he hated [[Christianity]] and [[Jesus]].<ref>Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician: Charlatan or Son of God? (1978) pp. 78-79.</ref> He is quoted as saying that Jesus was a "mere man."<ref>http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu/Ap0301/CELSUS.htm</ref> Furthermore, there is debate whether [[Suetonius]], who wrote in the second century, made reference to [[Christianity]] existing in 41 CE, though the majority of scholars believe that the reference cannot be interpreted in this fashion.<ref>http://www.mystae.com/restricted/reflections/messiah/sources.htm</ref> Lastly, there are passages of debatable significance from the historian [[Tacitus]] and satirist [[Lucian of Samosata]], which credit "Christ" as the founder of [[Christianity]].<ref>Ibid.  For scholarly discussion, refer to source.</ref>
*Proponents of the Jesus Myth disagree with the notion that the [[Apostle Paul]] did speak of [[Jesus]] as a physical being. This is largely an [[argument from silence]]. Furthermore, it is slightly a distortion, because the Apostle Paul contradicts this viewpoint. He claims that Jesus "descended from David according to the flesh",<ref>Romans 1:3</ref> took "the form of a slave, being born in human likeness, And being found in human form,".<ref>Philippians 2:7.</ref> Paul also states that " God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law."<ref>Galatians 4:4.</ref> and "the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being."<ref>1 Corinthians 15:21.</ref> Furthermore, he invokes the "command," "charge," or "word" of [[Jesus]] four times<ref>Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10 and 9:14, and 1 Thessalonians 4:15.</ref> in the [[Epistles]]. Scholars believe that the [[apostle Paul]] did not quote [[Jesus]] more often, because he took for granted that [[Christians]] knew what [[Jesus]] said. Jesus Myth proponents believe this is a weak [[argument from silence]].
*The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] is debatably an early source, which some, but not all, scholars put before 70 CE. Their reasoning is that the [[Epistle]] makes mention of [[animal sacrifice]], which was a practice that fell out of favor in [[Judaism]] after the destruction of the temple. In Hebrews, Jesus is mentioned several times in physical form<ref>Hebrews 5:7, 7:14, and 12:3.</ref> and even speaks.<ref>Hebrews 10:5-9.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Jesus and history]]
*[[Historicity of Jesus]]
*[[John of Gamala]]
*[[Jus Asaf]]
*[[Radical Criticism]]
*[[life-death-rebirth deity]]
*[[Harrowing of Hell]]
*[[The God Who Wasn%27t There]]

==References==
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1970. ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross''. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-12875-5
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1992. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''. Prometheus Books; 2nd revised edition. ISBN 0-87975-757-4
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''The Roman Origins of Christianity.''
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''Caesar's Messiah.''
* Brodie, Thomas L. 2000. ''The Crucial Bridge: the Elijah-Elisha Narrative as an interpretive synthesis of Genesis-Kings and a literary model for the Gospels''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.
* [[Earl Doherty|Doherty, E.]],''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]'' ([[1999]]; revised edition [[2000]]) ISBN 0-9686014-0-5
* Ellegard, Alvar. 1999. ''Jesus: One Hundred Years Before Christ.'' London: Century.
* France, R. T. ''The Evidence for Jesus.''
* Freke, T. and Gandy, P. ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'', by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]], ISBN 0-609-80798-6
*McDowell, Josh & Wilson, Bill. ''He Walked Among Us, Evidence for the Historical Jesus.'' San Bernardino, CA, Here’s Life Publishers, Inc. 1988, ISBN 0-89840-230-1
* [[John P. Meier|Meier, John P.]], ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'', New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
: v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
: v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2004. New Testament Narrative as Old Testament Midrash. In Neusner, J., Avery-Peck, A., eds. ''The Encyclopedia of Midrash: Biblical Interpretation of Formative Judaism.''
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2003. ''The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2000. ''Deconstructing Jesus.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* Sanders, E. P. 1995. ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' Penguin.
* Sherwin-White, A. N. 1963. ''Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament.'' Oxford.
* Theissen, G., and Merz, A. 1998. ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide.'' Minneapolis: Fortress
* Thompson, Thomas L. 2005. ''The Messiah Myth.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Van Voorst, Robert E. 2000. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
* Wells, G. A. 1999. ''The Jesus Myth.'' Peru, IL: Open Court (Carus Publishing)
* Wells, G. A. ''The Historical Evidence for Jesus.''
* Whealey, Alice. 2003. ''Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times''. Peter Lang Publishing.
* G.L. Borchert, "Docetism" in ''Elwell Evangelical Dictionary''; ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]'', 1909/2003; D.C. Duling & N. Perrin, ''The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History'', 1993; "Docetism", ''[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754 Encyclopædia Britannica]'', 2006; J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines''. [http://www.ccel.org/bible/phillips/CPn24John2.htm "Book 24 - John's Second Letter". J.B.Phillips, "The New Testament in Modern English", 1962 edition].

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==External links==
===Supporting a Jesus-Myth theory===

* [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/home.htm Earl Doherty's Website]
* [http://www.medmalexperts.com/POCM/index.html POCM: Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth]
* [http://www.truthbeknown.com/origins.htm "The Origins of Christianity and Search for the Historical Jesus Christ"] by [[Acharya S]]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/earliest.html "Earliest Christianity"] by G.A. Wells
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/jesuspuzzle.shtml "Did Jesus Exist? Earl Doherty and the Argument to Ahistoricity"] by Richard Carrier
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/ Jesus never existed] by Kenneth Humphreys
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_wheless/forgery_in_christianity/ Forgery In Christianity (1930)] by Joseph Wheless
* [http://www.geocities.com/inquisitive79/refute.html "Refuting Missionaries"] by Hayyim ben Yehoshua
* [http://www.christianism.com/ Jesus (was) is a Fictional character (not "historical")] Rt. Rev. Lino Sanchez
* [http://www.egodeath.com/#_The_Non-Historicity_of The Non-Historicity of Jesus] Michael Hoffman
* [http://www.radikalkritik.de/ Hermann Detering's RadikalKritik] (partially in German)
* [http://www.ffrf.org/news/2006/debunkingJesus.php Debunking the Historical Jesus] by Dan Barker
* [http://www.ffrf.org/about/bybarker/rise.php Did Jesus Really Rise From The Dead?] by Dan Barker - Why the Jesus Myth is respectful of the first Christians.
* [http://www.vexen.co.uk/books/jesusmysteries.html "The Jesus Mysteries"] by Freke/Gandy
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/news/09/21/jesus.mysteries/index.html CNN interview] Freke and Gandy on "The Jesus Mysteries"
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/beginnings/09/21/excerpt.jesus.mysteries/index.html "The Jesus Mysteries" - book summary/excerpt]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/jesus_myth.htm Debunking the "Da Vinci Code" Debunkers and the Jesus Myth] Overview of the case against a historical Jesus, including many pictures
*[http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0660MysteryReligions.html Christian Objections] Similarity of Christian myths to Pagan religions
*[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dp5/christian.htm Origins of Christianity] Reinventing the pagan godman
*[http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/jesus_similar.html Wilson's Almanac] Comparison of Pagan Gods to Jesus Myth

===Supporting a historical Jesus===
* [http://www.geocities.com/nephilimnot/historical_jesus_christ.html Historical Jesus A logical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was a Guerilla chieftain opposed to Rome.
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/ Jesus, a historical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was not divine, very minimal, and accidentally sparked the development (by others) of Christianity.

===Critical of the Jesus-Myth theory===
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/price8.htm "A History of Scholarly Refutations of the Jesus Myth"] by Christopher Price (A Christian apologetic website)
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/jesusindex.htm "Did Jesus Exist"] a page devoted to the issues raised by the Jesus Myth
* [http://tektonics.org/copycat/osy.html Walk Like an Egyptian] A comparison of Osiris, Horus, and Jesus.
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/copycat.html Was Jesus Christ just a CopyCat Savior Myth?] Examines in detail the claims of Jesus being copied from characters of other religions (Osiris, Horus, Mithra, Dionysus, and numerous others) also briefly explains the criteria professional scholars use to determine if copying took place
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html "Shattering the Jesus Myth"] by J.P. Holding
* [http://www.answeringinfidels.com/content/category/5/73/49/ "Answering Acharya S"] by Mike Licona
** [http://truthbeknown.com/licona.htm Acharya rebuttal to Licona]
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/djp1.html Critique of Two Major Points of The Jesus Puzzle] by Bernard D. Muller - Against the crucifixion in heaven and Jesus as not an earthly human.

[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Biblical criticism]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]

[[fr:Thèse mythiste (Jésus non historique)]]
[[it:Mito di Gesù]]
[[sv:Jesusmyten]]
[[zh:虚构的耶稣]]

Jesus-Mythos

2006-10-31T17:50:12Z

165.29.244.6: /* Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century */

{{not verified}}

{{jesus}}
:''This article is part of the [[Jesus and history]] series of articles.
'''Jesus as myth''' or '''The Jesus Myth''' is a collection of ideas that have in common the central theme that elements of beliefs about [[Jesus]], and the Jesus narrative in the New Testament, are actually [[syncretism]]s from older myths. It is usually associated with a [[Religious skepticism|skeptical]] position on the existence of Jesus as [[historicity of Jesus|an actual historical figure]].

The theory is based on apparent similarities between early Christian accounts of Jesus and pre-existing [[mystery religion]]s, and at the more extreme limit of the theory is also based in part on the lack of extant evidence about his life outside the [[Gospels]] in the view of the holders of the theory. The extreme limit of the theory has not found widespread acceptance among Bible scholars and historians.<ref name=opponents>[[Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels''; [[Rudolf Bultmann]], ''Jesus and the Word''; Robert Van Voorst, ''Jesus Outside the Gospels'', and Graham Stanton, ''The Gospels and Jesus''.</ref>

The debate over the truth of Jesus' existence requires academic analysis of the available evidence from times near-contemporary with the dates for Jesus' life, and it depends on the reliability and biases of such evidence. It includes the use of [[historiography]], [[philology]], and to an extent [[hermeneutics]] as tools for analyzing the evidence. The relevant evidence itself can be broken down into Christian and non-Christian texts; the only surviving Christian texts close enough to the era being the books within the New Testament itself. The earliest part of the New Testament, and thus the most important to answer the question, are the [[Pauline Epistles]], though as these contain very little actual narrative concerning Jesus. It is important to note that the majority of scholars believe that Paul has quoted Jesus several times<ref>Society of Biblical Studies, The Harper Collins NRSV Study Bible, San Francsco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1989, 2141, see Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10, and 1 Corinthians 9:14</ref> and if the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] was made before the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], it too has several passages where Jesus struggles with opposition and speaks.<ref>http://www.abu.nb.ca/courses/NTIntro/Heb.htm. See Hebrews 10:5-9 for Jesus' vocal ministry, and Hebrews 5:7 and Hebrews 12:3 for descriptions of hostility towards Jesus.</ref> The later accounts in the Gospels are also of significance. The purpose of this article is not to provide said academic analysis, but rather to provide an account of research that has been performed into the subject thus far.

==History of the theory==

Some have suggested that the idea dates to New Testament times, citing {{bibleverse|2|John|1:7|}}'s "many deceivers [who] are entered into the world, who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh." Some scholars studying this period believe that these early quotes refer to [[docetism]], the belief that Jesus appeared to people but lacked a genuinely physical body, rather than a belief that Jesus was a completely fabricated figure.

The first modern, published proponent of this theory was probably [[19th century|nineteenth century]] [[historian]] [[Bruno Bauer]], a [[Hegelian]] thinker who argued that the true founder of [[Christianity]] was the Alexandrian [[Jew]] [[Philo]], who had adapted Judaic ideas to Hellenic philosophy. His arguments made little impact at the time. Other authors included [[Edwin Johnson (historian)|Edwin Johnson]], who argued that Christianity emerged from a combination of liberal trends in Judaism with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] [[mysticism]]. Less speculative versions of the theory developed under writers such as A.D. Loman and [[Gerardus Johannes Petrus Josephus Bolland|G.J.P.J. Bolland]]. Loman argued that episodes in Jesus's life, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]], were in reality fictions to justify compilations of pre-existing liberal Jewish sayings. Bolland developed the theory that Christianity developed from Gnosticism and that "Jesus" was a symbolic figure representing Gnostic ideas about godhood.

Jesus-Myth theories often draw on nineteenth century scholarship on the formation of myth, in the work of writers such as [[Max Müller]] and [[James Frazer]]. Müller argued that religions originated in mythic stories of the birth, death and rebirth of the sun. Frazer further attempted to explain the origins of humanity's beliefs in the idea of a "sacrificial king", associated with the sun, vegetation, or a "year-daemon" as a dying and reviving god. According to his major book on the subject, ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', the king's death and rebirth was connected to the regeneration of the earth in springtime and was often required for the continuity of a ritual-based community. A critic of the religious beliefs of his contemporaries, Frazer wrote ''The Golden Bough'' partly to discredit Christianity by illustrating its similarity to the beliefs and rituals of other cultures.<ref>[[Ronald Hutton]], ''Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'' (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 113-117.</ref>

By the early [[20th century|twentieth century]] a number of writers had published arguments in favor of the Jesus-Myth theory. These treatments were sufficiently influential to merit several book-length responses by traditional historians and [[New Testament]] [[scholars]]. The most influential of the books arguing for a mythic Jesus was [[Arthur Drews]]'s ''The Christ-Myth'' (1909) which argued that Christianity had been a Jewish Gnostic cult that spread by appropriating aspects of Greek philosophy and Frazerian death-rebirth deities. This combination of arguments became the standard form of the mythic Christ theory.

While aspects of the theory were influential, mainstream scholars at the time rejected the notion. Because much of Frazer's work has since been discredited, and the priority of Gnosticism seriously questioned, the Jesus-Myth theory has dwindled in importance.{{citationneeded}} Mainstream late twentieth century scholars, such as theologian and historian [[John P. Meier]] and the author and theologian [[A.N Wilson]], have evaluated the historical evidence for many individual details of Jesus' biography and teachings, separating the probable and the plausible from the demonstrably mythical. The evidence seems quite strong for the existence of a historical person corresponding to the Jesus of the gospels, but few facts about him are better attested by Meier's criteria than certain miracle stories. This may perhaps be taken as commentary on the reliability of recorded history at two thousand years' remove.

In recent years, the Jesus-Myth has had few proponents in academia but has been advanced by [[William B. Smith]], [[George Albert Wells]] (''The Jesus Legend'' and ''The Jesus Myth''), and [[John Marco Allegro]] (''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' and ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''), as well as by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]] (co-authors of ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'' and ''Jesus and the Lost Goddess''), and [[Earl Doherty]] (author of ''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]''), and Larry Wright, author of ''Christianity, Astrology & Myth''.

== Influences on the earliest Christianity ==

According to the traditional Christian intepretation of Christianity's beginnings, the [[Early Christianity|earliest Christian Church]] developed directly from the ministry of Jesus and his Twelve Apostles, without much in the way of external influences. Evangelical Christians also believe that the New Testament is an accurate historic record of Jesus. More critical and secular approaches argue that the earliest Christianity did not develop in a religious vacuum, but in the cosmopolitan and multi-religious world of hellenised Judea under the Roman Empire. Consequently critical approaches, including those associated with the theory of Jesus as myth, argue that it remains plausible for early Christianity to have developed under the influence of external religions, and that it would be unusual for the New Testament narratives to have not even been remotely touched by such a cosmopolitan background.

===The influence of the Old Testament===

It is widely accepted that the Gospel accounts were influenced by the Old Testament. In particular, many quotations attributed to the [[Q document]], which the Gospels attribute to Jesus{{cite needed}}, find parallels in several places of the Old Testament. Some scholars believe that certain elements of the gospels are not history but a type of [[midrash]]{{cite needed}}, creative narratives based on the stories, prophecies, and quotes in the Hebrew Bible.

The Gospel of Matthew is widely considered the most "Jewish" of the canonical Gospels, and in the small amount of material unique to the Gospel of Matthew (i.e. not mentioned by the other canonical Gospels), Jesus is presented in a way that often has strong parallels with significant Old Testament figures. Most noticeable are the similarities with [[Moses]], whose birth narrative and sojourn in the wilderness as a youth are alleged by textual critics to have been the basis from which Matthew derived its account of the [[nativity of Jesus]], rather than Matthew basing it on the actual events of the birth of Jesus.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/partthre.htm</ref>

Though conceding that the gospels may contain some creativity and midrash, scholarly opponents of the Jesus-as-myth stance argue that the gospels are more akin to ancient Graeco-Roman biographies. Although scholars do not agree on the exact nature of this genre, associated works attempted to impart historical information about historical figures, but were not comprehensive and could include legendary developments. Nevertheless, as ancient biographies, proponents of Jesus' existence believe they contain sufficient historical information to establish his historicity.

Although there are many types of midrash, the [[Toledot Yeshu]] jumps out as being the most similar to the proposal that characters and situations were invented wholesale according to religious dogma and Old Testament prophecy. However, those opposed to the existence of such strong Old Testament influences have argued that the closest parallels, to potential Moses-based embellishment of the Jesus narrative, are inapplicable. Although agreeing that there are many examples of ancient Jewish and Christian literature that shaped their stories and accounts according to Old Testament influence, such opponents argue that even under this influence there is nevertheless often some accurate historical information at the core;<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price6.htm</ref> for example, in [[1 Maccabees]], Judas and his battles are described in terms which parallel those of Saul's and David's battles against the Philistines in [[Books of Samuel|1 and 2 Samuel]], but nevertheless 1 Maccabees has a degree of respect amongst historians as having a reasonable degree of historical reliability.<ref>John R. Bartlett, ''The First and Second Books of Maccabees'', p. 15-17</ref>

===Gnostic themes===

Although there are occasional references in the [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|''disputed'' group of Pauline Epistles]] to a flesh-and-blood Jesus, the ''undisputed epistles'' contain only limited mention of Jesus as a historic figure. Even though Paul's letters are widely regarded as the earliest Christian documents, they contain very few references to Jesus' actual life and ministry, which only appear in detail in the later Gospels. Christian apologists claim that Paul's letters were written in response to specific problems unrelated to the details of the life of Jesus, and so the occasional and epistolary nature of Paul's correspondence are sufficient explanations for the lack of detail of Jesus' life. However, proponents of the theory that Jesus has a basis in myth counter that there are an abundance of missed rhetorical opportunities in his epistles to reinforce points by quoting statements that the Gospels later claim that Jesus said, or citing events in his life mentioned later by the Gospels that were directly relevant to the topics Paul was discussing, and presumably must have been known about in the period between the events happening and the Gospels being written.

Several commentators, from writers whose theories have not received widespread acceptance, such as [[Earl Doherty]], to widely respected academics and experts in the field, such as Harvard professor [[Elaine Pagels]], have argued that the Pauline epistles, or at least the genuine ones, should be interpreted as [[gnosticism]]. Christianity arose under a heavy Hellenic culture, Paul himself growing up in [[Tarsus]], the center of one of the major [[mystery religion]]s of the time, and Pagels and Doherty (and others) believe that Paul's writing should be viewed in the context of the Hellenic culture which formed his background. One consequence of [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|parts of the New Testament being written as Gnostic documents]] is that the narratives involved would not have been intended as descriptions of historic events but as non-historic [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]].

Gnosticism, an umbrella term for a diverse set of groups within early Christianity (that were ultimately suppressed), frequently used allegory and metaphor to guide its initiates towards an [[esoteric]] ''salvation'', which Gnosticism viewed as a form of knowledge (''[[gnosis]]''), not unlike [[Bodhi|Buddhist enlightenment]]. Many of the most prominent strands of Gnosticism interpreted the Gospels as Gnostic documents, and their narratives as allegorical rather than historic, often drawing profound meaning from the events in Jesus' life. Many Gnostic groups even regarded Jesus himself as an allegory, rather than historic, and [[docetism]] was rife in Gnostic groups. Thus whether or not parts of the New Testament were written as Gnostic documents, is a matter of substantial impact on the question of the [[historicity of Jesus]], and on what elements can be considered to be based on a historic figure.

How much influence gnosticism had on Christianity, and how much Christianity originated in gnosticism, are thus questions which have historically been quite volatile. Advocates of a position arguing that many elements of Jesus are derived from myth hold<ref>http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/marshall_gauvin/did_jesus_really_live.html</ref> that those references in the undisputed epistles that appear to refer to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should instead be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp08.htm</ref> Their opponents, often but not always conservative Christians, regard such interpretations, of for example {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:19}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:16|}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|4:4|}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|1:3|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|3:1|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|15:8|}}, and {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23-25|}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:4|}}, as based on forced and erroneous translations.<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price7.htm</ref>

===Parallels with Mediterranean mystery religions and other non-Abrahamic sources===
The question of what connection Christianity has to Mediterranean [[mystery religion]]s has been a controversy since the early centuries of Christianity. Although such questions subsided and were suppressed as the power of the Church grew, they have returned as the knowledge about the mystery religions was rediscovered. Whether this connection exists, and who copied whom, is at the core of the question of Jesus as myth.

Most of the mystery religions of the Mediterranean in the time of early Christianity were centred on a single divine figure (in the case of [[Orphism (religion)|Orphism]], the central figure is essentially an avatar of his own master, [[Dionysus]]), who had in most cases originally been a minor deity, whose mythology contained a narrative involving the deities death. In several cases, the original mythology seems to have been completely hijacked and abruptly altered, often bearing very little relation to the original myth; this is particularly noticeable in the way that [[Mithra]] somehow became [[Mithras]]. A number of the Mediterranean mystery religions of the period contain several similarities to each other, such as a prominent [[Life-death-rebirth deity|life-death-rebirth narrative]], and the central ''deity'' being semi-human; this group (including the religions of [[Legend of Osiris and Isis|Osiris-Horus]], [[Dionysus]], [[Mithras]], [[Aion (deity)|Aion]], [[Adonis]], and [[Attis]]) were identified as connected in early times, and as a group were named [[Osiris-Dionysus]] after the two earliest groups.

Modern scholars have argued that most of these Osiris-Dionysus religions evolved when earlier Osiris-Dionysus religions spread into a new region and localised themselves by hijacking convenient local deities; this is most evident in how [[Sabazios]], originally a [[Phrygia]]n deity, became another name for Dionysus, it is also evident in how [[Orphicism]] developed with the central figure of [[Orpheus]], supposedly a priest of Dionysus, but essentially Dionysus himself. Most scholars that have an opinion on the matter argue that the earliest form of this religion was the Osiris-Horus form of ancient Egyptian religions, and that the others developed from there, having been transferred by merchants. Notably, although a form of Osiris-Dionysus was present in most nations around the Mediterranean, particularly in the east, at first glance no such form appears to have existed in Roman Palestine. A central contention of the Jesus-as-myth argument is that Jesus, or at least much of the Gospel narrative about him, and early Christian tradition concerning him, is the form of Osiris-Dionysus localised for Roman Palestine.

====Pythagorean elements====

Enough has survived from the comments of their enemies (for example, [[Origen]] and [[Irenaeus]]), and a few relics of their own, for scholars to be fairly certain that many of the mystery religions were, at least by the first century, [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreanist]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonic]] reinterpretations of earlier myths; i.e. earlier myths became, in the mystery religions, [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]], concerning universal truths, rather than something considered literally true. Exactly what connection exists between Gnosticism and the Mediterranean mystery religions is an unsolved question, but it is certain that they would have shared considerably similar teaching methods, [[soteriology]], and [[mysticism]]. Thus to approach the question of whether Christianity borrowed from mystery religions (and vice versa), comparisons should be made not only between early Christianity and Mediterranean myths, but also between early Christianity and Pythagoreanism.

Aside from potential parallels with Gnosticism, which can be investigated more directly, other significant features of Pythagoreanism might have entered into early Christianity, and their presence would add support to a position advocating that significant parts of early Christianity, or all of it, derived from mystery religion. Pythagoreans were [[vegetarian]], so much so that until the 18th century all vegetarians were not called ''vegetarian'' but ''Pythagorean''. Many scholars and theologians believe that the earliest Christians were vegetarian, as the [[Desert Fathers]] almost definitely were, and some significant early Christian groups even had versions of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] that clearly point to Jesus being vegetarian - the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] differs from the now traditional version of Matthew in places referring to meat by using similarly spelt vegetarian friendly terms; there is no academic consensus as to which version has the more original wording. As the canonical New Testament seems to argue that vegetarianism is a personal choice, and many early Christian writers also stated that it was, the early Christians would seem to have taken this position without a New Testament based theological motivation for doing so. Modern [[Christian vegetarianism]] argues that passages from the Old Testament and [[Book of Enoch]] assert that vegetarianism was God's ideal, but there is no evidence either for or against the idea that early Christians used the same argument, and there is the alternative possibility that early Christian vegetarianism originated due to the influence of Pythagoreanism.

Pythagoreanism also saw deep value in [[mathematics]]; [[geometry]] was seen as having a high spiritual significance in and of itself, as well as being a mechanism to encode mystical teachings. The [[Feeding the multitude|Feeding of the 5000 and of the 4000]] have long been thought to encode some deeper meaning; more mainstream interpretations regard the numbers involved as references to the Torah ''feeding'' the Jews and Jesus' ministry ''feeding'' the Gentiles, but it has also been argued that they encode instructions for a mystical diagram. The use of numbers as cryptic references to deeper teaching could be argued to demonstrate Pythagorean influence in and of itself, but the encrypted presence of mystical diagrams would be a much stronger argument in favour of the existence of such influence. The [[Catch of 153 fish]] is one of the most notable situations where a diagram can be derived from the text following basic consistent rules; using the [[Isopsephia]] of the text to dictate sizes, the account of the event can be described geometrically - the resulting diagram not only describes the event, but simultaneously has another, more mystical, interpretation as described in [[Plato]]'s [[Timaeus]]. 153 itself is a significant number in Pythagoreanism, and had a strong connection to fish, as it was one part of the '''measure of the fish'' - a reference to the [[Vesica Piscis]] (whose name means ''flesh of the fish'') and the [[square root]] of 3.

====Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century====

Parallels between Jesus and the various religions of the Osiris-Dionysus group are a popular topic for internet sites skeptical of Christianity. A more constrained set of parallels have also been proposed by various scholars advocating the Jesus-as-myth theory. The most powerful groups in early Christianity were the Christians centred in Alexandria (in Egypt) and those in Rome, and so the form of Osiris-Dionysus at these two locations could reasonably be expected to have had the greatest influence. In Alexandria it was Osiris-Horus, a partial merging of the identities of [[Osiris]] and [[Horus]] (usually seen as fairly separate in more traditional [[ancient Egyptian religion]]); Osiris dying and being resurrected as Horus. In Rome, it was originally [[Dionysus]], but by the third century the state religion was that of [[Sol Invictus]], originally just a standard [[Solar Deity]], but by then had formed a [[syncretism]] with [[Mithraism]], which also continued to exist separately among males in the military of the Roman Empire.

[[Image:LuxorAmenhetep.gif|frame|none|According to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]s, this image of Horus' nativity depicts annunciation (frame 1), impregnation by the holy spirit (frame 2), and the birth and receipt of gifts from 3 visitors (frame 3)]]
The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Osiris-Horus are mostly centred around the earlier part of Jesus' life:
*[[Christ]] as a title - when treated as a partial merge of Osiris and Horus, Osiris-Horus was sometimes referred to as ''the embalmed Horus'', describing Horus taking the place of Osiris in the death parts of the narrative. ''The embalmed Horus'' was written in Egyptian as HR KRST (probably pronounced ''har karast''), and although ''Christ'' has a highly plausible [[etymology]] making it a cognate with [[Chrism]] (''ointment''), as a Greek attempt at translating the Hebrew term ''[[Messiah]]'', a number of advocates of the Jesus as myth theory, including [[theology]] professor [[Tom Harpur]], argue that this was just a happy co-incidence, and the term is actually derived from the ''Karast'' title of Horus. Use of this title, rather than directly copying any of the other titles of Horus, is argued by advocates of the Jesus myth, to be due to the convenient implications of its [[false cognate]] ''Chrism''. If this is true, rather than ''covered in ointment'', i.e. ''anointed'', the literal meaning of ''Christ'' would really be ''covered in balm'', i.e. ''embalmed''.
*Parentage
**By the first century the identity of Osiris had absorbed that of [[Ptah]] (with early stages of this absorption being known as ''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''), the great creator deity. In traditional Egyptian religion Osiris had become seen as the father of Horus, and hence Horus was the son of the creator deity, like Jesus was seen as son of [[God the Father]].
**By the first century Isis was seen as the mother of Horus. She was traditionally known as ''Meri'', meaning ''beloved'', which is phonetically near-identical to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|''Mary'', the name of the mother of Jesus]], and was the most common recipient of the [[epithet]] - if ''Meri'' was used without a particular deity being mentioned it usually referred to Isis.
**Pharaohs sometimes portrayed themselves or their children as an incarnation of Horus. The mother involved was usually referred to as ''Meri'' (i.e. ''beloved''), and was human, hence giving a semi-human incarnation of Horus a human mother called ''Meri''.
*The [[Nativity of Jesus]] - some of the more detailed versions of the birth of Horus have been argued to parallel the Nativity of Jesus, namely the versions of Horus' birth that derive from when Horus' mother was said to be [[Neith]] (whose identity later became absorbed into that of Isis). This is most obvious in a set of pre-Christian carvings from a temple in [[Luxor]] portraying [[Akhenaten]] as an incarnation of Horus, according to which:
**The future birth of ''Horus'' was announced in advance (an ''[[annunciation]]'') by [[Thoth]], whom the Greeks identified as [[Hermes]] and was in the first century seen as the messenger of the Gods, a role taken by the [[Archangel Gabriel]] in Jewish thought.
**The mother became pregnant by virtue of the ''breath of life'' being sent into her. The ''breath of life'' in question was [[Kneph]], a concept depicted [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]] (like Mediaeval depictions of death) rather than a deity, which [[Plutarch]] states had the same meaning to the Egyptians as ''[[Pneuma]]'' had to the Greeks. ''Pneuma'' translates as ''spirit'', so one can argue that the mother is being depicted as becoming pregnant by the ''holy spirit'', which Christians usually argue is how Mary became pregnant.
**The mother became pregnant while remaining a virgin (particularly as Neith was believed to have given birth to the first males, and hence existing before them). The doctrine of [[Virgin Birth]] is prominent in early Christianity.
**The mother is human (at least in the Luxor carving)
**There is a star which signifies his birth. In the Jesus narrative this is the [[Star of Bethlehem]], which isn't identified very clearly and there is much debate as to what it was meant to refer to though Christian interpreters have viewed it within the context of the Old Testament prophecy in Numbers 24:17, with perceived messianic allusions: "I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near. A ''star'' will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel." In the Osiris-Horus narrative this is [[Sothis]], a not-completely identified star generally thought to be the same as [[Sirius]]. Sirius gained its importance in relation to Osiris-Hours as its first appearance each year coincides with the date of the annual [[Nile]] flooding. Sirius reaches its highest [[Zenith]] on January 6th, the day that some ancient Christian traditions (including modern [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches) believe Jesus was born.
**Three visitors aim for a star, indicating where the birth is, and after the birth the three visitors each give gifts; in the Jesus narrative there are three gifts and an unidentified number of visitors ([[Biblical Magi|who are Magi]]), the number of visitors simply being a very long-standing tradition; in the Osiris-Horus narrative the three visitors are anthropomorphisms of the three stars in the ''belt'' of [[Orion (constellation)|the constellation Orion]], which point directly towards Sirius,<ref>http://www.usbible.com/Astrology/gospel_zodiac.htm</ref> and were named ''Mintaka'', ''Anilam'', and ''Alnitak'' (more accurately, [[consonant]]-only records name them as ''MNTK'', ''ANLM'' and ''ALNTK'', and [[Egyptologists]] estimate the full spelling).
**Being placed in a manger - according to {{bibleverse||luke|2:7}} Jesus rested in a manger shortly after his birth. Horus was also said to have been placed in a manger as a baby, though in earlier times the feature had been attributed to [[Ra]] instead, having transferred to Horus when the identities of Horus and Ra merged as ''Ra-harakhty''; the belief originated due to the Egyptian word for ''manger'', ''Apta'', being a [[homonym]] for the Egyptian word for ''mountain peak'', a location that Ra, as a [[solar deity]], was considered to have been born at. The Egyptian belief concerning Horus/Ra's birth in a manger was so prominent that mangers were for a time annually paraded around the streets in a festival celebrating the Sun.<ref>H. P. Blavatsky: ''Collected Writings''</ref>
*Birth town - Horus was, by the first century, considered to have been born at [[Heliopolis]], the main centre of his cult. Heliopolis had been the Egyptian capital and winter grain store, and hence was regarded as the ''house of bread'' (several copies of the [[Book of the dead]] refer to it by this name). In Hebrew, ''house of bread'' is ''[[Bethlehem]]'', the same name as the town that Jesus was said to have been born in. The narratives explaining why Jesus came to be born in Bethlehem, but didn't grow up there are often regarded by critical scholars as peculiarly contrived (and don't seem to agree), suggesting non-historicity, particularly as a number of archaeologists think that the Palestinian Bethlehem didn't even exist during the first century. Christian interpreters see it rather within the context of what they perceive as a messianic prophecy drawn from the Old Testament: "But you, ''Bethlehem'' Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." Micah 5:2
*The feeding of the multitude - a similar narrative is told of Horus in some versions of the [[Book of the Dead]], as Horus was the patron deity of [[Heliopolis]], at one point the Egyptian capital, and hence grain store, the source of bread in winter and poor harvests.
*The [[raising of Lazarus]] - many versions of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] see Horus as having raised Osiris from the dead. However, Elijah raised a child from the dead according to an account in [[Kings]], so such an event also had origins in Judaism.<ref>Kings 17:17-24</ref>
**In Egyptian Osiris was named A-S-R (as a [[consonantal language]], [[vowel]]s were not written down), thought to be pronounced ''Aser'' or ''Asar'' (''Osiris'' is the Greek version of the name), and by merely adding Hebrew [[theophory]] to convert it to a normal Hebrew name, and adding a standard Greek suffix to then convert it to the [[Koine Greek]] of the New Testament, one arrives at ''Elazaros''; by a standard [[Elision]] this turns into ''Lazaros'' (''Lazarus'' is how this was translated into [[Latin]] for the [[Vulgate]], on which early English translations were based)
**The location of the resurrection of Osiris is Heliopolis (a Greek name), which the Egyptians called ''Annu'' (and the [[Hebrew Bible]] refers to as ''On''). Treating Annu as a proper name, and regarding ''house of Annu'' as the place, this becomes ''BethAnnu'' in Hebrew. This is phonetically near-identical to ''Bethany'' in first century Hebrew (''u'' and ''y'' being difficult to distinguish, in the same way as modern Japanese speakers find ''r'' and ''l'' difficult to distinguish), which is where Jesus is said to have raised Lazarus.
*The divine opponent - the similarity in name between ''[[Satan]]'', the adversary of Jesus in [[Temptation of Jesus|the narrative of his temptation]], and ''[[Set (god)|Set]]'', the adversary of [[Horus]], has not been lost on advocates of the Jesus as myth position. Among the narratives describing the contest between Horus and Set for the crown of all Egypt (thought to be based on the historic rivalry between [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] and [[Lower Egypt]]) are a number of narratives in which Set tempts Horus to renounce his claim in return for various gifts. Although conservative Christians and Jews argue that Judaism, and hence the idea of Satan, developed completely independently of Egyptian religion, the fact that the ancient Egyptian Empire extended into the Levant during the [[New Kingdom]] has lead a number of scholars to argue that a total lack of influence on Judaism from the Egyptian religion is implausible.

The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Dionysus are, conversely, centred on later aspects of Jesus' life:
*The [[Marriage at Cana]], during which the New Testament states that Jesus turned water into wine, is similar to a narrative concerning Dionysus, who was originally the god of wine. In the pre-Christian Dionysus version, priests attending to a wedding at which Dionysus is present bring vessels of water to a building, which is then sealed, and when later reopened the water has been turned to wine. As the earliest surviving record of this ''miracle'' of Dionysus is from the late first century writings of Tatius, Christian apologists have argued that it was copied from Jesus' actions. However, as Jesus' ''miracle'' is only reported by the Gospel of John, which is dated by most scholars to 95-115 AD, advocates of the Jesus myth counter that the earliest surviving evidence, of a water into wine at a wedding miracle, concerns Dionysus not Jesus.<ref>Bowersock [Bow.FH, 125-8]; [[Morton Smith]]</ref> In the case of Dionysus it is his own marriage to [[Ariadne]], which differs from the traditional explanation of Jesus simply being a guest at the Cana wedding, though a minority of modern scholars (and a few notable fiction writers) have suggested the Cana marriage was actually that of Jesus to [[Mary Magdalene]]. In contrast Christian interpreters have taken what they perceived to be the deeper meaning of this passage in the context of the Old Testament, such as from the book of Isaiah, with the symbolic acting out Christ's marriage to his people: "as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you." (Isaiah 62:5)
[[Image:Dionysus Crucifixion.gif|thumb|Amulet which depicts the crucifixion of [[Dionysus]] dated to the 3rd century CE, although it authenticity is questioned by many modern archeologist.<ref name="tektonics dionysus">http://www.tektonics.org/copycat/dionysus.html</ref>]]
*The [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] of Jesus has a number of features which are argued by Jesus-Myth-theory advocates to be borrowed from Dionysus. Just before his actual [[crucifixion]], the narrative portrays Jesus as being tortured - during which his captors make him wear a purple robe and crown of foliage, both of which were said to be ordinarily worn by Dionysus (due to being imperial symbols). According to Christian apologists the temporary similarity is co-incidental and due to ''universals'',<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> but advocates of the theory that Jesus was derived from myth contend that although temporary, the similar appearance during the torture scene was a deliberate reference by the early gospel writers to Dionysus, in a similar manner to plays and dramas when an actor breaks the [[fourth wall]] and reveals their disguise to the audience.
**Apologists would argue that the resurrection of [[Dionysus]]/[[Bacchus]] was different than that of Jesus, because [[Bacchus]] had the help of [[Pegasus]] to escort him to heaven.<ref>http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*In nearly all [[Christology|Christologies]], Jesus is a mortal man, but in some way also divine (the most popular Christologies in modern Christianity, including [[Trinitarian|Trinitarianism]], argue that he was also fully a deity, while even [[docetism]] and [[adoptionism]] argues that the divine ''[[possession|possessed]]'' the mortal). In the play, Dionysus, a deity, comes to earth as a fully mortal man, claiming to have done so in order to make his ''Godhead'' manifest to the mortals.
*The return to Jerusalem, subsequent [[Pilate|Trial of Jesus before Pilate]], and execution, have supposed parallels with an account of Dionysus in a pre-Christian play named ''[[The Bacchae]]''. In both the Gospels and the play, the central character (Jesus/Dionysus) rides into the royal town on the back of a donkey and is greeted by crowds waving foliage, is soon after arrested by the authorities, put on trial before the ruler, during which he mostly avoids answering the questions, and is condemned and executed, before returning from the dead. Unlike the later Gospels, the play argues that Dionysus willingly let these things happen in order to later humiliate (and ultimately kill) [[Pentheus]], the ruler who tried him; though some Christian apologists argue that this purpose invalidates the parallel, it is perfectly possible for the Gospel writers to simply have dropped this purpose in order to adopt the narrative for their own aims. Christian interpreters see the foreshadowing of the gospel accounts, e.g the riding into a royal town on a donkey, being greeted by the crowds, the condemnation and execution as being directly linked to O.T prophecies rather than myths surrounding Dionysus. It is also possible that [[Euripides]], the author of the play, based his narrative on stories from the Dionysus mystery religion, but, in order to keep the actual teachings of the mystery religion a mystery, and to improve the dramatic appeal, changed the reasoning behind it.
:Christian apologists have also argued that since the foliage waved during entry into the town (in Jesus' case being Jerusalem) were palm fronds, rather than the ivy of ''The Bacchae'', this is merely a ''universal'' narrative, especially as ivy are plants of religious significance to the Dionysus mysteries, while palms are of national significance to Judaism;<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> their opponents contest that the intertwining of religion and nation in Judaism has meant that the palms are simply the plants which Judaism gives the same religious significance to as the Dionysus religion gave to ivy. Donkeys, and mules, also were strongly associated with Dionysus, in particular due to the [[Sileni]], but they have very little significance to Judaism, and are merely a form of transport.

Mithraism, according to the Jesus-as-myth theory, adds to these further elements of the nativity. While the alleged Osiris-Horus parallels mostly concern the nativity according to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], the alleged Mithras parallels mostly concern the version of the nativity in the [[Gospel of Luke]]; this somewhat reflects the groups who appear to be these Gospels' intended audiences - Matthew's audience being closer to Egypt (where Osiris-Horus was prominent), and Luke's being the ''Hellenic world'' (where Mithras was more significant):
*Birth in a cave - although modern traditions depict the event happening in a free-standing structure, in early Christian tradition Jesus was depicted as being born in a cave, and the official location of his birth in Roman Catholicism, Islam, and Eastern Orthodoxy, remains the particular cave which lies at the heart of the 4th century [[Church of the Nativity]]. This early tradition is thought to derive from the Bible, which does not mention a stable, but instead only refers to the location with a term ambiguously meaning either ''gathering room'' (which was an upstairs room) or ''cave''. In Mithraism, Mithras was said to have been born in a cave, which scholars think was an allegory for the universe, as well as a meta-reference to Plato's [[Allegory of the cave]].
*Birth in a stable - though the Bible does not specifically mention an inn or a stable, Jesus is traditionally depicted as having been born in a stable. Though it would be odd for a stable to be placed in a ''gathering room'' (an upstairs meeting-room), in Roman Palestine, caves (which are common in the region) often housed stables, and it is plausible that the association between caves and stables lead to the tradition of Jesus being born in a stable. An alternative origin for the tradition is that advocated by supporters of the Jesus-as-myth theory, namely that it originates with the belief that Mithras was born in a stable. Mithras was considered, allegorically, to be a solar deity, and hence was said to have been born during the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] (the darkest point of the year); in the classical era the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] occurred when the sun was in the [[constellation]] that was then known as the ''Augean Stable'' (and is now named ''[[Capricorn]]''). Early Christian apologists admitted the parallel involved, [[Justin Martyr]], for example, stated that Jesus was born when the sun had its birth in the ''Augean Stable''.
*Ox and Ass - Traditionally Jesus' birth is depicted as being accompanied by an [[ass]] and an [[ox]], and though this is not mentioned in the canonical Gospels, the tradition is long-standing and has its first written mention in the [[Arabic Infancy Gospel]] and most likely has its roots in a passage from the Old Testament: "The ''ox'' knows his master, the ''donkey'' his owner's manger, but Israel does not know, my people do not understand." (Isaiah 1:3). Mithras was also, metaphorically, said to be born in the company of an ass and an ox, as aside from Capricorn, the ''Augean Stable'', [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]] was also known as a stable, since in classical times this was the constellation in which the sun reached the [[summer solstice]] (the other point on the ecliptic at which the sun's zenith appears to ''rest'' for about 3 days); either side of Auriga are constellations that the classical world named ''[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]'', meaning ''bull'', which in a more feminine scene is depicted as an ox, and ''Ass of [[Typhon]]'' (now known as [[Ursa Major]]). In Mithraism they had a greater significance - the bull was the one which Mithras [[Tauroctony|was destined to slay]] (and was considered to be a meta-reference to Mithras himself), and Typhon was the closest figure in Greek mythology to [[Satan]], hence his Ass was seen as a sort-of spy.
*Burial in a cave, and subsequent resurrection. The Gospels state that after [[death of Jesus|his death]], Jesus was buried in a cave, and subsequent narratives state that after this tomb [[empty tomb|was found to be empty]], Jesus [[resurrection of Jesus|was seen to be resurrected]]. Mithraism also sometimes held that after the death of Mithras, he was buried in a cave, from where he was resurrected; this is thought by scholars to derive from the earlier idea that Mithras had been born from a rock, an allegory for the universe as seen from outside it, while the cave represented the universe from the inside, hence the death in the cave being the in-universe equivalent to the birth from the rock - thus birth coming from death.

====Priorities and Practices====

If Christianity had originally evolved as a localised mystery religion, then not only should there be parallels between the scriptural narratives of Christianity and myths from the mystery religions, but there should also be parallels with more outwardly things such as religious rituals, and imagery. The existence of such parallels has been admitted by prominent Christian apologists since ancient times, for example, [[Tertullian]], arguing that the devil had founded the mystery religions, wrote
:''The devil, whose business is to pervert the truth, mimics the exact circumstances of the Divine Sacraments. He baptises his believers and promises forgiveness of sins from the Sacred Fount, and thereby initiates them into the religion of Mithras. Thus he celebrates the oblation of bread, and brings in the symbol of the resurrection.''

Many art historians acknowledge that [[Christianised Myths and Imagery#Saint Mary, Theotokos|early Marian Iconography was heavily influenced]] by Egyptian depictions of Isis and Horus as a baby, [[hyperdulia|veneration of Mary]] having first rose to prominence among the Alexandrian Christians (Christians based in the see of Alexandria, Egypt); the Jesus-as-myth position goes one step further and argue that this is due to Mary herself deriving from worship of Isis. Historians in general have often argued that [[Christianised rituals|many religious rituals]], images, [[The Christianised calendar|and festivals associated with Christianity]], are a result of [[Christianization]] of elements from earlier non-Christian religions; this has historically lead to some of these features being criticised by certain Christian groups, particularly protestants, as being ''[[heathen]] [[superstitions]]'', with, for example, the [[Puritans]] banning [[Christmas]] for this reason. It is the contention of the Jesus-as-myth theory that certain of these parallels (such as the date of Christmas, importance of Sunday, and use of the [[labarum]]) are not borrowings, as many historians see them, or co-incidences, as Christian apologists see them, but instead are due to Christianity being just another form of the mystery religions and thus sharing a common source.

The question ultimately comes down to priority - who copied from whom. Although a few modern Christian apologists argue that such parallels as do exist were copied ''by'' the mystery religions ''from'' Christianity, ancient Christian apologists openly acknowledged that the mystery religions had got there first; however, to the early apologists such as Tertullian and [[Justin Martyr]], this wasn't evidence that Christianity was derived from the mystery religions, but that the mystery religions had been an evil-hearted prophecy of Christianity:
:''Having heard it proclaimed through the prophets that the Christ was to come and that the ungodly among men were to be punished by fire, the wicked spirits put forward many to be called Sons of God, under the impression that they would be able to produce in men the idea that the things that were said with regard to Christ were merely marvellous tales'' - Justin Martyr, ''First Apology''

The opponents of early Christianity suggested that Christianity was a result of failure to correctly interpret the mystery religions, and the attempts to circumvent the fact that the beliefs of the mystery religions pre-dated it, by claiming that they were simply prophecies, were cases of simply ignoring the obvious (i.e. ignoring [[Ockham's Razor]]).
[[Celsus]], a second century anti-Christian writer, wrote that Christianity:
:''continues to spread amongst the vulgar, nay one can even say it spreads because of its vulgarity, and the illiteracy of its adherents. And while there are a few moderate, reasonable, and intelligent people who are inclined to interpret its beliefs allegorically, yet it thrives in its purer form among the ignorant''<ref>[[Origen]], ''Contra Celsum'' (Origen was anti-Celsus)</ref>

More recently, advocates of the Jesus-as-myth theory have argued that the ease with which Christianity was abruptly imposed by the [[Theodosian decree]] - the lack of anti-Christian riots, and [[Christianised sites|the smooth change]] of [[mithraeum]]s (and other pre-Christian holy places) into Churches - points to a high degree of similarity between Christianity and its main rival at the time (''Mithras Sol Invictus''). Many historians argue that this similarity was partly due to the influence of [[Constantine I]], life-long chief priest (''pontifex maximus'') of the Sol Invictus religion, and, according to Christian legend, a convert to Christianity on his death-bed; Constantine viewed variety as a dangerous political risk, and spent a great deal of time standardising things, including convening the [[Council of Nicea|First Ecumenical Council]] in order to resolve a dispute within early Christianity over the nature of Jesus. According to Christian apologists, Constantine was secretly a Christian for much longer than his last breath, and his influence was mostly one way, remoulding the religion of Mithras Sol Invictus to closely mirror Christianity. According to advocates of the Jesus-as-myth position, Constantine did very little remoulding, the two religions had always been similar, due to Christianity being based on that of Mithras Sol Invictus; as [[Thomas Paine]] put it:
''The Christian religion is a parody on the worship of the Sun, in which they put a man whom they call Christ in the place of the Sun, and pay him the same adoration which was originally paid to the Sun''.<ref>Thomas Paine, ''[[The Age of Reason]]''</ref>

===Parallels with Astrology===
====The Great Year====
The [[Great Year]] (or [[Astrological Age]]) is measured by the Sun's apparent backward movement or [[precession]] through the [[Zodiac]].<ref>http://www.templeofsolomon.org/Preces.htg/precession.htm</ref> (Note: The [[Gregorian Calendar]] ignores the precession of the equinoxes and determines that the Sun enters the first degree of Aries at every vernal equinox.) The sign which represents the current age is determined by the constellation of the zodiac that the sun actually occupies at the [[vernal equinox]]. The rate at which the Sun progresses through each of these signs is thought to have first been measured by the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]], in the 2nd century BCE. The discovery of the precession of the equinoxes was a revelation that some interpreted as being the act of a powerful new god moving the entire universe.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples">http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/h/helios_christos_the_sun_ferrying_the_archetypal_zodiac_disciples.html</ref>

It [[Discovery of precession#The Mithraic Question|has been proposed]] that the cult of [[Mithraism]] was inspired by Hipparchus' discovery of precession. The centerpiece of this theory is the [[tauroctony]] an image of Mithras sacrificing a bull. According to [[David Ulansey]], the tauroctony is a [[star chart]]. Mithras is the constellation [[Perseus]], and the bull is [[Taurus]], a constellation of the zodiac. In an earlier [[astrological age]], the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in Taurus. The tauroctony, by this reasoning, commemorated Mithras-Perseus ending the "Age of Taurus" about 2000 BCE.

In turn it has been suggested that Christianity was inspired by the dawning of the [[Age of Pisces]], which is symbolized by the fish. The fish has also been used as a symbol used in Christianity. The use of the fish to symbolize Christianity actually predated the use of the [[crucifix]].<ref>http://www.seiyaku.com/customs/fish/fish.html</ref> In Matthew 14:17, Jesus is said to have fed the multitudes with only two fishes. The constellation of [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] is symbolized by two fishes.

This comparison of Jesus' life to the Astrological Ages continues even further, all the way into the age which follows Pisces, the [[Age of Aquarius]]. Chapter 22 of the [[Gospel of Luke]] describe the events which occur prior to Jesus' arrest and subsequent crucifixion. The disciples ask Jesus where they shall meet him to prepare for his final Passover ([[The Last Supper]]). In Luke 22:10 Jesus responds, ''"Behold, when ye are entered into the city, there shall a man meet you, bearing a pitcher of water; follow him into the house where he entereth in."'' Some proponents of the Jesus Myth interpret the "man bearing a pitcher of water" to be a direct reference to the symbol of [[Aquarius]], the water-bearer. And furthermore, Jesus' instructions to his followers that they follow this man "into the '''house''' where he entereth in" seems to strengthen the connection to astrological symbolism. Proponents claim that Jesus is literally stating that at Jesus' last Passover (the end of the [[Age of Pisces]]) that his followers should continue on and follow the man with the water pitcher ([[Aquarius]]) into the “house where he entereth” (the next Astrological Age).<ref name="naked">http://www.truthbeknown.com/naked.htm</ref>

The very last line of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] alludes to this idea that Jesus is the ruler of the [[Age of Pisces]] (and that this reign will eventually end and lead to a "New age") when he states in verse 28:20, ''"I am with you always, even to the end of the age"''. The are several other references to the "end of the age" and the "coming age" spread throughout the gospels — two in ''Mark'', six in ''Matthew'', and three in ''Luke'' (depending on the translation).<ref>http://www.studylight.org/lex/grk/view.cgi?number=165</ref> Some proponents of the Jesus Myth theory interpret these phrases as a reference to various [[Astrological Ages]]. However these passages have traditionally been interpreted as referring to "The end of the world" and the [[Second coming of Christ]].

====Twelve Apostles====
The [[Twelve Apostles]], according to Jesus Myth proponents, represent the twelve signs of the zodiac,<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> although attempts to relate all their names to particular signs have not been very successful.<ref>http://www.atheists.org/christianity/twelve.html</ref>

However, the standard explanation among scholars is that "The Twelve" is not a coincidental name for the number of apostles that were part of Jesus' disciples. According to biblical scholar Dennis C. Duling, "The number twelve symbolizes a new Israel."<ref>Society of Biblical Literature, The Harper Collins Study Bible (Harper Collins Publishing: USA, 1993,) 1874 (cf 10:1.)</ref> Most scholars concur that the [[Twelve Apostles]] represent the new [[twelve tribes of Israel]].<ref>Meeks, Wayne A. "Messianism among Jews and Christians: Twelve Biblical and Historical Studies (review)"
Jewish Quarterly Review - Volume 95, Number 2, Spring 2005, pp. 336-340.</ref> But even if this is the case, the connection to astrology is not completely lost since some scholars believe that the legend of the twelve tribes was originally derived from the twelve signs of the zodiac.<ref>http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/lds/meridian/2005/12sons.html</ref>

====Astrological Houses====
In the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, John 14:2 states, "In my Father's house are many mansions". The proponents of the Jesus myth point out that, taken from a literal interpretation, this makes little sense. How can a house contain many mansions?<ref name="naked"/> They claim that the correct translation should be rendered as "In my father's abode are many houses", which they interpret as being a direct reference to the [[House (astrology)|houses of the zodiac]].<ref name="naked"/>

====Timeline of Jesus' Life====
Jesus in said to have started his ministry at the age of 30, which some have connected to the fact that each sign of the zodiac occupies 30 degrees of the elliptic. Jesus' ministry is said to have lasted for one year, similar to the Sun completing its circuit of the Zodiac in a year. The story of Jesus' life is circular, in that he is said to have been born in a cave, and then is finally laid to rest in a cave.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> This tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is preserved in several of the [[apocryphal]] [[Infancy Gospels]], such as the ''[[Protevangelion of James]]'' and the ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]''. However, neither of the canonical accounts of [[Jesus]]' life mentions him being born in a cave. Matthew says he was born in a house,<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/mt/2.html#11</ref> and Luke claims he was born in a stable<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/lk/2.html#7</ref> (which may or may not have been in a cave). However, near [[Bethlehem]] there are many natural caves. It was easier, safer and more economical to block off a cave’s entrance to shelter animals than to build a freestanding stable. The tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is so strong that in the fourth century, [[Helena of Constantinople|St. Helena]] built the [[Church of the Nativity]] over the cave said to be the birthplace of Jesus.<ref>http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Dec2004/Wiseman.asp</ref>

====Resurrected after three days====
Jesus is said to be resurrected after 3 days in the cave. We celebrate Jesus' birthday on December 25, three days after the Winter Solstice of December 22. The Sun "dies" on December 22, the Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year. As the sun's declination shifts from a southerly direction to a northerly direction at the time of the solstice, it appears to nearly halt completely. Three days after the solstice the Sun rises 1/10 of a degree further North, just barely detectable by observing shadows. It can then be said that the Sun has been resurrected after being "dead" for three days, and has now been reborn to begin the next year.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/>

It should be noted that no early records mention the date of [[Jesus]]' birth and that the date was agreed upon during the third century CE. At the time, it was believed that Jewish prophets lived in a life cycle that began and ended at their death. Because it was believed [[Jesus]] died on March 25th, [[Christians]] asserted this was also the date of [[Jesus]]' conception (see: [[Annunciation]].) They then added nine months to the date of the [[Annunciation]] to determine roughly the day [[Jesus]] was born— December 25th.<ref>[[Christmas#Origin of holiday]]{{citation needed}}</ref>

==Criticism of the theory==
The idea of Jesus as simply a religious [[meme]] based on non-Abrahamic myths has received strong criticism from biblical scholars and historians. The points below highlight some of these criticisms, but to what degree the dispute is grounded in historical accuracy versus Christian apologetics is unclear.

*The majority of [[scholarship]], including historians, believes there was a [[historical Jesus]]<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005.htm</ref><ref>http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html</ref> The reason scholars give is that for an ancient person and event, there are a relative plethora (by ancient historical standards) of sources from the same century. According to [[JP Holding]], "Support for the "Jesus-myth" comes not from historians, but usually from writers operating far out of their field."<ref>http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html]</ref>
*Most scholars, such as [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], do not see significant similarity between the pagan myths and Christianity. Grant states in ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/origins.html</ref>
*Parallels between [[Christianity]] and [[Mystery Religions]] are not considered compelling evidence by most scholarship. According to a [[Christian]] apologist, Michael Licona, has summed up the viewpoint of this era's historiography:
:: Most scholars have abandoned the ''religionsgeschichtliche'' or what was known as the “history of religions” school that regarded parallels as conclusive signs that Christianity was cut from the same cloth as ancient myth. Further research has revealed that many of the parallels to which they refer postdate the Gospels.<ref> http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*[[Celsus]], a second century critic of [[Christianity]], accused [[Jesus]] of being a bastard child and a sorcerer. He never questions Jesus' historicity even though he hated [[Christianity]] and [[Jesus]].<ref>Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician: Charlatan or Son of God? (1978) pp. 78-79.</ref> He is quoted as saying that Jesus was a "mere man."<ref>http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu/Ap0301/CELSUS.htm</ref> Furthermore, there is debate whether [[Suetonius]], who wrote in the second century, made reference to [[Christianity]] existing in 41 CE, though the majority of scholars believe that the reference cannot be interpreted in this fashion.<ref>http://www.mystae.com/restricted/reflections/messiah/sources.htm</ref> Lastly, there are passages of debatable significance from the historian [[Tacitus]] and satirist [[Lucian of Samosata]], which credit "Christ" as the founder of [[Christianity]].<ref>Ibid.  For scholarly discussion, refer to source.</ref>
*Proponents of the Jesus Myth disagree with the notion that the [[Apostle Paul]] did speak of [[Jesus]] as a physical being. This is largely an [[argument from silence]]. Furthermore, it is slightly a distortion, because the Apostle Paul contradicts this viewpoint. He claims that Jesus "descended from David according to the flesh",<ref>Romans 1:3</ref> took "the form of a slave, being born in human likeness, And being found in human form,".<ref>Philippians 2:7.</ref> Paul also states that " God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law."<ref>Galatians 4:4.</ref> and "the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being."<ref>1 Corinthians 15:21.</ref> Furthermore, he invokes the "command," "charge," or "word" of [[Jesus]] four times<ref>Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10 and 9:14, and 1 Thessalonians 4:15.</ref> in the [[Epistles]]. Scholars believe that the [[apostle Paul]] did not quote [[Jesus]] more often, because he took for granted that [[Christians]] knew what [[Jesus]] said. Jesus Myth proponents believe this is a weak [[argument from silence]].
*The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] is debatably an early source, which some, but not all, scholars put before 70 CE. Their reasoning is that the [[Epistle]] makes mention of [[animal sacrifice]], which was a practice that fell out of favor in [[Judaism]] after the destruction of the temple. In Hebrews, Jesus is mentioned several times in physical form<ref>Hebrews 5:7, 7:14, and 12:3.</ref> and even speaks.<ref>Hebrews 10:5-9.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Jesus and history]]
*[[Historicity of Jesus]]
*[[John of Gamala]]
*[[Jus Asaf]]
*[[Radical Criticism]]
*[[life-death-rebirth deity]]
*[[Harrowing of Hell]]
*[[The God Who Wasn%27t There]]

==References==
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1970. ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross''. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-12875-5
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1992. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''. Prometheus Books; 2nd revised edition. ISBN 0-87975-757-4
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''The Roman Origins of Christianity.''
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''Caesar's Messiah.''
* Brodie, Thomas L. 2000. ''The Crucial Bridge: the Elijah-Elisha Narrative as an interpretive synthesis of Genesis-Kings and a literary model for the Gospels''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.
* [[Earl Doherty|Doherty, E.]],''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]'' ([[1999]]; revised edition [[2000]]) ISBN 0-9686014-0-5
* Ellegard, Alvar. 1999. ''Jesus: One Hundred Years Before Christ.'' London: Century.
* France, R. T. ''The Evidence for Jesus.''
* Freke, T. and Gandy, P. ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'', by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]], ISBN 0-609-80798-6
*McDowell, Josh & Wilson, Bill. ''He Walked Among Us, Evidence for the Historical Jesus.'' San Bernardino, CA, Here’s Life Publishers, Inc. 1988, ISBN 0-89840-230-1
* [[John P. Meier|Meier, John P.]], ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'', New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
: v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
: v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2004. New Testament Narrative as Old Testament Midrash. In Neusner, J., Avery-Peck, A., eds. ''The Encyclopedia of Midrash: Biblical Interpretation of Formative Judaism.''
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2003. ''The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2000. ''Deconstructing Jesus.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* Sanders, E. P. 1995. ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' Penguin.
* Sherwin-White, A. N. 1963. ''Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament.'' Oxford.
* Theissen, G., and Merz, A. 1998. ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide.'' Minneapolis: Fortress
* Thompson, Thomas L. 2005. ''The Messiah Myth.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Van Voorst, Robert E. 2000. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
* Wells, G. A. 1999. ''The Jesus Myth.'' Peru, IL: Open Court (Carus Publishing)
* Wells, G. A. ''The Historical Evidence for Jesus.''
* Whealey, Alice. 2003. ''Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times''. Peter Lang Publishing.
* G.L. Borchert, "Docetism" in ''Elwell Evangelical Dictionary''; ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]'', 1909/2003; D.C. Duling & N. Perrin, ''The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History'', 1993; "Docetism", ''[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754 Encyclopædia Britannica]'', 2006; J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines''. [http://www.ccel.org/bible/phillips/CPn24John2.htm "Book 24 - John's Second Letter". J.B.Phillips, "The New Testament in Modern English", 1962 edition].

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==External links==
===Supporting a Jesus-Myth theory===

* [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/home.htm Earl Doherty's Website]
* [http://www.medmalexperts.com/POCM/index.html POCM: Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth]
* [http://www.truthbeknown.com/origins.htm "The Origins of Christianity and Search for the Historical Jesus Christ"] by [[Acharya S]]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/earliest.html "Earliest Christianity"] by G.A. Wells
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/jesuspuzzle.shtml "Did Jesus Exist? Earl Doherty and the Argument to Ahistoricity"] by Richard Carrier
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/ Jesus never existed] by Kenneth Humphreys
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_wheless/forgery_in_christianity/ Forgery In Christianity (1930)] by Joseph Wheless
* [http://www.geocities.com/inquisitive79/refute.html "Refuting Missionaries"] by Hayyim ben Yehoshua
* [http://www.christianism.com/ Jesus (was) is a Fictional character (not "historical")] Rt. Rev. Lino Sanchez
* [http://www.egodeath.com/#_The_Non-Historicity_of The Non-Historicity of Jesus] Michael Hoffman
* [http://www.radikalkritik.de/ Hermann Detering's RadikalKritik] (partially in German)
* [http://www.ffrf.org/news/2006/debunkingJesus.php Debunking the Historical Jesus] by Dan Barker
* [http://www.ffrf.org/about/bybarker/rise.php Did Jesus Really Rise From The Dead?] by Dan Barker - Why the Jesus Myth is respectful of the first Christians.
* [http://www.vexen.co.uk/books/jesusmysteries.html "The Jesus Mysteries"] by Freke/Gandy
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/news/09/21/jesus.mysteries/index.html CNN interview] Freke and Gandy on "The Jesus Mysteries"
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/beginnings/09/21/excerpt.jesus.mysteries/index.html "The Jesus Mysteries" - book summary/excerpt]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/jesus_myth.htm Debunking the "Da Vinci Code" Debunkers and the Jesus Myth] Overview of the case against a historical Jesus, including many pictures
*[http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0660MysteryReligions.html Christian Objections] Similarity of Christian myths to Pagan religions
*[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dp5/christian.htm Origins of Christianity] Reinventing the pagan godman
*[http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/jesus_similar.html Wilson's Almanac] Comparison of Pagan Gods to Jesus Myth

===Supporting a historical Jesus===
* [http://www.geocities.com/nephilimnot/historical_jesus_christ.html Historical Jesus A logical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was a Guerilla chieftain opposed to Rome.
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/ Jesus, a historical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was not divine, very minimal, and accidentally sparked the development (by others) of Christianity.

===Critical of the Jesus-Myth theory===
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/price8.htm "A History of Scholarly Refutations of the Jesus Myth"] by Christopher Price (A Christian apologetic website)
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/jesusindex.htm "Did Jesus Exist"] a page devoted to the issues raised by the Jesus Myth
* [http://tektonics.org/copycat/osy.html Walk Like an Egyptian] A comparison of Osiris, Horus, and Jesus.
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/copycat.html Was Jesus Christ just a CopyCat Savior Myth?] Examines in detail the claims of Jesus being copied from characters of other religions (Osiris, Horus, Mithra, Dionysus, and numerous others) also briefly explains the criteria professional scholars use to determine if copying took place
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html "Shattering the Jesus Myth"] by J.P. Holding
* [http://www.answeringinfidels.com/content/category/5/73/49/ "Answering Acharya S"] by Mike Licona
** [http://truthbeknown.com/licona.htm Acharya rebuttal to Licona]
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/djp1.html Critique of Two Major Points of The Jesus Puzzle] by Bernard D. Muller - Against the crucifixion in heaven and Jesus as not an earthly human.

[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Biblical criticism]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]

[[fr:Thèse mythiste (Jésus non historique)]]
[[it:Mito di Gesù]]
[[sv:Jesusmyten]]
[[zh:虚构的耶稣]]

Jesus-Mythos

2006-10-31T17:47:58Z

165.29.244.6: /* Gnostic themes */

{{not verified}}

{{jesus}}
:''This article is part of the [[Jesus and history]] series of articles.
'''Jesus as myth''' or '''The Jesus Myth''' is a collection of ideas that have in common the central theme that elements of beliefs about [[Jesus]], and the Jesus narrative in the New Testament, are actually [[syncretism]]s from older myths. It is usually associated with a [[Religious skepticism|skeptical]] position on the existence of Jesus as [[historicity of Jesus|an actual historical figure]].

The theory is based on apparent similarities between early Christian accounts of Jesus and pre-existing [[mystery religion]]s, and at the more extreme limit of the theory is also based in part on the lack of extant evidence about his life outside the [[Gospels]] in the view of the holders of the theory. The extreme limit of the theory has not found widespread acceptance among Bible scholars and historians.<ref name=opponents>[[Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels''; [[Rudolf Bultmann]], ''Jesus and the Word''; Robert Van Voorst, ''Jesus Outside the Gospels'', and Graham Stanton, ''The Gospels and Jesus''.</ref>

The debate over the truth of Jesus' existence requires academic analysis of the available evidence from times near-contemporary with the dates for Jesus' life, and it depends on the reliability and biases of such evidence. It includes the use of [[historiography]], [[philology]], and to an extent [[hermeneutics]] as tools for analyzing the evidence. The relevant evidence itself can be broken down into Christian and non-Christian texts; the only surviving Christian texts close enough to the era being the books within the New Testament itself. The earliest part of the New Testament, and thus the most important to answer the question, are the [[Pauline Epistles]], though as these contain very little actual narrative concerning Jesus. It is important to note that the majority of scholars believe that Paul has quoted Jesus several times<ref>Society of Biblical Studies, The Harper Collins NRSV Study Bible, San Francsco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1989, 2141, see Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10, and 1 Corinthians 9:14</ref> and if the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] was made before the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], it too has several passages where Jesus struggles with opposition and speaks.<ref>http://www.abu.nb.ca/courses/NTIntro/Heb.htm. See Hebrews 10:5-9 for Jesus' vocal ministry, and Hebrews 5:7 and Hebrews 12:3 for descriptions of hostility towards Jesus.</ref> The later accounts in the Gospels are also of significance. The purpose of this article is not to provide said academic analysis, but rather to provide an account of research that has been performed into the subject thus far.

==History of the theory==

Some have suggested that the idea dates to New Testament times, citing {{bibleverse|2|John|1:7|}}'s "many deceivers [who] are entered into the world, who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh." Some scholars studying this period believe that these early quotes refer to [[docetism]], the belief that Jesus appeared to people but lacked a genuinely physical body, rather than a belief that Jesus was a completely fabricated figure.

The first modern, published proponent of this theory was probably [[19th century|nineteenth century]] [[historian]] [[Bruno Bauer]], a [[Hegelian]] thinker who argued that the true founder of [[Christianity]] was the Alexandrian [[Jew]] [[Philo]], who had adapted Judaic ideas to Hellenic philosophy. His arguments made little impact at the time. Other authors included [[Edwin Johnson (historian)|Edwin Johnson]], who argued that Christianity emerged from a combination of liberal trends in Judaism with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] [[mysticism]]. Less speculative versions of the theory developed under writers such as A.D. Loman and [[Gerardus Johannes Petrus Josephus Bolland|G.J.P.J. Bolland]]. Loman argued that episodes in Jesus's life, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]], were in reality fictions to justify compilations of pre-existing liberal Jewish sayings. Bolland developed the theory that Christianity developed from Gnosticism and that "Jesus" was a symbolic figure representing Gnostic ideas about godhood.

Jesus-Myth theories often draw on nineteenth century scholarship on the formation of myth, in the work of writers such as [[Max Müller]] and [[James Frazer]]. Müller argued that religions originated in mythic stories of the birth, death and rebirth of the sun. Frazer further attempted to explain the origins of humanity's beliefs in the idea of a "sacrificial king", associated with the sun, vegetation, or a "year-daemon" as a dying and reviving god. According to his major book on the subject, ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', the king's death and rebirth was connected to the regeneration of the earth in springtime and was often required for the continuity of a ritual-based community. A critic of the religious beliefs of his contemporaries, Frazer wrote ''The Golden Bough'' partly to discredit Christianity by illustrating its similarity to the beliefs and rituals of other cultures.<ref>[[Ronald Hutton]], ''Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'' (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 113-117.</ref>

By the early [[20th century|twentieth century]] a number of writers had published arguments in favor of the Jesus-Myth theory. These treatments were sufficiently influential to merit several book-length responses by traditional historians and [[New Testament]] [[scholars]]. The most influential of the books arguing for a mythic Jesus was [[Arthur Drews]]'s ''The Christ-Myth'' (1909) which argued that Christianity had been a Jewish Gnostic cult that spread by appropriating aspects of Greek philosophy and Frazerian death-rebirth deities. This combination of arguments became the standard form of the mythic Christ theory.

While aspects of the theory were influential, mainstream scholars at the time rejected the notion. Because much of Frazer's work has since been discredited, and the priority of Gnosticism seriously questioned, the Jesus-Myth theory has dwindled in importance.{{citationneeded}} Mainstream late twentieth century scholars, such as theologian and historian [[John P. Meier]] and the author and theologian [[A.N Wilson]], have evaluated the historical evidence for many individual details of Jesus' biography and teachings, separating the probable and the plausible from the demonstrably mythical. The evidence seems quite strong for the existence of a historical person corresponding to the Jesus of the gospels, but few facts about him are better attested by Meier's criteria than certain miracle stories. This may perhaps be taken as commentary on the reliability of recorded history at two thousand years' remove.

In recent years, the Jesus-Myth has had few proponents in academia but has been advanced by [[William B. Smith]], [[George Albert Wells]] (''The Jesus Legend'' and ''The Jesus Myth''), and [[John Marco Allegro]] (''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' and ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''), as well as by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]] (co-authors of ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'' and ''Jesus and the Lost Goddess''), and [[Earl Doherty]] (author of ''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]''), and Larry Wright, author of ''Christianity, Astrology & Myth''.

== Influences on the earliest Christianity ==

According to the traditional Christian intepretation of Christianity's beginnings, the [[Early Christianity|earliest Christian Church]] developed directly from the ministry of Jesus and his Twelve Apostles, without much in the way of external influences. Evangelical Christians also believe that the New Testament is an accurate historic record of Jesus. More critical and secular approaches argue that the earliest Christianity did not develop in a religious vacuum, but in the cosmopolitan and multi-religious world of hellenised Judea under the Roman Empire. Consequently critical approaches, including those associated with the theory of Jesus as myth, argue that it remains plausible for early Christianity to have developed under the influence of external religions, and that it would be unusual for the New Testament narratives to have not even been remotely touched by such a cosmopolitan background.

===The influence of the Old Testament===

It is widely accepted that the Gospel accounts were influenced by the Old Testament. In particular, many quotations attributed to the [[Q document]], which the Gospels attribute to Jesus{{cite needed}}, find parallels in several places of the Old Testament. Some scholars believe that certain elements of the gospels are not history but a type of [[midrash]]{{cite needed}}, creative narratives based on the stories, prophecies, and quotes in the Hebrew Bible.

The Gospel of Matthew is widely considered the most "Jewish" of the canonical Gospels, and in the small amount of material unique to the Gospel of Matthew (i.e. not mentioned by the other canonical Gospels), Jesus is presented in a way that often has strong parallels with significant Old Testament figures. Most noticeable are the similarities with [[Moses]], whose birth narrative and sojourn in the wilderness as a youth are alleged by textual critics to have been the basis from which Matthew derived its account of the [[nativity of Jesus]], rather than Matthew basing it on the actual events of the birth of Jesus.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/partthre.htm</ref>

Though conceding that the gospels may contain some creativity and midrash, scholarly opponents of the Jesus-as-myth stance argue that the gospels are more akin to ancient Graeco-Roman biographies. Although scholars do not agree on the exact nature of this genre, associated works attempted to impart historical information about historical figures, but were not comprehensive and could include legendary developments. Nevertheless, as ancient biographies, proponents of Jesus' existence believe they contain sufficient historical information to establish his historicity.

Although there are many types of midrash, the [[Toledot Yeshu]] jumps out as being the most similar to the proposal that characters and situations were invented wholesale according to religious dogma and Old Testament prophecy. However, those opposed to the existence of such strong Old Testament influences have argued that the closest parallels, to potential Moses-based embellishment of the Jesus narrative, are inapplicable. Although agreeing that there are many examples of ancient Jewish and Christian literature that shaped their stories and accounts according to Old Testament influence, such opponents argue that even under this influence there is nevertheless often some accurate historical information at the core;<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price6.htm</ref> for example, in [[1 Maccabees]], Judas and his battles are described in terms which parallel those of Saul's and David's battles against the Philistines in [[Books of Samuel|1 and 2 Samuel]], but nevertheless 1 Maccabees has a degree of respect amongst historians as having a reasonable degree of historical reliability.<ref>John R. Bartlett, ''The First and Second Books of Maccabees'', p. 15-17</ref>

===Gnostic themes===

Although there are occasional references in the [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|''disputed'' group of Pauline Epistles]] to a flesh-and-blood Jesus, the ''undisputed epistles'' contain only limited mention of Jesus as a historic figure. Even though Paul's letters are widely regarded as the earliest Christian documents, they contain very few references to Jesus' actual life and ministry, which only appear in detail in the later Gospels. Christian apologists claim that Paul's letters were written in response to specific problems unrelated to the details of the life of Jesus, and so the occasional and epistolary nature of Paul's correspondence are sufficient explanations for the lack of detail of Jesus' life. However, proponents of the theory that Jesus has a basis in myth counter that there are an abundance of missed rhetorical opportunities in his epistles to reinforce points by quoting statements that the Gospels later claim that Jesus said, or citing events in his life mentioned later by the Gospels that were directly relevant to the topics Paul was discussing, and presumably must have been known about in the period between the events happening and the Gospels being written.

Several commentators, from writers whose theories have not received widespread acceptance, such as [[Earl Doherty]], to widely respected academics and experts in the field, such as Harvard professor [[Elaine Pagels]], have argued that the Pauline epistles, or at least the genuine ones, should be interpreted as [[gnosticism]]. Christianity arose under a heavy Hellenic culture, Paul himself growing up in [[Tarsus]], the center of one of the major [[mystery religion]]s of the time, and Pagels and Doherty (and others) believe that Paul's writing should be viewed in the context of the Hellenic culture which formed his background. One consequence of [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|parts of the New Testament being written as Gnostic documents]] is that the narratives involved would not have been intended as descriptions of historic events but as non-historic [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]].

Gnosticism, an umbrella term for a diverse set of groups within early Christianity (that were ultimately suppressed), frequently used allegory and metaphor to guide its initiates towards an [[esoteric]] ''salvation'', which Gnosticism viewed as a form of knowledge (''[[gnosis]]''), not unlike [[Bodhi|Buddhist enlightenment]]. Many of the most prominent strands of Gnosticism interpreted the Gospels as Gnostic documents, and their narratives as allegorical rather than historic, often drawing profound meaning from the events in Jesus' life. Many Gnostic groups even regarded Jesus himself as an allegory, rather than historic, and [[docetism]] was rife in Gnostic groups. Thus whether or not parts of the New Testament were written as Gnostic documents, is a matter of substantial impact on the question of the [[historicity of Jesus]], and on what elements can be considered to be based on a historic figure.

How much influence gnosticism had on Christianity, and how much Christianity originated in gnosticism, are thus questions which have historically been quite volatile. Advocates of a position arguing that many elements of Jesus are derived from myth hold<ref>http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/marshall_gauvin/did_jesus_really_live.html</ref> that those references in the undisputed epistles that appear to refer to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should instead be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp08.htm</ref> Their opponents, often but not always conservative Christians, regard such interpretations, of for example {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:19}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:16|}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|4:4|}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|1:3|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|3:1|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|15:8|}}, and {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23-25|}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:4|}}, as based on forced and erroneous translations.<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price7.htm</ref>

===Parallels with Mediterranean mystery religions and other non-Abrahamic sources===
The question of what connection Christianity has to Mediterranean [[mystery religion]]s has been a controversy since the early centuries of Christianity. Although such questions subsided and were suppressed as the power of the Church grew, they have returned as the knowledge about the mystery religions was rediscovered. Whether this connection exists, and who copied whom, is at the core of the question of Jesus as myth.

Most of the mystery religions of the Mediterranean in the time of early Christianity were centred on a single divine figure (in the case of [[Orphism (religion)|Orphism]], the central figure is essentially an avatar of his own master, [[Dionysus]]), who had in most cases originally been a minor deity, whose mythology contained a narrative involving the deities death. In several cases, the original mythology seems to have been completely hijacked and abruptly altered, often bearing very little relation to the original myth; this is particularly noticeable in the way that [[Mithra]] somehow became [[Mithras]]. A number of the Mediterranean mystery religions of the period contain several similarities to each other, such as a prominent [[Life-death-rebirth deity|life-death-rebirth narrative]], and the central ''deity'' being semi-human; this group (including the religions of [[Legend of Osiris and Isis|Osiris-Horus]], [[Dionysus]], [[Mithras]], [[Aion (deity)|Aion]], [[Adonis]], and [[Attis]]) were identified as connected in early times, and as a group were named [[Osiris-Dionysus]] after the two earliest groups.

Modern scholars have argued that most of these Osiris-Dionysus religions evolved when earlier Osiris-Dionysus religions spread into a new region and localised themselves by hijacking convenient local deities; this is most evident in how [[Sabazios]], originally a [[Phrygia]]n deity, became another name for Dionysus, it is also evident in how [[Orphicism]] developed with the central figure of [[Orpheus]], supposedly a priest of Dionysus, but essentially Dionysus himself. Most scholars that have an opinion on the matter argue that the earliest form of this religion was the Osiris-Horus form of ancient Egyptian religions, and that the others developed from there, having been transferred by merchants. Notably, although a form of Osiris-Dionysus was present in most nations around the Mediterranean, particularly in the east, at first glance no such form appears to have existed in Roman Palestine. A central contention of the Jesus-as-myth argument is that Jesus, or at least much of the Gospel narrative about him, and early Christian tradition concerning him, is the form of Osiris-Dionysus localised for Roman Palestine.

====Pythagorean elements====

Enough has survived from the comments of their enemies (for example, [[Origen]] and [[Irenaeus]]), and a few relics of their own, for scholars to be fairly certain that many of the mystery religions were, at least by the first century, [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreanist]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonic]] reinterpretations of earlier myths; i.e. earlier myths became, in the mystery religions, [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]], concerning universal truths, rather than something considered literally true. Exactly what connection exists between Gnosticism and the Mediterranean mystery religions is an unsolved question, but it is certain that they would have shared considerably similar teaching methods, [[soteriology]], and [[mysticism]]. Thus to approach the question of whether Christianity borrowed from mystery religions (and vice versa), comparisons should be made not only between early Christianity and Mediterranean myths, but also between early Christianity and Pythagoreanism.

Aside from potential parallels with Gnosticism, which can be investigated more directly, other significant features of Pythagoreanism might have entered into early Christianity, and their presence would add support to a position advocating that significant parts of early Christianity, or all of it, derived from mystery religion. Pythagoreans were [[vegetarian]], so much so that until the 18th century all vegetarians were not called ''vegetarian'' but ''Pythagorean''. Many scholars and theologians believe that the earliest Christians were vegetarian, as the [[Desert Fathers]] almost definitely were, and some significant early Christian groups even had versions of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] that clearly point to Jesus being vegetarian - the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] differs from the now traditional version of Matthew in places referring to meat by using similarly spelt vegetarian friendly terms; there is no academic consensus as to which version has the more original wording. As the canonical New Testament seems to argue that vegetarianism is a personal choice, and many early Christian writers also stated that it was, the early Christians would seem to have taken this position without a New Testament based theological motivation for doing so. Modern [[Christian vegetarianism]] argues that passages from the Old Testament and [[Book of Enoch]] assert that vegetarianism was God's ideal, but there is no evidence either for or against the idea that early Christians used the same argument, and there is the alternative possibility that early Christian vegetarianism originated due to the influence of Pythagoreanism.

Pythagoreanism also saw deep value in [[mathematics]]; [[geometry]] was seen as having a high spiritual significance in and of itself, as well as being a mechanism to encode mystical teachings. The [[Feeding the multitude|Feeding of the 5000 and of the 4000]] have long been thought to encode some deeper meaning; more mainstream interpretations regard the numbers involved as references to the Torah ''feeding'' the Jews and Jesus' ministry ''feeding'' the Gentiles, but it has also been argued that they encode instructions for a mystical diagram. The use of numbers as cryptic references to deeper teaching could be argued to demonstrate Pythagorean influence in and of itself, but the encrypted presence of mystical diagrams would be a much stronger argument in favour of the existence of such influence. The [[Catch of 153 fish]] is one of the most notable situations where a diagram can be derived from the text following basic consistent rules; using the [[Isopsephia]] of the text to dictate sizes, the account of the event can be described geometrically - the resulting diagram not only describes the event, but simultaneously has another, more mystical, interpretation as described in [[Plato]]'s [[Timaeus]]. 153 itself is a significant number in Pythagoreanism, and had a strong connection to fish, as it was one part of the '''measure of the fish'' - a reference to the [[Vesica Piscis]] (whose name means ''flesh of the fish'') and the [[square root]] of 3.

====Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century====

Parallels between Jesus and the various religions of the Osiris-Dionysus group are a popular topic for internet sites sceptical of Christianity. A more constrained set of parallels have also been proposed by various scholars advocating the Jesus-as-myth theory. The most powerful groups in early Christianity were the Christians centred in Alexandria (in Egypt) and those in Rome, and so the form of Osiris-Dionysus at these two locations could reasonably be expected to have had the greatest influence. In Alexandria it was Osiris-Horus, a partial merging of the identities of [[Osiris]] and [[Horus]] (usually seen as fairly separate in more traditional [[ancient Egyptian religion]]); Osiris dying and being resurrected as Horus. In Rome, it was originally [[Dionysus]], but by the third century the state religion was that of [[Sol Invictus]], originally just a standard [[Solar Deity]], but by then had formed a [[syncretism]] with [[Mithraism]], which also continued to exist separately among males in the military of the Roman Empire.

[[Image:LuxorAmenhetep.gif|frame|none|According to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]s, this image of Horus' nativity depicts annunciation (frame 1), impregnation by the holy spirit (frame 2), and the birth and receipt of gifts from 3 visitors (frame 3)]]
The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Osiris-Horus are mostly centred around the earlier part of Jesus' life:
*[[Christ]] as a title - when treated as a partial merge of Osiris and Horus, Osiris-Horus was sometimes referred to as ''the embalmed Horus'', describing Horus taking the place of Osiris in the death parts of the narrative. ''The embalmed Horus'' was written in Egyptian as HR KRST (probably pronounced ''har karast''), and although ''Christ'' has a highly plausible [[etymology]] making it a cognate with [[Chrism]] (''ointment''), as a Greek attempt at translating the Hebrew term ''[[Messiah]]'', a number of advocates of the Jesus as myth theory, including [[theology]] professor [[Tom Harpur]], argue that this was just a happy co-incidence, and the term is actually derived from the ''Karast'' title of Horus. Use of this title, rather than directly copying any of the other titles of Horus, is argued by advocates of the Jesus myth, to be due to the convenient implications of its [[false cognate]] ''Chrism''. If this is true, rather than ''covered in ointment'', i.e. ''anointed'', the literal meaning of ''Christ'' would really be ''covered in balm'', i.e. ''embalmed''.
*Parentage
**By the first century the identity of Osiris had absorbed that of [[Ptah]] (with early stages of this absorption being known as ''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''), the great creator deity. In traditional Egyptian religion Osiris had become seen as the father of Horus, and hence Horus was the son of the creator deity, like Jesus was seen as son of [[God the Father]].
**By the first century Isis was seen as the mother of Horus. She was traditionally known as ''Meri'', meaning ''beloved'', which is phonetically near-identical to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|''Mary'', the name of the mother of Jesus]], and was the most common recipient of the [[epithet]] - if ''Meri'' was used without a particular deity being mentioned it usually referred to Isis.
**Pharaohs sometimes portrayed themselves or their children as an incarnation of Horus. The mother involved was usually referred to as ''Meri'' (i.e. ''beloved''), and was human, hence giving a semi-human incarnation of Horus a human mother called ''Meri''.
*The [[Nativity of Jesus]] - some of the more detailed versions of the birth of Horus have been argued to parallel the Nativity of Jesus, namely the versions of Horus' birth that derive from when Horus' mother was said to be [[Neith]] (whose identity later became absorbed into that of Isis). This is most obvious in a set of pre-Christian carvings from a temple in [[Luxor]] portraying [[Akhenaten]] as an incarnation of Horus, according to which:
**The future birth of ''Horus'' was announced in advance (an ''[[annunciation]]'') by [[Thoth]], whom the Greeks identified as [[Hermes]] and was in the first century seen as the messenger of the Gods, a role taken by the [[Archangel Gabriel]] in Jewish thought.
**The mother became pregnant by virtue of the ''breath of life'' being sent into her. The ''breath of life'' in question was [[Kneph]], a concept depicted [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]] (like Mediaeval depictions of death) rather than a deity, which [[Plutarch]] states had the same meaning to the Egyptians as ''[[Pneuma]]'' had to the Greeks. ''Pneuma'' translates as ''spirit'', so one can argue that the mother is being depicted as becoming pregnant by the ''holy spirit'', which Christians usually argue is how Mary became pregnant.
**The mother became pregnant while remaining a virgin (particularly as Neith was believed to have given birth to the first males, and hence existing before them). The doctrine of [[Virgin Birth]] is prominent in early Christianity.
**The mother is human (at least in the Luxor carving)
**There is a star which signifies his birth. In the Jesus narrative this is the [[Star of Bethlehem]], which isn't identified very clearly and there is much debate as to what it was meant to refer to though Christian interpreters have viewed it within the context of the Old Testament prophecy in Numbers 24:17, with perceived messianic allusions: "I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near. A ''star'' will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel." In the Osiris-Horus narrative this is [[Sothis]], a not-completely identified star generally thought to be the same as [[Sirius]]. Sirius gained its importance in relation to Osiris-Hours as its first appearance each year coincides with the date of the annual [[Nile]] flooding. Sirius reaches its highest [[Zenith]] on January 6th, the day that some ancient Christian traditions (including modern [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches) believe Jesus was born.
**Three visitors aim for a star, indicating where the birth is, and after the birth the three visitors each give gifts; in the Jesus narrative there are three gifts and an unidentified number of visitors ([[Biblical Magi|who are Magi]]), the number of visitors simply being a very long-standing tradition; in the Osiris-Horus narrative the three visitors are anthropomorphisms of the three stars in the ''belt'' of [[Orion (constellation)|the constellation Orion]], which point directly towards Sirius,<ref>http://www.usbible.com/Astrology/gospel_zodiac.htm</ref> and were named ''Mintaka'', ''Anilam'', and ''Alnitak'' (more accurately, [[consonant]]-only records name them as ''MNTK'', ''ANLM'' and ''ALNTK'', and [[Egyptologists]] estimate the full spelling).
**Being placed in a manger - according to {{bibleverse||luke|2:7}} Jesus rested in a manger shortly after his birth. Horus was also said to have been placed in a manger as a baby, though in earlier times the feature had been attributed to [[Ra]] instead, having transferred to Horus when the identities of Horus and Ra merged as ''Ra-harakhty''; the belief originated due to the Egyptian word for ''manger'', ''Apta'', being a [[homonym]] for the Egyptian word for ''mountain peak'', a location that Ra, as a [[solar deity]], was considered to have been born at. The Egyptian belief concerning Horus/Ra's birth in a manger was so prominent that mangers were for a time annually paraded around the streets in a festival celebrating the Sun.<ref>H. P. Blavatsky: ''Collected Writings''</ref>
*Birth town - Horus was, by the first century, considered to have been born at [[Heliopolis]], the main centre of his cult. Heliopolis had been the Egyptian capital and winter grain store, and hence was regarded as the ''house of bread'' (several copies of the [[Book of the dead]] refer to it by this name). In Hebrew, ''house of bread'' is ''[[Bethlehem]]'', the same name as the town that Jesus was said to have been born in. The narratives explaining why Jesus came to be born in Bethlehem, but didn't grow up there are often regarded by critical scholars as peculiarly contrived (and don't seem to agree), suggesting non-historicity, particularly as a number of archaeologists think that the Palestinian Bethlehem didn't even exist during the first century. Christian interpreters see it rather within the context of what they perceive as a messianic prophecy drawn from the Old Testament: "But you, ''Bethlehem'' Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." Micah 5:2
*The feeding of the multitude - a similar narrative is told of Horus in some versions of the [[Book of the Dead]], as Horus was the patron deity of [[Heliopolis]], at one point the Egyptian capital, and hence grain store, the source of bread in winter and poor harvests.
*The [[raising of Lazarus]] - many versions of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] see Horus as having raised Osiris from the dead. However, Elijah raised a child from the dead according to an account in [[Kings]], so such an event also had origins in Judaism.<ref>Kings 17:17-24</ref>
**In Egyptian Osiris was named A-S-R (as a [[consonantal language]], [[vowel]]s were not written down), thought to be pronounced ''Aser'' or ''Asar'' (''Osiris'' is the Greek version of the name), and by merely adding Hebrew [[theophory]] to convert it to a normal Hebrew name, and adding a standard Greek suffix to then convert it to the [[Koine Greek]] of the New Testament, one arrives at ''Elazaros''; by a standard [[Elision]] this turns into ''Lazaros'' (''Lazarus'' is how this was translated into [[Latin]] for the [[Vulgate]], on which early English translations were based)
**The location of the resurrection of Osiris is Heliopolis (a Greek name), which the Egyptians called ''Annu'' (and the [[Hebrew Bible]] refers to as ''On''). Treating Annu as a proper name, and regarding ''house of Annu'' as the place, this becomes ''BethAnnu'' in Hebrew. This is phonetically near-identical to ''Bethany'' in first century Hebrew (''u'' and ''y'' being difficult to distinguish, in the same way as modern Japanese speakers find ''r'' and ''l'' difficult to distinguish), which is where Jesus is said to have raised Lazarus.
*The divine opponent - the similarity in name between ''[[Satan]]'', the adversary of Jesus in [[Temptation of Jesus|the narrative of his temptation]], and ''[[Set (god)|Set]]'', the adversary of [[Horus]], has not been lost on advocates of the Jesus as myth position. Among the narratives describing the contest between Horus and Set for the crown of all Egypt (thought to be based on the historic rivalry between [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] and [[Lower Egypt]]) are a number of narratives in which Set tempts Horus to renounce his claim in return for various gifts. Although conservative Christians and Jews argue that Judaism, and hence the idea of Satan, developed completely independently of Egyptian religion, the fact that the ancient Egyptian Empire extended into the Levant during the [[New Kingdom]] has lead a number of scholars to argue that a total lack of influence on Judaism from the Egyptian religion is implausible.

The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Dionysus are, conversely, centred on later aspects of Jesus' life:
*The [[Marriage at Cana]], during which the New Testament states that Jesus turned water into wine, is similar to a narrative concerning Dionysus, who was originally the god of wine. In the pre-Christian Dionysus version, priests attending to a wedding at which Dionysus is present bring vessels of water to a building, which is then sealed, and when later reopened the water has been turned to wine. As the earliest surviving record of this ''miracle'' of Dionysus is from the late first century writings of Tatius, Christian apologists have argued that it was copied from Jesus' actions. However, as Jesus' ''miracle'' is only reported by the Gospel of John, which is dated by most scholars to 95-115 AD, advocates of the Jesus myth counter that the earliest surviving evidence, of a water into wine at a wedding miracle, concerns Dionysus not Jesus.<ref>Bowersock [Bow.FH, 125-8]; [[Morton Smith]]</ref> In the case of Dionysus it is his own marriage to [[Ariadne]], which differs from the traditional explanation of Jesus simply being a guest at the Cana wedding, though a minority of modern scholars (and a few notable fiction writers) have suggested the Cana marriage was actually that of Jesus to [[Mary Magdalene]]. In contrast Christian interpreters have taken what they perceived to be the deeper meaning of this passage in the context of the Old Testament, such as from the book of Isaiah, with the symbolic acting out Christ's marriage to his people: "as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you." (Isaiah 62:5)
[[Image:Dionysus Crucifixion.gif|thumb|Amulet which depicts the crucifixion of [[Dionysus]] dated to the 3rd century CE, although it authenticity is questioned by many modern archeologist.<ref name="tektonics dionysus">http://www.tektonics.org/copycat/dionysus.html</ref>]]
*The [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] of Jesus has a number of features which are argued by Jesus-Myth-theory advocates to be borrowed from Dionysus. Just before his actual [[crucifixion]], the narrative portrays Jesus as being tortured - during which his captors make him wear a purple robe and crown of foliage, both of which were said to be ordinarily worn by Dionysus (due to being imperial symbols). According to Christian apologists the temporary similarity is co-incidental and due to ''universals'',<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> but advocates of the theory that Jesus was derived from myth contend that although temporary, the similar appearance during the torture scene was a deliberate reference by the early gospel writers to Dionysus, in a similar manner to plays and dramas when an actor breaks the [[fourth wall]] and reveals their disguise to the audience.
**Apologists would argue that the resurrection of [[Dionysus]]/[[Bacchus]] was different than that of Jesus, because [[Bacchus]] had the help of [[Pegasus]] to escort him to heaven.<ref>http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*In nearly all [[Christology|Christologies]], Jesus is a mortal man, but in some way also divine (the most popular Christologies in modern Christianity, including [[Trinitarian|Trinitarianism]], argue that he was also fully a deity, while even [[docetism]] and [[adoptionism]] argues that the divine ''[[possession|possessed]]'' the mortal). In the play, Dionysus, a deity, comes to earth as a fully mortal man, claiming to have done so in order to make his ''Godhead'' manifest to the mortals.
*The return to Jerusalem, subsequent [[Pilate|Trial of Jesus before Pilate]], and execution, have supposed parallels with an account of Dionysus in a pre-Christian play named ''[[The Bacchae]]''. In both the Gospels and the play, the central character (Jesus/Dionysus) rides into the royal town on the back of a donkey and is greeted by crowds waving foliage, is soon after arrested by the authorities, put on trial before the ruler, during which he mostly avoids answering the questions, and is condemned and executed, before returning from the dead. Unlike the later Gospels, the play argues that Dionysus willingly let these things happen in order to later humiliate (and ultimately kill) [[Pentheus]], the ruler who tried him; though some Christian apologists argue that this purpose invalidates the parallel, it is perfectly possible for the Gospel writers to simply have dropped this purpose in order to adopt the narrative for their own aims. Christian interpreters see the foreshadowing of the gospel accounts, e.g the riding into a royal town on a donkey, being greeted by the crowds, the condemnation and execution as being directly linked to O.T prophecies rather than myths surrounding Dionysus. It is also possible that [[Euripides]], the author of the play, based his narrative on stories from the Dionysus mystery religion, but, in order to keep the actual teachings of the mystery religion a mystery, and to improve the dramatic appeal, changed the reasoning behind it.
:Christian apologists have also argued that since the foliage waved during entry into the town (in Jesus' case being Jerusalem) were palm fronds, rather than the ivy of ''The Bacchae'', this is merely a ''universal'' narrative, especially as ivy are plants of religious significance to the Dionysus mysteries, while palms are of national significance to Judaism;<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> their opponents contest that the intertwining of religion and nation in Judaism has meant that the palms are simply the plants which Judaism gives the same religious significance to as the Dionysus religion gave to ivy. Donkeys, and mules, also were strongly associated with Dionysus, in particular due to the [[Sileni]], but they have very little significance to Judaism, and are merely a form of transport.

Mithraism, according to the Jesus-as-myth theory, adds to these further elements of the nativity. While the alleged Osiris-Horus parallels mostly concern the nativity according to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], the alleged Mithras parallels mostly concern the version of the nativity in the [[Gospel of Luke]]; this somewhat reflects the groups who appear to be these Gospels' intended audiences - Matthew's audience being closer to Egypt (where Osiris-Horus was prominent), and Luke's being the ''Hellenic world'' (where Mithras was more significant):
*Birth in a cave - although modern traditions depict the event happening in a free-standing structure, in early Christian tradition Jesus was depicted as being born in a cave, and the official location of his birth in Roman Catholicism, Islam, and Eastern Orthodoxy, remains the particular cave which lies at the heart of the 4th century [[Church of the Nativity]]. This early tradition is thought to derive from the Bible, which does not mention a stable, but instead only refers to the location with a term ambiguously meaning either ''gathering room'' (which was an upstairs room) or ''cave''. In Mithraism, Mithras was said to have been born in a cave, which scholars think was an allegory for the universe, as well as a meta-reference to Plato's [[Allegory of the cave]].
*Birth in a stable - though the Bible does not specifically mention an inn or a stable, Jesus is traditionally depicted as having been born in a stable. Though it would be odd for a stable to be placed in a ''gathering room'' (an upstairs meeting-room), in Roman Palestine, caves (which are common in the region) often housed stables, and it is plausible that the association between caves and stables lead to the tradition of Jesus being born in a stable. An alternative origin for the tradition is that advocated by supporters of the Jesus-as-myth theory, namely that it originates with the belief that Mithras was born in a stable. Mithras was considered, allegorically, to be a solar deity, and hence was said to have been born during the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] (the darkest point of the year); in the classical era the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] occurred when the sun was in the [[constellation]] that was then known as the ''Augean Stable'' (and is now named ''[[Capricorn]]''). Early Christian apologists admitted the parallel involved, [[Justin Martyr]], for example, stated that Jesus was born when the sun had its birth in the ''Augean Stable''.
*Ox and Ass - Traditionally Jesus' birth is depicted as being accompanied by an [[ass]] and an [[ox]], and though this is not mentioned in the canonical Gospels, the tradition is long-standing and has its first written mention in the [[Arabic Infancy Gospel]] and most likely has its roots in a passage from the Old Testament: "The ''ox'' knows his master, the ''donkey'' his owner's manger, but Israel does not know, my people do not understand." (Isaiah 1:3). Mithras was also, metaphorically, said to be born in the company of an ass and an ox, as aside from Capricorn, the ''Augean Stable'', [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]] was also known as a stable, since in classical times this was the constellation in which the sun reached the [[summer solstice]] (the other point on the ecliptic at which the sun's zenith appears to ''rest'' for about 3 days); either side of Auriga are constellations that the classical world named ''[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]'', meaning ''bull'', which in a more feminine scene is depicted as an ox, and ''Ass of [[Typhon]]'' (now known as [[Ursa Major]]). In Mithraism they had a greater significance - the bull was the one which Mithras [[Tauroctony|was destined to slay]] (and was considered to be a meta-reference to Mithras himself), and Typhon was the closest figure in Greek mythology to [[Satan]], hence his Ass was seen as a sort-of spy.
*Burial in a cave, and subsequent resurrection. The Gospels state that after [[death of Jesus|his death]], Jesus was buried in a cave, and subsequent narratives state that after this tomb [[empty tomb|was found to be empty]], Jesus [[resurrection of Jesus|was seen to be resurrected]]. Mithraism also sometimes held that after the death of Mithras, he was buried in a cave, from where he was resurrected; this is thought by scholars to derive from the earlier idea that Mithras had been born from a rock, an allegory for the universe as seen from outside it, while the cave represented the universe from the inside, hence the death in the cave being the in-universe equivalent to the birth from the rock - thus birth coming from death.

====Priorities and Practices====

If Christianity had originally evolved as a localised mystery religion, then not only should there be parallels between the scriptural narratives of Christianity and myths from the mystery religions, but there should also be parallels with more outwardly things such as religious rituals, and imagery. The existence of such parallels has been admitted by prominent Christian apologists since ancient times, for example, [[Tertullian]], arguing that the devil had founded the mystery religions, wrote
:''The devil, whose business is to pervert the truth, mimics the exact circumstances of the Divine Sacraments. He baptises his believers and promises forgiveness of sins from the Sacred Fount, and thereby initiates them into the religion of Mithras. Thus he celebrates the oblation of bread, and brings in the symbol of the resurrection.''

Many art historians acknowledge that [[Christianised Myths and Imagery#Saint Mary, Theotokos|early Marian Iconography was heavily influenced]] by Egyptian depictions of Isis and Horus as a baby, [[hyperdulia|veneration of Mary]] having first rose to prominence among the Alexandrian Christians (Christians based in the see of Alexandria, Egypt); the Jesus-as-myth position goes one step further and argue that this is due to Mary herself deriving from worship of Isis. Historians in general have often argued that [[Christianised rituals|many religious rituals]], images, [[The Christianised calendar|and festivals associated with Christianity]], are a result of [[Christianization]] of elements from earlier non-Christian religions; this has historically lead to some of these features being criticised by certain Christian groups, particularly protestants, as being ''[[heathen]] [[superstitions]]'', with, for example, the [[Puritans]] banning [[Christmas]] for this reason. It is the contention of the Jesus-as-myth theory that certain of these parallels (such as the date of Christmas, importance of Sunday, and use of the [[labarum]]) are not borrowings, as many historians see them, or co-incidences, as Christian apologists see them, but instead are due to Christianity being just another form of the mystery religions and thus sharing a common source.

The question ultimately comes down to priority - who copied from whom. Although a few modern Christian apologists argue that such parallels as do exist were copied ''by'' the mystery religions ''from'' Christianity, ancient Christian apologists openly acknowledged that the mystery religions had got there first; however, to the early apologists such as Tertullian and [[Justin Martyr]], this wasn't evidence that Christianity was derived from the mystery religions, but that the mystery religions had been an evil-hearted prophecy of Christianity:
:''Having heard it proclaimed through the prophets that the Christ was to come and that the ungodly among men were to be punished by fire, the wicked spirits put forward many to be called Sons of God, under the impression that they would be able to produce in men the idea that the things that were said with regard to Christ were merely marvellous tales'' - Justin Martyr, ''First Apology''

The opponents of early Christianity suggested that Christianity was a result of failure to correctly interpret the mystery religions, and the attempts to circumvent the fact that the beliefs of the mystery religions pre-dated it, by claiming that they were simply prophecies, were cases of simply ignoring the obvious (i.e. ignoring [[Ockham's Razor]]).
[[Celsus]], a second century anti-Christian writer, wrote that Christianity:
:''continues to spread amongst the vulgar, nay one can even say it spreads because of its vulgarity, and the illiteracy of its adherents. And while there are a few moderate, reasonable, and intelligent people who are inclined to interpret its beliefs allegorically, yet it thrives in its purer form among the ignorant''<ref>[[Origen]], ''Contra Celsum'' (Origen was anti-Celsus)</ref>

More recently, advocates of the Jesus-as-myth theory have argued that the ease with which Christianity was abruptly imposed by the [[Theodosian decree]] - the lack of anti-Christian riots, and [[Christianised sites|the smooth change]] of [[mithraeum]]s (and other pre-Christian holy places) into Churches - points to a high degree of similarity between Christianity and its main rival at the time (''Mithras Sol Invictus''). Many historians argue that this similarity was partly due to the influence of [[Constantine I]], life-long chief priest (''pontifex maximus'') of the Sol Invictus religion, and, according to Christian legend, a convert to Christianity on his death-bed; Constantine viewed variety as a dangerous political risk, and spent a great deal of time standardising things, including convening the [[Council of Nicea|First Ecumenical Council]] in order to resolve a dispute within early Christianity over the nature of Jesus. According to Christian apologists, Constantine was secretly a Christian for much longer than his last breath, and his influence was mostly one way, remoulding the religion of Mithras Sol Invictus to closely mirror Christianity. According to advocates of the Jesus-as-myth position, Constantine did very little remoulding, the two religions had always been similar, due to Christianity being based on that of Mithras Sol Invictus; as [[Thomas Paine]] put it:
''The Christian religion is a parody on the worship of the Sun, in which they put a man whom they call Christ in the place of the Sun, and pay him the same adoration which was originally paid to the Sun''.<ref>Thomas Paine, ''[[The Age of Reason]]''</ref>

===Parallels with Astrology===
====The Great Year====
The [[Great Year]] (or [[Astrological Age]]) is measured by the Sun's apparent backward movement or [[precession]] through the [[Zodiac]].<ref>http://www.templeofsolomon.org/Preces.htg/precession.htm</ref> (Note: The [[Gregorian Calendar]] ignores the precession of the equinoxes and determines that the Sun enters the first degree of Aries at every vernal equinox.) The sign which represents the current age is determined by the constellation of the zodiac that the sun actually occupies at the [[vernal equinox]]. The rate at which the Sun progresses through each of these signs is thought to have first been measured by the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]], in the 2nd century BCE. The discovery of the precession of the equinoxes was a revelation that some interpreted as being the act of a powerful new god moving the entire universe.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples">http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/h/helios_christos_the_sun_ferrying_the_archetypal_zodiac_disciples.html</ref>

It [[Discovery of precession#The Mithraic Question|has been proposed]] that the cult of [[Mithraism]] was inspired by Hipparchus' discovery of precession. The centerpiece of this theory is the [[tauroctony]] an image of Mithras sacrificing a bull. According to [[David Ulansey]], the tauroctony is a [[star chart]]. Mithras is the constellation [[Perseus]], and the bull is [[Taurus]], a constellation of the zodiac. In an earlier [[astrological age]], the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in Taurus. The tauroctony, by this reasoning, commemorated Mithras-Perseus ending the "Age of Taurus" about 2000 BCE.

In turn it has been suggested that Christianity was inspired by the dawning of the [[Age of Pisces]], which is symbolized by the fish. The fish has also been used as a symbol used in Christianity. The use of the fish to symbolize Christianity actually predated the use of the [[crucifix]].<ref>http://www.seiyaku.com/customs/fish/fish.html</ref> In Matthew 14:17, Jesus is said to have fed the multitudes with only two fishes. The constellation of [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] is symbolized by two fishes.

This comparison of Jesus' life to the Astrological Ages continues even further, all the way into the age which follows Pisces, the [[Age of Aquarius]]. Chapter 22 of the [[Gospel of Luke]] describe the events which occur prior to Jesus' arrest and subsequent crucifixion. The disciples ask Jesus where they shall meet him to prepare for his final Passover ([[The Last Supper]]). In Luke 22:10 Jesus responds, ''"Behold, when ye are entered into the city, there shall a man meet you, bearing a pitcher of water; follow him into the house where he entereth in."'' Some proponents of the Jesus Myth interpret the "man bearing a pitcher of water" to be a direct reference to the symbol of [[Aquarius]], the water-bearer. And furthermore, Jesus' instructions to his followers that they follow this man "into the '''house''' where he entereth in" seems to strengthen the connection to astrological symbolism. Proponents claim that Jesus is literally stating that at Jesus' last Passover (the end of the [[Age of Pisces]]) that his followers should continue on and follow the man with the water pitcher ([[Aquarius]]) into the “house where he entereth” (the next Astrological Age).<ref name="naked">http://www.truthbeknown.com/naked.htm</ref>

The very last line of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] alludes to this idea that Jesus is the ruler of the [[Age of Pisces]] (and that this reign will eventually end and lead to a "New age") when he states in verse 28:20, ''"I am with you always, even to the end of the age"''. The are several other references to the "end of the age" and the "coming age" spread throughout the gospels — two in ''Mark'', six in ''Matthew'', and three in ''Luke'' (depending on the translation).<ref>http://www.studylight.org/lex/grk/view.cgi?number=165</ref> Some proponents of the Jesus Myth theory interpret these phrases as a reference to various [[Astrological Ages]]. However these passages have traditionally been interpreted as referring to "The end of the world" and the [[Second coming of Christ]].

====Twelve Apostles====
The [[Twelve Apostles]], according to Jesus Myth proponents, represent the twelve signs of the zodiac,<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> although attempts to relate all their names to particular signs have not been very successful.<ref>http://www.atheists.org/christianity/twelve.html</ref>

However, the standard explanation among scholars is that "The Twelve" is not a coincidental name for the number of apostles that were part of Jesus' disciples. According to biblical scholar Dennis C. Duling, "The number twelve symbolizes a new Israel."<ref>Society of Biblical Literature, The Harper Collins Study Bible (Harper Collins Publishing: USA, 1993,) 1874 (cf 10:1.)</ref> Most scholars concur that the [[Twelve Apostles]] represent the new [[twelve tribes of Israel]].<ref>Meeks, Wayne A. "Messianism among Jews and Christians: Twelve Biblical and Historical Studies (review)"
Jewish Quarterly Review - Volume 95, Number 2, Spring 2005, pp. 336-340.</ref> But even if this is the case, the connection to astrology is not completely lost since some scholars believe that the legend of the twelve tribes was originally derived from the twelve signs of the zodiac.<ref>http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/lds/meridian/2005/12sons.html</ref>

====Astrological Houses====
In the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, John 14:2 states, "In my Father's house are many mansions". The proponents of the Jesus myth point out that, taken from a literal interpretation, this makes little sense. How can a house contain many mansions?<ref name="naked"/> They claim that the correct translation should be rendered as "In my father's abode are many houses", which they interpret as being a direct reference to the [[House (astrology)|houses of the zodiac]].<ref name="naked"/>

====Timeline of Jesus' Life====
Jesus in said to have started his ministry at the age of 30, which some have connected to the fact that each sign of the zodiac occupies 30 degrees of the elliptic. Jesus' ministry is said to have lasted for one year, similar to the Sun completing its circuit of the Zodiac in a year. The story of Jesus' life is circular, in that he is said to have been born in a cave, and then is finally laid to rest in a cave.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> This tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is preserved in several of the [[apocryphal]] [[Infancy Gospels]], such as the ''[[Protevangelion of James]]'' and the ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]''. However, neither of the canonical accounts of [[Jesus]]' life mentions him being born in a cave. Matthew says he was born in a house,<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/mt/2.html#11</ref> and Luke claims he was born in a stable<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/lk/2.html#7</ref> (which may or may not have been in a cave). However, near [[Bethlehem]] there are many natural caves. It was easier, safer and more economical to block off a cave’s entrance to shelter animals than to build a freestanding stable. The tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is so strong that in the fourth century, [[Helena of Constantinople|St. Helena]] built the [[Church of the Nativity]] over the cave said to be the birthplace of Jesus.<ref>http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Dec2004/Wiseman.asp</ref>

====Resurrected after three days====
Jesus is said to be resurrected after 3 days in the cave. We celebrate Jesus' birthday on December 25, three days after the Winter Solstice of December 22. The Sun "dies" on December 22, the Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year. As the sun's declination shifts from a southerly direction to a northerly direction at the time of the solstice, it appears to nearly halt completely. Three days after the solstice the Sun rises 1/10 of a degree further North, just barely detectable by observing shadows. It can then be said that the Sun has been resurrected after being "dead" for three days, and has now been reborn to begin the next year.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/>

It should be noted that no early records mention the date of [[Jesus]]' birth and that the date was agreed upon during the third century CE. At the time, it was believed that Jewish prophets lived in a life cycle that began and ended at their death. Because it was believed [[Jesus]] died on March 25th, [[Christians]] asserted this was also the date of [[Jesus]]' conception (see: [[Annunciation]].) They then added nine months to the date of the [[Annunciation]] to determine roughly the day [[Jesus]] was born— December 25th.<ref>[[Christmas#Origin of holiday]]{{citation needed}}</ref>

==Criticism of the theory==
The idea of Jesus as simply a religious [[meme]] based on non-Abrahamic myths has received strong criticism from biblical scholars and historians. The points below highlight some of these criticisms, but to what degree the dispute is grounded in historical accuracy versus Christian apologetics is unclear.

*The majority of [[scholarship]], including historians, believes there was a [[historical Jesus]]<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005.htm</ref><ref>http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html</ref> The reason scholars give is that for an ancient person and event, there are a relative plethora (by ancient historical standards) of sources from the same century. According to [[JP Holding]], "Support for the "Jesus-myth" comes not from historians, but usually from writers operating far out of their field."<ref>http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html]</ref>
*Most scholars, such as [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], do not see significant similarity between the pagan myths and Christianity. Grant states in ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/origins.html</ref>
*Parallels between [[Christianity]] and [[Mystery Religions]] are not considered compelling evidence by most scholarship. According to a [[Christian]] apologist, Michael Licona, has summed up the viewpoint of this era's historiography:
:: Most scholars have abandoned the ''religionsgeschichtliche'' or what was known as the “history of religions” school that regarded parallels as conclusive signs that Christianity was cut from the same cloth as ancient myth. Further research has revealed that many of the parallels to which they refer postdate the Gospels.<ref> http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*[[Celsus]], a second century critic of [[Christianity]], accused [[Jesus]] of being a bastard child and a sorcerer. He never questions Jesus' historicity even though he hated [[Christianity]] and [[Jesus]].<ref>Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician: Charlatan or Son of God? (1978) pp. 78-79.</ref> He is quoted as saying that Jesus was a "mere man."<ref>http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu/Ap0301/CELSUS.htm</ref> Furthermore, there is debate whether [[Suetonius]], who wrote in the second century, made reference to [[Christianity]] existing in 41 CE, though the majority of scholars believe that the reference cannot be interpreted in this fashion.<ref>http://www.mystae.com/restricted/reflections/messiah/sources.htm</ref> Lastly, there are passages of debatable significance from the historian [[Tacitus]] and satirist [[Lucian of Samosata]], which credit "Christ" as the founder of [[Christianity]].<ref>Ibid.  For scholarly discussion, refer to source.</ref>
*Proponents of the Jesus Myth disagree with the notion that the [[Apostle Paul]] did speak of [[Jesus]] as a physical being. This is largely an [[argument from silence]]. Furthermore, it is slightly a distortion, because the Apostle Paul contradicts this viewpoint. He claims that Jesus "descended from David according to the flesh",<ref>Romans 1:3</ref> took "the form of a slave, being born in human likeness, And being found in human form,".<ref>Philippians 2:7.</ref> Paul also states that " God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law."<ref>Galatians 4:4.</ref> and "the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being."<ref>1 Corinthians 15:21.</ref> Furthermore, he invokes the "command," "charge," or "word" of [[Jesus]] four times<ref>Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10 and 9:14, and 1 Thessalonians 4:15.</ref> in the [[Epistles]]. Scholars believe that the [[apostle Paul]] did not quote [[Jesus]] more often, because he took for granted that [[Christians]] knew what [[Jesus]] said. Jesus Myth proponents believe this is a weak [[argument from silence]].
*The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] is debatably an early source, which some, but not all, scholars put before 70 CE. Their reasoning is that the [[Epistle]] makes mention of [[animal sacrifice]], which was a practice that fell out of favor in [[Judaism]] after the destruction of the temple. In Hebrews, Jesus is mentioned several times in physical form<ref>Hebrews 5:7, 7:14, and 12:3.</ref> and even speaks.<ref>Hebrews 10:5-9.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Jesus and history]]
*[[Historicity of Jesus]]
*[[John of Gamala]]
*[[Jus Asaf]]
*[[Radical Criticism]]
*[[life-death-rebirth deity]]
*[[Harrowing of Hell]]
*[[The God Who Wasn%27t There]]

==References==
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1970. ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross''. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-12875-5
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1992. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''. Prometheus Books; 2nd revised edition. ISBN 0-87975-757-4
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''The Roman Origins of Christianity.''
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''Caesar's Messiah.''
* Brodie, Thomas L. 2000. ''The Crucial Bridge: the Elijah-Elisha Narrative as an interpretive synthesis of Genesis-Kings and a literary model for the Gospels''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.
* [[Earl Doherty|Doherty, E.]],''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]'' ([[1999]]; revised edition [[2000]]) ISBN 0-9686014-0-5
* Ellegard, Alvar. 1999. ''Jesus: One Hundred Years Before Christ.'' London: Century.
* France, R. T. ''The Evidence for Jesus.''
* Freke, T. and Gandy, P. ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'', by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]], ISBN 0-609-80798-6
*McDowell, Josh & Wilson, Bill. ''He Walked Among Us, Evidence for the Historical Jesus.'' San Bernardino, CA, Here’s Life Publishers, Inc. 1988, ISBN 0-89840-230-1
* [[John P. Meier|Meier, John P.]], ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'', New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
: v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
: v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2004. New Testament Narrative as Old Testament Midrash. In Neusner, J., Avery-Peck, A., eds. ''The Encyclopedia of Midrash: Biblical Interpretation of Formative Judaism.''
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2003. ''The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2000. ''Deconstructing Jesus.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* Sanders, E. P. 1995. ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' Penguin.
* Sherwin-White, A. N. 1963. ''Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament.'' Oxford.
* Theissen, G., and Merz, A. 1998. ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide.'' Minneapolis: Fortress
* Thompson, Thomas L. 2005. ''The Messiah Myth.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Van Voorst, Robert E. 2000. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
* Wells, G. A. 1999. ''The Jesus Myth.'' Peru, IL: Open Court (Carus Publishing)
* Wells, G. A. ''The Historical Evidence for Jesus.''
* Whealey, Alice. 2003. ''Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times''. Peter Lang Publishing.
* G.L. Borchert, "Docetism" in ''Elwell Evangelical Dictionary''; ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]'', 1909/2003; D.C. Duling & N. Perrin, ''The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History'', 1993; "Docetism", ''[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754 Encyclopædia Britannica]'', 2006; J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines''. [http://www.ccel.org/bible/phillips/CPn24John2.htm "Book 24 - John's Second Letter". J.B.Phillips, "The New Testament in Modern English", 1962 edition].

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==External links==
===Supporting a Jesus-Myth theory===

* [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/home.htm Earl Doherty's Website]
* [http://www.medmalexperts.com/POCM/index.html POCM: Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth]
* [http://www.truthbeknown.com/origins.htm "The Origins of Christianity and Search for the Historical Jesus Christ"] by [[Acharya S]]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/earliest.html "Earliest Christianity"] by G.A. Wells
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/jesuspuzzle.shtml "Did Jesus Exist? Earl Doherty and the Argument to Ahistoricity"] by Richard Carrier
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/ Jesus never existed] by Kenneth Humphreys
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_wheless/forgery_in_christianity/ Forgery In Christianity (1930)] by Joseph Wheless
* [http://www.geocities.com/inquisitive79/refute.html "Refuting Missionaries"] by Hayyim ben Yehoshua
* [http://www.christianism.com/ Jesus (was) is a Fictional character (not "historical")] Rt. Rev. Lino Sanchez
* [http://www.egodeath.com/#_The_Non-Historicity_of The Non-Historicity of Jesus] Michael Hoffman
* [http://www.radikalkritik.de/ Hermann Detering's RadikalKritik] (partially in German)
* [http://www.ffrf.org/news/2006/debunkingJesus.php Debunking the Historical Jesus] by Dan Barker
* [http://www.ffrf.org/about/bybarker/rise.php Did Jesus Really Rise From The Dead?] by Dan Barker - Why the Jesus Myth is respectful of the first Christians.
* [http://www.vexen.co.uk/books/jesusmysteries.html "The Jesus Mysteries"] by Freke/Gandy
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/news/09/21/jesus.mysteries/index.html CNN interview] Freke and Gandy on "The Jesus Mysteries"
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/beginnings/09/21/excerpt.jesus.mysteries/index.html "The Jesus Mysteries" - book summary/excerpt]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/jesus_myth.htm Debunking the "Da Vinci Code" Debunkers and the Jesus Myth] Overview of the case against a historical Jesus, including many pictures
*[http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0660MysteryReligions.html Christian Objections] Similarity of Christian myths to Pagan religions
*[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dp5/christian.htm Origins of Christianity] Reinventing the pagan godman
*[http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/jesus_similar.html Wilson's Almanac] Comparison of Pagan Gods to Jesus Myth

===Supporting a historical Jesus===
* [http://www.geocities.com/nephilimnot/historical_jesus_christ.html Historical Jesus A logical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was a Guerilla chieftain opposed to Rome.
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/ Jesus, a historical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was not divine, very minimal, and accidentally sparked the development (by others) of Christianity.

===Critical of the Jesus-Myth theory===
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/price8.htm "A History of Scholarly Refutations of the Jesus Myth"] by Christopher Price (A Christian apologetic website)
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/jesusindex.htm "Did Jesus Exist"] a page devoted to the issues raised by the Jesus Myth
* [http://tektonics.org/copycat/osy.html Walk Like an Egyptian] A comparison of Osiris, Horus, and Jesus.
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/copycat.html Was Jesus Christ just a CopyCat Savior Myth?] Examines in detail the claims of Jesus being copied from characters of other religions (Osiris, Horus, Mithra, Dionysus, and numerous others) also briefly explains the criteria professional scholars use to determine if copying took place
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html "Shattering the Jesus Myth"] by J.P. Holding
* [http://www.answeringinfidels.com/content/category/5/73/49/ "Answering Acharya S"] by Mike Licona
** [http://truthbeknown.com/licona.htm Acharya rebuttal to Licona]
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/djp1.html Critique of Two Major Points of The Jesus Puzzle] by Bernard D. Muller - Against the crucifixion in heaven and Jesus as not an earthly human.

[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Biblical criticism]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]

[[fr:Thèse mythiste (Jésus non historique)]]
[[it:Mito di Gesù]]
[[sv:Jesusmyten]]
[[zh:虚构的耶稣]]

Jesus-Mythos

2006-10-31T17:42:59Z

165.29.244.6:

{{not verified}}

{{jesus}}
:''This article is part of the [[Jesus and history]] series of articles.
'''Jesus as myth''' or '''The Jesus Myth''' is a collection of ideas that have in common the central theme that elements of beliefs about [[Jesus]], and the Jesus narrative in the New Testament, are actually [[syncretism]]s from older myths. It is usually associated with a [[Religious skepticism|skeptical]] position on the existence of Jesus as [[historicity of Jesus|an actual historical figure]].

The theory is based on apparent similarities between early Christian accounts of Jesus and pre-existing [[mystery religion]]s, and at the more extreme limit of the theory is also based in part on the lack of extant evidence about his life outside the [[Gospels]] in the view of the holders of the theory. The extreme limit of the theory has not found widespread acceptance among Bible scholars and historians.<ref name=opponents>[[Michael Grant]], ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels''; [[Rudolf Bultmann]], ''Jesus and the Word''; Robert Van Voorst, ''Jesus Outside the Gospels'', and Graham Stanton, ''The Gospels and Jesus''.</ref>

The debate over the truth of Jesus' existence requires academic analysis of the available evidence from times near-contemporary with the dates for Jesus' life, and it depends on the reliability and biases of such evidence. It includes the use of [[historiography]], [[philology]], and to an extent [[hermeneutics]] as tools for analyzing the evidence. The relevant evidence itself can be broken down into Christian and non-Christian texts; the only surviving Christian texts close enough to the era being the books within the New Testament itself. The earliest part of the New Testament, and thus the most important to answer the question, are the [[Pauline Epistles]], though as these contain very little actual narrative concerning Jesus. It is important to note that the majority of scholars believe that Paul has quoted Jesus several times<ref>Society of Biblical Studies, The Harper Collins NRSV Study Bible, San Francsco: Harper Collins Publishers, 1989, 2141, see Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10, and 1 Corinthians 9:14</ref> and if the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] was made before the destruction of the [[Second Temple]], it too has several passages where Jesus struggles with opposition and speaks.<ref>http://www.abu.nb.ca/courses/NTIntro/Heb.htm. See Hebrews 10:5-9 for Jesus' vocal ministry, and Hebrews 5:7 and Hebrews 12:3 for descriptions of hostility towards Jesus.</ref> The later accounts in the Gospels are also of significance. The purpose of this article is not to provide said academic analysis, but rather to provide an account of research that has been performed into the subject thus far.

==History of the theory==

Some have suggested that the idea dates to New Testament times, citing {{bibleverse|2|John|1:7|}}'s "many deceivers [who] are entered into the world, who confess not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh." Some scholars studying this period believe that these early quotes refer to [[docetism]], the belief that Jesus appeared to people but lacked a genuinely physical body, rather than a belief that Jesus was a completely fabricated figure.

The first modern, published proponent of this theory was probably [[19th century|nineteenth century]] [[historian]] [[Bruno Bauer]], a [[Hegelian]] thinker who argued that the true founder of [[Christianity]] was the Alexandrian [[Jew]] [[Philo]], who had adapted Judaic ideas to Hellenic philosophy. His arguments made little impact at the time. Other authors included [[Edwin Johnson (historian)|Edwin Johnson]], who argued that Christianity emerged from a combination of liberal trends in Judaism with [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] [[mysticism]]. Less speculative versions of the theory developed under writers such as A.D. Loman and [[Gerardus Johannes Petrus Josephus Bolland|G.J.P.J. Bolland]]. Loman argued that episodes in Jesus's life, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]], were in reality fictions to justify compilations of pre-existing liberal Jewish sayings. Bolland developed the theory that Christianity developed from Gnosticism and that "Jesus" was a symbolic figure representing Gnostic ideas about godhood.

Jesus-Myth theories often draw on nineteenth century scholarship on the formation of myth, in the work of writers such as [[Max Müller]] and [[James Frazer]]. Müller argued that religions originated in mythic stories of the birth, death and rebirth of the sun. Frazer further attempted to explain the origins of humanity's beliefs in the idea of a "sacrificial king", associated with the sun, vegetation, or a "year-daemon" as a dying and reviving god. According to his major book on the subject, ''[[The Golden Bough]]'', the king's death and rebirth was connected to the regeneration of the earth in springtime and was often required for the continuity of a ritual-based community. A critic of the religious beliefs of his contemporaries, Frazer wrote ''The Golden Bough'' partly to discredit Christianity by illustrating its similarity to the beliefs and rituals of other cultures.<ref>[[Ronald Hutton]], ''Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'' (Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 113-117.</ref>

By the early [[20th century|twentieth century]] a number of writers had published arguments in favor of the Jesus-Myth theory. These treatments were sufficiently influential to merit several book-length responses by traditional historians and [[New Testament]] [[scholars]]. The most influential of the books arguing for a mythic Jesus was [[Arthur Drews]]'s ''The Christ-Myth'' (1909) which argued that Christianity had been a Jewish Gnostic cult that spread by appropriating aspects of Greek philosophy and Frazerian death-rebirth deities. This combination of arguments became the standard form of the mythic Christ theory.

While aspects of the theory were influential, mainstream scholars at the time rejected the notion. Because much of Frazer's work has since been discredited, and the priority of Gnosticism seriously questioned, the Jesus-Myth theory has dwindled in importance.{{citationneeded}} Mainstream late twentieth century scholars, such as theologian and historian [[John P. Meier]] and the author and theologian [[A.N Wilson]], have evaluated the historical evidence for many individual details of Jesus' biography and teachings, separating the probable and the plausible from the demonstrably mythical. The evidence seems quite strong for the existence of a historical person corresponding to the Jesus of the gospels, but few facts about him are better attested by Meier's criteria than certain miracle stories. This may perhaps be taken as commentary on the reliability of recorded history at two thousand years' remove.

In recent years, the Jesus-Myth has had few proponents in academia but has been advanced by [[William B. Smith]], [[George Albert Wells]] (''The Jesus Legend'' and ''The Jesus Myth''), and [[John Marco Allegro]] (''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross'' and ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''), as well as by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]] (co-authors of ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'' and ''Jesus and the Lost Goddess''), and [[Earl Doherty]] (author of ''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]''), and Larry Wright, author of ''Christianity, Astrology & Myth''.

== Influences on the earliest Christianity ==

According to the traditional Christian intepretation of Christianity's beginnings, the [[Early Christianity|earliest Christian Church]] developed directly from the ministry of Jesus and his Twelve Apostles, without much in the way of external influences. Evangelical Christians also believe that the New Testament is an accurate historic record of Jesus. More critical and secular approaches argue that the earliest Christianity did not develop in a religious vacuum, but in the cosmopolitan and multi-religious world of hellenised Judea under the Roman Empire. Consequently critical approaches, including those associated with the theory of Jesus as myth, argue that it remains plausible for early Christianity to have developed under the influence of external religions, and that it would be unusual for the New Testament narratives to have not even been remotely touched by such a cosmopolitan background.

===The influence of the Old Testament===

It is widely accepted that the Gospel accounts were influenced by the Old Testament. In particular, many quotations attributed to the [[Q document]], which the Gospels attribute to Jesus{{cite needed}}, find parallels in several places of the Old Testament. Some scholars believe that certain elements of the gospels are not history but a type of [[midrash]]{{cite needed}}, creative narratives based on the stories, prophecies, and quotes in the Hebrew Bible.

The Gospel of Matthew is widely considered the most "Jewish" of the canonical Gospels, and in the small amount of material unique to the Gospel of Matthew (i.e. not mentioned by the other canonical Gospels), Jesus is presented in a way that often has strong parallels with significant Old Testament figures. Most noticeable are the similarities with [[Moses]], whose birth narrative and sojourn in the wilderness as a youth are alleged by textual critics to have been the basis from which Matthew derived its account of the [[nativity of Jesus]], rather than Matthew basing it on the actual events of the birth of Jesus.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/partthre.htm</ref>

Though conceding that the gospels may contain some creativity and midrash, scholarly opponents of the Jesus-as-myth stance argue that the gospels are more akin to ancient Graeco-Roman biographies. Although scholars do not agree on the exact nature of this genre, associated works attempted to impart historical information about historical figures, but were not comprehensive and could include legendary developments. Nevertheless, as ancient biographies, proponents of Jesus' existence believe they contain sufficient historical information to establish his historicity.

Although there are many types of midrash, the [[Toledot Yeshu]] jumps out as being the most similar to the proposal that characters and situations were invented wholesale according to religious dogma and Old Testament prophecy. However, those opposed to the existence of such strong Old Testament influences have argued that the closest parallels, to potential Moses-based embellishment of the Jesus narrative, are inapplicable. Although agreeing that there are many examples of ancient Jewish and Christian literature that shaped their stories and accounts according to Old Testament influence, such opponents argue that even under this influence there is nevertheless often some accurate historical information at the core;<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price6.htm</ref> for example, in [[1 Maccabees]], Judas and his battles are described in terms which parallel those of Saul's and David's battles against the Philistines in [[Books of Samuel|1 and 2 Samuel]], but nevertheless 1 Maccabees has a degree of respect amongst historians as having a reasonable degree of historical reliability.<ref>John R. Bartlett, ''The First and Second Books of Maccabees'', p. 15-17</ref>

===Gnostic themes===

Although there are occasional references in the [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|''disputed'' group of Pauline Epistles]] to a flesh-and-blood Jesus, the ''undisputed epistles'' contain only limited mention of Jesus as a historic figure. Even though Paul's letters are widely regarded as the earliest Christian documents, they contain very few references to Jesus' actual life and ministry, which only appear in detail in the later Gospels. Christian apologists claim that Paul's letters were written in response to specific problems unrelated to the details of the life of Jesus, and so the occasional and epistolary nature of Paul's correspondence are sufficient explanations for the lack of detail of Jesus' life. However, proponents of the theory that Jesus has a basis in myth counter that there are an abundance of missed rhetorical opportunities in his epistles to reinforce points by quoting statements that the Gospels later claim that Jesus said, or citing events in his life mentioned later by the Gospels that were directly relevant to the topics Paul was discussing, and presumably must have been known about in the period between the events happening and the Gospels being written.

Several commentators, from writers whose theories have not received widespread acceptance, such as [[Earl Doherty]], to widely respected academics and experts in the field, such as Harvard professor [[Elaine Pagels]], have argued that the Pauline epistles, or at least the genuine ones, should be interpreted as [[gnosticism]]. Christianity arose under a heavy Hellenic culture, Paul himself growing up in [[Tarsus]], the centre of one of the major [[mystery religion]]s of the time, and Pagels and Doherty (and others) believe that Paul's writing should be viewed in the context of the Hellenic culture which formed his background. One consequence of [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|parts of the New Testament being written as Gnostic documents]] is that the narratives involved would not have been intended as descriptions of historic events but as non-historic [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]].

Gnosticism, an umbrella term for a diverse set of groups within early Christianity (that were ultimately suppressed), frequently used allegory and metaphor to guide its initiates towards an [[esoteric]] ''salvation'', which Gnosticism viewed as a form of knowledge (''[[gnosis]]''), not unlike [[Bodhi|Buddhist enlightenment]]. Many of the most prominent strands of Gnosticism interpreted the Gospels as Gnostic documents, and their narratives as allegorical rather than historic, often drawing profound meaning from the events in Jesus' life. Many Gnostic groups even regarded Jesus himself as an allegory, rather than historic, and [[docetism]] was rife in Gnostic groups. Thus whether or not parts of the New Testament were written as Gnostic documents, is a matter of substantial impact on the question of the [[historicity of Jesus]], and on what elements can be considered to be based on a historic figure.

How much influence gnosticism had on Christianity, and how much Christianity originated in gnosticism, are thus questions which have historically been quite volatile. Advocates of a position arguing that many elements of Jesus are derived from myth hold<ref>http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/marshall_gauvin/did_jesus_really_live.html</ref> that those references in the undisputed epistles that appear to refer to events on earth, and a physical historic Jesus, should instead be regarded as allegorical metaphors.<ref>http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/supp08.htm</ref> Their opponents, often but not always conservative Christians, regard such interpretations, of for example {{bibleverse||Galatians|1:19}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|3:16|}}, {{bibleverse||Galatians|4:4|}}, {{bibleverse||Romans|1:3|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|3:1|}}, {{bibleverse|Romans|15:8|}}, and {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|11:23-25|}}, {{bibleverse|1|Corinthians|15:4|}}, as based on forced and erroneous translations.<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price7.htm</ref>

===Parallels with Mediterranean mystery religions and other non-Abrahamic sources===
The question of what connection Christianity has to Mediterranean [[mystery religion]]s has been a controversy since the early centuries of Christianity. Although such questions subsided and were suppressed as the power of the Church grew, they have returned as the knowledge about the mystery religions was rediscovered. Whether this connection exists, and who copied whom, is at the core of the question of Jesus as myth.

Most of the mystery religions of the Mediterranean in the time of early Christianity were centred on a single divine figure (in the case of [[Orphism (religion)|Orphism]], the central figure is essentially an avatar of his own master, [[Dionysus]]), who had in most cases originally been a minor deity, whose mythology contained a narrative involving the deities death. In several cases, the original mythology seems to have been completely hijacked and abruptly altered, often bearing very little relation to the original myth; this is particularly noticeable in the way that [[Mithra]] somehow became [[Mithras]]. A number of the Mediterranean mystery religions of the period contain several similarities to each other, such as a prominent [[Life-death-rebirth deity|life-death-rebirth narrative]], and the central ''deity'' being semi-human; this group (including the religions of [[Legend of Osiris and Isis|Osiris-Horus]], [[Dionysus]], [[Mithras]], [[Aion (deity)|Aion]], [[Adonis]], and [[Attis]]) were identified as connected in early times, and as a group were named [[Osiris-Dionysus]] after the two earliest groups.

Modern scholars have argued that most of these Osiris-Dionysus religions evolved when earlier Osiris-Dionysus religions spread into a new region and localised themselves by hijacking convenient local deities; this is most evident in how [[Sabazios]], originally a [[Phrygia]]n deity, became another name for Dionysus, it is also evident in how [[Orphicism]] developed with the central figure of [[Orpheus]], supposedly a priest of Dionysus, but essentially Dionysus himself. Most scholars that have an opinion on the matter argue that the earliest form of this religion was the Osiris-Horus form of ancient Egyptian religions, and that the others developed from there, having been transferred by merchants. Notably, although a form of Osiris-Dionysus was present in most nations around the Mediterranean, particularly in the east, at first glance no such form appears to have existed in Roman Palestine. A central contention of the Jesus-as-myth argument is that Jesus, or at least much of the Gospel narrative about him, and early Christian tradition concerning him, is the form of Osiris-Dionysus localised for Roman Palestine.

====Pythagorean elements====

Enough has survived from the comments of their enemies (for example, [[Origen]] and [[Irenaeus]]), and a few relics of their own, for scholars to be fairly certain that many of the mystery religions were, at least by the first century, [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreanist]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neo-Platonic]] reinterpretations of earlier myths; i.e. earlier myths became, in the mystery religions, [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]], concerning universal truths, rather than something considered literally true. Exactly what connection exists between Gnosticism and the Mediterranean mystery religions is an unsolved question, but it is certain that they would have shared considerably similar teaching methods, [[soteriology]], and [[mysticism]]. Thus to approach the question of whether Christianity borrowed from mystery religions (and vice versa), comparisons should be made not only between early Christianity and Mediterranean myths, but also between early Christianity and Pythagoreanism.

Aside from potential parallels with Gnosticism, which can be investigated more directly, other significant features of Pythagoreanism might have entered into early Christianity, and their presence would add support to a position advocating that significant parts of early Christianity, or all of it, derived from mystery religion. Pythagoreans were [[vegetarian]], so much so that until the 18th century all vegetarians were not called ''vegetarian'' but ''Pythagorean''. Many scholars and theologians believe that the earliest Christians were vegetarian, as the [[Desert Fathers]] almost definitely were, and some significant early Christian groups even had versions of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] that clearly point to Jesus being vegetarian - the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]] differs from the now traditional version of Matthew in places referring to meat by using similarly spelt vegetarian friendly terms; there is no academic consensus as to which version has the more original wording. As the canonical New Testament seems to argue that vegetarianism is a personal choice, and many early Christian writers also stated that it was, the early Christians would seem to have taken this position without a New Testament based theological motivation for doing so. Modern [[Christian vegetarianism]] argues that passages from the Old Testament and [[Book of Enoch]] assert that vegetarianism was God's ideal, but there is no evidence either for or against the idea that early Christians used the same argument, and there is the alternative possibility that early Christian vegetarianism originated due to the influence of Pythagoreanism.

Pythagoreanism also saw deep value in [[mathematics]]; [[geometry]] was seen as having a high spiritual significance in and of itself, as well as being a mechanism to encode mystical teachings. The [[Feeding the multitude|Feeding of the 5000 and of the 4000]] have long been thought to encode some deeper meaning; more mainstream interpretations regard the numbers involved as references to the Torah ''feeding'' the Jews and Jesus' ministry ''feeding'' the Gentiles, but it has also been argued that they encode instructions for a mystical diagram. The use of numbers as cryptic references to deeper teaching could be argued to demonstrate Pythagorean influence in and of itself, but the encrypted presence of mystical diagrams would be a much stronger argument in favour of the existence of such influence. The [[Catch of 153 fish]] is one of the most notable situations where a diagram can be derived from the text following basic consistent rules; using the [[Isopsephia]] of the text to dictate sizes, the account of the event can be described geometrically - the resulting diagram not only describes the event, but simultaneously has another, more mystical, interpretation as described in [[Plato]]'s [[Timaeus]]. 153 itself is a significant number in Pythagoreanism, and had a strong connection to fish, as it was one part of the '''measure of the fish'' - a reference to the [[Vesica Piscis]] (whose name means ''flesh of the fish'') and the [[square root]] of 3.

====Parallels with non-Christian myths from the first century====

Parallels between Jesus and the various religions of the Osiris-Dionysus group are a popular topic for internet sites sceptical of Christianity. A more constrained set of parallels have also been proposed by various scholars advocating the Jesus-as-myth theory. The most powerful groups in early Christianity were the Christians centred in Alexandria (in Egypt) and those in Rome, and so the form of Osiris-Dionysus at these two locations could reasonably be expected to have had the greatest influence. In Alexandria it was Osiris-Horus, a partial merging of the identities of [[Osiris]] and [[Horus]] (usually seen as fairly separate in more traditional [[ancient Egyptian religion]]); Osiris dying and being resurrected as Horus. In Rome, it was originally [[Dionysus]], but by the third century the state religion was that of [[Sol Invictus]], originally just a standard [[Solar Deity]], but by then had formed a [[syncretism]] with [[Mithraism]], which also continued to exist separately among males in the military of the Roman Empire.

[[Image:LuxorAmenhetep.gif|frame|none|According to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|hieroglyph]]s, this image of Horus' nativity depicts annunciation (frame 1), impregnation by the holy spirit (frame 2), and the birth and receipt of gifts from 3 visitors (frame 3)]]
The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Osiris-Horus are mostly centred around the earlier part of Jesus' life:
*[[Christ]] as a title - when treated as a partial merge of Osiris and Horus, Osiris-Horus was sometimes referred to as ''the embalmed Horus'', describing Horus taking the place of Osiris in the death parts of the narrative. ''The embalmed Horus'' was written in Egyptian as HR KRST (probably pronounced ''har karast''), and although ''Christ'' has a highly plausible [[etymology]] making it a cognate with [[Chrism]] (''ointment''), as a Greek attempt at translating the Hebrew term ''[[Messiah]]'', a number of advocates of the Jesus as myth theory, including [[theology]] professor [[Tom Harpur]], argue that this was just a happy co-incidence, and the term is actually derived from the ''Karast'' title of Horus. Use of this title, rather than directly copying any of the other titles of Horus, is argued by advocates of the Jesus myth, to be due to the convenient implications of its [[false cognate]] ''Chrism''. If this is true, rather than ''covered in ointment'', i.e. ''anointed'', the literal meaning of ''Christ'' would really be ''covered in balm'', i.e. ''embalmed''.
*Parentage
**By the first century the identity of Osiris had absorbed that of [[Ptah]] (with early stages of this absorption being known as ''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''), the great creator deity. In traditional Egyptian religion Osiris had become seen as the father of Horus, and hence Horus was the son of the creator deity, like Jesus was seen as son of [[God the Father]].
**By the first century Isis was seen as the mother of Horus. She was traditionally known as ''Meri'', meaning ''beloved'', which is phonetically near-identical to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|''Mary'', the name of the mother of Jesus]], and was the most common recipient of the [[epithet]] - if ''Meri'' was used without a particular deity being mentioned it usually referred to Isis.
**Pharaohs sometimes portrayed themselves or their children as an incarnation of Horus. The mother involved was usually referred to as ''Meri'' (i.e. ''beloved''), and was human, hence giving a semi-human incarnation of Horus a human mother called ''Meri''.
*The [[Nativity of Jesus]] - some of the more detailed versions of the birth of Horus have been argued to parallel the Nativity of Jesus, namely the versions of Horus' birth that derive from when Horus' mother was said to be [[Neith]] (whose identity later became absorbed into that of Isis). This is most obvious in a set of pre-Christian carvings from a temple in [[Luxor]] portraying [[Akhenaten]] as an incarnation of Horus, according to which:
**The future birth of ''Horus'' was announced in advance (an ''[[annunciation]]'') by [[Thoth]], whom the Greeks identified as [[Hermes]] and was in the first century seen as the messenger of the Gods, a role taken by the [[Archangel Gabriel]] in Jewish thought.
**The mother became pregnant by virtue of the ''breath of life'' being sent into her. The ''breath of life'' in question was [[Kneph]], a concept depicted [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]] (like Mediaeval depictions of death) rather than a deity, which [[Plutarch]] states had the same meaning to the Egyptians as ''[[Pneuma]]'' had to the Greeks. ''Pneuma'' translates as ''spirit'', so one can argue that the mother is being depicted as becoming pregnant by the ''holy spirit'', which Christians usually argue is how Mary became pregnant.
**The mother became pregnant while remaining a virgin (particularly as Neith was believed to have given birth to the first males, and hence existing before them). The doctrine of [[Virgin Birth]] is prominent in early Christianity.
**The mother is human (at least in the Luxor carving)
**There is a star which signifies his birth. In the Jesus narrative this is the [[Star of Bethlehem]], which isn't identified very clearly and there is much debate as to what it was meant to refer to though Christian interpreters have viewed it within the context of the Old Testament prophecy in Numbers 24:17, with perceived messianic allusions: "I see him, but not now; I behold him, but not near. A ''star'' will come out of Jacob; a scepter will rise out of Israel." In the Osiris-Horus narrative this is [[Sothis]], a not-completely identified star generally thought to be the same as [[Sirius]]. Sirius gained its importance in relation to Osiris-Hours as its first appearance each year coincides with the date of the annual [[Nile]] flooding. Sirius reaches its highest [[Zenith]] on January 6th, the day that some ancient Christian traditions (including modern [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches) believe Jesus was born.
**Three visitors aim for a star, indicating where the birth is, and after the birth the three visitors each give gifts; in the Jesus narrative there are three gifts and an unidentified number of visitors ([[Biblical Magi|who are Magi]]), the number of visitors simply being a very long-standing tradition; in the Osiris-Horus narrative the three visitors are anthropomorphisms of the three stars in the ''belt'' of [[Orion (constellation)|the constellation Orion]], which point directly towards Sirius,<ref>http://www.usbible.com/Astrology/gospel_zodiac.htm</ref> and were named ''Mintaka'', ''Anilam'', and ''Alnitak'' (more accurately, [[consonant]]-only records name them as ''MNTK'', ''ANLM'' and ''ALNTK'', and [[Egyptologists]] estimate the full spelling).
**Being placed in a manger - according to {{bibleverse||luke|2:7}} Jesus rested in a manger shortly after his birth. Horus was also said to have been placed in a manger as a baby, though in earlier times the feature had been attributed to [[Ra]] instead, having transferred to Horus when the identities of Horus and Ra merged as ''Ra-harakhty''; the belief originated due to the Egyptian word for ''manger'', ''Apta'', being a [[homonym]] for the Egyptian word for ''mountain peak'', a location that Ra, as a [[solar deity]], was considered to have been born at. The Egyptian belief concerning Horus/Ra's birth in a manger was so prominent that mangers were for a time annually paraded around the streets in a festival celebrating the Sun.<ref>H. P. Blavatsky: ''Collected Writings''</ref>
*Birth town - Horus was, by the first century, considered to have been born at [[Heliopolis]], the main centre of his cult. Heliopolis had been the Egyptian capital and winter grain store, and hence was regarded as the ''house of bread'' (several copies of the [[Book of the dead]] refer to it by this name). In Hebrew, ''house of bread'' is ''[[Bethlehem]]'', the same name as the town that Jesus was said to have been born in. The narratives explaining why Jesus came to be born in Bethlehem, but didn't grow up there are often regarded by critical scholars as peculiarly contrived (and don't seem to agree), suggesting non-historicity, particularly as a number of archaeologists think that the Palestinian Bethlehem didn't even exist during the first century. Christian interpreters see it rather within the context of what they perceive as a messianic prophecy drawn from the Old Testament: "But you, ''Bethlehem'' Ephrathah, though you are small among the clans of Judah, out of you will come for me one who will be ruler over Israel, whose origins are from of old, from ancient times." Micah 5:2
*The feeding of the multitude - a similar narrative is told of Horus in some versions of the [[Book of the Dead]], as Horus was the patron deity of [[Heliopolis]], at one point the Egyptian capital, and hence grain store, the source of bread in winter and poor harvests.
*The [[raising of Lazarus]] - many versions of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] see Horus as having raised Osiris from the dead. However, Elijah raised a child from the dead according to an account in [[Kings]], so such an event also had origins in Judaism.<ref>Kings 17:17-24</ref>
**In Egyptian Osiris was named A-S-R (as a [[consonantal language]], [[vowel]]s were not written down), thought to be pronounced ''Aser'' or ''Asar'' (''Osiris'' is the Greek version of the name), and by merely adding Hebrew [[theophory]] to convert it to a normal Hebrew name, and adding a standard Greek suffix to then convert it to the [[Koine Greek]] of the New Testament, one arrives at ''Elazaros''; by a standard [[Elision]] this turns into ''Lazaros'' (''Lazarus'' is how this was translated into [[Latin]] for the [[Vulgate]], on which early English translations were based)
**The location of the resurrection of Osiris is Heliopolis (a Greek name), which the Egyptians called ''Annu'' (and the [[Hebrew Bible]] refers to as ''On''). Treating Annu as a proper name, and regarding ''house of Annu'' as the place, this becomes ''BethAnnu'' in Hebrew. This is phonetically near-identical to ''Bethany'' in first century Hebrew (''u'' and ''y'' being difficult to distinguish, in the same way as modern Japanese speakers find ''r'' and ''l'' difficult to distinguish), which is where Jesus is said to have raised Lazarus.
*The divine opponent - the similarity in name between ''[[Satan]]'', the adversary of Jesus in [[Temptation of Jesus|the narrative of his temptation]], and ''[[Set (god)|Set]]'', the adversary of [[Horus]], has not been lost on advocates of the Jesus as myth position. Among the narratives describing the contest between Horus and Set for the crown of all Egypt (thought to be based on the historic rivalry between [[Upper Egypt|Upper]] and [[Lower Egypt]]) are a number of narratives in which Set tempts Horus to renounce his claim in return for various gifts. Although conservative Christians and Jews argue that Judaism, and hence the idea of Satan, developed completely independently of Egyptian religion, the fact that the ancient Egyptian Empire extended into the Levant during the [[New Kingdom]] has lead a number of scholars to argue that a total lack of influence on Judaism from the Egyptian religion is implausible.

The most prominent narratives in Christianity alleged by advocates of the Jesus as Myth theory to be copied from traditions of Dionysus are, conversely, centred on later aspects of Jesus' life:
*The [[Marriage at Cana]], during which the New Testament states that Jesus turned water into wine, is similar to a narrative concerning Dionysus, who was originally the god of wine. In the pre-Christian Dionysus version, priests attending to a wedding at which Dionysus is present bring vessels of water to a building, which is then sealed, and when later reopened the water has been turned to wine. As the earliest surviving record of this ''miracle'' of Dionysus is from the late first century writings of Tatius, Christian apologists have argued that it was copied from Jesus' actions. However, as Jesus' ''miracle'' is only reported by the Gospel of John, which is dated by most scholars to 95-115 AD, advocates of the Jesus myth counter that the earliest surviving evidence, of a water into wine at a wedding miracle, concerns Dionysus not Jesus.<ref>Bowersock [Bow.FH, 125-8]; [[Morton Smith]]</ref> In the case of Dionysus it is his own marriage to [[Ariadne]], which differs from the traditional explanation of Jesus simply being a guest at the Cana wedding, though a minority of modern scholars (and a few notable fiction writers) have suggested the Cana marriage was actually that of Jesus to [[Mary Magdalene]]. In contrast Christian interpreters have taken what they perceived to be the deeper meaning of this passage in the context of the Old Testament, such as from the book of Isaiah, with the symbolic acting out Christ's marriage to his people: "as a bridegroom rejoices over his bride, so will your God rejoice over you." (Isaiah 62:5)
[[Image:Dionysus Crucifixion.gif|thumb|Amulet which depicts the crucifixion of [[Dionysus]] dated to the 3rd century CE, although it authenticity is questioned by many modern archeologist.<ref name="tektonics dionysus">http://www.tektonics.org/copycat/dionysus.html</ref>]]
*The [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] of Jesus has a number of features which are argued by Jesus-Myth-theory advocates to be borrowed from Dionysus. Just before his actual [[crucifixion]], the narrative portrays Jesus as being tortured - during which his captors make him wear a purple robe and crown of foliage, both of which were said to be ordinarily worn by Dionysus (due to being imperial symbols). According to Christian apologists the temporary similarity is co-incidental and due to ''universals'',<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> but advocates of the theory that Jesus was derived from myth contend that although temporary, the similar appearance during the torture scene was a deliberate reference by the early gospel writers to Dionysus, in a similar manner to plays and dramas when an actor breaks the [[fourth wall]] and reveals their disguise to the audience.
**Apologists would argue that the resurrection of [[Dionysus]]/[[Bacchus]] was different than that of Jesus, because [[Bacchus]] had the help of [[Pegasus]] to escort him to heaven.<ref>http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*In nearly all [[Christology|Christologies]], Jesus is a mortal man, but in some way also divine (the most popular Christologies in modern Christianity, including [[Trinitarian|Trinitarianism]], argue that he was also fully a deity, while even [[docetism]] and [[adoptionism]] argues that the divine ''[[possession|possessed]]'' the mortal). In the play, Dionysus, a deity, comes to earth as a fully mortal man, claiming to have done so in order to make his ''Godhead'' manifest to the mortals.
*The return to Jerusalem, subsequent [[Pilate|Trial of Jesus before Pilate]], and execution, have supposed parallels with an account of Dionysus in a pre-Christian play named ''[[The Bacchae]]''. In both the Gospels and the play, the central character (Jesus/Dionysus) rides into the royal town on the back of a donkey and is greeted by crowds waving foliage, is soon after arrested by the authorities, put on trial before the ruler, during which he mostly avoids answering the questions, and is condemned and executed, before returning from the dead. Unlike the later Gospels, the play argues that Dionysus willingly let these things happen in order to later humiliate (and ultimately kill) [[Pentheus]], the ruler who tried him; though some Christian apologists argue that this purpose invalidates the parallel, it is perfectly possible for the Gospel writers to simply have dropped this purpose in order to adopt the narrative for their own aims. Christian interpreters see the foreshadowing of the gospel accounts, e.g the riding into a royal town on a donkey, being greeted by the crowds, the condemnation and execution as being directly linked to O.T prophecies rather than myths surrounding Dionysus. It is also possible that [[Euripides]], the author of the play, based his narrative on stories from the Dionysus mystery religion, but, in order to keep the actual teachings of the mystery religion a mystery, and to improve the dramatic appeal, changed the reasoning behind it.
:Christian apologists have also argued that since the foliage waved during entry into the town (in Jesus' case being Jerusalem) were palm fronds, rather than the ivy of ''The Bacchae'', this is merely a ''universal'' narrative, especially as ivy are plants of religious significance to the Dionysus mysteries, while palms are of national significance to Judaism;<ref name="tektonics dionysus"/> their opponents contest that the intertwining of religion and nation in Judaism has meant that the palms are simply the plants which Judaism gives the same religious significance to as the Dionysus religion gave to ivy. Donkeys, and mules, also were strongly associated with Dionysus, in particular due to the [[Sileni]], but they have very little significance to Judaism, and are merely a form of transport.

Mithraism, according to the Jesus-as-myth theory, adds to these further elements of the nativity. While the alleged Osiris-Horus parallels mostly concern the nativity according to the [[Gospel of Matthew]], the alleged Mithras parallels mostly concern the version of the nativity in the [[Gospel of Luke]]; this somewhat reflects the groups who appear to be these Gospels' intended audiences - Matthew's audience being closer to Egypt (where Osiris-Horus was prominent), and Luke's being the ''Hellenic world'' (where Mithras was more significant):
*Birth in a cave - although modern traditions depict the event happening in a free-standing structure, in early Christian tradition Jesus was depicted as being born in a cave, and the official location of his birth in Roman Catholicism, Islam, and Eastern Orthodoxy, remains the particular cave which lies at the heart of the 4th century [[Church of the Nativity]]. This early tradition is thought to derive from the Bible, which does not mention a stable, but instead only refers to the location with a term ambiguously meaning either ''gathering room'' (which was an upstairs room) or ''cave''. In Mithraism, Mithras was said to have been born in a cave, which scholars think was an allegory for the universe, as well as a meta-reference to Plato's [[Allegory of the cave]].
*Birth in a stable - though the Bible does not specifically mention an inn or a stable, Jesus is traditionally depicted as having been born in a stable. Though it would be odd for a stable to be placed in a ''gathering room'' (an upstairs meeting-room), in Roman Palestine, caves (which are common in the region) often housed stables, and it is plausible that the association between caves and stables lead to the tradition of Jesus being born in a stable. An alternative origin for the tradition is that advocated by supporters of the Jesus-as-myth theory, namely that it originates with the belief that Mithras was born in a stable. Mithras was considered, allegorically, to be a solar deity, and hence was said to have been born during the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] (the darkest point of the year); in the classical era the [[December solstice|winter solstice]] occurred when the sun was in the [[constellation]] that was then known as the ''Augean Stable'' (and is now named ''[[Capricorn]]''). Early Christian apologists admitted the parallel involved, [[Justin Martyr]], for example, stated that Jesus was born when the sun had its birth in the ''Augean Stable''.
*Ox and Ass - Traditionally Jesus' birth is depicted as being accompanied by an [[ass]] and an [[ox]], and though this is not mentioned in the canonical Gospels, the tradition is long-standing and has its first written mention in the [[Arabic Infancy Gospel]] and most likely has its roots in a passage from the Old Testament: "The ''ox'' knows his master, the ''donkey'' his owner's manger, but Israel does not know, my people do not understand." (Isaiah 1:3). Mithras was also, metaphorically, said to be born in the company of an ass and an ox, as aside from Capricorn, the ''Augean Stable'', [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]] was also known as a stable, since in classical times this was the constellation in which the sun reached the [[summer solstice]] (the other point on the ecliptic at which the sun's zenith appears to ''rest'' for about 3 days); either side of Auriga are constellations that the classical world named ''[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]'', meaning ''bull'', which in a more feminine scene is depicted as an ox, and ''Ass of [[Typhon]]'' (now known as [[Ursa Major]]). In Mithraism they had a greater significance - the bull was the one which Mithras [[Tauroctony|was destined to slay]] (and was considered to be a meta-reference to Mithras himself), and Typhon was the closest figure in Greek mythology to [[Satan]], hence his Ass was seen as a sort-of spy.
*Burial in a cave, and subsequent resurrection. The Gospels state that after [[death of Jesus|his death]], Jesus was buried in a cave, and subsequent narratives state that after this tomb [[empty tomb|was found to be empty]], Jesus [[resurrection of Jesus|was seen to be resurrected]]. Mithraism also sometimes held that after the death of Mithras, he was buried in a cave, from where he was resurrected; this is thought by scholars to derive from the earlier idea that Mithras had been born from a rock, an allegory for the universe as seen from outside it, while the cave represented the universe from the inside, hence the death in the cave being the in-universe equivalent to the birth from the rock - thus birth coming from death.

====Priorities and Practices====

If Christianity had originally evolved as a localised mystery religion, then not only should there be parallels between the scriptural narratives of Christianity and myths from the mystery religions, but there should also be parallels with more outwardly things such as religious rituals, and imagery. The existence of such parallels has been admitted by prominent Christian apologists since ancient times, for example, [[Tertullian]], arguing that the devil had founded the mystery religions, wrote
:''The devil, whose business is to pervert the truth, mimics the exact circumstances of the Divine Sacraments. He baptises his believers and promises forgiveness of sins from the Sacred Fount, and thereby initiates them into the religion of Mithras. Thus he celebrates the oblation of bread, and brings in the symbol of the resurrection.''

Many art historians acknowledge that [[Christianised Myths and Imagery#Saint Mary, Theotokos|early Marian Iconography was heavily influenced]] by Egyptian depictions of Isis and Horus as a baby, [[hyperdulia|veneration of Mary]] having first rose to prominence among the Alexandrian Christians (Christians based in the see of Alexandria, Egypt); the Jesus-as-myth position goes one step further and argue that this is due to Mary herself deriving from worship of Isis. Historians in general have often argued that [[Christianised rituals|many religious rituals]], images, [[The Christianised calendar|and festivals associated with Christianity]], are a result of [[Christianization]] of elements from earlier non-Christian religions; this has historically lead to some of these features being criticised by certain Christian groups, particularly protestants, as being ''[[heathen]] [[superstitions]]'', with, for example, the [[Puritans]] banning [[Christmas]] for this reason. It is the contention of the Jesus-as-myth theory that certain of these parallels (such as the date of Christmas, importance of Sunday, and use of the [[labarum]]) are not borrowings, as many historians see them, or co-incidences, as Christian apologists see them, but instead are due to Christianity being just another form of the mystery religions and thus sharing a common source.

The question ultimately comes down to priority - who copied from whom. Although a few modern Christian apologists argue that such parallels as do exist were copied ''by'' the mystery religions ''from'' Christianity, ancient Christian apologists openly acknowledged that the mystery religions had got there first; however, to the early apologists such as Tertullian and [[Justin Martyr]], this wasn't evidence that Christianity was derived from the mystery religions, but that the mystery religions had been an evil-hearted prophecy of Christianity:
:''Having heard it proclaimed through the prophets that the Christ was to come and that the ungodly among men were to be punished by fire, the wicked spirits put forward many to be called Sons of God, under the impression that they would be able to produce in men the idea that the things that were said with regard to Christ were merely marvellous tales'' - Justin Martyr, ''First Apology''

The opponents of early Christianity suggested that Christianity was a result of failure to correctly interpret the mystery religions, and the attempts to circumvent the fact that the beliefs of the mystery religions pre-dated it, by claiming that they were simply prophecies, were cases of simply ignoring the obvious (i.e. ignoring [[Ockham's Razor]]).
[[Celsus]], a second century anti-Christian writer, wrote that Christianity:
:''continues to spread amongst the vulgar, nay one can even say it spreads because of its vulgarity, and the illiteracy of its adherents. And while there are a few moderate, reasonable, and intelligent people who are inclined to interpret its beliefs allegorically, yet it thrives in its purer form among the ignorant''<ref>[[Origen]], ''Contra Celsum'' (Origen was anti-Celsus)</ref>

More recently, advocates of the Jesus-as-myth theory have argued that the ease with which Christianity was abruptly imposed by the [[Theodosian decree]] - the lack of anti-Christian riots, and [[Christianised sites|the smooth change]] of [[mithraeum]]s (and other pre-Christian holy places) into Churches - points to a high degree of similarity between Christianity and its main rival at the time (''Mithras Sol Invictus''). Many historians argue that this similarity was partly due to the influence of [[Constantine I]], life-long chief priest (''pontifex maximus'') of the Sol Invictus religion, and, according to Christian legend, a convert to Christianity on his death-bed; Constantine viewed variety as a dangerous political risk, and spent a great deal of time standardising things, including convening the [[Council of Nicea|First Ecumenical Council]] in order to resolve a dispute within early Christianity over the nature of Jesus. According to Christian apologists, Constantine was secretly a Christian for much longer than his last breath, and his influence was mostly one way, remoulding the religion of Mithras Sol Invictus to closely mirror Christianity. According to advocates of the Jesus-as-myth position, Constantine did very little remoulding, the two religions had always been similar, due to Christianity being based on that of Mithras Sol Invictus; as [[Thomas Paine]] put it:
''The Christian religion is a parody on the worship of the Sun, in which they put a man whom they call Christ in the place of the Sun, and pay him the same adoration which was originally paid to the Sun''.<ref>Thomas Paine, ''[[The Age of Reason]]''</ref>

===Parallels with Astrology===
====The Great Year====
The [[Great Year]] (or [[Astrological Age]]) is measured by the Sun's apparent backward movement or [[precession]] through the [[Zodiac]].<ref>http://www.templeofsolomon.org/Preces.htg/precession.htm</ref> (Note: The [[Gregorian Calendar]] ignores the precession of the equinoxes and determines that the Sun enters the first degree of Aries at every vernal equinox.) The sign which represents the current age is determined by the constellation of the zodiac that the sun actually occupies at the [[vernal equinox]]. The rate at which the Sun progresses through each of these signs is thought to have first been measured by the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]], in the 2nd century BCE. The discovery of the precession of the equinoxes was a revelation that some interpreted as being the act of a powerful new god moving the entire universe.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples">http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/h/helios_christos_the_sun_ferrying_the_archetypal_zodiac_disciples.html</ref>

It [[Discovery of precession#The Mithraic Question|has been proposed]] that the cult of [[Mithraism]] was inspired by Hipparchus' discovery of precession. The centerpiece of this theory is the [[tauroctony]] an image of Mithras sacrificing a bull. According to [[David Ulansey]], the tauroctony is a [[star chart]]. Mithras is the constellation [[Perseus]], and the bull is [[Taurus]], a constellation of the zodiac. In an earlier [[astrological age]], the vernal equinox had taken place when the Sun was in Taurus. The tauroctony, by this reasoning, commemorated Mithras-Perseus ending the "Age of Taurus" about 2000 BCE.

In turn it has been suggested that Christianity was inspired by the dawning of the [[Age of Pisces]], which is symbolized by the fish. The fish has also been used as a symbol used in Christianity. The use of the fish to symbolize Christianity actually predated the use of the [[crucifix]].<ref>http://www.seiyaku.com/customs/fish/fish.html</ref> In Matthew 14:17, Jesus is said to have fed the multitudes with only two fishes. The constellation of [[Pisces (constellation)|Pisces]] is symbolized by two fishes.

This comparison of Jesus' life to the Astrological Ages continues even further, all the way into the age which follows Pisces, the [[Age of Aquarius]]. Chapter 22 of the [[Gospel of Luke]] describe the events which occur prior to Jesus' arrest and subsequent crucifixion. The disciples ask Jesus where they shall meet him to prepare for his final Passover ([[The Last Supper]]). In Luke 22:10 Jesus responds, ''"Behold, when ye are entered into the city, there shall a man meet you, bearing a pitcher of water; follow him into the house where he entereth in."'' Some proponents of the Jesus Myth interpret the "man bearing a pitcher of water" to be a direct reference to the symbol of [[Aquarius]], the water-bearer. And furthermore, Jesus' instructions to his followers that they follow this man "into the '''house''' where he entereth in" seems to strengthen the connection to astrological symbolism. Proponents claim that Jesus is literally stating that at Jesus' last Passover (the end of the [[Age of Pisces]]) that his followers should continue on and follow the man with the water pitcher ([[Aquarius]]) into the “house where he entereth” (the next Astrological Age).<ref name="naked">http://www.truthbeknown.com/naked.htm</ref>

The very last line of the [[Gospel of Matthew]] alludes to this idea that Jesus is the ruler of the [[Age of Pisces]] (and that this reign will eventually end and lead to a "New age") when he states in verse 28:20, ''"I am with you always, even to the end of the age"''. The are several other references to the "end of the age" and the "coming age" spread throughout the gospels — two in ''Mark'', six in ''Matthew'', and three in ''Luke'' (depending on the translation).<ref>http://www.studylight.org/lex/grk/view.cgi?number=165</ref> Some proponents of the Jesus Myth theory interpret these phrases as a reference to various [[Astrological Ages]]. However these passages have traditionally been interpreted as referring to "The end of the world" and the [[Second coming of Christ]].

====Twelve Apostles====
The [[Twelve Apostles]], according to Jesus Myth proponents, represent the twelve signs of the zodiac,<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> although attempts to relate all their names to particular signs have not been very successful.<ref>http://www.atheists.org/christianity/twelve.html</ref>

However, the standard explanation among scholars is that "The Twelve" is not a coincidental name for the number of apostles that were part of Jesus' disciples. According to biblical scholar Dennis C. Duling, "The number twelve symbolizes a new Israel."<ref>Society of Biblical Literature, The Harper Collins Study Bible (Harper Collins Publishing: USA, 1993,) 1874 (cf 10:1.)</ref> Most scholars concur that the [[Twelve Apostles]] represent the new [[twelve tribes of Israel]].<ref>Meeks, Wayne A. "Messianism among Jews and Christians: Twelve Biblical and Historical Studies (review)"
Jewish Quarterly Review - Volume 95, Number 2, Spring 2005, pp. 336-340.</ref> But even if this is the case, the connection to astrology is not completely lost since some scholars believe that the legend of the twelve tribes was originally derived from the twelve signs of the zodiac.<ref>http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/lds/meridian/2005/12sons.html</ref>

====Astrological Houses====
In the [[King James Version]] of the Bible, John 14:2 states, "In my Father's house are many mansions". The proponents of the Jesus myth point out that, taken from a literal interpretation, this makes little sense. How can a house contain many mansions?<ref name="naked"/> They claim that the correct translation should be rendered as "In my father's abode are many houses", which they interpret as being a direct reference to the [[House (astrology)|houses of the zodiac]].<ref name="naked"/>

====Timeline of Jesus' Life====
Jesus in said to have started his ministry at the age of 30, which some have connected to the fact that each sign of the zodiac occupies 30 degrees of the elliptic. Jesus' ministry is said to have lasted for one year, similar to the Sun completing its circuit of the Zodiac in a year. The story of Jesus' life is circular, in that he is said to have been born in a cave, and then is finally laid to rest in a cave.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/> This tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is preserved in several of the [[apocryphal]] [[Infancy Gospels]], such as the ''[[Protevangelion of James]]'' and the ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]''. However, neither of the canonical accounts of [[Jesus]]' life mentions him being born in a cave. Matthew says he was born in a house,<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/mt/2.html#11</ref> and Luke claims he was born in a stable<ref>http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/lk/2.html#7</ref> (which may or may not have been in a cave). However, near [[Bethlehem]] there are many natural caves. It was easier, safer and more economical to block off a cave’s entrance to shelter animals than to build a freestanding stable. The tradition of Jesus being born in a cave is so strong that in the fourth century, [[Helena of Constantinople|St. Helena]] built the [[Church of the Nativity]] over the cave said to be the birthplace of Jesus.<ref>http://www.americancatholic.org/Messenger/Dec2004/Wiseman.asp</ref>

====Resurrected after three days====
Jesus is said to be resurrected after 3 days in the cave. We celebrate Jesus' birthday on December 25, three days after the Winter Solstice of December 22. The Sun "dies" on December 22, the Winter Solstice, the shortest day of the year. As the sun's declination shifts from a southerly direction to a northerly direction at the time of the solstice, it appears to nearly halt completely. Three days after the solstice the Sun rises 1/10 of a degree further North, just barely detectable by observing shadows. It can then be said that the Sun has been resurrected after being "dead" for three days, and has now been reborn to begin the next year.<ref name="archetypal_zodiac_disciples"/>

It should be noted that no early records mention the date of [[Jesus]]' birth and that the date was agreed upon during the third century CE. At the time, it was believed that Jewish prophets lived in a life cycle that began and ended at their death. Because it was believed [[Jesus]] died on March 25th, [[Christians]] asserted this was also the date of [[Jesus]]' conception (see: [[Annunciation]].) They then added nine months to the date of the [[Annunciation]] to determine roughly the day [[Jesus]] was born— December 25th.<ref>[[Christmas#Origin of holiday]]{{citation needed}}</ref>

==Criticism of the theory==
The idea of Jesus as simply a religious [[meme]] based on non-Abrahamic myths has received strong criticism from biblical scholars and historians. The points below highlight some of these criticisms, but to what degree the dispute is grounded in historical accuracy versus Christian apologetics is unclear.

*The majority of [[scholarship]], including historians, believes there was a [[historical Jesus]]<ref>http://www.bede.org.uk/price1.htm</ref><ref>http://www.garyhabermas.com/articles/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005/J_Study_Historical_Jesus_3-2_2005.htm</ref><ref>http://www.leaderu.com/everystudent/easter/articles/josh2.html</ref> The reason scholars give is that for an ancient person and event, there are a relative plethora (by ancient historical standards) of sources from the same century. According to [[JP Holding]], "Support for the "Jesus-myth" comes not from historians, but usually from writers operating far out of their field."<ref>http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html]</ref>
*Most scholars, such as [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], do not see significant similarity between the pagan myths and Christianity. Grant states in ''Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels'' that "Judaism was a milieu to which doctrines of the deaths and rebirths, of mythical gods seemed so entirely foreign that the emergence of such a fabrication from its midst is very hard to credit."<ref>http://www.michaelhorner.com/articles/resurrection/origins.html</ref>
*Parallels between [[Christianity]] and [[Mystery Religions]] are not considered compelling evidence by most scholarship. According to a [[Christian]] apologist, Michael Licona, has summed up the viewpoint of this era's historiography:
:: Most scholars have abandoned the ''religionsgeschichtliche'' or what was known as the “history of religions” school that regarded parallels as conclusive signs that Christianity was cut from the same cloth as ancient myth. Further research has revealed that many of the parallels to which they refer postdate the Gospels.<ref> http://www.answeringinfidels.com/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=87</ref>
*[[Celsus]], a second century critic of [[Christianity]], accused [[Jesus]] of being a bastard child and a sorcerer. He never questions Jesus' historicity even though he hated [[Christianity]] and [[Jesus]].<ref>Morton Smith, Jesus the Magician: Charlatan or Son of God? (1978) pp. 78-79.</ref> He is quoted as saying that Jesus was a "mere man."<ref>http://www.anthropoetics.ucla.edu/Ap0301/CELSUS.htm</ref> Furthermore, there is debate whether [[Suetonius]], who wrote in the second century, made reference to [[Christianity]] existing in 41 CE, though the majority of scholars believe that the reference cannot be interpreted in this fashion.<ref>http://www.mystae.com/restricted/reflections/messiah/sources.htm</ref> Lastly, there are passages of debatable significance from the historian [[Tacitus]] and satirist [[Lucian of Samosata]], which credit "Christ" as the founder of [[Christianity]].<ref>Ibid.  For scholarly discussion, refer to source.</ref>
*Proponents of the Jesus Myth disagree with the notion that the [[Apostle Paul]] did speak of [[Jesus]] as a physical being. This is largely an [[argument from silence]]. Furthermore, it is slightly a distortion, because the Apostle Paul contradicts this viewpoint. He claims that Jesus "descended from David according to the flesh",<ref>Romans 1:3</ref> took "the form of a slave, being born in human likeness, And being found in human form,".<ref>Philippians 2:7.</ref> Paul also states that " God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under the law."<ref>Galatians 4:4.</ref> and "the resurrection of the dead has also come through a human being."<ref>1 Corinthians 15:21.</ref> Furthermore, he invokes the "command," "charge," or "word" of [[Jesus]] four times<ref>Romans 14:14, 1 Corinthians 7:10 and 9:14, and 1 Thessalonians 4:15.</ref> in the [[Epistles]]. Scholars believe that the [[apostle Paul]] did not quote [[Jesus]] more often, because he took for granted that [[Christians]] knew what [[Jesus]] said. Jesus Myth proponents believe this is a weak [[argument from silence]].
*The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] is debatably an early source, which some, but not all, scholars put before 70 CE. Their reasoning is that the [[Epistle]] makes mention of [[animal sacrifice]], which was a practice that fell out of favor in [[Judaism]] after the destruction of the temple. In Hebrews, Jesus is mentioned several times in physical form<ref>Hebrews 5:7, 7:14, and 12:3.</ref> and even speaks.<ref>Hebrews 10:5-9.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Jesus and history]]
*[[Historicity of Jesus]]
*[[John of Gamala]]
*[[Jus Asaf]]
*[[Radical Criticism]]
*[[life-death-rebirth deity]]
*[[Harrowing of Hell]]
*[[The God Who Wasn%27t There]]

==References==
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1970. ''The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross''. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-12875-5
* [[John Marco Allegro|Allegro, John M.]]. 1992. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth''. Prometheus Books; 2nd revised edition. ISBN 0-87975-757-4
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''The Roman Origins of Christianity.''
* [[Joseph Atwill|Atwill, Joseph]]. 2005. ''Caesar's Messiah.''
* Brodie, Thomas L. 2000. ''The Crucial Bridge: the Elijah-Elisha Narrative as an interpretive synthesis of Genesis-Kings and a literary model for the Gospels''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press.
* [[Earl Doherty|Doherty, E.]],''[[The Jesus Puzzle]]'' ([[1999]]; revised edition [[2000]]) ISBN 0-9686014-0-5
* Ellegard, Alvar. 1999. ''Jesus: One Hundred Years Before Christ.'' London: Century.
* France, R. T. ''The Evidence for Jesus.''
* Freke, T. and Gandy, P. ''[[The Jesus Mysteries]]'', by [[Timothy Freke]] and [[Peter Gandy]], ISBN 0-609-80798-6
*McDowell, Josh & Wilson, Bill. ''He Walked Among Us, Evidence for the Historical Jesus.'' San Bernardino, CA, Here’s Life Publishers, Inc. 1988, ISBN 0-89840-230-1
* [[John P. Meier|Meier, John P.]], ''A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus'', New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],
: v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
: v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994. ISBN 0-385-46992-6
: v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2004. New Testament Narrative as Old Testament Midrash. In Neusner, J., Avery-Peck, A., eds. ''The Encyclopedia of Midrash: Biblical Interpretation of Formative Judaism.''
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2003. ''The Incredible Shrinking Son of Man.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* [[Robert M. Price|Price, Robert]]. 2000. ''Deconstructing Jesus.'' Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
* Sanders, E. P. 1995. ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' Penguin.
* Sherwin-White, A. N. 1963. ''Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament.'' Oxford.
* Theissen, G., and Merz, A. 1998. ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide.'' Minneapolis: Fortress
* Thompson, Thomas L. 2005. ''The Messiah Myth.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Van Voorst, Robert E. 2000. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.
* Wells, G. A. 1999. ''The Jesus Myth.'' Peru, IL: Open Court (Carus Publishing)
* Wells, G. A. ''The Historical Evidence for Jesus.''
* Whealey, Alice. 2003. ''Josephus on Jesus: The Testimonium Flavianum Controversy from Late Antiquity to Modern Times''. Peter Lang Publishing.
* G.L. Borchert, "Docetism" in ''Elwell Evangelical Dictionary''; ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05070c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]'', 1909/2003; D.C. Duling & N. Perrin, ''The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History'', 1993; "Docetism", ''[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030754 Encyclopædia Britannica]'', 2006; J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines''. [http://www.ccel.org/bible/phillips/CPn24John2.htm "Book 24 - John's Second Letter". J.B.Phillips, "The New Testament in Modern English", 1962 edition].

== Notes ==
<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==External links==
===Supporting a Jesus-Myth theory===

* [http://jesuspuzzle.humanists.net/home.htm Earl Doherty's Website]
* [http://www.medmalexperts.com/POCM/index.html POCM: Pagan Origins of the Christ Myth]
* [http://www.truthbeknown.com/origins.htm "The Origins of Christianity and Search for the Historical Jesus Christ"] by [[Acharya S]]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/g_a_wells/earliest.html "Earliest Christianity"] by G.A. Wells
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/jesuspuzzle.shtml "Did Jesus Exist? Earl Doherty and the Argument to Ahistoricity"] by Richard Carrier
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/ Jesus never existed] by Kenneth Humphreys
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_wheless/forgery_in_christianity/ Forgery In Christianity (1930)] by Joseph Wheless
* [http://www.geocities.com/inquisitive79/refute.html "Refuting Missionaries"] by Hayyim ben Yehoshua
* [http://www.christianism.com/ Jesus (was) is a Fictional character (not "historical")] Rt. Rev. Lino Sanchez
* [http://www.egodeath.com/#_The_Non-Historicity_of The Non-Historicity of Jesus] Michael Hoffman
* [http://www.radikalkritik.de/ Hermann Detering's RadikalKritik] (partially in German)
* [http://www.ffrf.org/news/2006/debunkingJesus.php Debunking the Historical Jesus] by Dan Barker
* [http://www.ffrf.org/about/bybarker/rise.php Did Jesus Really Rise From The Dead?] by Dan Barker - Why the Jesus Myth is respectful of the first Christians.
* [http://www.vexen.co.uk/books/jesusmysteries.html "The Jesus Mysteries"] by Freke/Gandy
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/news/09/21/jesus.mysteries/index.html CNN interview] Freke and Gandy on "The Jesus Mysteries"
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/books/beginnings/09/21/excerpt.jesus.mysteries/index.html "The Jesus Mysteries" - book summary/excerpt]
*[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/jesus_myth.htm Debunking the "Da Vinci Code" Debunkers and the Jesus Myth] Overview of the case against a historical Jesus, including many pictures
*[http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0660MysteryReligions.html Christian Objections] Similarity of Christian myths to Pagan religions
*[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dp5/christian.htm Origins of Christianity] Reinventing the pagan godman
*[http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/jesus_similar.html Wilson's Almanac] Comparison of Pagan Gods to Jesus Myth

===Supporting a historical Jesus===
* [http://www.geocities.com/nephilimnot/historical_jesus_christ.html Historical Jesus A logical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was a Guerilla chieftain opposed to Rome.
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/ Jesus, a historical reconstruction] Argues that Jesus was not divine, very minimal, and accidentally sparked the development (by others) of Christianity.

===Critical of the Jesus-Myth theory===
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/price8.htm "A History of Scholarly Refutations of the Jesus Myth"] by Christopher Price (A Christian apologetic website)
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/jesusindex.htm "Did Jesus Exist"] a page devoted to the issues raised by the Jesus Myth
* [http://tektonics.org/copycat/osy.html Walk Like an Egyptian] A comparison of Osiris, Horus, and Jesus.
* [http://www.christian-thinktank.com/copycat.html Was Jesus Christ just a CopyCat Savior Myth?] Examines in detail the claims of Jesus being copied from characters of other religions (Osiris, Horus, Mithra, Dionysus, and numerous others) also briefly explains the criteria professional scholars use to determine if copying took place
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusexist/jesusexisthub.html "Shattering the Jesus Myth"] by J.P. Holding
* [http://www.answeringinfidels.com/content/category/5/73/49/ "Answering Acharya S"] by Mike Licona
** [http://truthbeknown.com/licona.htm Acharya rebuttal to Licona]
* [http://www.geocities.com/b_d_muller/djp1.html Critique of Two Major Points of The Jesus Puzzle] by Bernard D. Muller - Against the crucifixion in heaven and Jesus as not an earthly human.

[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Biblical criticism]]
[[Category:Jesus and history]]

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