Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

New York Supreme Court

2008-10-03T12:56:45Z

129.139.1.68:

{{unreferenced|date=June 2008}}
{{New York State Judiciary}}
{{For|the highest [[appellate court]] in [[New York]]|New York Court of Appeals}}
The '''Supreme Court of the State of New York''' is [[New York|New York State]]'s [[trial court]], and is of [[general jurisdiction]]. There is a supreme court in each of [[List of New York counties|New York State's 62 counties]], although some smaller counties share judges with neighboring counties. All but the most populous counties are grouped into ''judicial districts'' from which the justices are elected, with unwritten agreements allotting the judgeships among the counties of the district.

In most states and in the [[U.S. federal courts|U.S. federal court system]], "supreme court" is the name of the highest court in the state. However, the New York Supreme Court is primarily a trial court, roughly equivalent to the "district courts", "superior courts," or "circuit courts" of other states. The highest court in New York State is called the "[[New York Court of Appeals|Court of Appeals]]."

==The Supreme Court today==
[[image:New_York_Supreme_Court_at_60_Centre_Street.jpg|thumb|300px|right|New York County Supreme Court building at 60 Centre Street, from across [[Foley Square]]]]
The supreme court in [[New York County, New York|New York County]] is located in several buildings in [[Manhattan]]. The civil branch is in several buildings near [[Foley Square]]: the main New York County Courthouse building at 60 Centre Street (see photo), and three others at 80 Centre Street (across Worth Street), 111 Centre Street, and 71 Thomas Street. The criminal branch is at 100 Centre Street, shared with the Manhattan [[New York City Criminal Court|Criminal Court]], the Office of the District Attorney and other agencies, and at 111 Centre Street, shared with the New York County [[New York City Civil Court|Civil Court]]. The Supreme Court in [[Kings County, New York|Kings County]] and in [[Richmond County, New York|Richmond County]] are similarly housed in their respective counties. In Richmond County several "Parts" of the Supreme Court are located in the former U.S. Navy Home Port (each Part is usually where one Supreme Court judge sits).

In Queens County, the Supreme Court is located in three neighborhoods. The Criminal Term is located in Kew Gardens, the same building as the New York City Criminal Court. The Civil Term is located in Jamaica and in a small and historic courthouse in the [[Long Island City Courthouse Complex]].

The State Supreme Court handles large civil cases, and also handles [[felony]] criminal cases within the five counties that make up [[New York City]]. Outside New York City, the County Courts handle felony criminal cases. Smaller civil cases and less serious criminal cases are handled in other courts: the [[New York City Civil Court|Civil Court]] and [[New York City Criminal Court|Criminal Court]] in New York City; County and District Courts in [[Nassau County, New York|Nassau]] and [[Suffolk County, New York|Suffolk Counties]] on [[Long Island]]; and County, City, Town and Village Courts in the rest of the state. Certain specialized matters are handled by other courts; for example, [[probate]] matters are heard in [[New York Surrogate's Court|Surrogate's Court]], [[juvenile delinquency]] and [[child custody]] matters in Family Court, and tort and contract claims against the state for monetary damages in the [[New York Court of Claims|Court of Claims]]. Although the New York Supreme Court in theory has unlimited general original [[jurisdiction]] over civil litigation, in practice it does not normally hear cases with lower monetary claims that are within the powers of a New York state trial court of limited jurisdiction such as County Court or N.Y.C. Civil Court. By statute, the Supreme Court has [[exclusive jurisdiction]] over three areas: matrimonial actions (such as for [[divorce]] or [[annulment]]), [[declaratory judgment]]s, and so-called Article 78 actions, but effectively has exclusive jurisdiction over other areas sounding in equity such as specific performance and rescission of contract, which have been defined by applicable caselaw as unsuitable for adjudication by the lower courts.

[[Appeal]]s from Supreme Court decisions go to the [[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division]], which is New York's intermediate [[appellate court]] divided into four appellate departments. Notwithstanding the departments, the Appellate Division is one court, and its decisions are [[stare decisis|binding]] on all lower courts unless there is a conflict among the appellate departments. New York's highest appellate court is the [[New York Court of Appeals|Court of Appeals]]; appeals are taken from the four departments to the Court of Appeals; decisions from the Court of Appeals are binding throughout the state.
[[Image:New york 008.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Queens|Queens County]] Criminal Courts Building houses justices and courtrooms of the New York Supreme Court.]]

==Election==
New York Supreme Court justices are elected to 14-year terms. In practice, most of the power of selecting judges belongs to local [[political party]] organizations who [[Electoral fusion|cross-endorse]] each others' candidates. Regardless of the term for which they are elected, justices retire at the end of the year in which they reach the age of seventy years, though subject to annual review justices may serve till the age of 76, a replacement being chosen to a fresh 14-year term that November with effect from the start of the following year.

In February 2006, a federal district court in Brooklyn declared the method of nominating Supreme Court justices to be unconstitutional under the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the [[United States Constitution]]. Judge John Gleeson stated: "A state may decide whether or not voters will be the best choosers of judges. But it may not say one thing – 'The justices of the supreme court shall be chosen by the electors,' N.Y. Const. art. VI § 6(c) – and do quite another, as they have here by effectively transferring the power to choose major party leaders. Put simply . . . the state may not pass off the will of the party leaders as the will of the people. Because that is exactly what the New York judicial convention system does, it violates the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]." In late August 2006, a three-judge panel of the [[U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit]] unanimously affirmed Gleeson’s ruling, which mandates open primaries until the state legislature builds a new system. The old system remains in place under a stay for the 2006 judicial election process. On February 20, 2007, the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] granted petition for [[certiorari]] in this case. The case was argued on October 3, 2007, with the decision released on January 16, 2008. In a unanimous opinion, the Court, with Justice Antonin Scalia writing, found New York's election system to be constitutional. However, both Justices Stevens and Kennedy wrote concurring opinions expressing dislike of the system.[http://www.scotusblog.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/2008/01/06-766.pdf]

Because the number of elected Supreme Court Justices is far less than the number of judges needed in many counties, there are provisions for judges of the [[New York City Civil Court]], [[New York City Criminal Court]], New York [[family court|Family Court]], and [[New York Court of Claims]] to be designated as Acting Supreme Court Justices.

==Trivia==
* The inscription on the front of the New York County courthouse taken from a letter of [[George Washington]] to the [[Attorney General]] in 1789: ''"The true administration of justice is the firmest pillar of good government."''
* The building was used in the opening of the TV series [[Night Court]], the end of the movie [[Twelve Angry Men]] and other films.

==External links==
* [http://www.courts.state.ny.us/ New York Unified Court System]
* [http://www.courts.state.ny.us/supctmanh/ New York Supreme Court, New York County, Civil Branch]
* [http://www.courts.state.ny.us/1stdistrictcriminal/ New York Supreme Court, New York County, Criminal Branch]
* [http://www.nycourts.gov/reporter/Decisions.htm New York Official Reports for the New York Court System]

[[Category:New York state courts]]

[[et:New Yorgi Osariigi Ülemkohus]]
[[no:New York Supreme Court]]

Benutzer:Aliderteufel/Reed switch

2008-06-03T14:54:42Z

129.139.1.68:

[[Image:Reedrelay.jpg|thumb|right|258px|Reed relay and reed switches]]
[[Image:Reed switch (aka).jpg|thumb|258px|Showing the contacts clearly]]

The '''reed switch''' is an electrical switch operated by an applied [[magnetic field]]. It was [[invent]]ed at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] in [[1936]] by W. B. Elwood. It consists of a pair of [[contact]]s on ferrous metal reeds in a [[hermetically sealed]] [[glass]] envelope. The contacts may be normally open, closing when a magnetic field is present, or normally closed and opening when a magnetic field is applied. The [[reed relay]] is a type of [[relay]], in which a reed switch is mounted inside a coil.<ref> Rudolf F. Graf, "reed relay" Dictionary of Electronics; Radio Shack, 1974-75. Fort Worth, Texas. </ref>.
==Description==
The reed switch contains two magnetizable and electrically conductive [[metal]] reeds which have end portions separated by a small gap when the switch is open. The reeds are hermetically sealed in opposite ends of a tubular glass envelope.
[[Image:Reedswitch.PNG|thumb|left|333px|Reed switch diagrams from Ellwood's patent, {{US patent|2264746}}, ''Electromagnetic switch'' ]]

A [[magnetic field]] (from an [[electromagnet]] or a [[permanent magnet]]) will cause the contacts to pull together, thus completing an [[electrical circuit]].<ref> Rudolf F. Graf, "reed switch" Dictionary of Electronics; Radio Shack, 1974-75. Fort Worth, Texas. </ref>
The stiffness of the reeds causes them to separate, and open the circuit, when the magnetic field ceases. A more complicated configuration contains a non-ferrous normally closed contact that opens when the ferrous normally open contact closes. Good electrical contact is assured by plating a thin layer of precious metal over the flat contact portions of the reeds. There are also versions of reed switches with [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] "wetted" contacts.

Since the contacts of the reed switch are sealed away from the atmosphere, they are protected against [[Corrosion|atmospheric corrosion]]. The hermetic sealing of a reed switch make them suitable for use in explosive atmospheres where tiny sparks from conventional switches would constitute a hazard.

One important quality of the switch is its sensitivity, the amount of magnetic energy necessary to actuate it. Sensitivity is measured in units of Ampere-turns, corresponding to the current in a coil multiplied by the number of turns. Typical pull-in sensitivities for commercial devices are in the 10 to 60 AT range.

In production, a metal reed is inserted in each end of a glass tube and the end of the tube heated so that it seals around a shank portion on the reed. [[Infrared]]-absorbing glass is used, so an infrared heat source can concentrate the heat in the small sealing zone of the glass tube. The thermal coefficient of expansion of the glass material and metal parts must be similar to prevent breaking the [[glass-to-metal seal]].
The glass used must have a high [[electrical resistance]] and must not contain volatile components such as [[lead oxide]] and [[fluoride]]s. The leads of the switch must be handled carefully to prevent breaking the glass envelope.

Reed switches are widely used for electrical circuit control, particularly in the communications field. Reed switches are commonly used in mechanical systems as [[Proximity detector|proximity switch]]es as well as in door and window sensors in [[burglar alarm]] systems and [[tamperproofing]] methods; however they can be disabled if they are in a strong, external magnetic field. Reed switches were formerly used in the keyboards for computer terminals, where each key had a magnet and a reed switch actuated by depressing the key. Speed sensors on bicycles use a reed switch to detect when the magnet on the wheel passes the sensor.

==Reed relays==
A reed switch combined with an [[electromagnet]] is a [[reed relay]]. This consists of a [[coil]] with the reed switch inside. Reed relays are used when high operating speed is required, or where very low-level signals must be switched. Millions of reed relays were used for temporarily storing information in middle 20th Century [[telephone exchanges]]. The inert atmosphere around the reed contacts ensures that oxidation will not affect the contact resistance. Mercury-wetted reed relays are sometimes used, especially in high-speed counting circuits. Such relays must be mounted in a particular orientation otherwise drops of mercury may unintentionally bridge the contacts.

==Further reading==
;Books:
*[http://www.crcpress.com/shopping_cart/products/product_detail.asp?sku=DK884X&isbn=9780849341885&parent_id=&pc=] Vladimir Gurevich "Electric Relays: Principles and Applications", CRC Press, London - New York, 2005, 671 p.
*[http://www.crcpress.com/shopping_cart/products/product_detail.asp?sku=69829&isbn=9781420069822&parent_id=&pc=] Vladimir Gurevich "Electronic Devices on Discrete Components for Industrial and Power Applications", CRC Press, London - New York, 2008, 418 p.
;Journals:
* Miedzinski, B., and M. Kristiansen, ''Investigations of Reed Switch Dynamics and Discharge Phenomena When Switching Intermediate and Heavy Loads''. IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, Jun 1982, Volume 5, Issue 2 pg 231- 237. ISSN 0148-6411
* Hinohara, K., T. Kobayashi, and C. Kawakita, ''Magnetic and mechanical design of ultraminiature reed switches''. IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, Apr 1992, Volume 15, Issue 2, pg 172-176. ISSN 0148-6411 DOI 10.1109/33.142891
* Pinnel, M., ''Magnetic materials for dry reed contacts''. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Nov 1976, Volume 12, Issue 6, pg 789- 794. ISSN 0018-9464
* Demirdjioghlou, S. and M. Copeland, ''Force measurements on magnetic reeds'', IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Jun 1968, Volume 4, Issue 2, pg 179- 183. ISSN 0018-9464

==External articles and references==
;Citations
<references/>

;General

*[http://www.eleinmec.com/article.asp?23 Reed Switch Information]
*[http://www.simplemotor.com/rsmotor.htm Reed Switch Motor]
*[http://www.reed-sensor.com/Notes/Reed_Switch_FAQ.htm Reed Switch FAQ]
*[http://www.meder.com/en/index.php?page=317 Glossary of Commonly Used Terms Relating to Reed Switch Products]

[[Category:Switches]]
[[Category:Electromagnetic components]]
[[Category:Lists of patents|Reed switch patents]]

[[da:Reed-kontakt]]
[[de:Reed-Relais]]
[[fr:Interrupteur#Magn.C3.A9tique]]
[[it:Reed (dispositivo)]]
[[lv:Herkons]]
[[lt:Herkonas]]
[[nl:Reed-contact]]
[[pl:Kontaktron]]
[[ru:Геркон]]
[[uk:Геркон]]
[[es:Reed switch]]

Benutzer:Aliderteufel/Reed switch

2008-06-03T14:50:34Z

129.139.1.68:

[[Image:Reedrelay.jpg|thumb|right|258px|Reed relay and reed switches]]
[[Image:Reed switch (aka).jpg|thumb|258px|Showing the contacts clearly]]

The '''reed switch''' is an electrical switch operated by an applied [[magnetic field]]. It was [[invent]]ed at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] in [[1936]] by W. B. Elwood. It consists of a pair of [[contact]]s on ferrous metal reeds in a [[hermetically sealed]] [[glass]] envelope. The contacts may be normally open, closing when a magnetic field is present, or normally closed and opening when a magnetic field is applied. The [[reed relay]] is a type of [[relay]], in which a reed switch is mounted inside a coil.<ref> Rudolf F. Graf, "reed relay" Dictionary of Electronics; Radio Shack, 1974-75. Fort Worth, Texas. </ref>. These types of switches should not be used in vehicle applications.

==Description==
The reed switch contains two magnetizable and electrically conductive [[metal]] reeds which have end portions separated by a small gap when the switch is open. The reeds are hermetically sealed in opposite ends of a tubular glass envelope.
[[Image:Reedswitch.PNG|thumb|left|333px|Reed switch diagrams from Ellwood's patent, {{US patent|2264746}}, ''Electromagnetic switch'' ]]

A [[magnetic field]] (from an [[electromagnet]] or a [[permanent magnet]]) will cause the contacts to pull together, thus completing an [[electrical circuit]].<ref> Rudolf F. Graf, "reed switch" Dictionary of Electronics; Radio Shack, 1974-75. Fort Worth, Texas. </ref>
The stiffness of the reeds causes them to separate, and open the circuit, when the magnetic field ceases. A more complicated configuration contains a non-ferrous normally closed contact that opens when the ferrous normally open contact closes. Good electrical contact is assured by plating a thin layer of precious metal over the flat contact portions of the reeds. There are also versions of reed switches with [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] "wetted" contacts.

Since the contacts of the reed switch are sealed away from the atmosphere, they are protected against [[Corrosion|atmospheric corrosion]]. The hermetic sealing of a reed switch make them suitable for use in explosive atmospheres where tiny sparks from conventional switches would constitute a hazard.

One important quality of the switch is its sensitivity, the amount of magnetic energy necessary to actuate it. Sensitivity is measured in units of Ampere-turns, corresponding to the current in a coil multiplied by the number of turns. Typical pull-in sensitivities for commercial devices are in the 10 to 60 AT range.

In production, a metal reed is inserted in each end of a glass tube and the end of the tube heated so that it seals around a shank portion on the reed. [[Infrared]]-absorbing glass is used, so an infrared heat source can concentrate the heat in the small sealing zone of the glass tube. The thermal coefficient of expansion of the glass material and metal parts must be similar to prevent breaking the [[glass-to-metal seal]].
The glass used must have a high [[electrical resistance]] and must not contain volatile components such as [[lead oxide]] and [[fluoride]]s. The leads of the switch must be handled carefully to prevent breaking the glass envelope.

Reed switches are widely used for electrical circuit control, particularly in the communications field. Reed switches are commonly used in mechanical systems as [[Proximity detector|proximity switch]]es as well as in door and window sensors in [[burglar alarm]] systems and [[tamperproofing]] methods; however they can be disabled if they are in a strong, external magnetic field. Reed switches were formerly used in the keyboards for computer terminals, where each key had a magnet and a reed switch actuated by depressing the key. Speed sensors on bicycles use a reed switch to detect when the magnet on the wheel passes the sensor.

==Reed relays==
A reed switch combined with an [[electromagnet]] is a [[reed relay]]. This consists of a [[coil]] with the reed switch inside. Reed relays are used when high operating speed is required, or where very low-level signals must be switched. Millions of reed relays were used for temporarily storing information in middle 20th Century [[telephone exchanges]]. The inert atmosphere around the reed contacts ensures that oxidation will not affect the contact resistance. Mercury-wetted reed relays are sometimes used, especially in high-speed counting circuits. Such relays must be mounted in a particular orientation otherwise drops of mercury may unintentionally bridge the contacts.

==Further reading==
;Books:
*[http://www.crcpress.com/shopping_cart/products/product_detail.asp?sku=DK884X&isbn=9780849341885&parent_id=&pc=] Vladimir Gurevich "Electric Relays: Principles and Applications", CRC Press, London - New York, 2005, 671 p.
*[http://www.crcpress.com/shopping_cart/products/product_detail.asp?sku=69829&isbn=9781420069822&parent_id=&pc=] Vladimir Gurevich "Electronic Devices on Discrete Components for Industrial and Power Applications", CRC Press, London - New York, 2008, 418 p.
;Journals:
* Miedzinski, B., and M. Kristiansen, ''Investigations of Reed Switch Dynamics and Discharge Phenomena When Switching Intermediate and Heavy Loads''. IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, Jun 1982, Volume 5, Issue 2 pg 231- 237. ISSN 0148-6411
* Hinohara, K., T. Kobayashi, and C. Kawakita, ''Magnetic and mechanical design of ultraminiature reed switches''. IEEE Transactions on Components, Hybrids, and Manufacturing Technology, Apr 1992, Volume 15, Issue 2, pg 172-176. ISSN 0148-6411 DOI 10.1109/33.142891
* Pinnel, M., ''Magnetic materials for dry reed contacts''. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Nov 1976, Volume 12, Issue 6, pg 789- 794. ISSN 0018-9464
* Demirdjioghlou, S. and M. Copeland, ''Force measurements on magnetic reeds'', IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Jun 1968, Volume 4, Issue 2, pg 179- 183. ISSN 0018-9464

==External articles and references==
;Citations
<references/>

;General

*[http://www.eleinmec.com/article.asp?23 Reed Switch Information]
*[http://www.simplemotor.com/rsmotor.htm Reed Switch Motor]
*[http://www.reed-sensor.com/Notes/Reed_Switch_FAQ.htm Reed Switch FAQ]
*[http://www.meder.com/en/index.php?page=317 Glossary of Commonly Used Terms Relating to Reed Switch Products]

[[Category:Switches]]
[[Category:Electromagnetic components]]
[[Category:Lists of patents|Reed switch patents]]

[[da:Reed-kontakt]]
[[de:Reed-Relais]]
[[fr:Interrupteur#Magn.C3.A9tique]]
[[it:Reed (dispositivo)]]
[[lv:Herkons]]
[[lt:Herkonas]]
[[nl:Reed-contact]]
[[pl:Kontaktron]]
[[ru:Геркон]]
[[uk:Геркон]]
[[es:Reed switch]]