Jiskairumoko

2009-10-24T17:12:46Z

122.169.11.73:

{{Infobox archaeological site
|site = Jiskairumoko
|native_name =
|other_name = Jiska'irumoko
|image = Jiska2002.jpg
|imagesize = 250px
|image_caption = Excavations at the site of Jiskairumoko in 2002
|map =
|pushpin_map = Peru Natural

HEY SUP
|mapsize = 200px
|map_caption = Location of Jiskairumoko in [[Peru]]
|locator_x = 189
|locator_y = 233
|latd = 16
|latm = 12
|lats = 40
|latNS = S
|longd = 69
|longm = 45
|longs = 50
|longEW = W
|civilization = South-Central Highland
|era = Late Archaic-Early Formative
|period = 3000-1400 [[Before Christ|BC]]
|country = {{PER}}
|region = [[Puno Region|Puno]]
|area_m2 = 4000
|elevation = 4000
}}
[[Image:0 21 080331 gold necklace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gold necklace recovered from Jiskairumoko]]
'''Jiskairumoko''' is a [[Pre-Columbian|pre-columbian]] archaeological site located 54 kilometers (33 miles) south east of [[Puno]], [[Peru]]. The site lies at an elevation of 4,115 meters (13,500 feet), in the [[Aymara]] community of Jachacachi, adjacent to the Ilave River drainage, of the [[Lake Titicaca|Lake Titicaca Basin]], Peru. Occupation of Jiskairumoko spans from the Late [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic]] to the [[Formative stage|Formative]].

==Research==
The site's name is a combination of three [[Aymara language|Aymara]] words '''''jiska''''' meaning small, '''''iru''''' referring to a type of [[bunch grass]], and '''''moko''''' signifying a small hill. Thus, '''''Jiskairumoko''''' means a small hill with bunch grass. The site was first formally recorded by [[Mark Aldenderfer]] in 1994 during a pedestrian [[archaeological field survey|survey]] of the Ilave River. The first [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavations]] at the site were conducted in 1995.<ref name=Aldenderfer_de_la_Vega1996>Aldenderfer and de la Vega (1996)</ref> Jiskairumoko is the first Archaic open air site excavated in the [[Lake Titicaca|Lake Titicaca Basin]]. Under the direction of Aldenderfer, a team from [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] including Nathan Craig and Nicholas Tripcevich conducted additional excavations at the site during the austral winters of 1999-2004. In-field [[geographic information system]] (GIS) methods were
[http://www.archaeo.info/wiki/tiki-index.php?page=Archaeo-Photomapping used in recording exposed surfaces].<REF name=Craig2000>Craig (2000)</REF><REF name=Craig_and_Aldenderfer2003>Craig and Aldenderfer (2003)</REF><REF name=Craig2002>Craig (2002)</ref> The site was [[plough|plowed]] by tractor in 2005.

==Results and Interpretations==
Jiskairumoko plays a significant role in understanding the [[Peruvian Ancient Cultures|pre-Columbian history of Andean Peru]] for several reasons. These include evidence for: early prestige objects, architectural transitions, variation in structure internal organization, ritual preparation embedded in domestic use areas, and the formation of regular trade routes.

=== Early Prestige Objects ===
Nine gold beads were found in the grave of an older adult and a juvenile who had been buried adjacent to a Terminal Archaic pit house.<REF name=Aldenderfer_et_al2008>Aldenderfer et al. 2008</REF> Charcoal recovered from the burial dates the gold beads to 2155-1936 cal BC, which makes them the earliest presently known gold artifacts in the Americas. The gold objects, used in a necklace, signified the prestige of its wearer. The burial of the objects with the deceased implies the wealth and prestige of its owner through the disposal and remove from display and recirculation. The find bolsters the concept that metalworking developed from multiple independent technologies that were focused on native materials. <REF name=Lechtman1984>Lechtman (1984)</REF>

=== Architectural Transitions ===
Domestic architecture exposed during excavation currently represents the earliest evidence of reduced residential mobility in the region. Three [[Dugout (shelter)|pithouses]], a semisubterranean structure, and two above ground structures were exposed during excavation. Twenty-five [[Radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dates]] show that pithouses occurred early (ca. 3200 cal BC), the semisubterranean structure is intermediate, and above ground prepared floor structures occurred later (ca. 1400 cal BC).<ref name=Craig2005>Craig (2005)</ref> This change in residential structures from [[Dugout (shelter)|pithouses]] to above ground structures is another example of a classic architectural transition observed in many parts of the world.<ref name=Flannery1972>Flannery (1972)</ref><ref name=Flannery2002>Flannery (2002)</ref>

{| border="1"
|+ '''Jiskairumoko Structure Dimensions'''<ref name=Craig2005>Craig (2005)</ref>
! Structure Type !! Area (m²) !! Perim (m) !! Depth/<BR>Thickness (cm) !! Internal<BR>Storage (l) !! External<BR>Storage (l)
|-
! Pithouse 1
| 13.20 || 12.92 || 0.41 || 420 || 80
|-
! Pithouse 1 Outer
| 18.69 || 14.56 || 0.16 || - || -
|-
! Pithouse 2
| 8.47 || 11 || 0.18 || - || 860
|-
! Pithouse 3
| 5.21 || 7.92 || 0.32 || 130 || 510
|-
! Semi-Subterranean 1
| 15.18 || 14.76 || 0.25 || 180 || 1400
|-
! Rectangular 1
| 9.85 || 12.95 || 0.1 || - || -
|-
! Rectangular 2
| 22.96 || 20.66 || 0.15-0.2 || - || -
|}

<gallery caption="Jiskairumoko Structure Images" perrow="3">
Image:Pithouse1.jpg|Pithouse 1
Image:Pithouse2.jpg|Pithouse 2

Image:SemiSubterranean1.jpg|Semi Subterranean Structure 1
Image:Rectangular1.jpg|Rectangular Structure 1
Image:Rectangular2 plan profile.jpg|Rectangular Structure 2
</gallery>
{{-}}

===Organization of Space===

The patterns of [[kin selection|genetic relatedness]] and resource sharing are important variables for understanding the social structure of a village.<ref name=Murdock1949>Murdock (1949)</ref><ref name=Ember1975>Ember (1975)</ref><ref name=Ember1983>Ember (1983)</ref><ref name=EmberEmber1971>Ember and Ember 1971</ref><ref name=Wiessner2002>Weissner (2002)</ref><ref name=Hawkes1983>Hawkes (1983)</ref><ref name=Hawkes1991>Hawkes (1991)</ref><ref name=Hawkes1992>Hawkes (1992)</ref><ref name=Hawkes1993>Hawkes(1993)</ref><ref name=Maschner1996>Maschner (1996)</ref> The spacing between structures and the organization of space within structures served as proxies to address these key social questions.<ref name=Craig2005>Craig (2005)</ref>

[[Ethnoarchaeology|Ethnoarchaeological]] research shows that among use labor of subsistence based economies, as space between structures increases there is a decrease in both the level of genetic relatedness<ref name=Garget_Hayden1991>Garget and Hayden (1991)</ref><ref name=Gould_Yellen1987>Gould and Yellen (1987)</ref> and sharing<ref name=Brooks_et_al1984>Brooks et al. (1984)</ref><ref name=Gould_Yellen1987>Gould and Yellen (1987)</ref><ref name=Kaplan_et_al1984>Kaplan et al. (1984)</ref><ref name=O'Connell_et_al1991>O'Connell et al. (1991)</ref> between occupants of the structures. Among mobile peoples, increased formality in the internal organization of space tends to be correlated with longer term residential occupations.<ref name=Binford1982>Binford 1982</ref><ref name=Kelly1992>Kelly (1992)</ref> The location of small storage facilities within houses suggests that resource distribution takes place at the household level, whereas large and formalized exterior storage facilities imply that resource distribution is mediated or managed by an authority figure like a chief.<ref name=Flannery1972>Flannery (1972)</ref><ref name=Flannery2002>Flannery (2002)</ref>

The excavators of Jiskairumoko defined three types of structures each of which showed differences in the spacing between like structure, the internal organization of space, and storage. These variations imply shifts in social relations during the occupation of the site. '''Pithouses''' 1-3 had the lowest distance between structures, this implies '''high relatedness''' and '''sharing''' between structure occupants. These pithouses all contained small yet numerous '''internal alcoves'''. These were interpreted as '''[[food storage|storage]]''' facilities. The numerous small alcoves suggest that storage was limited, and that resource distribution was a [[household]] affair that was not mediated by an individual with supra-household authority like a [[headman]]. None of the pithouses contained '''kitchen rocks'''. These are large stones that are used to support containers and/or serve as work surfaces.<ref name=Aldenderfer1998>Aldenderfer (1998)</ref>

'''Semi-Subterranean''' structures were spaced considerably further apart. This suggests a decline in the level of genetic relatedness between structure occupants and indicates that sharing between structure occupants also declined. Storage in the deepest occupational levels of Semi-subterranean Structure 1 was composed of a single large pit in the floor. These lower occupational layers were not associated with kitchen rocks. Internal storage features were not present in later occupational levels of Semi-Subterranean Structure 1. However, kitchen rocks were used during the later occupations of Semi-Subterranean Structure 1. Rectangular Structures were spaced further apart than the pithouses, but were not spaced as far apart as Semi-Subterranean structures. No recognizable internal storage features were encountered in either Rectangular Structure 1 or 2. This implies that either storage was practiced in a form that did not leave a recognizable archaeological signature, or all storage was exterior. Both of the Rectangular Structures contained kitchen rocks.

At the Archaic village of Jiskairumoko, it appears that over time genetic relatedness and sharing decreased. Storage appears to have become more centralized within structures and the use of internal storage pits was eventually abandoned. About this same time the occupants of the structures began using kitchen rocks. This suggests that processing or serving activities took on greater importance within residential architecture.

===Ritual Preparations===
In the sense used by [[Émile Durkheim]], the Late and Terminal Archaic residents of Jiskairumoko exhibited a simple cultural pattern. By this, anthropologists do not mean the residents themselves were simple. Instead, the term indicates that the various components of culture ([[economic]] practices, [[political]] structures, [[Spirituality|spiritual]] practice, etc) were embedded rather than strongly differentiated. At Jiskairumoko, the earliest pithouse, radiocarbon dated to ca. 3200 cal BC, appears to have served as a place of [[ritual]] preparation. Evidence for this comes in the form of thermal processing of [[ochre]] for use as a [[mineral]] [[pigment]].<ref name=Craig_et_al2006>Craig et al. 2006)</ref> At Jiskairumoko, these same ochre pigments were found sprinkled at the base of graves found outside some of the other pithouses<ref name=Craig2005>Craig (2005).</ref><ref name=Popelka-Filcoff_et_al>Popelka-Filcoff et al. (in press)</ref> While rituals appear to have taken place within the site's oldest pithouse, regular domestic activities were also performed in this [[dwelling]]. Therefore, ritual and domestic activities were embedded spatially within the same architecture. During later periods of time in Andean Pre-Columbian history cultures became much more complex, and often ritual architecture is separated from domestic structures.

===Development of Regular Trade Routes===
Excavations at Jiskairumoko recovered sixty eight [[obsidian]] tools. Elemental characterization of these tools was performed by [[X-ray fluorescence]] (XRF), at the [http://www.swxrflab.net/ Berkeley XRF laboratory] <ref name="Shackley_et_al2004">Shackley et al. (2004)</ref> under the direction of Steven Shackley and by portable XRF by Jeff Speakman and Rachel Popelka-Filcoff from the [http://web.missouri.edu/~glascockm/profile.htm Archaeometry Laboratory] at the [http://web.missouri.edu/~umcreactorweb/ University of Missouri Research Reactor] MURR.<ref name="Craig_et_al_in_press">Craig et al. in press</ref> This research constitutes the largest sourcing program of Andean Archaic Period obsidian. Results revealed that all but two of the 68 [[obsidian]] tools (97%) could be assigned to the [[Chivay Obsidian Source|Chivay obsidian source]]. The other two artifacts were assigned to the Alca obsidian source. Both sources are located in the [[Arequipa]] Region. The [[Chivay Obsidian Source|Chivay obsidian source]] is located in the [[Colca Canyon]], and the Alca obsidian source is located in the [[Cotahuasi]] Valley.

== See also ==
* [[Excavation (archaeology)|Excavation]]
* [[GIS in archaeology]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|4}}

== References ==
* {{Harvard reference
| author=Aldenderfer, M. S.
| year=1998
| title=Montane Foragers Asana and the South-Central Andean Archaic
| place=Iowa City
| publisher=University of Iowa Press
}}
* {{Harvard reference
| surname1=Aldenderfer
| given1=Mark
| surname2=de la Vega
| given2=Edmundo
| year=1996
| title=Informe Preliminar: Excavaciones Arqueológicas a Tres Sitios Arcaicos de la Cuenca del Río Ilave, Sub-región de Puno, Región "Jose Carlos Mariategui"
| place=Puno
| publisher=Report submitted to Instituto Nacional de Cultura, Lima, Peru
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Aldenderfer, M. S., Craig, N., Speakman, R. J. & Popelka-Filcoff, R. S.
| year=2008
| title=4000-year Old Gold Artifacts from the Lake Titicaca Basin, Peru.
| periodical=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
| volume=105
| issue=
| pages=5002-5005
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Binford, L.
| year=1982
| title=The Archaeology of Place
| periodical=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
| volume=1
| issue=
| pages=5-31
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Brooks, A. S., Gaelburd, D. E. & Yellen, J.
| year=1984
| chapter=Food Production and Culture Change Among the !Kung San: Implications for Prehistoric Research
| editor=Eds
| title=From Hunters to Farmers: Causes and Consequences of Food Production in Africa
| place=Berkeley
| publisher=University of California
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Craig
| first=Nathan
| year=2005
| title=The Formation of Early Settled Villages and the Emergence of Leadership: A Test of Three Theoretical Models in the Rio Ilave, Lake Titicaca Basin, Southern Peru
| place=
| publisher=Ph.D. Dissertation, University of California Santa Barbara
| edition=
| volume=
| id=
| url=http://archaeo.info/craig/modules/Downloads/docs/craig2005_dissertation_jiska.pdf
| access-date=09 February 2007
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last= Craig
| first= Nathan
| authorlink=
| year= 2002
| title= Recording Large-Scale Archaeological Excavations with GIS: Jiskairumoko--Near Peru's Lake Titicaca
| periodical= ESRI ArcNews
| volume= Spring
| url= http://www.esri.com/news/arcnews/spring02articles/recordinglarge.html
| access-date= 09 Feb, 2007
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Craig
| first=Nathan
| authorlink=
| year=2000
| title=Real Time GIS Construction and Digital Data Recording of the Jiskairumoko, Excavation [[Perú]]
| periodical=Society for American Archaeology Buletin
| volume=18
| issue=1
| url=http://www.saa.org/publications/saabulletin/18-1/saa18.html
| access-date=09 February 2007
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| surname1=Craig
| given1=Nathan
| surname2=Adenderfer
| given2=Mark
| year=2003
| title=Preliminary Stages in the Development of a Real-Time Digital Data Recording System for Archaeological Excavation Using ArcView GIS 3.1
| periodical=Journal of GIS in Archaeology
| volume=1
| issue=
| pages=1-22
| url=http://www.esri.com/library/journals/archaeology/volume_1/realtime_recording.pdf
| access-date=09 Feb 2007
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Craig, N., Aldenderfer, M. & Moyes, H.
| year=2006
| title=Multivariate Visualization and Analysis of Photomapped Artifact Scatters
| periodical=Journal of Archaeological Science
| volume=33
| issue=
| pages=1617-1627
| url=http://archaeo.info/craig/modules/Downloads/docs/craig_et_al2006_photomapping.pdf
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| surname1=Craig
| given1=N.
| surname2=Speakman
| given2=J.
| surname3=Popelka-Filcoff
| given3=R.
| surname4= Glascock
| given4=M.
| surname5= Robertson
| given5=S.
| surname6=Shackley
| given6=S.
| surname7= Aldenderfer
| given7=M.
| year=in press
| title= Comparison of XRF and PXRF for analysis of archaeological obsidian from southern Perú
| periodical=Journal of Archaeological Science
| place=
| publisher=
| edition=
| volume=
| id=
| url=http://archaeo.info/craig/modules/Downloads/docs/craig_et_al_in_press_xrf.pdf
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Ember, C. R.
| year=1975
| title=Residential Variation Among Hunter-Gatherers
| periodical=Behavior Science Research
| volume=3
| issue=
| pages=199-227
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Ember, C.
| year=1983
| title=The Relative Decline in Women's Contribution to Agriculture with Intensification
| periodical=American Anthropologist
| volume=85
| issue=
| pages=285-304
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Ember, M. & Ember, C. R.
| year=1971
| title=The Conditions Favoring Matrilocal versus Patrilocal Residence
| periodical=American Anthropologist
| volume=73
| issue=
| pages=571-594
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Flannery
| first=Kent
| year=2002
| title=The Origins of the Village Revisited: From Nuclear to Extended Households
| periodical=American Antiquity
| volume=67
| issue=3
| pages=417-434
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| last=Flannery
| first=Kent
| year=1972
| chapter=The Origins of the Village as the Settlement Type in Meso America and the Near East
| editor-surname1=Ucko
| editor-given1=Peter
| editor-surname2=Tringham
| editor-given2= Ruth
| editor-surname3=Dimbleby
| editor-given3= G
| title=Man, Settlement, and Urbanism
| place=London
| publisher=Duckworth
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Garget, R. & Hayden, B.
| year=1991
| chapter=Site Structure, Kinship, and Sharing in Aboriginal Australia: Implications for Archaeology
| editor=Eds
| title=The Interpretation of Archaeological Spatial Patterning
| place=New York
| publisher=Plenum
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Gould, R. & Yellen, J.
| year=1987
| title=Man the Hunted: Determinants of Household Spacing in Desert and Tropical Foraging Societies
| periodical=Journal of Anthropological Archaeology
| volume=6
| issue=
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Hawkes, K.
| year=1983
| title=Kin Selection and Culture
| periodical=American Ethnologist
| volume=10
| issue=
| pages=345-363
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Hawkes, K.
| year=1991
| title=Showing Off: Tests of an Hypothesis About Men's Foraging Goals
| periodical=Ethology and Sociobiology
| volume=12
| issue=
| pages=29-54
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Hawkes, K.
| year=1992
| title=On Sharing and Work
| periodical=Current Anthropology
| volume=33
| issue=
| pages=404-407
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Hawkes, K.
| year=1993
| title=Why Hunter-Gatherers Work: An Ancient Version of the Problem of Public Goods
| periodical=Current Anthropology
| volume=34
| issue=
| pages=341-361
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Kaplan, H., Hill, K., Hawkes, K. & Hurtado, A.
| year=1984
| title=Food Sharing among Ache Hunter-Gatherers of Eastern Paraguay
| periodical=Current Anthropology
| volume=25
| issue=
| pages=113-115
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Kelly, R. L.
| year=1992
| title=Mobility/Sedentism: Concepts, Archaeological Measures, and Effects
| periodical=Annual Review of Anthropology
| volume=21
| issue=
| pages=43-66
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Lechtman, H.
| year=1984
| title=Andean Value Systems and the Development of Prehistoric Metallurgy
| periodical=Technology and Culture
| volume=25
| issue=
| pages=1-36
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Maschner, H. D. G. & Patton, J. Q.
| year=1996
| chapter=Kin Selection and the Origins of Hereditary Social Inequality: A Case Study from the Northern Northwest Coast
| editor=Eds
| title=Darwinian Archaeologies
| place=New York
| publisher=Plenum Press
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Murdock, G. P.
| year=1949
| title=Social Structure
| place=New York
| publisher=The MacMillan Company
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=O'Connell, F. F., Hawkes, K. & Blurton Jones, N.
| year=1991
| chapter=Distribution of Refuse-Producing Activities at Hadza Residential Base Camps: Implications for Analyses of Archaeological Site Structure
| editor=Eds
| title=The Interpretation of Archaeological Spatial Patterning
| place=New York
| publisher=Plenum
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Popelka-Filcoff, R. S., Craig, N., Glascock, M. D., Robertson, D. J., Aldenderfer, M. S. & Speakman, R. J.
| year=In Press
| chapter=INAA of Ochre Artifacts from Jiskairumoko, Perú
| editor=Eds
| title=Archaeological Chemistry: Analytical Techniques and Archaeological Interpretation
| place=Washington D.C.
| publisher=American Chemical Society
| url=http://archaeo.info/craig/modules/Downloads/docs/Popelka_Filcoff_et_al_jiska_ochre.pdf
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| surname1=Shackley
| given1=S.
| surname2=Eklund
| given2=E.
| surname3=Ogasawara
| given3=C.
| year=2004
| title= Source Provenance of Obsidian Artifacts Jiskairumoko (189), Peru
| place=Berkeley
| publisher=University of California Berkeley Archaeological XRF Laboratory
}}
*{{Harvard reference
| author=Wiessner, P.
| year=2002
| title=Hunting, healing, and hxaro exchange A long-term perspective on !Kung (Ju/'hoansi) large-game hunting
| periodical=Evolution and Human Behavior
| volume=23
| issue=
| pages=407-436
}}
{{Archaeological sites in Peru}}

[[Category:Archaeology]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Peru]]
[[Category:History of Peru]]
[[Category:Former settlements in Peru]]

[[es:Jiskairumoko]]
[[eo:Jiskairumoko]]
[[qu:Jisk'airumuqu]]
[[ru:Хискаирумоко]]

Wikipedia - Benutzerbeiträge [de]

Jiskairumoko