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Punjabis

2011-08-08T15:01:15Z

134.134.139.70: /* Arrival of Islam */

{{cleanup|date=December 2010}}
{{ethnic group|
|group= Punjabis
|pop= 120 million (estimated)
|region1={{flag|Pakistan}}
|pop1=76,335,300
|ref1= <ref>[http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_mother_tongue.pdf Pakistan 1998 census - Population by mother tongue]</ref>
|region2={{flag|India}}
|pop2=29,109,672
|ref2=<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ Indian Census]</ref>
|region3={{flag|United Kingdom}}
|pop3=2,300,000
|ref3=<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=74ZVFb37zuIC&pg=PA20 |title=Desh Pardesh |publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers |year=1994 |pages=19–20 |author=Roger Ballard, Marcus Banks |isbn=9781850650911}}</ref>
|region4={{flag|Canada}}
|pop4=800,000
|ref4=<ref>[http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/data/topics/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?TPL=RETR&ALEVEL=3&APATH=3&CATNO=&DETAIL=0&DIM=&DS=99&FL=0&FREE=0&GAL=0&GC=99&GK=NA&GRP=1&IPS=&METH=0&ORDER=1&PID=92333&PTYPE=88971,97154&RL=0&S=1&ShowAll=No&StartRow=1&SUB=801&Temporal=2006&Theme=80&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF= 2006 Census: Ethnic Origin]</ref>
|region5={{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|pop5=720,000
|region6={{flag|United States}}
|pop6=640,000
|region7={{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|pop7=620,000
|region8={{flag|Hong Kong}}
|pop8=260,000
|region9={{flag|Malaysia}}
|pop9=185,000
|region10={{flag|South Africa}}
|pop10=140,000
|region11={{flag|Russia}}
|pop11=120,000
|langs= [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
|rels= • [[File:Allah-green.svg|18px]] [[Islam]] • [[File:Khanda1.svg|15px]] [[Sikhism]] • [[File:Om.svg|15px]] [[Hinduism]]
|related=• [[Indo-Aryans]] • [[Rajput]]s • [[Gujjars|Gujjar]] •[[Jatt]]s •[[Aheer]]s. [[Hindko]]wans • [[Seraikis]] • [[Indo-Scythian]]s
}}
The '''Punjabi people''' ({{lang-pa|{{Nastaliq|پنجابی}}}} ([[Shahmukhi]]), ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ([[Gurmukhi]]), {{lang-hi| पंजाबी}} ([[Devanagari]])) {{lang-ur|پنجابی}}, also '''Panjabi people''', are an [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] linguistic group from South Asia. They are the second largest ethnic group, out of the many different [[ethnic groups in South Asia]]. They originate from the [[Punjab region]], which has been host to some of the oldest civilizations in the world including one of the world's first and oldest civilizations, [[Indus Valley Civilization|the Indus Valley Civilization]]. The Punjabi identity was primarily cultural and linguistic, with Punjabis being those who considered the [[Punjabi language]] their first language.<ref>http://www.krysstal.com/langfams_indoeuro.html</ref> However, in recent times, the definition has been broadened to include emigrants of Punjabi descent who maintain Punjabi cultural traditions, even when they no longer speak the language.
It also refers to people of non-Punjabi descent but have adopted Punjabi language and culture such as people of [[Rajasthani people|Rajesthani]] descent.

Punjabis are primarily found in the Punjab region of India and Pakistan, which forms the present Indian state of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] and Pakistan province of [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]]. In the times that followed after gaining independence from [[British Empire|Britain]], the Punjab region was divided between the two nations. In Pakistan, Punjabis are the largest ethnic group, comprising roughly 44% of the total population of the country. They reside predominantly in the province of Punjab and [[Pakistan-administered Kashmir]]. In India, Punjabis represent about 3% of the population. The majority of Punjabi-speaking people in India can be found across the greater Punjab region, which comprises the states of Punjab, [[Haryana]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Delhi]] and the [[Union Territory]] of [[Chandigarh]]. Moreover, large communities of Punjabis are also found in the [[Jammu]] region of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] and the states of [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttarakhand]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]].

Punjabi is the dominant language spoken in Pakistan, and 11th most spoken language in India. According to the [[Ethnologue]] 2005 estimate,<ref name="ReferenceA">Ethnologue. 15th edition (2005).</ref> there are 88 million native speakers of the Punjabi language, which makes it approximately the 12th most widely spoken language in the world. According to the 2008 Census of Pakistan,<ref>According to [http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_mother_tongue.pdf statpak.gov.pk] 44.15% of the Pakistani people speak Punjabi natively. This calculates an approximate number of 76,335,300 Punjabi speakers in Pakistan.</ref> there are approximately 76,335,300 native speakers of Punjabi in Pakistan, and according to the [[Demographics of India#Linguistic demographic2001|Census of India]], there are over 29,102,477 Punjabi speakers in India.<ref>[[Census of India]], 2001</ref> Punjabi is also spoken as a [[minority language]] in several other countries where Punjabis have emigrated in large numbers, such as the United Kingdom (where it is the second most commonly used language<ref>[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199900/cmhansrd/vo000307/halltext/00307h02.htm "Punjabi Community".] The United Kingdom Parliament.</ref>) and Canada, in which Punjabi has now become the fourth most spoken language after English, French and Chinese, due to the rapid growth of immigrants from Pakistan and India.<ref>[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Punjabi_is_Canadas_4th_most_top_language/articleshow/2782138.cms "Punjabi is 4th most spoken language in Canada"] ''The Times of India''</ref> There are also sizable communities in United States, [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Persian Gulf]] countries, Hong Kong, [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], Australia and New Zealand.

Punjabis are linguistically and culturally related to the other Indo-Aryan peoples of South Asia. There are an estimated 120 million Punjabis around the world.

==History==
{{Off-topic|date=June 2010}}
{{Main|History of Punjab}}

===Prehistory===
The exact point at which the Punjabis formed a distinct ethnic group remains speculative. The region having been the site of the ancient [[Indus Valley Civilization]] centered at [[Harappa]] became a centre of early civilization from around 3300 BC. Numerous settlers including the Proto-[[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Scythians]], [[Greeks]], various [[Central Asia]]ns, [[Arab]]s, [[Demographics of Afghanistan|Afghans]], and the [[British Empire|British]] have all invaded and ruled the region, giving the Punjab a unique culture as the gateway to South Asia but this has not had a genetic impact on the region as the host population has always been far larger than the migrating or invading populations.Historically attested events, such as invasions by Huns, Greeks, Kushans, Moghuls, Muslims, and modern Europeans, have had negligible genetic impact. Despite centuries of Greek rule in Northwest India, for example, no trace of either the M170 or the M35 genetic markers associated with Greeks and Macedonians have been found.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>

==Ancient history==
[[File:Map of Vedic India.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). Realms or tribes are labelled black, Foreign tribes mentioned in early Vedic texts purple, Vedic [[shakha]]s in green. Rivers are labelled blue. The [[Thar desert]] is marked orange.]]

The original [[Punjab region]] is now divided into several units: [[West Punjab]] (now in Pakistan) including the Gandhara region, the Indian states of [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]], [[Haryana]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]] and the Indian Union territory of [[Chandigarh]]. The regions of [[Azad Kashmir]] and [[Jammu]] have also been historically associated with the Punjab.

The Punjab is the '[[Sapta Sindhu]]' region mentioned in the [[Rig Veda]], the seven rivers are:

# [[Saraswati]] (thought to be the present day [[Ghaggar]]),
# Satadru/Shutadri ([[Sutlej]]),
# Vipasa ([[Beas River|Beas]]),
# Asikani, Chandrabhaga ([[Chenab]]),
# Iravati ([[Ravi River|Ravi]]),
# Vitasta/Vet ([[Jhelum River|Jhelum]]) and
# Sindhu ([[Indus River|Indus]]).

The modern name of the Vipasa,'Beas' is thought to be a corruption of [[Veda Vyasa]], the author of the [[Mahabharata]].

The region came to be known as ''Punjab'' only in the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period. It was one of the cradles of [[Indian subcontinent|Indian]] civilization and [[Hinduism]].

Among the classic books that wholly or partly composed in this region are the following.
* [[Rigveda]]
* Grammar of [[Sakatayana]]
* [[Ashtadhyayi]] of [[Pāṇini]]
* [[Nirukta]] of Yaska
* [[Charaka Samhita]]
* Mahabharata along with the [[Bhagavad Gita]]
* [[Brihatkatha]] of Gunadya
* The [[Bakhshali Manuscript]]

The world's oldest university [[Takshashila]] flourished here, even before the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]'s birth.

The descendants of the Rishis, form the [[Brahmins]] of Hindu society. The Brahmins of this region are called 'Saraswata' after the legendary Saraswati river region, once known for the ashramas of the rishis.

===Classic cities of the Punjab region===
* [[Multan]] (Mulasthan), Punjab (Pakistan): Founded by first wave of invading Aryans and named Mul-Asthan (Base-Station)in Sanskrit also Pilgrimage site of the legendary Sun temple.
* [[Rawalpindi]], Punjab (Pakistan): A city in Northern Punjab named after the Rawal [[Jogis]]
* [[Sialkot]], Punjab (Pakistan): city founded by Sul ([[Shalya]]), emperor of Madradesa and brother of [[Madri]], second wife of emperor [[Pandu]] and mother to [[Nakul]] and [[Sahadeva]]
* [[Kasur]], Punjab (Pakistan): city founded by [[Kusha]], son of Sri Rama according to the [[Bichitra Natak]] written by [[Guru Gobind Singh]].
* [[Lahore]],Punjab (Pakistan): city founded by [[Lava]]([[Loh]]), son of Sri Rama according to the Bichitra Natak.
* [[Dipalpur]], Punjab (Pakistan): The original name of this city was Siri Puria or Siri Nagar after the elder brother of Raja Salvahan of Sialkot (who was the explorer of Sialkot) Raja Depa Chand renamed Depalpur after his beloved son Raja Depa.
* [[Jhang]], Punjab (Pakistan): city where lovely [[Chenab]] and [[Jhelum]] rivers meet founded in era of [[Sri Rama]] then remodeled by [[Sial]] chief. Famous Punjabi love stories of [[Heer Ranjha]] and [[Mirza Sahiba]] belong to the soil of this particular city. That is why city is also referred to as "Land of Love" and "City of [[Bhangra]]"
* [[Amritsar]], Punjab (India): Founded by the fourth Sikh guru Ram Das ji in 1574, it has two of the holiest places of worship for Sikhs, the Akal Takht Sahib and the Shri Harmandir Sahib.
* [[Jalandhar]], Punjab (India): A historic city mentioned in the Puranas.
* [[Phagwara]],Punjab (India): City of Hearts.
* [[Chandigarh]],Punjab (India): The City beautiful.
* [[Kurukshetra]], Haryana: The site of the [[Mahabharata]] war.
* [[Karnal]], Haryana: city founded by [[Karna]].
* [[Katasraj temple]], Punjab (Pakistan): Classic temple complex in the [[Chakwal]] district, site of the 'enchanted pool' episode in the Mahabharata, where [[Yudhishtira]] is tested by his father Lord [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]]/[[Dharma]].

The historic [[Vedic religion]] had a great impact on the regions religions followed by modern Hinduism and Buddhism which influenced the entire region including modern day Afghanistan,Usbekistan,Tajikistan and the Balochistan region in Iran and Pakistan. Islam reached the region following [[Muhammad bin Qasim|the arrival of Arabs]] in 711 AD and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes in the 11th century during this period of Islamic invasions some Hindu's clans converted to Islam.

[[File:Mohenjo-daro Priesterkönig.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Mature Harappan]] "Priest King" statue, [[Mohenjo-daro]], wearing Sindhi [[Ajrak]], late Mature Harappan period, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan]]The tribes present in the NWFP of Pakistan and Afghanistan are most probably descended from Huna, Kushans etc. They could be the modern day [[Hazaras]], [[Pashtuns]], [[Tajiks]], [[Uzbeks]] and [[Nuristani]] and many more. The other theory is that, after the Islamic invasion of Sindh, all the tribes there broke off and came down lower into India and established their kingdoms; hence the name ''Rajput'' (son of a king). The Huna were defeated in 528 AD by [[Yasodharman]] and in 532 a coalition of Hindu kings drove the Huna out of Northern India.<ref>http://www.worldhistorymaps.info/History/CentralAsia.html</ref> Genetic analysis of Rajput clans found a close connection with the Punjabi [[Khatri]]/[[Arora]] clans, indicating that the Rajputs are not outsiders as most tend to believe.<ref>http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6242530</ref>

Following the independence of Pakistan and the subsequent [[Partition of India|partition of British India]], a process of population exchange took place in 1947 as Muslims left [[East Punjab]] and headed to the newly created Pakistan, and Hindus and Sikhs left [[West Punjab]]<ref>.[http://www.cet.edu/earthinfo/sasia/SAhis.html South Asia: British India Partitioned]</ref> for the newly created state of India. As a result of these population exchanges, both parts are now relatively homogeneous, where religion is concerned.
[[File:Taxila Pakistan juillet 2004.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Taxila Pakistan is a [[World Heritage Site]]]]

The main site of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in Punjab was the city of [[Harrapa]]. The Indus Valley Civilization spanned much of what is today Pakistan and eventually evolved into [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] civilization. The arrival of the Indo-Aryans led to the flourishing of the [[Vedic Civilization]] along the length of the [[Indus River]]. This civilization shaped subsequent cultures in South Asia and [[Afghanistan]]. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was partially damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used stone from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artifacts have nevertheless been found. Punjab was part of the great ancient empires including the [[Gandhara]] [[Mahajanapadas]], [[Mauryas]], [[Kushans]] and [[Hindu Shahi]]. Agriculture flourished and trading cities (such as Multan and Lahore) grew in wealth.

===Genetics in the region===
{{Main|Genetics and Archaeogenetics of South Asia}}
The studies published in this active field of ongoing research have yet to present a unanimous picture.

On the one hand, certain reports emphasize the finding that tribal and caste populations in South Asia derive largely from a common genetic heritage of Pleistocene southern and western Asians, with only limited gene flow from external regions since the start of the Holocene.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003">{{Harvcoltxt|Kivisild et al.|2003}}</ref><ref>"There is general agreement that Indian caste and tribal populations share a common late Pleistocene maternal ancestry in India." {{Harvcoltxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sharma et al.|2005}}</ref> India-specific mtDNA haplogroups, in particular, show coalescence times of 40-60 kya,<ref>{{Harvtxt|Chaubey et al.|2007}}</ref> while J2 from West Asia is identified as the only non-native Y-DNA haplogroup present in significant proportions.<ref>"It is not necessary, based on the current evidence, to look beyond South Asia for the origins of the paternal heritage of the majority of Indians at the time of the onset of settled agriculture. The perennial concept of people, language, and agriculture arriving to India together through the northwest corridor does not hold up to close scrutiny. Recent claims for a linkage of haplogroups J2, L, R1a, and R2 with a contemporaneous origin for the majority of the Indian castes' paternal lineages from outside the subcontinent are rejected, although our findings do support a local origin of haplogroups F* and H. Of the others, only J2 indicates an unambiguous recent external contribution, from West Asia rather than Central Asia." {{Harvcoltxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}}</ref> The Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a1a (M17), which was thought to be a marker of Indo-European speaking peoples,<ref>"The Aryans came from outside India. We actually have genetic evidence for that. Very clear genetic evidence from a marker that arose on the southern steppes of Russia and the Ukraine around 5,000 to 10,000 years ago. And it subsequently spread to the east and south through Central Asia reaching India.... [M17] shows that there was a massive genetic influx into India from the steppes within the past 10,000 years... Taken with the archaeological data, we can say that the old hypothesis of an invasion of people – not merely their language – from the steppe appears to be true." {{Harvcoltxt|Wells|2002}}</ref> has been found quite prevalent in South Asia, including tribal groups, suggesting a native origin with a time depth greater than any supposed Indo-Aryan migration.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Sengupta et al.|2006}}</ref>

On the other hand, certain reports stratify the population, finding relatively closer affinity to Western Eurasians than to Asians among upper castes compared to lower and in men compared to women.<ref>"For maternally inherited mtDNA, each caste is most similar to Asians. However, 20%-30% of Indian mtDNA haplotypes belong to West Eurasian haplogroups, and the frequency of these haplotypes is proportional to caste rank, the highest frequency of West Eurasian haplotypes being found in the upper castes. In contrast, for paternally inherited Y-chromosome variation each caste is more similar to Europeans than to Asians. Moreover, the affinity to Europeans is proportionate to caste rank, the upper castes being most similar to Europeans, particularly East Europeans. [...] Analysis of these data demonstrated that the upper castes have a higher affinity to Europeans than to Asians, and the upper castes are significantly more similar to Europeans than are the lower castes. Collectively, all five datasets show a trend toward upper castes being more similar to Europeans, whereas lower castes are more similar to Asians." {{Harvcoltxt|Bamshad et al.|2003}}</ref> Evidence has also been found that the deep ancestry of the entire Indian population is a hybrid of two distinct founder groups: the "Ancestral North Indian" (ANI) genetically closer to Middle Easterners, Central Asians, and Europeans; and the "Ancestral South Indian" (ASI) is as distinct from ANI and East Asians as they are from each other; whose relative proportions vary with the former type more prevalent in high-caste and Indo-Aryan speaking groups.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Reich et al.|2009}}</ref>

Language change resulting from the migration of numerically small superstrate groups would be difficult to trace genetically. Historically attested events, such as invasions by Huns, Greeks, Kushans, Moghuls, Muslims, and modern Europeans, have had negligible genetic impact. Despite centuries of Greek rule in Northwest India, for example, no trace of either the M170 or the M35
genetic markers associated with Greeks and Macedonians have been found.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>
[[File:R1a1a distribution.png|thumb|right|300px|Frequency distribution of R1a1a, also known as R-M17 and R-M198, adapted from {{Harvcoltxt|Underhill et al|2009}}.]]
{{See|List of R1a frequency by population}}
{{further|[[Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic groups]]}}
R1a has been found in high frequency at both the eastern and western ends of its core range, for example in some parts of India and [[Tajikistan]] on the one hand, and Poland on the other. Throughout all of these regions, R1a is dominated by the R1a1a (R-M17 or R-M198) sub-clade. In South Asia R1a1a has been observed often with high frequency<ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005">{{Harvcoltxt|Sengupta et al.|2005}}</ref><ref name="Sahoo et al. 2006">{{Harvcoltxt|Sahoo et al.|2006}}</ref> in a number of demographic groups. Hindus in Nepal/India as a whole show it at 69%.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Fornarino et al.|2009}}</ref>

Among the caste groups of India high percentage of this haplogroup is observed in [[Bengali Brahmins|West Bengal Brahmins]](72%)<ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005"/> to the east, [[Konkanastha|Konkanastha Brahmins]](48%)<ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005"/> to the west, [[Khatri]]s(67%)<ref name="Underhill et al. 2009">{{Harvcoltxt|Underhill et al.|2009}}</ref> in north and Iyenger(31%) Brahmins<ref name="Sengupta et al. 2005"/> of south. It has also been found in several [[South Indian]] [[Dravidian]]-speaking [[Adivasi]]s including the [[Chenchu]](26%),<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/> the [[Valmikis]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and the [[Kallar]] of [[Tamil Nadu]] suggesting that M17 is widespread in tribal southern Indians.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>

Besides these, studies show high percentages in regionally diverse groups such as [[Manipuri people|Manipuris]] (50%)<ref name="Underhill et al. 2009"/> to the extreme North East and in Punjab (47%)<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/> to the extreme North West.

In Pakistan it is found at 71% among the Mohanna and 46% among the [[Balti people|Balti]]s.<ref name="Underhill et al. 2009"/> While 13% of [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]] in [[Sri Lanka]] were found to be R1a1a(M17) positive.<ref name="Kivisild et al. 2003"/>
[[Indo-Aryans]] are believed to have arrived in the region between 2000 and 1250 BC and eventually disseminated their languages throughout South Asia. An early [[Vedic civilization]] is believed to have emerged in the region and helped shape many aspects of the early culture.

===Influence===
Due to its location, the Punjab region came under constant attack and influence from the east and the west. Invaded by the [[Mauryan Empire]], [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Kushans]], [[Scythians]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], and Afghans. Its legacy is a unique culture that combines Hindu, Buddhist, Greek, Persian, Islamic, Sikhs and lastly British elements were also adopted during colonial rule.The city of Taxila was founded by the son of Taksh, who was the son of Bharat and who, in turn, was the brother of Ram. It was reputed to house the oldest university in the world, [[Takshashila University]], one of the teachers was the great [[Vedic period|Vedic]] thinker and politician [[Chanakya]]. Taxila was a great centre of learning and intellectual discussion during the [[Maurya Empire]]. It is a UN [[World Heritage site]], and revered for its archaeological and religious history.A legend based on oral traditions holds that Lahore, known in ancient times as Lavapuri (City of Lava in Sanskrit), was founded by Prince Lava, the son of Rama, while Kasur was founded by his twin brother Prince Kusha. To this day, Lahore Fort has a vacant temple dedicated to Lava (also pronounced Loh, hence Loh-awar or "The Fort of Loh").

[[File:PazyrikHorseman.JPG|thumb|upright|A Scythian ([[Saka]]) horseman from [[Pazyryk]] in Central Asia, c. 300 BC.]]
Unique to central and western regions of Punjab (which form Pakistan's Punjab province) was that this area was incorporated into various central Asian, Greek and Persian empires, the area witnessed invasions by [[Alexander the Great]], [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] and [[Tamerlane]], to name a few. These were periods of contact between this region of Pakistan, the Persian Empire, and for a time this extended all the way to Greece. In later centuries, when Persian was the language of the Mughal government by force, Mughal architecture, poetry, art and music was an integral part of the region's culture. The official language of Punjab remained [[Persian language|Persian]] until the arrival of the British in the mid 19th century, where it was finally abolished and the administrative language was changed over to Urdu written in the [[Perso-Arabic script]] which was only adopted by the Muslims as Hindu's retained their [[Devanagari]] script and the Sikhs [[Gurmukhi]] both are members of the [[Brahmi]] script and native to India.<ref>http://www.panthic.org/news/135/ARTICLE/2701/2006-08-30.html</ref><ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cCo2Ray4B7kC&pg=PT1&lpg=PT1&dq=Language+and+literacy+in+social+practice+By+Janet+Maybin,+Open+University&source=bl&ots=93PVqCKhrd&sig=gF0z6avAMBHHQcH2mdfckm_L_a4&hl=en&ei=Gg1_SpPgC4msjAezr-nwAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=urdu%2Fperso&f=false Language and literacy in social practice] By Janet Maybin, Open University, page 102</ref>

===Punjabi Hindus===
Punjabi Hindus are a group of people that follow the Hindu religion and have their roots in the erstwhile joint Punjab of greater Panjab (West Punjab/East Punjab).

Today they are distributed in most parts of the northern India and in some parts of western India like Mumbai. In India, most of the Punjabi Hindus are concentrated in Indian states of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. There has also been continuous migration of Punjabi Hindus to western world countries like USA, Canada and UK.

The oldest Hindu texts such as the Vedas, Upanishads and Mahabharata were composed in Punjab or nearby region and therefore indirectly influenced the entire South Asian region through time.In fact, Punjabi Hindus can trace their roots from the time of the Vedas. Many would later convert into Sikhism to fight the Mughals. Hindu Punjabi's used to send their oldest son to become a Sikh this was mostly seen in the [[Khatri]] and [[Arora]] communities and is still practiced today. In fact, Punjabi Hindus can trace their roots from the time of the Vedas. Many modern day cities in Indian Punjab and Pakistan Punjab are still named from that period like Lahore etc.

Punjabi Hindus have their unique culture which resembles in some ways very closely to the culture of Sikhs and also differs in lot of other ways. The Punjabi Hindus usually have a very liberal lifestyle and are famous for their lavish wedding parties. Like other Hindus,and Sikhs they are also divided into castes. The most common castes are Khatri (Kshatriya in Hindi), Jatt or Jat, Brahman, Baniya, Rajput etc. Punjabi Hindus go to Hindu temples for worship.

===Arrival of Islam===
[[File:BullehShah.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Bulleh Shah]] the Sufi Muslim Scholar, Poet]]
The Punjabis were mainly Hindus with Buddhist and [[Zoroastrian]] minorities when the [[Umayyad]] Muslim Arab army led by [[Muhammad bin Qasim]] conquered the Punjab and Sindh in 711. Bin Qasim recorded that he so was overwhelmed by the gold in the [[Aditya]] Temple in the thriving trading city of Multan (known as ''Mulasthana'' then), that he recovered the expenses for his entire invasion. All Punjabis of that times of invasion converted out of force or fear to Islam to avoid further looting, rape and plundering by invaders. Many converted Punjabi muslims adopted the name of invader to avoid further persecution and atrocities, significant amount of muslim converts still trace there ancestry to sub continental Indian Hindu punjabis. Most of them now have adopted there Hindu surnames to reflect there ancestry.

During the reign of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], non-Muslims were ordered to pay the [[jaziya]] tax under Islamic law.<ref name=Esposito>[[John Esposito|John Louis Esposito]], ''Islam the Straight Path'', Oxford University Press, Jan 15, 1998, p. 34.</ref><ref>Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20</ref><ref>Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1991). The Holy Quran. Medina: King Fahd Holy Qur-an Printing Complex, pg. 507</ref> The province became an important centre and Lahore was made into a second capital of the Turk [[Ghaznavid Empire]] based out of [[Ghazni]].

===Mughals===
[[File:Badshahi Mosque July 1 2005 pic32 by Ali Imran (1).jpg|thumb|upright|Badshahi Masjid - The largest mosque of the Mughal Empire built by emperor [[Aurangzeb]].]]
The [[Mughals]] controlled the region from 1524 until 1739 and would also lavish the province with building projects such as the [[Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)|Shalimar Gardens]] and the [[Badshahi Mosque]], both situated in Lahore. Muslim soldiers, traders, architects, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to the Islamic [[Sultanate]] in South Asia and some may have settled in the Punjab. Following the decline of the Mughals, the [[Afsharid dynasty|Shah of Iran]] and founder of the Afsharid dynasty in [[Persia]], [[Nader Shah]] crossed the [[Indus]] and sacked the province in 1739. Later, the Afghan conqueror [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], incidentally born in Punjab, in the city of [[Multan]] made the Punjab a part of his [[Durrani Empire]] lasting until 1762.

===Afghans===
The founder of Afghanistan, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], an ethnic [[Pashtun people|Pashtun]] (''[[Pashtun people|Pathan]]''), was born on the outskirts of [[Multan]], southern Punjab where many of his descendants live to this day. After cementing his authority over various [[Pashtun tribes|Afghan tribes]], he went about to establish the first united Afghan Kingdom (''[[Durrani Empire|Greater Afghanistan]]'') that during its greatest extent included modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and northeastern Iran. The Punjab was a cultural reservoir for the Afghans, and many where attracted to its lush fertile lands, a process that continues to this very day. It has been said that with the loss of the breadbasket regions of the Punjab and Sindh, Afghanistan has never been able to achieve a stable state ever since. Many ethnic Afghan or Pashtun tribes continue to live in Pakistan's Punjab province such as the [[Khugyani]]s known as [[Khakwani]]s, [[Alizai]]s, [[Tareen]]s, [[Durrani]]s, [[Mullazai]]s, [[Niazi]]s, [[Khattak]]s, [[Lodhi]]s, [[Kakar]]s, [[Kakazai]]s, and [[Barakzai]]s to name a few.

===Sikhs===
[[File:Ranjitsingh.gif|right||thumb|upright|Portrait of Maharaja Ranjit Singh]]

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, the religion of [[Sikhism]] was born, and during the Mughal period its [[Misl]]s gradually emerged as a formidable military force until assimilated under the expanding [[Sikh Empire]]. After fighting [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], the Sikhs wrested control of the Punjab from his descendants and ruled in a [[Confederation|confederacy]], which later became the Sikh Empire of the Punjab under [[Ranjit Singh|Maharaja Ranjit Singh]]. A denizen of the city of [[Gujranwala]], the capital of Ranjit Singh's empire was Lahore.<ref>[http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/sikh.htm Sikh Period - Government of Pakistan]</ref> The Sikhs made architectural contributions to the city and the [[Lahore Fort]]. The Sikh empire was the first local power to rule the region since [[Muhammad of Ghor|Muhammed Ghori's]] defeat of [[Prithviraj III|Prithvi Raj Chauhan]] in 1192.

===British===
[[File:Raja Lal Singh, of First Anglo-Sikh War, 1846.jpg|left|thumb|[[Raja Lal Singh]], who led Sikh forces against the British during the First Anglo-Sikh War, 1846]]
The Maharaja's death in the summer of 1839 brought political chaos and the subsequent battles of succession and the bloody infighting between the factions at court weakened the state. Relationships with neighbouring British territories then broke down, starting the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]]; this led to a British official being resident in Lahore and the annexation of territory south of the Satluj to British India.

Some parts of Pakistani [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] also served as the centre of resistance in the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]].

===Independence and its aftermath===
In 1947 the Punjab province of British India was divided along religious lines into [[West Punjab]] and [[East Punjab]]. The western Punjabis voted to join the new country of Pakistan while the easterners joined India. This led to massive rioting as both sides committed atrocities against fleeing refugees.

The undivided Punjab, of which Punjab (Pakistan) forms a major region today, was home to a large minority population of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus unto 1947 apart from the Muslim majority.<ref>''The Punjab in 1920s – A Case study of Muslims'', Zarina Salamat, Royal Book Company, [[Karachi]], 1997. table 45, pp. 136. ISBN 969-407-230-1</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
===Pakistani Punjabis===
Punjabis make up almost 45% of the population of Pakistan. The Punjabis found in Pakistan belong to groups known as biradaris, which descend from a common male ancestor. In addition, Punjabi society is divided into two divisions, the zamindar groups or qoums, traditionally associated with farming and the moeens, who are traditionally artisans. Zamindars are further divided into qoups that claim pre-Islamic ancestry such as the [[Punjabi Rajput|Rajput]], [[Aheer]]s, [[Haral]]s, [[Ghosi (tribe)]], [[Muslim Jat of Punjab|Jat]], [[Punjabi Shaikh|Shaikhs]] or (Muslim [[Khatri]]), [[Kamboh]]s, [[Gujjar]]s, [[Dogar]]s and [[Labana|Rahmani]] (Muslim Labana). Zamindar groups claiming Central Asian or Middle Eastern ancestry include the [[Gakhar]]s, [[Khattar]], [[Awan Pakistan|Awan]], [[Mughal (tribe)|Mughal]] and [[Arain]], comprising the main tribes in the north of the province, while [[Khagga]], [[Bodla]], [[Jhandir]], [[Daudpota]], [[Gardezi]], [[Syed]] and [[Quraishi]] are found in the south, all of whom claim [[Arab]] ancestry. Immigrants from neighbouring regions, such as the [[Kashmiri Muslims|Kashmiri]], [[Punjabi Pathan|Pashtun]] and [[Punjabi Baloch|Baluch]], also form important element in the Punjabi population. Pashtun tribes like the [[Niazi]]s and the [[Khakwani]]s, are integrated into Punjabi village life. Especially the members of the Niazi tribe, who see themselves as Punjabis first. They have big communities in [[Mianwali]], [[Bakkar]], [[Lahore]], [[Faisalabad]], [[Sahiwal]] and [[Toba Tek Singh]]. Major Moeen groups include the [[Lohar]], [[Khateek]], [[Rawal]], [[Chhimba Darzi]], [[Muslim Teli|Teli]], [[Malik (Julaha)|Julaha]], [[Mallaah]], [[Mirasi]], who are associated with a particular crafts or occupation.<ref>''Muslim peoples : a world ethnographic survey'' Richard V. Weekes, editor-in-chief Greenwood Press 1978</ref>

Punjabis have traditionally and historically been farmers and soldiers, which has transferred into modern times with their dominance of agriculture and military fields in Pakistan. In addition, Punjabis in Pakistan have been quite prominent politically, having had many elected Members of Parliament. As the most ardent supporters of a Pakistani state, the Punjabis in Pakistan have shown a strong predilection towards the adoption of the Urdu language but nearly all speak Punjabi, and still identify themselves as ethnic Punjabis for the most part. Religious homogeneity remains elusive as a predominant Islamic [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]-[[Shi'a Islam|Shia]] population and a Christian minority have not completely wiped out diversity since the partition of British India. A variety of related sub-groups exist in Pakistan and are often considered by many Pakistani Punjabis to be simply regional Punjabis including the [[Seraikis]] (who overlap and are often considered transitional with the [[Sindhi people|Sindhis]]) and Punjabi Pathans (which publications like ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' consider a transitional group between Punjabis and [[Pashtun people|Pathans]].

{{See also|Languages of Pakistan}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Rank || State || Punjabi speakers || Percentage
|-
| — || '''Pakistan''' || '''76,335,300''' || '''44.15'''
|-
| 1 || [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] || 70,671,704 || 75.23
|-
| 2 || [[Sindh]] || 3,592,261 || 6.99
|-
| 3 || [[Islamabad]] || 1,343,625 || 71.66
|-
| 4 || [[North-West Frontier Province|NWFP]] || 396,085 || 0.97
|-
| 5 || [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] || 318,745 || 2.52
|-
| 6 || [[Fata]] || 12,880 || 0.23
|}

===Indian Punjabis===
[[File:Punjabi sardar.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Indian Punjabi farmer.]]

The population of [[Punjab (India)|Indian Punjab]] is divided into two major religious groups, the Sikhs and Hindus. It is further sub-divided into various [[tribal|tribal groups]], [[social groups|social groups (caste)]] and economic groups. Major sub-groups in India include the [[Arora]]s, Kalals/[[Ahluwalia]]s, [[Punjabi Banias|Bania]], [[Bhatia]]s, [[Saini]] [[Sikh]]s, [[Saini]] [[Hindu]]s, [[Punjabi Brahmins|Brahmin]] , [[Chamar]], [[Chhimba]], [[Chura]], [[Jatt Sikh]]s, [[Kamboj Sikh]]s, [[Khatri]], [[Labana]]s, [[Lohar]], [[Mahtam]], [[Mazhabi]], [[Nai (caste)|Nais]], [[Punjabi Rajput|Rajput]], [[Ramgarhia]], [[Ramdasia]], [[Sood]]s and [[Tarkhan]]s etc. The largest subgroups are Jatts with around 20% of the population, Chamars with around 12% of the population and Churas with around 10% of the population.

Like Punjabi Muslim society, these various [[caste system in India|caste]]s are associated with particular occupations or crafts. Communities such as the Jatt Sikh, Kamboj Sikh and Saini Sikh are essentially farmers, while the Arora, [[Punjabi Bania|Bania]], Bhatia and Khatri are associated to trade. Other groups are associated with particular crafts, include Lohar who were historically ironsmiths, while Tarkhans were carpenters and the Nai were barbers.<ref>''The Punjabis : The People, Their History, Culture and Enterprise''</ref>

Indian Punjab is also home to small groups of Muslims and Christian. Most of the [[East Punjab]]'s Muslims ''(in today's states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Chandigarh)'' left for West Punjab in 1947. However, a small community still exists today, mainly in [[Malerkotla]] which was spared during partition, the only Muslim princely state among the seven that formed the erstwhile [[Patiala]] and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU). The other six ''(mostly Sikh)'' states were: Patiala, [[Nabha]], [[Jind]], [[Faridkot, India|Faridkot]], [[Kapurthala]] and [[Kalsia]].

Punjabis in India have mainly [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] and [[Indo-Scythian]] origin. The Punjab region within India maintains a strong influence on the perceived culture of India towards the rest of the world. Numerous Bollywood film productions use the Punjabi language within its songs and dialogues as well as traditional dances and instruments such as the [[bhangra]] and the [[tabla]]. Prime Ministers of India including [[Gulzarilal Nanda]] and [[Inder Kumar Gujral]] in the past, and Dr. [[Manmohan Singh]] at present, are Punjabis, as are numerous players in the Indian cricket team (both past and present including [[Bishen Singh Bedi]], [[Kapil Dev]], [[Mohinder Amarnath]], [[Navjot Sidhu]], [[Harbhajan Singh]], [[Yuvraj Singh]], [[Yograj Singh]]).

==The Punjabi diaspora==
{{Main|Punjabi diaspora}}
[[File:Punjabi Speaking World.png|thumb|right|380px|Punjabis around the world]]
The Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers to many parts of the world. The United Kingdom has a significant number of Punjabis from both Pakistan and India as does Canada (specifically Vancouver and Toronto) and the United States, (specifically California's [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]]). The Middle East has a large immigrant community of Punjabis, in places such as the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] and [[Kuwait]]. There are large communities in East Africa including the countries of [[Kenya]], [[Uganda]] and [[Tanzania]]. Punjabis have also emigrated to Australia, New Zealand and Southeast Asia including [[Malaysia]], [[Thailand]], [[Singapore]] and [[Hong Kong]].

===Punjabis by country===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Rank !! Country !! First language
|-
|1|| {{flag|Pakistan}} || 76,335,300
|-
|2|| {{flag|India}} || 29,109,672
|-
|3|| {{flag|United Kingdom}} || 2,300,000
|-
|4|| {{flag|Canada}} || 800,000
|-
|5|| {{flag|United Arab Emirates}} || 720,000
|-
|6|| {{flag|United States}} || 640,000
|-
|7|| {{flag|Saudi Arabia}} || 620,000
|-
|8|| {{flag|Hong Kong}} || 260,000
|-
|9|| {{flag|Malaysia}} || 185,000
|-
|10|| {{flag|South Africa}} || 140,000
|-
|11|| {{flag|Burma}} || 120,000
|-
|12|| {{flag|France}} || 90,000
|-
|13|| {{flag|Italy}} || 80,000
|-
|14|| {{flag|Thailand}} || 75,000
|-
|15|| {{flag|Japan}} || 75,000 {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
|-
|16|| {{flag|Mauritius}} || 70,000
|-
|17|| {{flag|Singapore}} || 70,000
|-
|18|| {{flag|Oman}} || 68,000
|-
|19|| {{flag|Libya}} || 65,000
|-
|20|| {{flag|Bahrain}} || 60,000
|-
|21|| {{flag|Kenya}} || 55,000
|-
|22|| {{flag|Australia}} || 50,000
|-
|23|| {{flag|Tanzania}} || 45,000
|-
|24|| {{flag|Kuwait}} || 40,000
|-
|25|| {{flag|Germany}} || 35,000
|}

==Diversity==
[[File:Computer Lab at GGI 3.JPG|thumb|Young men and women inside an internet cafe in India.]]
The Punjab region is diverse, due to its location near Central Asia. It has been prone to numerous [[Human migration|migrations]] and the resulting settlers have left imprints upon the local Punjabi population that remain present in the numerous sub-groups. The Punjabi people are a [[heterogeneous]] group and can be subdivided into a number of ethnic clan groups in both the East and West Punjab called ''[[biradri]]'' (literally meaning a tribe) , each having their own subtle differences.

==Genetics==
The Punjabi people share common genetics with various neighboring populations. The primary groups are the Pashtuns to the north-west and west, Kashmiris to the north and northeast and Sindhis to the south and southwest.<ref>/media/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/Rosenberg2007.png</ref>

In terms of ancestry, the majority of Punjabis share many similar genes with other northern Indian populations, but also show a significant relationship with west Eurasian groups. In a 2004 Stanford study conducted with a wide sampling from India, including 112 Punjabis, and selected other countries, displayed the following:

:Results show that Indian tribal and caste populations derive largely from the same genetic heritage of [[Pleistocene]] southern and western Asians and have received limited gene flow from external regions since the [[Holocene]].<ref>[http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2003_v72_p313-332.pdf The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations]</ref>

This study also found that roughly 42% of genetic markers in the Punjab were of West Asian origin, the highest amongst the sampled group of South Asians.{{Dubious|date=July 2009}}{{cite}} Another study also showed that there has been limited gene flow in and out of north India, but the highest amount of genetic inflow from the west showed up in the Punjab region:

:Broadly, the average proportion of mtDNAs from West Eurasia among Indian caste populations is 17% (Table 2). In the northern States of India their share is greater, reaching over 30% in [[Kashmir]] and [[Gujarat]], nearly 43% in [[Indian Punjab]].<ref>http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=516768</ref><ref>[http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/5/26 Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in South and Southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans]</ref>

Some preliminary conclusions from these varying tests support a largely north Indian genetic base for most Punjabis accompanied by some of the highest degrees of west Asian admixture found in north India.

==Culture and society==
{{Main|Punjabi culture}}
[[Image:International border at Wagah - evening flag lowering ceremony.jpg|thumb|250px|right| The evening flag lowering ceremony at the India-Pakistan International Border near Wagah in Punjab.]]
Punjabi culture is the culture of the [[Punjab region]]. It is one of the oldest and richest cultures in world history, dating from ancient antiquity to the modern era. The Punjabi Culture is the culture of the Punjabi people who are now distributed throughout the world. The scope, history, sophistication and complexity of the culture are vast. Some of the main areas include, Punjabi Philosophy, poetry, spirituality, education, artistry, dance, music, cuisine, science, technology, military warfare, architecture, traditions, values and history.

===Religion===
Science, history and religion has played an important role in shaping Punjabi ethnic identity and it is not uncommon for Punjabis to generally treat their religious identity as synonymous with their ethnic identity or at least a combined identity that differentiates them from others. Punjabis belong largely to three major religions: Islam, Hinduism and Sikhism. There are also small number of Christians, [[Jain]]s and Buddhists.

Muslim Punjabis are the largest group in the Punjab region and are largely concentrated in Pakistan, though a small Muslim Punjabi population exists in India, with approximately 20,000 in New Delhi<ref>[http://www.dailypioneer.com/343463/Punjabi-or-Muslim-.html Punjabi or Muslim] ''Daily Pioneer'' June 6, 2011</ref>. Sikhism and Hinduism are the major religions followed by Punjabis in India, with Jainism being the largest minority religion that is followed largely by [[Punjabi Banias]] and [[Bhabra]] people.

===Language===
{{Copy edit-section|date=June 2010}}
{{Main|Punjabi language}}

The main language of the Punjabi people is [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and its associated dialects, which differ depending on the region of Punjab the individual speaker belongs to, and with notable differences in dialect found in Pakistani Punjabi (Lahnda dialect). In Pakistani Punjab, many people speak Urdu but nearly all speak Punjabi. In Indian Punjab, most people can speak Hindi. English is sometimes used, but not commonly, and people may also speak [[Urdu]], [[Hindi]]. There is significant Persian influence found in certain Punjabi dialects, although it is more pronounced in the Pakistani Punjab region, due to the region's proximity to the Iranic plateau. In recent years, the respective Punjabi languages have absorbed a considerable number of loan words from surrounding areas/provinces as well as from English and continue to evolve.

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Punjabi cuisine}}

Punjabi Cuisine has an immense range of dishes and has become world-leader in the field so much so that many entrepreneurs that have invested in the sector have built large personal fortunes due to popularity of Punjabi Cuisine throughout the world.

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Punjab}}
[[File:Dhol players.jpg|thumb|[[Bhangra]] tournament concert]]
Bhangra is one of the many Punjabi musical art forms that is increasingly being listened to in the west and is becoming a mainstream favourite. Punjabi music is being used by western musicians, in many ways, such as mixing it with other compositions to produce award-winning music. In addition, Punjabi classical music is increasingly becoming popular in the west due to the popular admiration of sounds of the Punjabi language and its composition. The most common instruments used in both India and Pakistan Punjab are the [[tabla]], [[harmonium]] and sometimes [[sitar]].

===Punjabi dances===
{{Main|Punjabi dance}}

[[Punjabi dance]]s, due to the long history of the [[Punjabi culture]] and of the Punjabi people there is a large number of dances. These dances are normally performed at times of celebration the most prominent being at Punjabi weddings, where the elation is usually particularly intense. Punjabi dances are designed for either men or women.

===Marriage===
{{Main|Punjabi wedding traditions}}

Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are traditionally conducted in Punjabi and are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. While the actual religious marriage ceremony, among Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus, and Jains may be conducted in Arabic, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Pali/Prakrit or English by the Kazi, Pandit, Granthi or Priest, there are commonalities in ritual, song, dance, food, and dress. The Punjabi wedding has many rituals and ceremonies that have evolved since traditional times. Punjabi receptions of all sorts are known to be very energetic; filled with loud Bhangra music, people dancing, and a wide variety of Punjabi food.

==Prominent Punjabis==
{{Main|List of Punjabis|List of Punjabi poets|List of Punjabi authors|List of Punjabi singers|List of Punjabi language poets}}

==See also==
* [[Punjab region]]
* [[Punjabi culture]]
* [[Punjabi language]]
* [[Punjabi cuisine]]
* [[Music of Punjab]]
* [[Punjabi dance]]
* [[Punjabi folklore]]
* [[Punjabi press]]
* [[History of the Punjab]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References and further reading==
* Gilmartin, David. ''Empire and Islam: Punjab and the Making of Pakistan''. Univ of California Press (1988), ISBN 0-520-06249-3.
* Grewal, J.S. and Gordon Johnson. ''The Sikhs of the Punjab (The New Cambridge History of India)''. Cambridge University Press; Reprint edition (1998), ISBN 0-521-63764-3.
* [[Denzil Ibbetson]], ''Punjab Castes: Race, Castes and Tribes of the People of Punjab''. Cosmo Publications, ISBN 81-7020-458-5.
* Ibbetson, Denzil, (2002). ''Panjab castes''. Low Price Publications. ISBN 81-7536-290-1.
* Latif, Syed. ''History of the Panjab''. Kalyani (1997), ISBN 81-7096-245-5.
* Rose, H.A. Denzil Ibbetson, [[Edward Maclagan]] (reprint 1990). ''Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province''. Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0505-5.
* Sekhon, Iqbal S. ''The Punjabis : The People, Their History, Culture and Enterprise''. Delhi, Cosmo, 2000, 3 Vols., ISBN 81-7755-051-9.
* Singh, Gurharpal. ''Ethnic Conflict in India : A Case-Study of Punjab''. Palgrave Macmillan (2000).
* Singh, Gurharpal (Editor) and Ian Talbot (Editor). ''Punjabi Identity: Continuity and Change''. South Asia Books (1996), ISBN 81-7304-117-2.
* Singh, Khushwant. ''A History of the Sikhs - Volume 1''.Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-562643-5
* Steel, Flora Annie. ''Tales of the Punjab : Told by the People (Oxford in Asia Historical Reprints)''. Oxford University Press, USA; New Ed edition (2002), ISBN 0-19-579789-2.
* Tandon, Prakash and Maurice Zinkin. ''Punjabi Century 1857-1947'', University of California Press (1968), ISBN 0-520-01253-4.
* {{loc}} [http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/32.htm Pakistan], [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India]
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2156/5/26 DNA boundaries in South and Southwest Asia, BMC Genetics 2004, 5:26]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pan Ethnologue Eastern Panjabi]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=pnb Ethnologue Western Panjabi]
* [http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ Indian Census]
* [http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/other_tables/pop_by_mother_tongue.pdf Pakistan Census]
* [http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2003_v72_p313-332.pdf The Genetic Heritage of the Earliest Settlers Persists Both in Indian Tribal and Caste Populations, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 72:313–332, 2003]
* {{Cite book|last=Talib|first=Gurbachan|authorlink=Gurbachan Singh Talib|title= [[Muslim League Attack on Sikhs and Hindus in the Punjab 1947]]|year=1950|publisher=[[Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee]]|location=India}}[http://www.bharatvani.org/books/mla/ Online 1] [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC03809888&id=9fQLAAAAIAAJ&q=Muslim+League+Attack+on+Sikhs+and+Hindus+in+the+Punjab+1947&dq=Muslim+League+Attack+on+Sikhs+and+Hindus+in+the+Punjab+1947&pgis=1 Online 2] [http://allaboutsikhs.com/books/gst/ Online 3] (A free copy of this book can be read from any 3 of the included "Online Sources" of this free “Online Book”)

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

*{{Official website|http://theworldofsun.com}}
* [http://www.unp.me Punjabi Community Forum]
*{{Official website|http://www.theworldofsun.com/sochlo/|name=Great people of Punjab, India}}
* [http://www.jattworld.com Jattworld.com - The Punjabi Jatts]
* [http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/peoplesandlanguages.html Peoples and Languages in Pre-Islamic Indus Valley]
* [http://asianbookcenter.com/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=25&products_id=524 Free Punjabi (Gurmukhi) Primer - Especially designed for those who know English]

{{Ethnic Groups of India|hide}}
{{Ethnic groups, Social groups (Caste) and tribes the Punjab}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Punjabi People}}
[[Category:Punjabi people| ]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Punjabi tribes| ]]
[[Category:Punjabi culture]]
[[Category:Muslim communities]]

[[ar:بنجاب (عرق)]]
[[bn:পাঞ্জাবি জাতি]]
[[bg:Пенджабци]]
[[fa:مردم پنجابی]]
[[ko:펀자브인]]
[[hi:पंजाबी समुदाय]]
[[hr:Pandžapci]]
[[id:Punjabi]]
[[ka:პენჯაბელები]]
[[ja:パンジャーブ人]]
[[no:Punjabier]]
[[pa:ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਲੋਕ]]
[[pnb:پنجابی لوک]]
[[pl:Pendżabczycy]]
[[ru:Панджабцы]]
[[simple:Punjabi people]]
[[sr:Панџапци]]
[[sh:Pendžapci]]
[[ta:பஞ்சாபி மக்கள்]]
[[zh:旁遮普人]]

Copa América 2011

2011-05-17T01:33:11Z

134.134.139.70: /* Teilnehmer */

{{Infobox Fußballturnier
|name=Copa América
|kontinent =Südamerika
|jahr =2011
|land =[[Buenos Aires]], [[La Plata (Stadt)|La Plata]], [[Mendoza (Stadt)|Mendoza]],[[Córdoba (Argentinien)|Córdoba]], [[Santa Fe (Argentinien)|Santa Fe]], [[San Salvador de Jujuy]], [[Salta (Stadt)|Salta]] ({{ARG}})
|untertitel =Fußball-Südamerikameisterschaft
|bild = Copa America 2011.svg
|bildgroesse =170px
|bildunterschrift =
|bewerber =
|teilnehmer =12 (10 + 2 Gastmannschaften)
|sieger =
|anzahl =
|erstes spiel =[[1. Juli]] [[2011]]
|endspiel =[[24. Juli]] [[2011]]
|spiele =26
|tore =
|zuschauer =
|torschützenkönig =
|bester spieler =
|gelbe karten =
|gelbrote karten =
|rote karten =
}}

Die '''Copa América''' 2011 wird die '''43.''' Ausspielung der südamerikanischen Kontinentalmeisterschaft im Fußball und findet vom 1. bis 24. Juli zum neunten Mal in Argentinien statt.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.conmebol.com/conmebol/activeCompetition.html?type=1&x=35| title=Copa América Argentina 2011 | accessdate=2010-08-17 | last= | first= | authorlink= | coauthors= | date= | format=online | work=CONMEBOL | publisher=Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol | pages= | language=Spanisch | archiveurl= | archivedate= | quote= }}</ref>

Der Gewinner des Turniers nimmt am [[FIFA-Konföderationen-Pokal 2013]] in Brasilien teil. Sollte Brasilien das Turnier gewinnen, ist der Finalist qualifiziert.

== Teilnehmer ==

* {{ARG|Argentinische Fußballnationalmannschaft}} (Gastgeber)
* {{BOL|Bolivianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
* {{BRA|Brasilianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}} (Titelverteidiger)
* {{CHL|Chilenische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
* {{ECU|Ecuadorianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
* {{COL|Kolumbianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
* {{CRC|Japanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}} (Gastmannschaft)
* {{MEX|Mexikanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}<ref name=FoxSports10708200">{{cite news|url=http://foxsports.foxnews.com/soccer/story/10708200/Mexico-will-send-Olympic-team-to-2011-Copa-America|title=Mexico to send Olympic Team|date=2010-03-21|publisher=''Associated Press''|language=english|accessdate=2010-08-17}}</ref> (Gastmannschaft)
* {{PRY|Paraguayische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
* {{PER|Peruanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
* {{URY|Uruguayische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
* {{VEN|Venezolanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}

Wie seit dem Turnier [[Copa América 1993|1993]] nehmen neben den zehn Mitgliedern der CONMEBOL wieder zwei nicht südamerikanische Gastmannschaften teil. Eine der beiden Gastmannschaften ist „Dauergast“ Mexiko, das bereits zum achten Mal teilnimmt dabei. Als zweite Gastmannschaft war eigentlich Japan vorgesehen, doch nach dem Erdbeben und dem folgenden Tsunami erwog man zunächst eine Nichtteilnahme. Spanien, USA, Honduras und Costa Rica wurden als mögliche Nachrücker gehandelt.<ref>http://newsticker.sueddeutsche.de/list/id/1136697</ref> Der Welt- und Europameister sagte jedoch am 13. April 2011 seine Teilnahme ab. <ref>[http://www.sport1.de/de/fussball/fus_international/newspage_380137.html Spanien sagt Copa-Teilnahme ab ], sport1.de vom 13. April 2011</ref> Am 14. April sagte Japan zu, doch an der Copa teilzunehmen. <ref>[http://de.fifa.com/worldfootball/news/newsid=1418178.html FIFA.com: "Blue Samurai" nehmen doch an Copa América teil]</ref>

== Spielstätten ==

{| class="wikitable" width=100%
!Stadt
!Name des Stadions
!Spielstätte des Fußballvereins
!Kapazität
|-
| [[Buenos Aires]]
| [[Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti]]
| [[CA River Plate]]
| 65.645
|-
| [[La Plata (Stadt)|La Plata]]
| [[Estadio Ciudad de La Plata]]
| [[Estudiantes de La Plata]]
| 53.000
|-
| [[Mendoza (Stadt)|Mendoza]]
| [[Estadio Malvinas Argentinas]]
| [[CD Godoy Cruz]]
| 48.000
|-
| [[Córdoba (Argentinien)|Córdoba]]
| [[Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes]]
| [[CA Talleres]], [[CA Belgrano]], [[Instituto Atlético Central Córdoba|Instituto]] (nur wichtige Spiele / Derbys der Klubs)
| 46.083
|-
| [[Santa Fe (Argentinien)|Santa Fe]]
| [[Estadio Brigadier General Estanislao López]]
| [[CA Colón]]
| 32.500
|-
| [[San Juan (Argentinien)|San Juan]]
| [[Estadio del Bicentenario]]
| zukünftig: [[CA San Martín de San Juan]]
| 25.000
|-
| [[San Salvador de Jujuy]]
| [[Estadio 23 de Agosto]]
| [[CA Gimnasia y Esgrima de Jujuy]]
| 24.000
|-
| [[Salta (Stadt)|Salta]]
| [[Estadio Padre Ernesto Martearena]]
| [[Centro Juventud Antoniana]]
| 20.408
|-
|}
{| border0 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=1 style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa;"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
|align="center" |Estadio Ciudad de La Plata (Dezember 2010) || align="center" |Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes || align="center"|Estadio Padre Ernesto Martearena
|-
|[[Datei:Estadio único de la plata - diciembre de 2010.JPG|200px]] || [[Datei:Chateaucarrerasdefrente.JPG|180px]] || [[Datei:El martearena.jpg|230px]]
|}

{| border0 cellspacing=1 cellpadding=1 style="border: 1px solid #aaaaaa;"
|- class="hintergrundfarbe5"
|align="center" |Im Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti findet das Finale statt.
|-
|[[Datei:River Monumental Panoramic.jpg|800px]]
|}

== Gruppenphase ==

=== Gruppe A ===

{| class="wikitable float-right" width:300px;"
|- bgcolor="#BBCCDD"
! Rang
! style="width:200px;" | Land
! Tore
! Punkte
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 1
| {{ARG|Argentinische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 2
| {{BOL|Bolivianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 3
| {{JPN|Japanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 4
| {{COL|Kolumbianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="width:400px;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 1. Juli 2011, 21:15 Uhr, Estadio Ciudad de La Plata
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Argentina.svg|20px]] Argentinien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Bolivia.svg|20px]] Bolivien || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 2. Juli 2011, 15:30 Uhr, Estadio 23 de Agosto, Salvador de Jujuy
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Colombia.svg|20px]] Kolumbien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Japan.svg|20px]] Japan || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 6. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio General López, Santa Fe
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Argentina.svg|20px]] Argentinien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Colombia.svg|20px]] Kolumbien || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 7. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr, Estadio 23 de Agosto, Salvador de Jujuy
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Bolivia.svg|20px]] Bolivien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Japan.svg|20px]] Japan || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 10. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr, Estadio General López, Santa Fe
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Colombia.svg|20px]] Kolumbien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Bolivia.svg|20px]] Bolivien || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 11. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes, Córdoba
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Argentina.svg|20px]] Argentinien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Japan.svg|20px]] Japan || -:- (-:-)
|}
*Jeweils Ortszeit ([[UTC−4]] / +6 Stunden = [[Sommerzeit#Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit|Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit]]).

=== Gruppe B ===

{| class="wikitable float-right" width:300px;"
|- bgcolor="#BBCCDD"
! Rang
! style="width:200px;" | Land
! Tore
! Punkte
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 1
| {{BRA|Brasilianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 2
| {{ECU|Ecuadorianische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 3
| {{PAR|Paraguayische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 4
| {{VEN|Venezolanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="width:400px;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 3. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr, Estadio Ciudad de La Plata
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Brazil.svg|20px]] Brasilien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Venezuela.svg|20px]] Venezuela || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 3. Juli 2011, 18:30 Uhr, Estadio General López, Santa Fe
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Paraguay.svg|20px]] Paraguay || – || [[Datei:Flag of Ecuador.svg|20px]] Ecuador || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 9. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr, Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes, Córdoba
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Brazil.svg|20px]] Brasilien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Paraguay.svg|20px]] Paraguay || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 9. Juli 2011, 18:30 Uhr, Estadio Padre Ernesto Martearena, Salta
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Venezuela.svg|20px]] Venezuela || – || [[Datei:Flag of Ecuador.svg|20px]] Ecuador || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 13. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr, Estadio Padre Ernesto Martearena, Salta
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Paraguay.svg|20px]] Paraguay || – || [[Datei:Flag of Venezuela.svg|20px]] Venezuela || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 13. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes, Córdoba
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Brazil.svg|20px]] Brasilien || – || [[Datei:Flag of Ecuador.svg|20px]] Ecuador || -:- (-:-)
|}
*Jeweils Ortszeit ([[UTC−4]] / +6 Stunden = [[Sommerzeit#Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit|Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit]]).

=== Gruppe C ===

{| class="wikitable float-right" width:300px;"
|- bgcolor="#BBCCDD"
! Rang
! style="width:200px;" | Land
! Tore
! Punkte
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 1
| {{CHL|Chilenische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 2
| {{MEX|Mexikanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 3
| {{PER|Peruanische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|- bgcolor="#CCDDEE"
| align="center" | 4
| {{URU|Uruguayische Fußballnationalmannschaft}}
| align="center" |
| align="center" |
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="width:400px;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 4. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr, Estadio del Bicentenario, San Juan
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Uruguay.svg|20px]] Uruguay || – || [[Datei:Flag of Peru.svg|20px]] Peru || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 4. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio del Bicentenario, San Juan
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Chile.svg|20px]] Chile || – || [[Datei:Flag of Mexico.svg|20px]] Mexiko || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 8. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr, Estadio Malvinas Argentinas, Mendoza
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Peru.svg|20px]] Peru || – || [[Datei:Flag of Mexico.svg|20px]] Mexiko || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 8. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio Malvinas Argentinas, Mendoza
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Uruguay.svg|20px]] Uruguay || – || [[Datei:Flag of Chile.svg|20px]] Chile || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 12. Juli 2011, 19:45 Uhr, Estadio Malvinas Argentinas, Mendoza
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Chile.svg|20px]] Chile || – || [[Datei:Flag of Peru.svg|20px]] Peru || -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 12. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio Ciudad de La Plata
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| [[Datei:Flag of Uruguay.svg|20px]] Uruguay || – || [[Datei:Flag of Mexico.svg|20px]] Mexiko || -:- (-:-)
|}
*Jeweils Ortszeit ([[UTC−4]] / +6 Stunden = [[Sommerzeit#Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit|Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit]]).

== Finalrunde ==

{{Turnierplan8-Platz3-ohne

|16. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr| Sieger Gruppe A | | Bester Dritter |
|16. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr| Zweiter Gruppe A | | Zweiter Gruppe C |
|17. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr| Sieger Gruppe B | | Zweitbester Dritter |
|17. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr| Sieger Gruppe C | | Zweiter Gruppe B |

|19. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr| | | |
|20. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr| | | |

|24. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr| | | |

|23. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr| | | |
}}

=== Viertelfinale ===

{| class="wikitable" style="width:600px;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 16. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr, Estadio Mario Alberto Kempes, Córdoba
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Sieger Gruppe A || - || Bester Dritter || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 16. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr, Estadio Brigadier General Estanislao López, Santa Fe
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Zweiter Gruppe A || - || Zweiter Gruppe C || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 17. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr, Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, La Plata
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Sieger Gruppe B || - || Zweitbester Dritter || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 17. Juli 2011, 19:15 Uhr, Estadio del Bicentenario, San Juan
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Sieger Gruppe C || - || Zweiter Gruppe B || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|}
*Jeweils Ortszeit ([[UTC−4]] / +6 Stunden = [[Sommerzeit#Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit|Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit]]).

=== Halbfinale ===

{| class="wikitable" style="width:600px;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 19. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, La Plata
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Sieger Viertelfinale 1 || - || Sieger Viertelfinale 2 || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 20. Juli 2011, 21:45 Uhr, Estadio Malvinas Argentinas, Mendoza
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Sieger Viertelfinale 3 || - || Sieger Viertelfinale 4 || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|}
*Jeweils Ortszeit ([[UTC−4]] / +6 Stunden = [[Sommerzeit#Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit|Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit]]).

=== Spiel um Platz 3 ===

{| class="wikitable" style="width:600px;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 23. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr, Estadio Ciudad de La Plata, La Plata
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Verlierer Halbfinale 1 || - || Verlierer Halbfinale 2 || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|}
*Ortszeit ([[UTC−4]] / +6 Stunden = [[Sommerzeit#Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit|Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit]]).

=== Finale ===

{| class="wikitable" style="width:600px;"
|- bgcolor="#dddddd"
| colspan="4" | 24. Juli 2011, 16:00 Uhr, Estadio Monumental Antonio Vespucio Liberti, Buenos Aires
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
| Sieger Halbfinale 1 || - || Sieger Halbfinale 2 || align="center" | -:- (-:-)
|}
*Ortszeit ([[UTC−4]] / +6 Stunden = [[Sommerzeit#Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit|Mitteleuropäische Sommerzeit]]).

== Einzelnachweise ==

<references />

== Weblinks ==

* [http://www.conmebol.com/conmebol/indexConmebol.html Offizielle Website der CONMEBOL] (englisch)

{{Navigationsleiste Copa América}}

[[Kategorie:Copa América]]
[[Kategorie:Fußball 2011]]
[[Kategorie:Sportveranstaltung in Argentinien]]
[[Kategorie:Fußball in Argentinien]]

[[ar:كوبا أمريكا 2011]]
[[el:Κόπα Αμέρικα 2011]]
[[en:2011 Copa América]]
[[es:Copa América 2011]]
[[fi:Copa América 2011]]
[[fr:Copa América 2011]]
[[hu:2011-es Copa América]]
[[it:Copa América 2011]]
[[ja:コパ・アメリカ2011]]
[[ko:2011년 코파 아메리카]]
[[lt:2011 m. Copa América]]
[[nl:Copa América 2011]]
[[pl:Copa América 2011]]
[[pt:Copa América de 2011]]
[[ru:Кубок Америки по футболу 2011]]
[[sv:Copa América 2011]]
[[zh:2011年美洲國家盃]]

Pir Panjal

2010-09-21T17:21:46Z

134.134.139.70:

{{Unreferenced stub|auto=yes|date=December 2009}}
[[Image:Kashmir-sat-nasa.jpg|thumb|Kashmir valley seen from satellite. Snow capped Pir Panjal range separates the valley from plains.]]
[[File:Pir Panjal 2478293509 8000ae5902 o.jpg|thumb|left|Pir Panjal Range]]The '''Pir Panjal Range''' is a mountain range in the [[Himalayas|Middle Himalayas]] running from east south east to west north west across the states of [[Himachal Pradesh]] and [[Indian administered Kashmir]] in the [[Republic of India]] as well as [[Pakistan]] administered [[Kashmir]]. The eastern segment of the range forms the [[Drainage divide|watershed]] that separates the [[Chenab]] (Chandrabhaga) [[river basin]] from the [[Beas River|Beas]] and [[Ravi River|Ravi]] river basins.

''[[Rohtang]] La'' is a [[mountain pass]] on the eastern Pir Panjal range. It connects [[Manali]] in the [[Kullu]] Valley to [[Keylong]] in the Lahaul Valley. ''[[Haji Pir Pass]]'' is a [[mountain pass]] on the western Pir Panjal range between [[Poonch]] and [[Uri (India)]]. Deo Tibba (6001 m) and Indrasan (6221 m) are two important peaks at the eastern end of the mountain range. They can be approached from both the [[Parbati]]-Beas Valley (Kulu District) and the Chandra (Upper Chenab) Valley (Lahaul and Spiti District) in the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. The [[hill station]]s of [[Gulmarg]] in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir lies in this range.

==See also==
* [[Ganga Choti]]

{{Coord|33|53|36|N|74|29|19|E|type:mountain_region:IN|display=title}}

[[Category:Geography of Jammu and Kashmir]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of India]]

{{India-geo-stub}}

Haji Pir Pass is an important outpost manned by the Pakistan Army. The pass witnessed Pakistani aggression during both the 1965 and 1971 wars. India captured this pass in the 1965 war due to lack of Pakistani strength in that area and was later returned to Pakistan during exchange of each others territories. During the 1971 war, Pakistan army repulsed to Indian attacks on the post. This pass today continues to be part of Pakistan Occupied Kashmir.

[[cs:Pír Pandžál]]
[[nl:Pir Panjal]]
[[pnb:پیر پنجال]]
[[ru:Пир-Панджал]]
[[simple:Pir Panjal Range]]
[[sv:Pir Panjal]]
[[ur:پیر پنجال]]

Yellow dog Democrat

2008-12-04T17:52:30Z

134.134.139.70: Undid revision 255862772 by 71.8.5.227 (talk) Vandalism

{{Cleanup|date=May 2008}}
In the late 19th century and throughout the 20th century, '''Yellow Dog Democrats''' were voters in the [[U.S. Southern states]] who consistently voted for [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] candidates. The term arose from the notion that loyal Southern Democrats would vote for a yellow dog before voting for a Republican. The term is now often used more generally to mean any Democrat who will vote the Party ticket under almost any circumstances.

==History and usage==
The phrase is thought to have achieved popularity during the 1928 Presidential race between Democrat [[Al Smith]] and Republican candidate [[Herbert Hoover]], when Senator [[James Thomas Heflin|J. Thomas Heflin]] (D-Alabama) crossed party lines to support Hoover.

The first known usage to date of “yaller dog” in relation to Democrats occurred in the 1900 Kentucky gubernatorial contest which turned into quite a dogfight. [[Irvin S. Cobb]] wrote a first hand account in his book ''Exit Laughing'', published in 1941, now in Canadian public domain and authorized for academic and non-profit use. It details the saga of the Kentucky Governor [[William Goebel]], who killed a man, exploited the split Democratic Party in Kentucky, and was assassinated in 1900 -- shot in the chest the day before being sworn into office, and dying two days after taking the oath of office.

Mr. Cobb relates —

<blockquote>“the most devastating retort I ever did hear. It was delivered by Theodore Hallam, a battered-looking, hard-hitting, hard-drinking, little Irish lawyer, and an ex-member of Morgan's Rangers — and that for nearly half a century qualified a man for social and political distinction anywhere in the border South and particularly in Kentucky. Despite a high, strident voice, Hallam was perhaps the greatest natural orator in a state of natural orators and had a tongue pointed with a darting, instantaneous wit.”</blockquote>

<blockquote>“Hallam lived in [[Covington, Kentucky|Covington]], where Goebel likewise lived, and as a comrade in war and an ally in peace of Colonel Sanford, the Conservative whom Goebel pistoled to death, he hated Goebel mightily. Having bolted when Goebel seized the gubernatorial nomination by craft and device — and at the last moment, by open violence — Hallam promptly took the stump against him and went about over the troubled commonwealth joyously sowing [[dragons' teeth]] and [[poison ivy]].</blockquote>

<blockquote>The seceding wing of the party picked on Hallam to open its fight, and chose the town of [[Bowling Green, Kentucky|Bowling Green]] as a fitting place for the firing of the first gun, Bowling Green being a town where the rebellion inside the ranks was widespread and vehement. But Goebel had his adherents there, too.</blockquote>

<blockquote>I could fairly smell trouble cooking on that simmering-hot August afternoon when Hallam rose up in the jammed courthouse to begin his speech. Hardly had he started when a local bravo, himself a most handy person in a rough-and-tumble argument, stood upon the seat of his chair, towering high above the heads of those about him.</blockquote>

<blockquote>"I allow I want to ask you a question!" he demanded in a tone like the roar of one of Bashan's bulls.</blockquote>

<blockquote>One-third of the crowd yelled: "Go ahead, Black jack!" The other two-thirds yelled: "Throw him out!" and a few enthusiastic spirits suggested the advisability of destroying the gentleman utterly, and started reaching for the armpit or the hip pocket, as the case might be. Despite the heat all hands were wearing their alpaca or their seersucker coats which, if you knew our sturdy yeomanry in those parlous days, was a bad sign.</blockquote>

<blockquote>With a wave of his hand Hallam stilled the tumult.</blockquote>

<blockquote>"Let it be understood now and hereafter, that this is to be no joint debate," he said in that high-pitched shrill voice of his. "My friends have arranged for the use of this building and I intend to be the only speaker. But it is a tenet of our faith that in a Democratic gathering no man who calls himself a Democrat shall be denied the right to be heard. If the gentleman will be content to ask his question, whatever it is, and abide by my answer to it, I am willing that he should speak."</blockquote>

<blockquote>"That suits me," clarioned the interrupter. "My question is this: Didn't you say at the Louisville convention not four weeks ago that if the Democrats of Kentucky, in convention assembled, nominated a yaller dog for governor you would vote for him?"</blockquote>

<blockquote>"I did," said Hallam calmly.</blockquote>

<blockquote>"Well, then," whooped the heckler, eager now to press his seeming advantage, "in the face of that statement, why do you now repudiate the nominee of that convention, the Honorable William Goebel?"</blockquote>

<blockquote>For his part Hallam waited for perfect quiet and at length got it.</blockquote>

<blockquote>"I admit," he stated blandly, "that I said then what I now repeat, namely, that when the Democratic party of Kentucky, in convention assembled, sees fit in its wisdom to nominate a yaller dog for the governorship of this great state, I will support him — but lower than that ye shall not drag me!"</blockquote>

So, ironically, the first known use of “yaller dog” was directly aimed at a Democrat by a Democrat.

There are indications that the term was in widespread and easily understandable use by 1923. In a letter written in Huntland, Tennessee by Mr. W. L. Moore of Kansas City, Missouri, on May 9, 1923, on the occasion of his 90th birthday and now a web-based genealogical document, Mr. Moore writes:

“I am a Democrat from inheritance, from prejudice and principle, if the principle suits me. But I have passed the yaller dog degree.”

Logic suggests that the term originated in the environs where [[Carolina_Dog|“yaller dogs”]] made their habitat, namely South Carolina. Therefore, for the term to have come to use in Kentucky by 1900 and in Tennessee by 1923 (or even North Carolina where Mr. Moore sometime abided), sufficient time must have passed in order for the term to have migrated. So far, no historical documentation of an original quotation indicating an individual declaring his preference to vote for a yellow dog rather than a Republican, or only because the canine might be the named Democratic contender, has been located.

The term gained national prominence during the [[U.S. presidential election, 1928|1928 presidential campaign]] when many Southern voters disliked several items on Democratic candidate [[Al Smith]]'s platform (as well as his Catholicism), but voted for him regardless.

==See also==
*[[Boll weevil (politics)]]
*[[Blue Dog Democrats]]
*[[Dixiecrat]]
*[[Swing vote]]
*[[Third way]]

==External links==
* http://www.yellowdogdemocrat.com/history.htm
* http://www.merrycoz.org/voices/bartlett/AMER10.HTM
* http://gaslight.mtroyal.ab.ca/exitX16.htm
* http://userwww.service.emory.edu/~marisa/hrmoore.letter.html
* http://www.c-span.org/questions/weekly55.htm

[[Category:Political history of the United States]]

[[he:כלב דמוקרטי צהוב]]
[[pl:Yellow dog Democrat]]

Baja Bug

2008-09-22T10:43:07Z

134.134.139.70: /* External links */

[[Image:VW_Baja_Beetle.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]
The term '''Baja Bug''' generally refers to a [[Volkswagen Beetle]] modified to operate on sand dunes and beaches, although other versions of [[air-cooled]] Volkswagens are sometimes modified as well.

== History ==
Baja Bugs originated in [[Southern California]] in the late 1960's as an inexpensive answer to the successful, Volkswagen-based [[Dune buggy|dune buggies]] of the mid-1960s, especially the [[Meyers Manx]] .
The building of the first Baja Bug is generally credited to Gary Emory of Parts Obsolete circa 1968. The first Baja Bug in racing is credited to Dave Deal, the famous Californian cartoonist, in the Mexican 1000 of 1968. While the first fiberglass baja kit (bug eye kit) was not introduced until 1969 by Miller-Havens company,
In the early days before fiberglass body panels became available, enthusiast and racers simply made their own modification to both the body and mechanicals of a stock VW to develop a machine suited to harsh, off-road environments. The metal fenders and front and rear aprons of the car would be partially cut away to allow more for ground clearance and suspension travel. This came to be know as a "cut baja" More engine power was attained by fitting dual port heads and modifying fuel injection systems from VW type 3 cars to work on the type 1 bug engine. There are few "cut baja" cars known to survive from the early era, which makes them highly prized by car enthusiasts and collectors.

== Why the Beetle? ==

The Beetle was popular in less-developed areas of the world because of its rear-mounted [[air-cooled]] engine, flat floorpan, and rugged [[torsion bar]] suspension. In fact, advertising of the period touted the fact that the Beetle was so watertight that it floated. Those same attributes made the Beetle the perfect choice for the basis of an off-road vehicle as evidenced by the car's success both then and now in the [[Baja 1000]] off-road race.

== Conversion ==

Basic modifications are simple. A lightweight, shortened [[fiberglass]] front body panel is fitted after the sheetmetal from the trunklid edge forward and rear engine decklid and everything rearward (rear apron and engine compartment) is removed. The rear treatment leaves the engine totally exposed to aid in cooling. A tubular steel cage front and rear bumper is fitted to the body and floorpan for protection of engine and occupants. Shortened fiberglass fenders both front and rear meant removal of the Beetle's distinctive running boards and the likely addition of more tubular steel parts (side bars) in their place. The rugged torsion bar front and rear suspension standard on the Beetle, allows it to withstand the rigors of offroading and the rear ride height to easily be raised slightly and stiffened to make clearance for larger heavy-duty off-road tires and wheels. The taller sidewall tires provide more flexible ride comfort and rocky road ground clearance. The Beetle suspension "stops" can be moved to allow more suspension travel. Longer [[shock absorber]]s for the increase in suspension travel, provide more dampening control over bumps giving more driver control and comfort. some people go as far as getting rid of the torsion bar suspension and put in coilover type springs that mount to a roll cage allowing extreme amounts of travel with a very comfortable ride

== The Baja Bug today ==

Though Baja Bugs have been greatly supplanted in recent years by tube-framed, purpose-built buggies known as [[sand rail]]s, due to the slowly dwindling supply of suitable donor cars, they remain a popular choice in desert regions as few beaches in the US are open to vehicular traffic. Many are fitted with highly modified Volkswagen engines and a few homebuilt hybrids have [[Ford Pinto engine]], [[Chevrolet Corvair]], [[Porsche]], [[Mazda]] or even [[Subaru]] engines. Customized roadgoing Baja Bugs remain fairly popular as well.

Recently, Volkswagen has attempted a revival of the Baja Bug with the Dune concept in 2000.

== Types of Baja Bug ==

Many types of Baja Bug exist however these fall into three main categories. These include 'Racing Class', 'Trailer Queen' and hybrid of the two being called 'Daily Driver'.

The Racing Class Bajas are often referred to by enthusiasts as Class 5 and Class 5/1600 and have sponsor racing decals and a characteristic three number race number clearly marked on the sides, the roof and front. These are most common in North and Central America in dune and desert racing. Rarely are these registered on the road as they usually have very little of the original VW pan and body and generally consist of a tube frame with racing style seats, high power engine and very sturdy transaxle and suspension modifications expanding the track to avoid roll and increase ride height.

The Trailer Queen Baja is a fully engineered off-road Baja that may be registered and used on road but rarely leaves the comfort of a garage and mirror finished floors. This style of Baja would never have been in contact with the elements and is primarily used for the display of off-road automotive parts at car shows. The vehicle is fully functional and may be a mixture or Type 5 and Daily Driver modifications however the paint, tread nodes and chromed exhaust manifolds suggest this vehicle is rarely started and generally towed from location to location.

Daily Drivers are the most common form of Baja vehicle. These are always registered and, as suggested by the name, driven on a regular basis. That is, they can also compete and be shown but are regularly used off-road as well as on. These vehicles are generally low budget with simple modifications but many excellent examples exist that are also driven on a regular basis. Daily drivers are capable of traversing most places 4x4 off-road vehicles are seen due to their light weight, reliable engine and steep approach and exit angles. Daily drivers can negotiate sand, mud and dirt terrain effectively, however, handling in snow and ice conditions can be seriously compromised due to the lighter front end.

==Images==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Autocross01.jpg|Rallye Baja
Image:Baja_Califórnia_Dianteira.jpg|Baja California
Image:Baja_Califórnia_Traseira.jpg|Baja California
Image:Autocross07.jpg|Rallye Baja
Image:Kit_Baja.jpg|Baja Kit
</gallery>
</center>

==External links==

*[http://www.azbaja.com VW Baja Bug owners and drivers at azbaja.com]
*[http://www.offroadvw.net/ VW Offroad site Australia.]
*[http://www.bajabeetle.co.uk/ bajabeetle.co.uk.]
*[http://www.bajaclub.co.uk VW Baja site UK]
*[http://www.bajacoalition.net Baja Coalition Website]

[[Category:Off-road vehicles]]
[[Category:Volkswagen vehicles|Baja Bug]]
[[Category:Off-road racing]]

Baja Bug

2008-09-22T10:42:42Z

134.134.139.70: /* External links */

Baja Bug

2008-09-22T10:41:09Z

134.134.139.70: /* External links */

[[Image:VW_Baja_Beetle.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]
The term '''Baja Bug''' generally refers to a [[Volkswagen Beetle]] modified to operate on sand dunes and beaches, although other versions of [[air-cooled]] Volkswagens are sometimes modified as well.

== History ==
Baja Bugs originated in [[Southern California]] in the late 1960's as an inexpensive answer to the successful, Volkswagen-based [[Dune buggy|dune buggies]] of the mid-1960s, especially the [[Meyers Manx]] .
The building of the first Baja Bug is generally credited to Gary Emory of Parts Obsolete circa 1968. The first Baja Bug in racing is credited to Dave Deal, the famous Californian cartoonist, in the Mexican 1000 of 1968. While the first fiberglass baja kit (bug eye kit) was not introduced until 1969 by Miller-Havens company,
In the early days before fiberglass body panels became available, enthusiast and racers simply made their own modification to both the body and mechanicals of a stock VW to develop a machine suited to harsh, off-road environments. The metal fenders and front and rear aprons of the car would be partially cut away to allow more for ground clearance and suspension travel. This came to be know as a "cut baja" More engine power was attained by fitting dual port heads and modifying fuel injection systems from VW type 3 cars to work on the type 1 bug engine. There are few "cut baja" cars known to survive from the early era, which makes them highly prized by car enthusiasts and collectors.

== Why the Beetle? ==

The Beetle was popular in less-developed areas of the world because of its rear-mounted [[air-cooled]] engine, flat floorpan, and rugged [[torsion bar]] suspension. In fact, advertising of the period touted the fact that the Beetle was so watertight that it floated. Those same attributes made the Beetle the perfect choice for the basis of an off-road vehicle as evidenced by the car's success both then and now in the [[Baja 1000]] off-road race.

== Conversion ==

Basic modifications are simple. A lightweight, shortened [[fiberglass]] front body panel is fitted after the sheetmetal from the trunklid edge forward and rear engine decklid and everything rearward (rear apron and engine compartment) is removed. The rear treatment leaves the engine totally exposed to aid in cooling. A tubular steel cage front and rear bumper is fitted to the body and floorpan for protection of engine and occupants. Shortened fiberglass fenders both front and rear meant removal of the Beetle's distinctive running boards and the likely addition of more tubular steel parts (side bars) in their place. The rugged torsion bar front and rear suspension standard on the Beetle, allows it to withstand the rigors of offroading and the rear ride height to easily be raised slightly and stiffened to make clearance for larger heavy-duty off-road tires and wheels. The taller sidewall tires provide more flexible ride comfort and rocky road ground clearance. The Beetle suspension "stops" can be moved to allow more suspension travel. Longer [[shock absorber]]s for the increase in suspension travel, provide more dampening control over bumps giving more driver control and comfort. some people go as far as getting rid of the torsion bar suspension and put in coilover type springs that mount to a roll cage allowing extreme amounts of travel with a very comfortable ride

== The Baja Bug today ==

Though Baja Bugs have been greatly supplanted in recent years by tube-framed, purpose-built buggies known as [[sand rail]]s, due to the slowly dwindling supply of suitable donor cars, they remain a popular choice in desert regions as few beaches in the US are open to vehicular traffic. Many are fitted with highly modified Volkswagen engines and a few homebuilt hybrids have [[Ford Pinto engine]], [[Chevrolet Corvair]], [[Porsche]], [[Mazda]] or even [[Subaru]] engines. Customized roadgoing Baja Bugs remain fairly popular as well.

Recently, Volkswagen has attempted a revival of the Baja Bug with the Dune concept in 2000.

== Types of Baja Bug ==

Many types of Baja Bug exist however these fall into three main categories. These include 'Racing Class', 'Trailer Queen' and hybrid of the two being called 'Daily Driver'.

The Racing Class Bajas are often referred to by enthusiasts as Class 5 and Class 5/1600 and have sponsor racing decals and a characteristic three number race number clearly marked on the sides, the roof and front. These are most common in North and Central America in dune and desert racing. Rarely are these registered on the road as they usually have very little of the original VW pan and body and generally consist of a tube frame with racing style seats, high power engine and very sturdy transaxle and suspension modifications expanding the track to avoid roll and increase ride height.

The Trailer Queen Baja is a fully engineered off-road Baja that may be registered and used on road but rarely leaves the comfort of a garage and mirror finished floors. This style of Baja would never have been in contact with the elements and is primarily used for the display of off-road automotive parts at car shows. The vehicle is fully functional and may be a mixture or Type 5 and Daily Driver modifications however the paint, tread nodes and chromed exhaust manifolds suggest this vehicle is rarely started and generally towed from location to location.

Daily Drivers are the most common form of Baja vehicle. These are always registered and, as suggested by the name, driven on a regular basis. That is, they can also compete and be shown but are regularly used off-road as well as on. These vehicles are generally low budget with simple modifications but many excellent examples exist that are also driven on a regular basis. Daily drivers are capable of traversing most places 4x4 off-road vehicles are seen due to their light weight, reliable engine and steep approach and exit angles. Daily drivers can negotiate sand, mud and dirt terrain effectively, however, handling in snow and ice conditions can be seriously compromised due to the lighter front end.

==Images==
<center>
<gallery>
Image:Autocross01.jpg|Rallye Baja
Image:Baja_Califórnia_Dianteira.jpg|Baja California
Image:Baja_Califórnia_Traseira.jpg|Baja California
Image:Autocross07.jpg|Rallye Baja
Image:Kit_Baja.jpg|Baja Kit
</gallery>
</center>

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.azbaja.com VW Baja Bug owners and drivers at azbaja.com]
*[http://www.offroadvw.net/ VW Offroad site Australia.]
*[http://www.bajabeetle.co.uk/ bajabeetle.co.uk.]
*[http://www.bajaclub.co.uk VW Baja site UK]
*[http://www.bajacoalition.net Baja Coalition Website]

{{VW}}

[[Category:Off-road vehicles]]
[[Category:Volkswagen vehicles|Baja Bug]]
[[Category:Off-road racing]]

[[pt:Baja]]