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Wissenschaftlicher Konsens zum Klimawandel

2014-10-23T09:34:53Z

108.195.139.183: The Caribbean

{{About| scientific opinion on the current climate change, or [[global warming]]|public perception and controversy|Public opinion on climate change|and|Global warming controversy}}
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[[File:Global Temperature Anomaly.svg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|right|Global mean land-ocean temperature change from 1880–2012, relative to the 1951–1980 mean. The black line is the annual mean and the red line is the 5-year [[Moving average|running mean]]. The green bars show uncertainty estimates. Source: [http://data.giss.nasa.gov/gistemp/ NASA GISS] ]]
The '''scientific opinion on climate change''' is that the Earth's [[climate system]] is unequivocally warming, and it is ''extremely likely'' (at least 95% probability) that humans are causing most of it through activities that increase concentrations of [[greenhouse gas]]es in the atmosphere, such as [[deforestation]] and burning [[fossil fuel]]s. In addition, it is likely that some potential further greenhouse gas warming has been offset by increased [[aerosol]]s.<ref name="AR4-warming-unequivocal"/><ref name="ipcc">{{citation
| author = IPCC
| title = Detection and Attribution of Climate Change
| chapter = Summary for Policymakers
| chapter-url = http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/
| quote = «It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century» (page 15) and «In this Summary for Policymakers, the following terms have been used to indicate the assessed likelihood of an outcome or a result: (...) extremely likely: 95–100%» (page 2).
}}, in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR5 WG1|2013}}.</ref><ref name="ipcc1"/><ref name="AmericasClimateChoices-2010-SciPanel"/> This [[scientific consensus]] is expressed in [[Systematic review|synthesis reports]], by scientific bodies of national or international standing, and by surveys of opinion among climate scientists. Individual scientists, universities, and laboratories contribute to the overall scientific opinion via their [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[Scientific journal|publications]], and the areas of collective agreement and relative certainty are summarised in these high level reports and surveys.

National and international [[Academy of Sciences|science academies]] and [[Learned society|scientific societies]] have assessed current [[scientific opinion]] on [[global warming]]. These assessments are generally consistent with the conclusions of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]], the [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]] summarized:
*Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as evidenced by increases in global average air and ocean [[instrumental temperature record|temperatures]], the widespread melting of [[snow]] and [[ice]], and rising global average [[current sea level rise|sea level]].<ref>
{{citation
| title=1. Observed changes in climate and their effects
| chapter=Summary for Policymakers
| url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms1.html
| chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spm.html
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
</ref>
*Most of the global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to [[attribution of recent climate change|human activities]].<ref>
{{citation
| title=2. Causes of change
| chapter=Summary for Policymakers
| url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms2.html
| chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spm.html
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
</ref>
*Benefits and costs of climate change for [human] society will vary widely by location and scale.<ref name="parry social impacts">
{{citation
| author=Parry, M.L., ''et al.''
| title=Industry, settlement and society, in: Box TS.5. The main projected impacts for systems and sectors
| chapter=Technical summary
| url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/tssts-4-1.html
| chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ts.html
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG2|2007}}
</ref> Some of the effects in [[temperate climate|temperate]] and [[polar region]]s will be positive and others elsewhere will be negative.<ref name="parry social impacts"/> Overall, net effects are more likely to be strongly negative with larger or more rapid warming.<ref name="parry social impacts"/>
*The range of published evidence indicates that the net damage [[economic impacts of climate change|costs of climate change]] are likely to be significant and to increase over time.<ref>
{{citation
| author=IPCC
| title= Magnitudes of impact
| chapter=Summary for Policymakers
| url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spmsspm-c-15-magnitudes-of.html
| chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/spm.html
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG2|2007}}
</ref>
*The resilience of many [[climate change and ecosystems|ecosystem]]s is likely to be exceeded this century by an unprecedented combination of climate change, associated disturbances (e.g. [[flood]]ing, [[drought]], [[wildfire]], [[insect]]s, [[ocean acidification]]) and other [[global change]] drivers (e.g. land-use change, [[pollution]], fragmentation of natural systems, [[overexploitation|over-exploitation]] of resources).<ref>
{{citation
| title=Ecosystems, in: Sec 3.3.1 Impacts on systems and sectors
| chapter=Synthesis report
| url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains3-3-1.html
| chapter-url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spm.html
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}
</ref>
No scientific body of national or international standing maintains a formal opinion dissenting from any of these main points. The last national or international scientific body to drop dissent was the [[American Association of Petroleum Geologists]],<ref name=AQAonAAPG/> which in 2007<ref name="aapg19"/> updated its statement to its current non-committal position.<ref name="Oreskes07p68"/> Some other organizations, primarily those focusing on geology, also hold [[#Non-committal|non-committal positions]].

{{TOC limit|limit=4}}

==Synthesis reports==
Synthesis reports are assessments of scientific literature that compile the results of a range of stand-alone studies in order to achieve a broad level of understanding, or to describe the state of knowledge of a given subject.<ref name="Integration and Synthesis: Assessing Climate Change Impacts in Northern Canada"/>

===Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2014===
{{Main|Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC Fifth Assessment Report}}

===Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007===

In February 2007, the IPCC released a summary of the forthcoming [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report|Fourth Assessment Report]]. According to this summary, the Fourth Assessment Report finds that human actions are "very likely" the cause of global warming, meaning a 90% or greater probability. Global warming in this case is indicated by an increase of 0.75 degrees in average global temperatures over the last 100 years.<ref name="Warming 'very likely' human-made"/>

''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that “the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950”.<ref name="rosenthal"/>

A retired journalist for ''[[The New York Times]]'', William K. Stevens wrote: “The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years. In the panel’s parlance, this level of certainty is labeled 'very likely'. Only rarely does scientific odds-making provide a more definite answer than that, at least in this branch of science, and it describes the endpoint, so far, of a progression.”.<ref name="On the Climate Change Beat, Doubt Gives Way to Certainty"/>

The [[Associated Press]] summarized the position on sea level rise:
{{quote|On sea levels, the report projects rises of 7 to 23 inches by the end of the century. An additional 3.9 to 7.8 inches are possible if recent, surprising melting of polar ice sheets continues.<ref name="foxnews"/>}}

===U.S. Global Change Research Program===
''formerly the [[Climate Change Science Program]]''

The [[U.S. Global Change Research Program]] reported in June 2009<ref name="globalchange"/> that:

{{quote|Observations show that warming of the climate is unequivocal. The global warming observed over the past 50 years is due primarily to human-induced emissions of heat-trapping gases. These emissions come mainly from the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), with important contributions from the clearing of forests, agricultural practices, and other activities.}}

The report, which is about the effects that climate change is having in the United States, also says:

{{quote|Climate-related changes have already been observed globally and in the United States. These include increases in air and water temperatures, reduced frost days, increased frequency and intensity of heavy downpours, a rise in sea level, and reduced snow cover, glaciers, permafrost, and sea ice. A longer ice-free period on lakes and rivers, lengthening of the growing season, and increased [[water vapor]] in the atmosphere have also been observed. Over the past 30 years, temperatures have risen faster in winter than in any other season, with average winter temperatures in the Midwest and northern Great Plains increasing more than 7°F. Some of the changes have been faster than previous assessments had suggested.}}

===Arctic Climate Impact Assessment===
In 2004, the intergovernmental [[Arctic Council]] and the non-governmental [[International Arctic Science Committee]] released the synthesis report of the [[Arctic Climate Impact Assessment]]:<ref name="Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment New Scientific Consensus: Arctic Is Warming Rapidly"/>

{{quote|Climate conditions in the past provide evidence that rising atmospheric carbon dioxide levels are associated with rising global temperatures. Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), and secondarily the clearing of land, have increased the concentration of carbon dioxide, methane, and other heat-trapping ("greenhouse") gases in the atmosphere...There is international scientific consensus that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities.<ref name="amap"/>}}

==Policy==
{{See also|Avoiding dangerous climate change}}

There is an extensive discussion in the [[scientific literature]] on what policies might be effective in responding to climate change.<ref name="ar4 policy assessment">The literature has been assessed by the IPCC, e.g., see:
*{{citation
| title=Ch 17: Assessment of Adaptation Practices, Options, Constraints and Capacity
| url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch17.html
| author=Adger, W.N., ''et al.''
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG2|2007}}
*{{citation
| title=Technical summary
| url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/ts.html
| author=Barker, T., ''et al.''
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC AR4 WG3|2007}}
</ref> Some scientific bodies have recommended specific policies to governments (refer to the later sections of the article).<ref name="nationalacademies6"/> The [[natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s can play a role in informing an effective response to climate change.<ref name="tar value judgements">
{{citation
| title=1.1
| url=http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/vol4/english/017.htm
| chapter=Question 1
}}, in {{harvnb|IPCC TAR SYR|2001|p=38}}
</ref> However, policy decisions may require [[value judgement]]s.<ref name="tar value judgements"/> For example, the [[US National Research Council]] has commented:<ref>
[http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10139&page=4 Summary], in {{harvnb|US NRC|2001|p=4}}
</ref><blockquote>The question of whether there exists a "safe" level of concentration of greenhouse gases cannot be answered directly because it would require a value judgment of what constitutes an acceptable risk to human welfare and ecosystems in various parts of the world, as well as a more quantitative assessment of the risks and costs associated with the various impacts of global warming. In general, however, risk increases with increases in both the rate and the magnitude of climate change.</blockquote>

This article mostly focuses on the views of natural scientists. However, social scientists,<ref name="ar4 policy assessment"/> [[medic]]al experts,<ref>
{{citation
| title=Doha Declaration on Climate, Health and Wellbeing
| url=http://dohadeclaration.weebly.com/
}}. This statement has been signed by numerous medical organizations, including the [[World Medical Association]].
</ref> engineers<ref name="ar4 policy assessment"/> and philosophers<ref>
{{citation
| title=The Ethics of Global Climate Change
| date=March 2011
| publisher=Cambridge University Press
| url=http://www.cambridge.org/gb/knowledge/isbn/item5744232/?site_locale=en_GB
| isbn=9781107000698
| editor=Arnold, D.G.
}}
</ref> have also commented on climate change science and policies. Climate change policy is discussed in several articles: [[climate change mitigation]], [[climate change adaptation]], [[climate engineering]], [[politics of global warming]], [[climate ethics]], and [[economics of global warming]].

==Statements by scientific organizations of national or international standing==
{{Split section|date=August 2014}}
{{See also|Global warming controversy#Mainstream scientific position, and challenges to it}}
This is a list of scientific bodies of national or international standing, that have issued formal statements of opinion, classifies those organizations according to whether they concur with the IPCC view, are non-committal, or dissent from it.

===Concurring===

====Academies of science (general science)====

Since 2001, 34 [[national academies|national science academies]], three regional academies, and both the international [[InterAcademy Council]] and [[International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences]] have made formal declarations confirming human induced global warming and urging nations to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. The 34 national science academy statements include 33 who have signed joint science academy statements and one individual declaration by the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]] in 2007.

=====Joint national science academy statements=====

* 2001 Following the publication of the [[IPCC Third Assessment Report]], seventeen national science academies issued a joint statement, entitled "The Science of Climate Change", explicitly acknowledging the IPCC position as representing the scientific consensus on climate change science. The statement, printed in an editorial in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' on May 18, 2001,<ref name="Editorial: The Science of Climate Change"/> was signed by the science academies of Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, [[the Caribbean]], China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Italy, Malaysia, New Zealand, Sweden, Turkey, and the United Kingdom.<ref name="The Science of Climate Change"/>
* 2005 The national science academies of the [[G8]] nations, plus Brazil, China and India, three of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases in the developing world, signed a statement on the global response to climate change. The statement stresses that the scientific understanding of climate change is now sufficiently clear to justify nations taking prompt action, and explicitly endorsed the IPCC consensus. The eleven signatories were the science academies of Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.<ref name="nationalacademies"/>
* 2007 In preparation for the [[33rd G8 summit]], the national science academies of the [[G8+5]] nations issued a declaration referencing the position of the 2005 joint science academies' statement, and acknowledging the confirmation of their previous conclusion by recent research. Following the [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]], the declaration states, "It is unequivocal that the climate is changing, and it is very likely that this is predominantly caused by the increasing human interference with the atmosphere. These changes will transform the environmental conditions on [[Earth]] unless counter-measures are taken." The thirteen signatories were the national science academies of Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, Italy, India, Japan, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and the United States.<ref name="pik-potsdam"/>
* 2007 In preparation for the [[33rd G8 summit]], the [[Network of African Science Academies]] submitted a joint “statement on sustainability, energy efficiency, and climate change” : {{quote|A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change. The IPCC should be congratulated for the contribution it has made to public understanding of the nexus that exists between energy, climate and sustainability. | The thirteen signatories were the science academies of [[Cameroon]], [[Ghana]], [[Kenya]], [[Madagascar]], [[Nigeria]], [[Senegal]], [[South Africa]], [[Sudan]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], as well as the [[African Academy of Sciences]] | <ref name="autogenerated1"/>}}
* 2008 In preparation for the [[34th G8 summit]], the national science academies of the G8+5 nations issued a declaration reiterating the position of the 2005 joint science academies’ statement, and reaffirming “that climate change is happening and that anthropogenic warming is influencing many physical and biological systems.” Among other actions, the declaration urges all nations to “(t)ake appropriate economic and policy measures to accelerate transition to a [[low carbon society]] and to encourage and effect changes in individual and national behaviour.” The thirteen signatories were the same national science academies that issued the 2007 joint statement.<ref name="nationalacademies5"/>
* 2009 In advance of the [[United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009|UNFCCC]] negotiations to be held in [[Copenhagen]] in December 2009, the national science academies of the G8+5 nations issued a joint statement declaring, "Climate change and sustainable energy supply are crucial challenges for the future of humanity. It is essential that world leaders agree on the emission reductions needed to combat negative consequences of anthropogenic climate change". The statement references the IPCC's Fourth Assessment of 2007, and asserts that "climate change is happening even faster than previously estimated; global {{CO2}} emissions since 2000 have been higher than even the highest predictions, Arctic sea ice has been melting at rates much faster than predicted, and the rise in the sea level has become more rapid." The thirteen signatories were the same national science academies that issued the 2007 and 2008 joint statements.<ref name="nationalacademies6"/>

=====Polish Academy of Sciences=====
In December 2007, the General Assembly of the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]] (Polska Akademia Nauk), which has not been a signatory to [[#Joint National Science Academy Statements|joint national science academy statements]] issued a declaration endorsing the IPCC conclusions, and stating:
{{quote|it is the duty of Polish science and the national government to, in a thoughtful, organized and active manner, become involved in realisation of these ideas.

Problems of global warming, climate change, and their various negative impacts on human life and on the functioning of entire societies are one of the most dramatic challenges of modern times.

PAS General Assembly calls on the national scientific communities and the national government to actively support Polish participation in this important endeavor.<ref name="Stanowisko Zgromadzenia Ogólnego PAN z dnia 13 grudnia 2007 r"/>}}

=====Additional national science academy and society statements=====

* [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] as the world's largest general scientific society, adopted an official statement on climate change in 2006: {{quote|The scientific evidence is clear: global climate change caused by human activities is occurring now, and it is a growing threat to society....The pace of change and the evidence of harm have increased markedly over the last five years. The time to control greenhouse gas emissions is now.<ref name="aaas board"/>}}
* [[Federation of Australian Scientific and Technological Societies]] in 2008 published ''FASTS Statement on Climate Change''<ref name="FASTS Statement on Climate Change"/> which states: {{quote|Global climate change is real and measurable...To reduce the global net economic, environmental and social losses in the face of these impacts, the policy objective must remain squarely focused on returning greenhouse gas concentrations to near pre-industrial levels through the reduction of emissions. The spatial and temporal fingerprint of warming can be traced to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, which are a direct result of burning fossil fuels, broad-scale deforestation and other human activity.}}
* [[United States National Research Council]] through its Committee on the Science of Climate Change in 2001, published ''Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions''.<ref name="CCSAASKQ">{{cite book |author=Committee on the Science of Climate Change, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council |title=Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington DC |year=2001 |isbn=0-309-07574-2 |url=http://books.nap.edu/html/climatechange}}</ref> This report explicitly endorses the IPCC view of attribution of recent climate change as representing the view of the scientific community: {{quote|The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes is also a reflection of natural variability. Human-induced warming and associated sea level rises are expected to continue through the 21st century... The IPCC's conclusion that most of the observed warming of the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations accurately reflects the current thinking of the scientific community on this issue.<ref name=CCSAASKQ />}}
* [[Royal Society of New Zealand]] having signed onto the first joint science academy statement in 2001, released a separate statement in 2008 in order to clear up "the controversy over climate change and its causes, and possible confusion among the public": {{quote|The globe is warming because of increasing greenhouse gas emissions. Measurements show that greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere are well above levels seen for many thousands of years. Further global climate changes are predicted, with impacts expected to become more costly as time progresses. Reducing future impacts of climate change will require substantial reductions of greenhouse gas emissions.<ref name="Climate change statement from the Royal Society of New Zealand"/>}}
* The [[Royal Society]] of the United Kingdom has not changed its concurring stance reflected in its participation in [[#Joint national science academies' statements|joint national science academies' statements]] on anthropogenic global warming. According to the [[The Daily Telegraph|Telegraph]], "The most prestigious group of scientists in the country was forced to act after fellows complained that doubts over man made global warming were not being communicated to the public".<ref name="telegraph.co.uk"/> In May 2010, it announced that it "is presently drafting a new public facing document on climate change, to provide an updated status report on the science in an easily accessible form, also addressing the levels of certainty of key components."<ref name="RS-CC"/> The society says that it is three years since the last such document was published and that, after an extensive process of debate and review,<ref name="Society to review climate message"/><ref name="Some excitable climate-change deniers just don't understand what science is"/> the new document was printed in September 2010. It summarises the current scientific evidence and highlights the areas where the science is well established, where there is still some debate, and where substantial uncertainties remain. The society has stated that "this is not the same as saying that the climate science itself is in error – no Fellows have expressed such a view to the RS".<ref name="RS-CC"/> The introduction includes this statement: {{quote|There is strong evidence that the warming of the Earth over the last half-century has been caused largely by human activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use, including agriculture and deforestation.}}

=====International science academies=====

* [[African Academy of Sciences]] in 2007 was a signatory to the "statement on sustainability, energy efficiency, and climate change", the [[#Joint national science academies' statements|joint statement of African science academies]], organized through the [[Network of African Science Academies]], confirming anthropogenic global warming and presented to the leaders meeting at the [[33rd G8 summit|G8 Summit in Heiligendamm]], Germany.
* [[European Academy of Sciences and Arts]] in 2007 issued a formal declaration on climate change titled ''Let's Be Honest'': {{quote|Human activity is most ''likely'' responsible for climate warming. Most of the climatic warming over the last 50 years is ''likely'' to have been caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Documented long-term climate changes include changes in Arctic temperatures and ice, widespread changes in precipitation amounts, ocean salinity, wind patterns and [[extreme weather]] including droughts, heavy precipitation, heat waves and the intensity of tropical cyclones. The above development potentially has dramatic consequences for mankind’s future.<ref name="euro-acad"/>}}
* [[European Science Foundation]] in a 2007 position paper <ref name="European Science Foundation Position Paper ''Impacts of Climate Change on the European Marine and Coastal Environment — Ecosystems Approach''"/> states: {{quote|There is now convincing evidence that since the industrial revolution, human activities, resulting in increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases have become a major agent of climate change... On-going and increased efforts to mitigate climate change through reduction in greenhouse gases are therefore crucial.}}
* [[InterAcademy Council]] As the representative of the world’s [[Academy of Sciences|scientific and engineering academies]],<ref name="nytimes"/><ref name="interacademycouncil"/> the InterAcademy Council issued a report in 2007 titled ''Lighting the Way: Toward a Sustainable Energy Future''. {{quote|Current patterns of energy resources and energy usage are proving detrimental to the long-term welfare of humanity. The integrity of essential natural systems is already at risk from climate change caused by the atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases.<ref name="interacademycouncil7"/> Concerted efforts should be mounted for improving energy efficiency and reducing the carbon intensity of the world economy.<ref name="interacademycouncil8"/>}}
* [[International Council of Academies of Engineering and Technological Sciences]] (CAETS) in 2007, issued a ''Statement on Environment and Sustainable Growth'':<ref name="caets">http://www.caets.org/nae/naecaets.nsf/(weblinks)/WSAN-78QL9A?OpenDocument</ref> {{quote|As reported by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), most of the observed global warming since the mid-20th century is very likely due to human-produced emission of greenhouse gases and this warming will continue unabated if present anthropogenic emissions continue or, worse, expand without control. CAETS, therefore, endorses the many recent calls to decrease and control greenhouse gas emissions to an acceptable level as quickly as possible.}}

====Physical and chemical sciences====

* [[American Chemical Society]]<ref name="American Chemical Society ''Global Climte Change''"/>
* [[American Institute of Physics]]<ref name="American Institute of Physics Statement supporting AGU statement on human-induced climate change"/>
* [[American Physical Society]]<ref name="American Physical Society Climate Change Policy Statement"/>
* [[Australian Institute of Physics]]<ref name="AIP science policy document."/>
* [[European Physical Society]]<ref name="EPS Position Paper ''Energy for the future: The Nuclear Option''"/>

====Earth sciences====

=====American Geophysical Union=====
The [[American Geophysical Union]] (AGU) statement, adopted by the society in 2003, revised in 2007,<ref name="agu"/> and revised and expanded in 2013,<ref>{{cite web|title=Human-induced Climate Change Requires Urgent Action|url=http://www.agu.org/news/press/pr_archives/2013/2013-38.shtml|work=Position Statement|publisher=American Geophysical Union|accessdate=14 August 2013}}</ref> affirms that rising levels of greenhouse gases have caused and will continue to cause the global surface temperature to be warmer:

{{quote|“Human activities are changing Earth’s climate. At the global level, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping greenhouse gases have increased sharply since the Industrial Revolution. Fossil fuel burning dominates this increase. Human-caused increases in greenhouse gases are responsible for most of the observed global average surface warming of roughly 0.8°C (1.5°F) over the past 140 years. Because natural processes cannot quickly remove some of these gases (notably carbon dioxide) from the atmosphere, our past, present, and future emissions will influence the climate system for millennia.

While important scientific uncertainties remain as to which particular impacts will be experienced where, no uncertainties are known that could make the impacts of climate change inconsequential. Furthermore, surprise outcomes, such as the unexpectedly rapid loss of Arctic summer sea ice, may entail even more dramatic changes than anticipated."}}

=====American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, and Soil Science Society of America=====

In May, 2011, the [[American Society of Agronomy]] (ASA), Crop Science Society of America (CSSA), and [[Soil Science Society of America]] (SSSA) issued a joint position statement on climate change as it relates to agriculture:

{{quote|A comprehensive body of scientific evidence indicates beyond reasonable doubt that global climate change is now occurring and that its manifestations threaten the stability of societies as well as natural and managed ecosystems. Increases in ambient temperatures and changes in related processes are directly linked to rising anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere.

Unless the emissions of GHGs are curbed significantly, their concentrations will continue to rise, leading to changes in temperature, precipitation, and other climate variables that will undoubtedly affect agriculture around the world.

Climate change has the potential to increase weather variability as well as gradually increase global temperatures. Both of these impacts have the potential to negatively impact the adaptability and resilience of the world’s food production capacity; current research indicates climate change is already reducing the productivity of vulnerable cropping systems.<ref name="soils"/>}}

=====European Federation of Geologists=====

In 2008, the European Federation of Geologists<ref name="eurogeologists"/> (EFG) issued the position paper ''Carbon Capture and geological Storage '':

{{quote|The EFG recognizes the work of the IPCC and other organizations, and subscribes to the major findings that climate change is happening, is predominantly caused by anthropogenic emissions of {{CO2}}, and poses a significant threat to human civilization.

It is clear that major efforts are necessary to quickly and strongly reduce {{CO2}} emissions. The EFG strongly advocates renewable and sustainable energy production, including geothermal energy, as well as the need for increasing energy efficiency.

CCS [Carbon Capture and geological Storage] should also be regarded as a bridging technology, facilitating the move towards a carbon free economy.<ref name="eurogeologists9"/>}}

=====European Geosciences Union=====

In 2005, the Divisions of Atmospheric and Climate Sciences of the [[European Geosciences Union]] (EGU) issued a position statement in support of the [[scientific opinion on climate change#Joint science academies’ statement 2005|joint science academies’ statement]] on global response to climate change. The statement refers to the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC), as "the main representative of the global [[scientific community]]", and asserts that the IPCC

{{quote|represents the state-of-the-art of climate science supported by the major science academies around the world and by the vast majority of science researchers and investigators as documented by the [[peer-reviewed]] scientific literature.<ref name="www"/>}}

Additionally, in 2008, the EGU issued a position statement on [[ocean acidification]] which states, "Ocean acidification is already occurring today and will continue to intensify, closely tracking [[Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric {{CO2}}]] increase. Given the potential threat to [[marine ecosystems]] and its ensuing impact on human society and economy, especially as it acts in conjunction with [[anthropogenic global warming]], there is an urgent need for immediate action." The statement then advocates for strategies "to limit future release of {{CO2}} to the atmosphere and/or enhance removal of excess {{CO2}} from the atmosphere."<ref name="www10"/>

=====Geological Society of America=====
In 2006, the [[Geological Society of America]] adopted a position statement on global [[climate change]]. It amended this position on April 20, 2010 with more explicit comments on need for {{CO2}} reduction.
{{quote|Decades of scientific research have shown that climate can change from both natural and anthropogenic causes. The Geological Society of America (GSA) concurs with assessments by the National Academies of Science (2005), the National Research Council (2006), and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007) that global climate has warmed and that human activities (mainly greenhouse‐gas emissions) account for most of the warming since the middle 1900s. If current trends continue, the projected increase in global temperature by the end of the twentyfirst century will result in large impacts on humans and other species. Addressing the challenges posed by climate change will require a combination of adaptation to the changes that are likely to occur and global reductions of {{CO2}} emissions from anthropogenic sources.<ref name="geosociety"/>}}

=====Geological Society of London=====

In November 2010, the [[Geological Society of London]] issued the position statement ''Climate change: evidence from the geological record'':

{{quote|The last century has seen a rapidly growing global population and much more intensive use of resources, leading to greatly increased emissions of gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, from the burning of fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal), and from agriculture, cement production and deforestation. Evidence from the geological record is consistent with the physics that shows that adding large amounts of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere warms the world and may lead to: higher sea levels and flooding of low-lying coasts; greatly changed patterns of rainfall; increased acidity of the oceans; and decreased oxygen levels in seawater.

There is now widespread concern that the Earth’s climate will warm further, not only because of the lingering effects of the added carbon already in the system, but also because of further additions as human population continues to grow. Life on Earth has survived large climate changes in the past, but extinctions and major redistribution of species have been associated with many of them. When the human population was small and nomadic, a rise in sea level of a few metres would have had very little effect on Homo sapiens. With the current and growing global population, much of which is concentrated in coastal cities, such a rise in sea level would have a drastic effect on our complex society, especially if the climate were to change as suddenly as it has at times in the past. Equally, it seems likely that as warming continues some areas may experience less precipitation leading to drought. With both rising seas and increasing drought, pressure for human migration could result on a large scale.<ref name="geolsoc"/>}}

=====International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics=====

In July 2007, the [[International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics]] (IUGG) adopted a resolution titled “The Urgency of Addressing Climate Change”. In it, the IUGG concurs with the “comprehensive and widely accepted and endorsed scientific assessments carried out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and regional and national bodies, which have firmly established, on the basis of scientific evidence, that human activities are the primary cause of recent climate change.” They state further that the “continuing reliance on combustion of fossil fuels as the world’s primary source of energy will lead to much higher atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases, which will, in turn, cause significant increases in surface temperature, sea level, ocean acidification, and their related consequences to the environment and society.”<ref name="iugg"/>

=====National Association of Geoscience Teachers=====

In July 2009, the National Association of Geoscience Teachers<ref name="nagt"/> (NAGT) adopted a position statement on climate change in which they assert that "Earth's climate is changing [and] "that present warming trends are largely the result of human activities":

{{quote|NAGT strongly supports and will work to promote education in the science of climate change, the causes and effects of current global warming, and the immediate need for policies and actions that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.<ref name="nagt11"/>}}

====Meteorology and oceanography====

=====American Meteorological Society=====
The [[American Meteorological Society]] (AMS) statement adopted by their council in 2012 concluded:

{{quote|There is unequivocal evidence that Earth’s lower atmosphere, ocean, and land surface are warming; sea level is rising; and snow cover, mountain glaciers, and Arctic sea ice are shrinking. The dominant cause of the warming since the 1950s is human activities. This scientific finding is based on a large and persuasive body of research. The observed warming will be irreversible for many years into the future, and even larger temperature increases will occur as greenhouse gases continue to accumulate in the atmosphere. Avoiding this future warming will require a large and rapid reduction in global greenhouse gas emissions. The ongoing warming will increase risks and stresses to human societies, economies, ecosystems, and wildlife through the 21st century and beyond, making it imperative that society respond to a changing climate. To inform decisions on adaptation and mitigation, it is critical that we improve our understanding of the global climate system and our ability to project future climate through continued and improved monitoring and research. This is especially true for smaller (seasonal and regional) scales and weather and climate extremes, and for important hydroclimatic variables such as precipitation and water availability.

Technological, economic, and policy choices in the near future will determine the extent of future impacts of climate change. Science-based decisions are seldom made in a context of absolute certainty. National and international policy discussions should include consideration of the best ways to both adapt to and mitigate climate change. Mitigation will reduce the amount of future climate change and the risk of impacts that are potentially large and dangerous. At the same time, some continued climate change is inevitable, and policy responses should include adaptation to climate change. Prudence dictates extreme care in accounting for our relationship with the only planet known to be capable of sustaining human life.<ref name="ametsoc"/>}}

=====Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society=====

The [[Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society]] has issued a ''Statement on Climate Change'', wherein they conclude:

{{quote|Global climate change and global warming are real and observable ... It is highly likely that those human activities that have increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have been largely responsible for the observed warming since 1950. The warming associated with increases in greenhouse gases originating from human activity is called the enhanced [[greenhouse effect]]. The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by more than 30% since the start of the industrial age and is higher now than at any time in at least the past 650,000 years. This increase is a direct result of burning fossil fuels, broad-scale [[deforestation]] and other human activity.”<ref name="amos"/>}}

=====Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences=====

In November 2005, the [[Canadian Foundation for Climate and Atmospheric Sciences]] (CFCAS) issued a letter to the [[Prime Minister of Canada]] stating that

{{quote|We concur with the climate science assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 2001 ... We endorse the conclusions of the IPCC assessment that 'There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities'. ... There is increasingly unambiguous evidence of changing climate in Canada and around the world. There will be increasing impacts of climate change on Canada’s natural ecosystems and on our socio-economic activities. Advances in climate science since the 2001 IPCC Assessment have provided more evidence supporting the need for action and development of a strategy for adaptation to projected changes.<ref name="cfcas"/>}}

=====Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society=====

In November 2009, a letter to the Canadian Parliament by The [[Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society]] states:
{{quote|Rigorous international research, including work carried out and supported by the Government of Canada, reveals that greenhouse gases resulting from human activities contribute to the warming of the atmosphere and the oceans and constitute a serious risk to the health and safety of our society, as well as having an impact on all life.<ref name="cmos"/>}}

=====Royal Meteorological Society (UK)=====
In February 2007, after the release of the IPCC’s Fourth Assessment Report, the [[Royal Meteorological Society]] issued an endorsement of the report. In addition to referring to the IPCC as "[the] world’s best climate scientists", they stated that climate change is happening as “the result of emissions since industrialization and we have already set in motion the next 50 years of global warming – what we do from now on will determine how worse it will get.”<ref name="rmets"/>

=====World Meteorological Organization=====
In its ''Statement at the Twelfth Session of the Conference of the Parties to the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change'' presented on November 15, 2006, the [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) confirms the need to “[[Avoiding dangerous climate change|prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system]].” The WMO concurs that “scientific assessments have increasingly reaffirmed that human activities are indeed changing the composition of the atmosphere, in particular through the burning of fossil fuels for energy production and transportation.” The WMO concurs that “the present atmospheric concentration of {{CO2}} was never exceeded over the past 420,000 years;” and that the IPCC “assessments provide the most authoritative, up-to-date scientific advice.”
<ref name="www12">[http://www.wmo.ch/pages/mediacentre/statann/documents/SG21_2006_E.pdf WMO’s Statement at the Twelfth Session of the Conference of the Parties to the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change.]</ref>

====Paleoclimatology====
[[Paleoclimatology]]

=====American Quaternary Association=====
The [[American Quaternary Association]] (AMQUA) has stated

{{quote|Few credible Scientists now doubt that humans have influenced the documented rise of global temperatures since the Industrial Revolution,” citing “the growing body of evidence that warming of the atmosphere, especially over the past 50 years, is directly impacted by human activity.<ref name="agu13"/>}}

=====International Union for Quaternary Research=====

The statement on climate change issued by the [[International Union for Quaternary Research]] (INQUA) reiterates the conclusions of the IPCC, and urges all nations to take prompt action in line with the [[UNFCCC]] principles.

{{quote|Human activities are now causing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases — including carbon dioxide, methane, tropospheric ozone, and nitrous oxide — to rise well above pre-industrial levels….Increases in greenhouse gases are causing temperatures to rise…The scientific understanding of climate change is now sufficiently clear to justify nations taking prompt action….Minimizing the amount of this carbon dioxide reaching the atmosphere presents a huge challenge but must be a global priority.<ref name="inqua"/>}}

====Biology and life sciences====
Life science organizations have outlined the dangers climate change pose to wildlife.

* American Association of Wildlife Veterinarians<ref name="AAWV ''Position Statement on Climate Change, Wildlife Diseases, and Wildlife Health''"/>
* [[American Institute of Biological Sciences]]. In October 2009, the leaders of 18 US scientific societies and organizations sent an open letter to the [[United States Senate]] reaffirming the scientific consensus that climate change is occurring and is primarily caused by human activities. The American Institute of Biological Sciences (AIBS) adopted this letter as their official position statement.<ref name="AIBS Position Statements"/><ref name="''Scientific societies warn Senate: climate change is real''"/> The letter goes on to warn of predicted impacts on the United States such as [[sea level rise]] and increases in [[extreme weather events]], [[water scarcity]], [[heat waves]], [[wildfires]], and the disturbance of [[biological systems]]. It then advocates for a dramatic reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases.<ref name="Letter to US Senators"/>
* [[American Society for Microbiology]]<ref name="Global Environmental Change — Microbial Contributions, Microbial Solutions"/>
* [[Australian Coral Reef Society]]<ref name="Australian Coral Reef Society official letter"/>
* [[Institute of Biology]] (UK)<ref name="iob"/>
* [[Society of American Foresters]] issued two position statements pertaining to climate change in which they cite the IPCC<ref name="SAF ''Forest Management and Climate Change ''"/> and the UNFCCC.<ref name="SAF ''Forest Offset Projects in a Carbon Trading System''"/>
* [[The Wildlife Society]] (international)<ref name="Wildlife Society ''Global Climate Change and Wildlife''"/>

====Human health====
A number of health organizations have warned about the numerous [[Effects of global warming on human health|negative health effects of global warming]]
* [[American Academy of Pediatrics]]<ref name="AAP ''Global Climate Change and Children's Health''"/>
* [[American College of Preventive Medicine]]<ref name="ACPM Policy Statement ''Abrupt Climate Change and Public Health Implications''"/>
* [[American Medical Association]]<ref name="American Medical Association Policy Statement"/>
* [[American Public Health Association]]<ref name="apha"/>
* [[Australian Medical Association]] in 2004<ref name="AMA ''Climate Change and Human Health — 2004''"/> and in 2008<ref name="AMA ''Climate Change and Human Health'' — 2004. Revised 2008."/>
* World Federation of Public Health Associations<ref name="wfpha"/>
* [[World Health Organization]]<ref name="WHO ''Protecting health from climate change''"/>

{{quote|There is now widespread agreement that the Earth is warming, due to emissions of greenhouse gases caused by human activity. It is also clear that current trends in energy use, development, and population growth will lead to continuing – and more severe – climate change.}}

{{quote|The changing climate will inevitably affect the basic requirements for maintaining health: clean air and water, sufficient food and adequate shelter. Each year, about 800,000 people die from causes attributable to [[urban air pollution]], 1.8 million from [[diarrhoea]] resulting from lack of access to clean water supply, sanitation, and poor hygiene, 3.5 million from [[malnutrition]] and approximately 60,000 in natural disasters. A warmer and more variable climate threatens to lead to higher levels of some air pollutants, increase transmission of diseases through unclean water and through contaminated food, to compromise agricultural production in some of the least developed countries, and increase the hazards of extreme weather.}}

====Miscellaneous====
A number of other national scientific societies have also endorsed the opinion of the IPCC:
* [[American Astronomical Society]]<ref name="Statement supporting AGU statement on human-induced climate change"/>
* [[American Statistical Association]]<ref name="ASA Statement on Climate Change"/>
* The Institution of [[Engineers Australia]]<ref name="Policy Statement, Climate Change and Energy"/>
* International Association for Great Lakes Research<ref name="IAGLR Fact Sheet ''The Great Lakes at a Crossroads: Preparing for a Changing Climate''"/>
* Institute of Professional Engineers New Zealand<ref name="IPENZ Informatory Note, ''Climate Change and the greenhouse effect''"/>
* [http://www.wfeo.net/events/international-conclave-on-climate-change/%20%20 The World Federation of Engineering Organizations (WFEO)]

===Non-committal===
{{anchor|Non-committal statements}}

====American Association of Petroleum Geologists====

As of June 2007, the [[American Association of Petroleum Geologists]] (AAPG) Position Statement on climate change stated:

{{quote|the AAPG membership is divided on the degree of influence that anthropogenic {{CO2}} has on recent and potential global temperature increases ... Certain climate simulation models predict that the warming trend will continue, as reported through NAS, AGU, AAAS and AMS. AAPG respects these scientific opinions but wants to add that the current climate warming projections could fall within well-documented natural variations in past climate and observed temperature data. These data do not necessarily support the maximum case scenarios forecast in some models.<ref name="aapg"/>}}

Prior to the adoption of this statement, the AAPG was the only major scientific organization that rejected the finding of significant human influence on recent climate, according to a statement by the Council of the American Quaternary Association.<ref name="AQAonAAPG"/> Explaining the plan for a revision, AAPG president Lee Billingsly wrote in March 2007:

{{quote|Members have threatened to not renew their memberships… if AAPG does not alter its position on global climate change... And I have been told of members who already have resigned in previous years because of our current global climate change position… The current policy statement is not supported by a significant number of our members and prospective members.<ref name="aapg14"/>}}

AAPG President John Lorenz announced the "sunsetting" of AAPG’s Global Climate Change Committee in January 2010. The AAPG Executive Committee determined:

{{bquote|Climate change is peripheral at best to our science […] AAPG does not have credibility in that field […] and as a group we have no particular knowledge of global atmospheric geophysics.<ref name="2010_tpgmarapr"/>}}

====American Institute of Professional Geologists====

In 2009, the American Institute of Professional Geologists<ref name="aipg"/> (AIPG) sent a statement to President [[Barack Obama]] and other US government officials:

{{quote|The geological professionals in AIPG recognize that climate change is occurring and has the potential to yield catastrophic impacts if humanity is not prepared to address those impacts. It is also recognized that climate change will occur regardless of the cause. The sooner a defensible scientific understanding can be developed, the better equipped humanity will be to develop economically viable and technically effective methods to support the needs of society.<ref name="aipg16"/>}}

Concerned that the original statement issued in March 2009 was too ambiguous, AIPG’s National Executive Committee approved a revised position statement issued in January 2010:

{{bquote|The geological professionals in AIPG recognize that climate change is occurring regardless of cause. AIPG supports continued research into all forces driving climate change.<ref name="2010_tpgjanfeb"/>}}

In March 2010, AIPG’s Executive Director issued a statement regarding polarization of opinions on climate change within the membership and announced that the AIPG Executive had made a decision to cease publication of articles and opinion pieces concerning climate change in AIPG’s news journal, ''The Professional Geologist''.<ref name="aipg17"/> The Executive Director said that “the question of anthropogenicity of climate change is contentious.”<ref name="2010_tpgmarapr18"/>

====Canadian Federation of Earth Sciences====

{{quote|The science of global climate change is still evolving and our understanding of this vital Earth system is not as developed as is the case for other Earth systems such as plate tectonics. What is known with certainty is that regardless of the causes, our global climate will continue to change for the foreseeable future... The level of {{CO2}} in our atmosphere is now greater than at any time in the past 500,000 years; there will be consequences for our global climate and natural systems as a result.<ref name="geoscience"/>}}

====Geological Society of Australia====

{{quote|After a long and extensive and extended consultation with society members, the GSA executive committee has decided not to proceed with a climate change position statement.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/earth-scientists-split-on-climate-change-statement/story-e6frg8y6-1226942126322?sv=be1dcfaa02d4346ce0ed662fdf01ddeb# |title= Earth scientists split on climate change statement |work= [[The Australian]] |date= June 4, 2014 |accessdate= June 4, 2014 |author= Graham Lloyd}}{{subscription required|date= June 2014}}</ref>}}

===Dissenting===
{{See also|List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming}}

As of 2007, when the [[American Association of Petroleum Geologists]] released a revised statement,<ref name="aapg19"/> no scientific body of national or international standing rejected the findings of human-induced effects on climate change.<ref name=AQAonAAPG/><ref name=Oreskes07p68/>

==Surveys of scientists and scientific literature==
[[File:Climate science opinion2.png|thumb|Summary of opinions from climate and earth scientists regarding climate change.]]
[[File:97% of Climate Scientists Confirm Anthroprogenic Global Warming.svg|thumb|Just over 97% of published climate researchers say humans are causing most global warming.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anderegg |first=William R L |last2=Prall |first2=James W. |last3=Harold |first3=Jacob |last4=Schneider |first4=Stephen H. |title=Expert credibility in climate change |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |year=2010 |accessdate=22 August 2011 |pmid=20566872 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1003187107 |volume=107 |issue=27 |pages=12107–9 |pmc=2901439 |bibcode = 2010PNAS..10712107A |ref=harv }}</ref><ref>[http://tigger.uic.edu/~pdoran/012009_Doran_final.pdf Doran consensus article 2009]</ref><ref name="Cook2013">{{cite journal |author= John Cook, Dana Nuccitelli, Sarah A Green, Mark Richardson, Bärbel Winkler, Rob Painting, Robert Way, Peter Jacobs. Andrew Skuce |date=15 May 2013 |title=Expert credibility in climate change |volume= 8 |journal=Environ. Res. Lett. |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024 |bibcode = 2013ERL.....8b4024C |issue= 2 |pages= 024024 |ref= harv }}</ref>]]
{{Main|Surveys of scientists' views on climate change}}

Various surveys have been conducted to evaluate scientific opinion on [[global warming]]. They have concluded that the majority of scientists support the idea of anthropogenic climate change.

In 2004, the geologist and historian of science [[Naomi Oreskes]] summarized a study of the scientific literature on climate change.<ref name="Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change"/> She analyzed 928 [[abstract (summary)|abstracts]] of papers from refereed scientific journals between 1993 and 2003 and concluded that there is a scientific consensus on the reality of [[anthropogenic climate change]].

Oreskes divided the abstracts into six categories: explicit endorsement of the consensus position, evaluation of impacts, mitigation proposals, methods, [[Paleoclimatology|paleoclimate]] analysis, and rejection of the consensus position. Seventy-five per cent of the abstracts were placed in the first three categories (either explicitly or implicitly accepting the consensus view); 25% dealt with methods or paleoclimate, thus taking no position on current anthropogenic climate change. None of the abstracts disagreed with the consensus position, which the author found to be "remarkable". According to the report, "authors evaluating impacts, developing methods, or studying paleoclimatic change might believe that current climate change is natural. However, none of these papers argued that point."

In 2007, [[Harris Interactive]] surveyed 489 randomly selected members of either the [[American Meteorological Society]] or the [[American Geophysical Union]] for the [[Statistical Assessment Service]] (STATS) at [[George Mason University]]. 97% of the scientists surveyed agreed that global temperatures had increased during the past 100 years; 84% said they personally believed human-induced warming was occurring, and 74% agreed that "currently available scientific evidence" substantiated its occurrence. Catastrophic effects in 50–100 years would likely be observed according to 41%, while 44% thought the effects would be moderate and about 13 percent saw relatively little danger. 5% said they thought human activity did not contribute to greenhouse warming.<ref name="Survey Tracks Scientists' Growing Climate Concern"/><ref name="Climate Scientists Agree on Warming, Disagree on Dangers, and Don't Trust the Media's Coverage of Climate Change">{{cite web |last=Lichter |first=S. Robert |url=http://stats.org/stories/2008/global_warming_survey_apr23_08.html |title=Climate Scientists Agree on Warming, Disagree on Dangers, and Don't Trust the Media's Coverage of Climate Change|publisher=Statistical Assessment Service, George Mason University |date=2008-04-24 |accessdate=2010-01-20}}</ref><ref name="journalistsresource"/><ref name="The Structure of Scientific Opinion on Climate Change"/>

Dennis Bray and [[Hans von Storch]] conducted a survey in August 2008 of 2058 climate scientists from 34 different countries.<ref name="A Survey of the Perspectives of Climate Scientists Concerning Climate Science and Climate Change"/> A web link with a unique identifier was given to each respondent to eliminate multiple responses. A total of 373 responses were received giving an overall response rate of 18.2%. No paper on climate change consensus based on this survey has been published yet (February 2010), but one on another subject has been published based on the survey.<ref name="Prediction' or 'Projection; The nomenclature of climate science"/>

The survey was composed of 76 questions split into a number of sections.
There were sections on the demographics of the respondents, their assessment of the state of climate science, how good the science is, climate change impacts, adaptation and mitigation, their opinion of the IPCC, and how well climate science was being communicated to the public.
Most of the answers were on a scale from 1 to 7 from 'not at all' to 'very much'.

To the question "How convinced are you that climate change, whether natural or anthropogenic, is occurring now?", 67.1% said they very much agreed, 26.7% agreed to some large extent, 6.2% said to they agreed to some small extent (2–4), none said they did not agree at all. To the question "How convinced are you that most of recent or near future climate change is, or will
be, a result of anthropogenic causes?" the responses were 34.6% very much agree, 48.9% agreeing to a large extent, 15.1% to a small extent, and 1.35% not agreeing at all.

A poll performed by [[Peter Doran]] and Maggie Kendall Zimmerman at [[University of Illinois at Chicago]] received replies from 3,146 of the 10,257 polled Earth scientists. Results were analyzed globally and by specialization. 76 out of 79 [[climatologists]] who "listed climate science as their area of expertise and who also have published more than 50% of their recent peer-reviewed papers on the subject of climate change" believed that mean global temperatures had risen compared to pre-1800s levels. Seventy-five of 77 believed that human activity is a significant factor in changing mean global temperatures. Among all respondents, 90% agreed that temperatures have risen compared to pre-1800 levels, and 82% agreed that humans significantly influence the global temperature. [[Economic geologist]]s and [[meteorologist]]s were among the biggest doubters, with only 47 percent and 64 percent, respectively, believing in significant human involvement. The authors summarised the findings:

{{quote|It seems that the debate on the authenticity of global warming and the role played by human activity is largely nonexistent among those who understand the nuances and scientific basis of long-term climate processes.<ref name="DZ_EOS_2009"/>}}

A 2010 paper in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States'']] (PNAS) reviewed publication and citation data for 1,372 climate researchers and drew the following two conclusions:

<blockquote>(i) 97–98% of the climate researchers most actively publishing in the field support the tenets of ACC (Anthropogenic Climate Change) outlined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and (ii) the relative climate expertise and scientific prominence of the researchers unconvinced of ACC are substantially below that of the convinced researchers.<ref name="Expert credibility in climate change"/></blockquote>

A 2013 paper in [[Environmental Research Letters]] reviewed 11,944 abstracts of scientific papers matching "global warming" or "global climate change". They found 4,014 which discussed the cause of recent global warming, and of these 97.1% endorsed the consensus position.<ref name="Cook_etal_13"/>

[[James L. Powell]], a former member of the [[National Science Board]] and current executive director of the [[National Physical Science Consortium]], analyzed published research on global warming and climate change between 1991 and 2012 and found that of the 13,950 articles in peer-reviewed journals, only 24 rejected anthropogenic global warming.<ref>{{cite news|last=Plait|first=P.|date=11 December 2012|title=Why Climate Change Denial Is Just Hot Air|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2012/12/11/climate_change_denial_why_don_t_they_publish_scientific_papers.html|newspaper=Slate|accessdate=14 February 2014}}</ref> A follow-up analysis looking at 2,258 peer-reviewed climate articles with 9,136 authors published between November 2012 and December 2013 revealed that only one of the 9,136 authors rejected anthropogenic global warming.<ref>{{cite news|last=Plait|first=P.|date=14 January 2014|title=The Very, Very Thin Wedge of Denial|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad_astronomy/2014/01/14/climate_change_another_study_shows_they_don_t_publish_actual_papers.html|newspaper=Slate|accessdate=14 February 2014}}</ref>

==Scientific consensus==
{{See also|Scientific consensus}}
A question that frequently arises in popular discussion of climate change is whether there is a scientific consensus on climate change.<ref name="Oreskes_consensus"/> Several scientific organizations have explicitly used the term "consensus" in their statements:
* [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]], 2006: "The conclusions in this statement reflect the scientific consensus represented by, for example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, and the Joint National Academies' statement."<ref name="aaas board"/>
* [[United States National Academy of Sciences|US National Academy of Sciences]]: "In the judgment of most climate scientists, Earth’s warming in recent decades has been caused primarily by human activities that have increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. ... On climate change, [the National Academies’ reports] have assessed consensus findings on the science..."<ref name="nas"/>
* Joint Science Academies' statement, 2005: "We recognise the international scientific consensus of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)."<ref name="nationalacademies21"/>
* Joint Science Academies' statement, 2001: "The work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) represents the consensus of the international scientific community on climate change science. We recognise IPCC as the world’s most reliable source of information on climate change and its causes, and we endorse its method of achieving this consensus."<ref name="The Science of Climate Change"/>
* [[American Meteorological Society]], 2003: "The nature of science is such that there is rarely total agreement among scientists. Individual scientific statements and papers—the validity of some of which has yet to be assessed adequately—can be exploited in the policy debate and can leave the impression that the scientific community is sharply divided on issues where there is, in reality, a strong scientific consensus.... IPCC assessment reports are prepared at approximately five-year intervals by a large international group of experts who represent the broad range of expertise and perspectives relevant to the issues. The reports strive to reflect a consensus evaluation of the results of the full body of peer-reviewed research.... They provide an analysis of what is known and not known, the degree of consensus, and some indication of the degree of confidence that can be placed on the various statements and conclusions."<ref name="ametsoc22"/>
* [[Network of African Science Academies]]: “A consensus, based on current evidence, now exists within the global scientific community that human activities are the main source of climate change and that the burning of fossil fuels is largely responsible for driving this change.”<ref name="autogenerated1" />
* [[International Union for Quaternary Research]], 2008: "INQUA recognizes the international scientific consensus of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)."<ref name="inqua"/>
* Australian Coral Reef Society,<ref name="australiancoralreefsociety"/> 2006: "There is almost total consensus among experts that the earth’s climate is changing as a result of the build-up of greenhouse gases.... There is broad scientific consensus that coral reefs are heavily affected by the activities of man and there are significant global influences that can make reefs more vulnerable such as global warming...."<ref name="australiancoralreefsociety24"/>

==See also==
{{Portal|Global warming|Energy}}
* [[4 Degrees and Beyond International Climate Conference]]
* [[Climate change denial]]
* [[Economics of global warming]]
* [[Effects of global warming]]
* [[Global warming controversy]]
* [[History of climate change science]]
* [[International Year of Planet Earth]]
* [[List of authors of ''Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis'']]
* [[List of climate scientists]]
* [[List of scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming]]
* [[National Registry of Environmental Professionals#Climate change survey]] survey on climate change
* [[Public opinion on climate change]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=35em|refs=

<ref name = "AmericasClimateChoices-2010-SciPanel">[Notes-SciPanel] {{Cite book | publisher=The National Academies Press | isbn = 0-309-14588-0 | last = America's Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change; National Research Council | title = Advancing the Science of Climate Change | location = Washington, D.C. | year = 2010 | url = http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12782 | quote = (p1) ... there is a strong, credible body of evidence, based on multiple lines of research, documenting that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities. While much remains to be learned, the core phenomenon, scientific questions, and hypotheses have been examined thoroughly and have stood firm in the face of serious scientific debate and careful evaluation of alternative explanations. * * * (p21-22) Some scientific conclusions or theories have been so thoroughly examined and tested, and supported by so many independent observations and results, that their likelihood of subsequently being found to be wrong is vanishingly small. Such conclusions and theories are then regarded as settled facts. This is the case for the conclusions that the Earth system is warming and that much of this warming is very likely due to human activities. }}</ref>

<ref name="Integration and Synthesis: Assessing Climate Change Impacts in Northern Canada">{{cite journal |author=Ogden, Aynslie and Cohen, Stewart |title=''Integration and Synthesis: Assessing Climate Change Impacts in Northern Canada'' |year=2002 |url=http://www.taiga.net/nce/initiatives/publications/occasional_paper_02.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2009-04-12 }}</ref>

<ref name="''Scientific societies warn Senate: climate change is real''">{{citation |url=http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/news/2009/10/scientific-societies-warn-senate-climate-change-is-real.ars |title=''Scientific societies warn Senate: climate change is real'' | publisher=Ars Technica |date=October 22, 2009}}</ref>

<ref name = "Cook_etal_13">{{cite journal |author=Cook, J.; Nuccitelli, D.; Green, S.A.; Richardson, M.; Winkler, B.; Painting, R.; Way, R.; Jacobs, P.; Skuc, A. |title=Quantifying the consensus on anthropogenic global warming in the scientific literature |year=2013 |journal= Environ. Res. Lett. |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=024024 |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024 |bibcode = 2013ERL.....8b4024C }}</ref>



<ref name="aaas board">[http://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/migrate/uploads/aaas_climate_statement1.pdf AAAS Board Statement on Climate Change] ''www.aaas.org'' December 2006</ref>

<ref name="2010_tpgmarapr">[http://64.207.34.58/StaticContent/3/TPGs/2010_TPGMarApr.pdf ''Sunsetting the Global Climate Change Committee''], ''The Professional Geologist'', March/April 2010, p. 28</ref>

<ref name="2010_tpgjanfeb">[http://64.207.34.58/StaticContent/3/TPGs/2010_TPGJanFeb.pdf "AIPG Climate Change and Domestic Energy Statement"], ''The Professional Geologist'', January/February 2010, p. 42</ref>

<ref name="2010_tpgmarapr18">[http://64.207.34.58/StaticContent/3/TPGs/2010_TPGMarApr.pdf "Climate Change and Society Governance"], ''The Professional Geologist'', March/April 2010, p. 33</ref>

<ref name="A Survey of the Perspectives of Climate Scientists Concerning Climate Science and Climate Change">{{cite web |first1=Dennis |last1=Bray |first2=Hans |last2=von Storch |year=2009 |url=http://coast.gkss.de/staff/storch/pdf/CliSci2008.pdf |title=A Survey of the Perspectives of Climate Scientists Concerning Climate Science and Climate Change }}</ref>

<ref name="AAP ''Global Climate Change and Children's Health''">{{citation |url=http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;120/5/1149 |title=AAP ''Global Climate Change and Children's Health'' |year=2007}} "There is broad scientific consensus that Earth's climate is warming rapidly and at an accelerating rate. Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, are very likely (>90% probability) to be the main cause of this warming. Climate-sensitive changes in ecosystems are already being observed, and fundamental, potentially irreversible, ecological changes may occur in the coming decades. Conservative environmental estimates of the impact of climate changes that are already in process indicate that they will result in numerous health effects to children. Anticipated direct health consequences of climate change include injury and death from [[extreme weather events]] and [[natural disasters]], increases in climate-sensitive [[infectious diseases]], increases in [[Air Pollutions Effect on Pulmonary diseases and Children|air pollution–related illness]], and more heat-related, potentially fatal, illness. Within all of these categories, children have increased vulnerability compared with other groups."</ref>

<ref name="aapg">[http://dpa.aapg.org/gac/statements/climatechange.pdf AAPG Position Statement: Climate Change] from dpa.aapg.org</ref>

<ref name="aapg14">{{cite web|url=http://www.aapg.org/explorer/president/2007/03mar.cfm |title=Climate :03:2007 EXPLORER |publisher=Aapg.org |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="aapg19">[http://dpa.aapg.org/gac/statements/climatechange.pdf AAPG ''Climate Change'' June 2007]</ref>

<ref name="AAWV ''Position Statement on Climate Change, Wildlife Diseases, and Wildlife Health''">{{citation |url=http://google.com/search?q=cache:IeEiaoU5hZAJ:www.aawv.net/AAWVPositionClimateChangeFinal.doc+AAWV+Position+Statements+wildlife+diseases+and+wildlife+health&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us |title=AAWV ''Position Statement on Climate Change, Wildlife Diseases, and Wildlife Health''}} "There is widespread scientific agreement that the world’s climate is changing and that the weight of evidence demonstrates that [[anthropogenic]] factors have and will continue to contribute significantly to global warming and climate change. It is anticipated that continuing changes to the climate will have serious negative impacts on public, animal and ecosystem health due to [[extreme weather]] events, changing [[disease transmission]] dynamics, emerging and re-emerging [[diseases]], and alterations to [[habitat]] and ecological systems that are essential to [[wildlife conservation]]. Furthermore, there is increasing recognition of the inter-relationships of human, [[domestic animal]], wildlife, and ecosystem health as illustrated by the fact the majority of recent emerging diseases have a wildlife origin."</ref>

<ref name="ACPM Policy Statement ''Abrupt Climate Change and Public Health Implications''">{{citation |url=http://www.acpm.org/2006-002(C).htm |title=ACPM Policy Statement ''Abrupt Climate Change and Public Health Implications'' |year=2006}} "The American College of Preventive Medicine (ACPM) accept the position that global warming and climate change is occurring, that there is potential for abrupt climate change, and that human practices that increase greenhouse gases exacerbate the problem, and that the [[public health]] consequences may be severe."</ref>



<ref name="agu">{{cite web|url=http://www.agu.org/sci_pol/positions/climate_change2008.shtml |title=AGU Position Statement: Human Impacts on Climate |publisher=Agu.org |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="agu13">[http://www.agu.org/fora/eos/pdfs/2006EO360008.pdf AMQUA "Petroleum Geologists’ Award to Novelist Crichton Is Inappropriate"]</ref>

<ref name="AIP science policy document.">{{citation |url=http://www.aip.org.au/scipolicy/Science%20Policy.pdf |title=AIP science policy document. |year=2005}} "Policy: The AIP supports a reduction of the green house gas emissions that are leading to increased global temperatures, and encourages research that works towards this goal. Reason: Research in Australia and overseas shows that an increase in global temperature will adversely affect the Earth’s climate patterns. The melting of the polar ice caps, combined with thermal expansion, will lead to rises in sea levels that may impact adversely on our coastal cities. The impact of these changes on [[biodiversity]] will fundamentally change the [[ecology]] of Earth."</ref>

<ref name="AIBS Position Statements">{{citation |url=http://www.aibs.org/position-statements |title=AIBS Position Statements}} "Observations throughout the world make it clear that climate change is occurring, and rigorous scientific research demonstrates that the greenhouse gases emitted by human activities are the primary driver."</ref>

<ref name="aipg">{{cite web |title=American Geological Institute Climate Statement |url=http://www.agiweb.org/gapac/climate_statement.html |date=12 Feb 1999 |accessdate=July 2012 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120720095530/http://www.agiweb.org/gapac/climate_statement.html |archivedate=July 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="aipg16">[http://www.aipg.org/StaticContent/anonymous/state_and_federal/Climate%20Change%20Letters.pdf AIPG Climate Change Letters sent to U.S. Government Officials]</ref>

<ref name="AMA ''Climate Change and Human Health — 2004''">{{citation |url=https://fed.ama.com.au/cms/web.nsf/doc/WOOD-5ZD6BT |title=AMA ''Climate Change and Human Health — 2004'' |year=2004}} They recommend policies "to mitigate the possible consequential health effects of climate change through improved energy efficiency, clean energy production and other emission reduction steps."</ref>

<ref name="aipg17">{{cite web |title=The Professional Geologist publications |url=http://www.aipg.org/Publications/TPGPublic.html |accessdate=July 2012 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120305085445/http://www.aipg.org/Publications/TPGPublic.html |archivedate=July 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="amap">{{cite web|url=http://amap.no/acia/ |title=ACIA Display |publisher=Amap.no |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="AMA ''Climate Change and Human Health'' — 2004. Revised 2008.">{{citation |url=http://www.ama.com.au/node/4442 |title=AMA ''Climate Change and Human Health'' — 2004. Revised 2008. |year=2008}} "The world’s climate – our life-support system – is being altered in ways that are likely to pose significant direct and indirect challenges to health. While ‘climate change’ can be due to natural forces or human activity, there is now substantial evidence to indicate that human activity – and specifically increased greenhouse gas (GHGs) emissions – is a key factor in the pace and extent of global temperature increases. Health impacts of climate change include the direct impacts of extreme events such as storms, floods, [[Heat wave|heatwaves]] and fires and the indirect effects of longer-term changes, such as drought, changes to the [[Food security|food]] and [[water supply]], resource conflicts and population shifts. Increases in average temperatures mean that alterations in the geographic range and seasonality of certain infections and diseases (including vector-borne diseases such as [[malaria]], [[dengue fever]], [[Ross River virus]] and food-borne infections such as [[Salmonellosis]]) may be among the first detectable impacts of climate change on human health. Human health is ultimately dependent on the health of the planet and its ecosystem. The AMA believes that measures which mitigate climate change will also benefit public health. Reducing GHGs should therefore be seen as a public health priority."</ref>

<ref name="American Chemical Society ''Global Climte Change''">{{citation |url=http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_SUPERARTICLE&node_id=1907&use_sec=false&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=0cbd57b5-5766-456d-800b-680b88c1c8bf |title=American Chemical Society ''Global Climte Change'' }} "Careful and comprehensive scientific assessments have clearly demonstrated that the Earth’s climate system is changing rapidly in response to growing atmospheric burdens of greenhouse gases and absorbing aerosol particles (IPCC, 2007). There is very little room for doubt that observed climate trends are due to human activities. The threats are serious and action is urgently needed to mitigate the risks of climate change. The reality of global warming, its current serious and potentially disastrous impacts on Earth system properties, and the key role emissions from human activities play in driving these phenomena have been recognized by earlier versions of this ACS policy statement (ACS, 2004), by other major scientific societies, including the American Geophysical Union (AGU, 2003), the American Meteorological Society (AMS, 2007) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS, 2007), and by the U. S. National Academies and ten other leading national academies of science (NA, 2005)."</ref>

<ref name="American Institute of Physics Statement supporting AGU statement on human-induced climate change">{{citation |url=http://www.aip.org/fyi/2004/042.html |title=American Institute of Physics Statement supporting AGU statement on human-induced climate change |year=2003}} "The Governing Board of the American Institute of Physics has endorsed a position statement on climate change adopted by the American Geophysical Union (AGU) Council in December 2003."</ref>

<ref name="American Physical Society Climate Change Policy Statement">{{citation |url=http://www.aps.org/policy/statements/07_1.cfm |title=American Physical Society Climate Change Policy Statement |date=November 2007}} "Emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities are changing the atmosphere in ways that affect the Earth's climate. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide as well as methane, nitrous oxide and other gases. They are emitted from fossil fuel combustion and a range of industrial and agricultural processes. The evidence is incontrovertible: Global warming is occurring. If no mitigating actions are taken, significant disruptions in the Earth’s physical and ecological systems, social systems, security and human health are likely to occur. We must reduce emissions of greenhouse gases beginning now. Because the complexity of the climate makes accurate prediction difficult, the APS urges an enhanced effort to understand the effects of human activity on the Earth’s climate, and to provide the technological options for meeting the climate challenge in the near and longer terms. The APS also urges governments, universities, national laboratories and its membership to support policies and actions that will reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.</ref>

<ref name="American Medical Association Policy Statement">{{citation |url=http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/20275.html |title=American Medical Association Policy Statement |year=2008}} "Support the findings of the latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change report, which states that the Earth is undergoing adverse global climate change and that these changes will negatively affect public health. Support educating the medical community on the potential adverse public health effects of global climate change, including topics such as population displacement, flooding, infectious and vector-borne diseases, and healthy water supplies."</ref>

<ref name="ametsoc">{{cite web|url=http://www.ametsoc.org/policy/2012climatechange.html |title=AMS Information Statement on Climate Change |publisher=Ametsoc.org |date=2012-08-20 |accessdate=2012-08-27}}</ref>

<ref name="ametsoc22">{{cite web|url=http://www.ametsoc.org/POLICY/climatechangeresearch_2003.html |title=Climate Change Research: Issues for the Atmospheric and Related Sciences Adopted by the AMS Council 9 February 2003 |publisher=Ametsoc.org |date=2003-02-09 |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="amos">{{cite web|url=http://www.amos.org.au/publications/cid/3/t/publications |title=Statement |publisher=AMOS |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="apha">{{citation |url=http://www.apha.org/advocacy/policy/policysearch/default.htm?id=1351 |title=American Public Health Association Policy Statement ‘’Addressing the Urgent Threat of Global Climate Change to Public Health and the Environment’’|year=2007}} "The long-term threat of global climate change to global health is extremely serious and the fourth IPCC report and other scientific literature demonstrate convincingly that anthropogenic [[GHG emissions]] are primarily responsible for this threat….US policy makers should immediately take necessary steps to reduce US emissions of GHGs, including carbon dioxide, to avert dangerous climate change."</ref>

<ref name="AQAonAAPG">{{cite journal|author=Julie Brigham-Grette|title=Petroleum Geologists' Award to Novelist Crichton Is Inappropriate|journal=[[Eos (journal)|Eos]]|volume=87|issue=36|quote=The AAPG stands alone among scientific societies in its denial of human-induced effects on global warming.|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2006EO360008/abstract|date=September 2006|accessdate=2007-01-23|format=PDF|author-separator=,|display-authors=1|doi=10.1029/2006EO360008|bibcode=2006EOSTr..87..364B}}</ref>

<ref name="ASA Statement on Climate Change">{{citation |url=http://www.amstat.org/news/climatechange.cfm |title=ASA Statement on Climate Change |date=November 30, 2007}} "The ASA endorses the IPCC conclusions.... Over the course of four assessment reports, a small number of statisticians have served as authors or reviewers. Although this involvement is encouraging, it does not represent the full range of statistical expertise available. ASA recommends that more statisticians should become part of the IPCC process. Such participation would be mutually beneficial to the assessment of climate change and its impacts and also to the statistical community."</ref>

<ref name="Australian Coral Reef Society official letter">{{citation |url=http://www.australiancoralreefsociety.org/pdf/chadwick605a.pdf |title=Australian Coral Reef Society official letter |year=2006|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060322170802/http://www.australiancoralreefsociety.org/pdf/chadwick605a.pdf|archivedate=22 March 2006}} Official communique regarding the [[Great Barrier Reef]] and the "world-wide decline in [[coral reefs]] through processes such as [[overfishing]], runoff of nutrients from the land, [[coral bleaching]], global climate change, [[ocean acidification]], [[pollution]]", etc.: There is almost total [[consensus]] among experts that the earth’s climate is changing as a result of the build-up of greenhouse gases. The IPCC (involving over 3,000 of the world’s experts) has come out with clear conclusions as to the reality of this phenomenon. One does not have to look further than the collective [[Academy of Sciences|academy of scientists]] worldwide to see the string (of) statements on this worrying change to the earth’s atmosphere. There is broad scientific consensus that coral reefs are heavily affected by the activities of man and there are significant global influences that can make reefs more vulnerable such as global warming....It is highly likely that coral bleaching has been exacerbated by global warming."</ref>

<ref name="australiancoralreefsociety">{{cite web|url=http://www.australiancoralreefsociety.org/ |title=Australian Coral Reef Society |publisher=Australian Coral Reef Society |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web | url=http://www.interacademies.net/File.aspx?id=4825 | title=Joint statement by the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) to the G8 on sustainability, energy efficiency and climate change | year=2007 | accessdate=2012-08-28 | publisher=Network of African Science Academies |format=PDF}}</ref>

<ref name="australiancoralreefsociety24">[http://www.australiancoralreefsociety.org/pdf/chadwick605a.pdf Australian Coral Reef Society official letter], June 16, 2006</ref>

<ref name="Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change">{{cite journal | author=Naomi Oreskes | date=December 3, 2004 | title=Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change | journal=Science | volume=306 | issue=5702 | page=1686 | doi=10.1126/science.1103618 | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/306/5702/1686.pdf |format=PDF | pmid=15576594}} ([http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/admin/publication_files/resource-1761-2005.32.pdf#search=%22%22Consensus%20About%20Climate%20Change%3F%22%20oreskes%22 see also for an exchange of letters to Science])</ref>

<ref name="caets">http://www.caets.org/nae/naecaets.nsf/(weblinks)/WSAN-78QL9A?OpenDocument</ref>

<ref name="CCSAASKQ">{{cite book |author=Committee on the Science of Climate Change, Division on Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council |title=Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions |publisher=National Academy Press |location=Washington DC |year=2001 |isbn=0-309-07574-2 |url=http://books.nap.edu/html/climatechange}}</ref>

<ref name="cfcas">[http://www.cfcas.org/LettertoPM19apr06e.pdf CFCAS Letter to PM, November 25, 2005]</ref>

<ref name="Climate change statement from the Royal Society of New Zealand">{{cite web |first1=David |last1=Wratt |first2=James |last2=Renwick|url=http://www.royalsociety.org.nz/Site/news/media_releases/2008/clim0708.aspx |title=Climate change statement from the Royal Society of New Zealand |publisher=The Royal Society of New Zealand|date=2008-07-10 |accessdate=2010-01-20 }}</ref>

<ref name="cmos">[http://www.cmos.ca/ClimateChangeLetter_26Nov09.pdf Canadian Meteorological and Oceanographic Society Letter to Stephen Harper] (Updated, 2007)</ref>

<ref name="Editorial: The Science of Climate Change">{{cite journal |title=Editorial: The Science of Climate Change |journal=Science |volume=292 |issue=5520 |page=1261 |date=May 18, 2001 |doi= 10.1126/science.292.5520.1261|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/292/5520/1261}}</ref>

<ref name="DZ_EOS_2009">{{cite journal|first=Peter T.|last=Doran|author2=Maggie Kendall Zimmerman |date=January 20, 2009|title=Examining the Scientific Consensus on Climate Change|journal=[[Eos (journal)|EOS]]|volume=90|issue=3 |pages=22–23|url=http://tigger.uic.edu/~pdoran/012009_Doran_final.pdf|doi=10.1029/2009EO030002|bibcode=2009EOSTr..90...22D}}</ref>

<ref name="euro-acad">[http://www.euro-acad.eu/downloads/memorandas/lets_be_honest_-_festplenum_03.03.07_-_final2.pdf European Academy of Sciences and Arts ''Let's Be Honest]</ref>

<ref name="EPS Position Paper ''Energy for the future: The Nuclear Option''">{{citation |url=http://archive.is/20120710100158/http://academiaeuropaea.ift.uib.no/physics/EPS-2.pdf |title=EPS Position Paper ''Energy for the future: The Nuclear Option'' |year=2007}} "The emission of anthropogenic greenhouse gases, among which carbon dioxide is the main contributor, has amplified the natural greenhouse effect and led to global warming. The main contribution stems from burning fossil fuels. A further increase will have decisive effects on life on earth. An energy cycle with the lowest possible {{CO2}} emission is called for wherever possible to combat climate change."</ref>

<ref name="eurogeologists">{{cite web|url=http://www.eurogeologists.de/index.php?section=home |title=EFG Website | Home |publisher=Eurogeologists.de |date=2011-08-10 |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="eurogeologists9">[http://www.eurogeologists.de/images/content/panels_of_experts/co2_geological_storage/CCS_position_paper.pdf EFG ''Carbon Capture and geological Storage '']</ref>

<ref name="European Science Foundation Position Paper ''Impacts of Climate Change on the European Marine and Coastal Environment — Ecosystems Approach''">{{citation |url=http://www.esf.org/publications/position-papers.html |title=European Science Foundation Position Paper ''Impacts of Climate Change on the European Marine and Coastal Environment — Ecosystems Approach'' |pages=7–10 |year=2007}} "There is now convincing evidence that since the industrial revolution, human activities, resulting in increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases have become a major agent of climate change. These greenhouse gases affect the global climate by retaining heat in the troposphere, thus raising the average temperature of the planet and altering global atmospheric circulation and precipitation patterns. While on-going national and international actions to curtail and reduce greenhouse gas emissions are essential, the levels of greenhouse gases currently in the atmosphere, and their impact, are likely to persist for several decades. On-going and increased efforts to mitigate climate change through reduction in greenhouse gases are therefore crucial."</ref>

<ref name="Expert credibility in climate change">{{cite journal |last=Anderegg |first=William R L |last2=Prall |first2=James W. |last3=Harold |first3=Jacob |last4=Schneider |first4=Stephen H. |authorlink4=Stephen H. Schneider |title=Expert credibility in climate change |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |year=2010 |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/06/04/1003187107.full.pdf+html |pmid=20566872 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1003187107 |volume=107 |issue=27 |pages=12107–9 |pmc=2901439 |bibcode = 2010PNAS..10712107A }}</ref>

<ref name="foxnews">{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,249659,00.html |title=U.N. Report: Global Warming Man-Made, Basically Unstoppable |publisher=Fox News |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="FASTS Statement on Climate Change">{{citation |url=http://www.fasts.org/images/policy-discussion/statement-climate-change.pdf |title=FASTS Statement on Climate Change |year=2008}} "Global climate change is real and measurable. Since the start of the 20th century, the global mean surface temperature of the Earth has increased by more than 0.7°C and the rate of warming has been largest in the last 30 years. Key vulnerabilities arising from climate change include water resources, food supply, health, coastal settlements, biodiversity and some key [[ecosystems]] such as coral reefs and alpine regions. As the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases increases, impacts become more severe and widespread. To reduce the global net economic, environmental and social losses in the face of these impacts, the policy objective must remain squarely focused on returning greenhouse gas concentrations to near pre-industrial levels through the reduction of emissions. The spatial and temporal fingerprint of warming can be traced to increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, which are a direct result of burning fossil fuels, broad-scale deforestation and other human activity."</ref>

<ref name="geolsoc">{{cite web|url=http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/gsl/views/policy_statements/page7426.html |title=Geological Society - Climate change: evidence from the geological record |publisher=Geolsoc.org.uk |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="geoscience">{{cite web|author=billobrien.coml |url=http://geoscience.ca/_ARCHIVE_jan7_2011/climatechange.html |title=Canadian Federation of Earth Sciences (CFES) |publisher=Geoscience.ca |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="geosociety">{{cite web|url=http://www.geosociety.org/positions/position10.htm |title=The Geological Society of America - Position Statement on Global Climate Change |publisher=Geosociety.org |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="Global Environmental Change — Microbial Contributions, Microbial Solutions">{{citation |url=http://www.asm.org/images/docfilename/0000006005/globalwarming%5B1%5D.pdf |title=Global Environmental Change — Microbial Contributions, Microbial Solutions |date=May 2006 |format=PDF |publisher=[[American Society For Microbiology]]}} They recommended "reducing net anthropogenic {{CO2}} emissions to the atmosphere” and “minimizing anthropogenic disturbances of” atmospheric gases. Carbon dioxide concentrations were relatively stable for the past 10,000 years but then began to increase rapidly about 150 years ago…as a result of fossil fuel consumption and land use change. Of course, changes in atmospheric composition are but one component of global change, which also includes disturbances in the physical and chemical conditions of the oceans and land surface. Although global change has been a natural process throughout Earth’s history, humans are responsible for substantially accelerating present-day changes. These changes may adversely affect human health and the [[biosphere]] on which we depend. Outbreaks of a number of diseases, including [[Lyme disease]], [[hantavirus infections]], [[dengue fever]], [[bubonic plague]], and [[cholera]], have been linked to climate change."</ref>

<ref name="globalchange">[http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/climate-impacts-report.pdf Downloads.globalchange.gov]</ref>

<ref name="IAGLR Fact Sheet ''The Great Lakes at a Crossroads: Preparing for a Changing Climate''">{{citation |url=http://www.iaglr.org/scipolicy/factsheets/iaglr_crossroads_climatechange.pdf |title=IAGLR Fact Sheet ''The Great Lakes at a Crossroads: Preparing for a Changing Climate'' |date=February 2009}} "While the Earth’s climate has changed many times during the planet’s history because of natural factors, including volcanic eruptions and changes in the Earth’s orbit, never before have we observed the present rapid rise in temperature and carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}). Human activities resulting from the industrial revolution have changed the chemical composition of the atmosphere....Deforestation is now the second largest contributor to global warming, after the burning of fossil fuels. These human activities have significantly increased the concentration of “greenhouse gases” in the atmosphere. As the Earth’s climate warms, we are seeing many changes: stronger, more destructive hurricanes; heavier rainfall; more disastrous flooding; more areas of the world experiencing severe drought; and more heat waves."</ref>

<ref name="Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment New Scientific Consensus: Arctic Is Warming Rapidly">{{cite web |url=http://www.grida.no/polar/news/2427.aspx |title=Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment New Scientific Consensus: Arctic Is Warming Rapidly|publisher=UNEP/GRID-Arendal|date=2004-11-08|accessdate=2010-01-20 }}</ref>

<ref name="inqua">[http://www.inqua.tcd.ie/documents/iscc.pdf INQUA Statement On Climate Change.]</ref>

<ref name="interacademycouncil">{{cite web|url=http://www.interacademycouncil.net/CMS/3239.aspx |title=InterAcademy Council |publisher=InterAcademy Council |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="interacademycouncil7">{{cite web|url=http://www.interacademycouncil.net/CMS/Reports/11840/11842.aspx |title=InterAcademy Council |publisher=InterAcademy Council |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="interacademycouncil8">{{cite web|url=http://www.interacademycouncil.net/CMS/Reports/11840/11971/11979.aspx |title=InterAcademy Council |publisher=InterAcademy Council |accessdate=2012-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="iob">{{citation |url=http://www.iob.org/general.asp?section=science_policy/policy_issues&article=climate_change.xml |title=Institute of Biology policy page ‘Climate Change’}} "there is scientific agreement that the rapid global warming that has occurred in recent years is mostly anthropogenic, ''ie'' due to human activity.” As a consequence of global warming, they warn that a “rise in sea levels due to melting of ice caps is expected to occur. Rises in temperature will have complex and frequently localised effects on weather, but an overall increase in extreme weather conditions and changes in precipitation patterns are probable, resulting in flooding and drought. The spread of [[tropical diseases]] is also expected.” Subsequently, the Institute of Biology advocates policies to reduce “greenhouse gas emissions, as we feel that the consequences of climate change are likely to be severe."</ref>

<ref name="ipcc1">IPCC, [http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/main.html Synthesis Report], [http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains2-4.html Section 2.4: Attribution of climate change], in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}."It is likely that increases in GHG concentrations alone would have caused more warming than observed because volcanic and anthropogenic aerosols have offset some warming that would otherwise have taken place."</ref>

<ref name="iugg">[http://www.iugg.org/resolutions/perugia07.pdf IUGG Resolution 6]</ref>

<ref name="IPENZ Informatory Note, ''Climate Change and the greenhouse effect''">{{citation |url=http://www.ipenz.org.nz/ipenz/forms/pdfs/Info_Note_6.pdf |title=IPENZ Informatory Note, ''Climate Change and the greenhouse effect'' |date=October 2001}} "Human activities have increased the concentration of these atmospheric greenhouse gases, and although the changes are relatively small, the equilibrium maintained by the atmosphere is delicate, and so the effect of these changes is significant. The world’s most important greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, a by-product of the burning of fossil fuels. Since the time of the Industrial Revolution about 200 years ago, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased from about 280 parts per million to 370 parts per million, an increase of around 30%. On the basis of available data, climate scientists are now projecting an average global temperature rise over this century of 2.0 to 4.5°C. This compared with 0.6°C over the previous century – about a 500% increase... This could lead to changing, and for all emissions scenarios more unpredictable, weather patterns around the world, less frost days, more extreme events (droughts and storm or flood disasters), and warmer sea temperatures and melting glaciers causing sea levels to rise. ... Professional engineers commonly deal with risk, and frequently have to make judgments based on incomplete data. The available evidence suggests very strongly that human activities have already begun to make significant changes to the earth’s climate, and that the long-term risk of delaying action is greater than the cost of avoiding/minimising the risk."</ref>

<ref name="Letter to US Senators">{{citation |url=http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2009/media/1021climate_letter.pdf |title=Letter to US Senators |date=October 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="journalistsresource">{{cite news|url=http://journalistsresource.org/studies/environment/climate-change/structure-scientific-opinion-climate-change/|title="Structure of Scientific Opinion on Climate Change" at Journalist's Resource.org}}</ref>

<ref name="nagt">http://www.nagt.org/index.html</ref>

<ref name="nagt11">http://nagt.org/nagt/organization/ps-climate.html</ref>

<ref name="nationalacademies">[http://www.nationalacademies.org/onpi/06072005.pdf Joint science academies’ statement: Global response to climate change], 2005</ref>

<ref name="nas">
{{cite book
| year=2008
| title=Understanding and Responding to Climate Change. A brochure prepared by the US National Research Council (US NRC)
| publisher=US National Academy of Sciences
| author=US NRC
| url=http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/booklets/climate_change_2008_final.pdf
| location = Washington DC, USA
}}
</ref>

<ref name="nationalacademies5">[http://www.nationalacademies.org/includes/climatechangestatement.pdf 2008 Joint Science Academies’ Statement]</ref>

<ref name="nationalacademies21">[http://nationalacademies.org/onpi/06072005.pdf Joint Science Academies' Statement]</ref>

<ref name="nationalacademies6">[http://www.nationalacademies.org/includes/G8+5energy-climate09.pdf 2009 Joint Science Academies’ Statement]</ref>

<ref name="nytimes">[http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/23/business/worldbusiness/23energy.html?_r=1&oref=slogin Panel Urges Global Shift on Sources of Energy]</ref>

<ref name="On the Climate Change Beat, Doubt Gives Way to Certainty">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/06/science/earth/06clim.html?pagewanted=1&ei=5088&en=53862c0cdf77d1c0&ex=1328418000&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss |title=On the Climate Change Beat, Doubt Gives Way to Certainty |newspaper=New York Times |accessdate=2010-08-28 |accessdate=2007-02-06 |first=William K. |last= Stevens |quote=The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change said the likelihood was 90 percent to 99 percent that emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, spewed from tailpipes and smokestacks, were the dominant cause of the observed warming of the last 50 years. In the panel’s parlance, this level of certainty is labeled “very likely.” Only rarely does scientific odds-making provide a more definite answer than that, at least in this branch of science, and it describes the endpoint, so far, of a progression. | date=2007-02-06 }}</ref>

<ref name="Oreskes_consensus">{{cite book |title=Climate Change: What It Means for Us, Our Children, and Our Grandchildren |editor1-last=DiMento |editor1-first=Joseph F. C. |editor2-last=Doughman |editor2-first=Pamela M. |year=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-54193-0 |pages=65–66 |chapter=The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change: How Do We Know We’re Not Wrong? |last=Oreskes |first=Naomi |ref=harv |chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=PXJIqCkb7YIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q&f=false |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PXJIqCkb7YIC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>

<ref name="Oreskes07p68">{{harvnb|Oreskes|2007|p=[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=PXJIqCkb7YIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA68#v=onepage&q&f=false 68]}}</ref>

<ref name="pik-potsdam">[http://www.pik-potsdam.de/aktuelles/nachrichten/dateien/G8_Academies%20Declaration.pdf 2007 Joint Science Academies' Statement]</ref>

<ref name="Policy Statement, Climate Change and Energy">{{citation |url=http://www.engineersaustralia.org.au/representation/policy-positions/climate-change.cfm | title=Policy Statement, Climate Change and Energy |date=February 2007}} "Engineers Australia believes that Australia must act swiftly and proactively in line with global expectations to address climate change as an economic, social and environmental risk... We believe that addressing the costs of atmospheric emissions will lead to increasing our competitive advantage by minimising risks and creating new economic opportunities. Engineers Australia believes the Australian Government should ratify the Kyoto Protocol."</ref>

<ref name="Prediction' or 'Projection; The nomenclature of climate science">{{cite journal |author=Bray, D.|author2=von Storch H. |year=2009 |title=Prediction' or 'Projection; The nomenclature of climate science |journal=[[Science Communication (journal)|Science Communication]] |volume=30 |pages=534–543 |doi=10.1177/1075547009333698 |issue=4}}</ref>

<ref name="rosenthal">{{cite news |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/03/science/earth/03climate.html?ex=1328158800&en=61f42312221df544&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss%3Cbr%20/%3E |title=Science Panel Calls Global Warming ‘Unequivocal’ |newspaper=New York Times |first=Elisabeth |last=Rosenthal |first2= Andrew C. |last2=Revkin |accessdate=2007-02-03 |accessdate=2010-08-28 |quote=the leading international network of climate scientists has concluded for the first time that global warming is 'unequivocal' and that human activity is the main driver, 'very likely' causing most of the rise in temperatures since 1950 | date=2007-02-03}}</ref>

<ref name="rmets">http://www.rmets.org/news/detail.php?ID=332</ref>

<ref name="RS-CC">{{cite web |url=http://royalsociety.org/Climate-Change/ |title=New guide to science of climate change |publisher=The Royal Society |accessdate=9 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="SAF ''Forest Management and Climate Change ''">{{citation |url=http://www.safnet.org/policyandpresspsst/climate_change_expires12-8-2013.pdf |title=SAF ''Forest Management and Climate Change '' |year=2008}} "Forests are shaped by climate....Changes in temperature and precipitation regimes therefore have the potential to dramatically affect forests nationwide. There is growing evidence that our climate is changing. The changes in temperature have been associated with increasing concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide ({{CO2}}) and other GHGs in the atmosphere."</ref>

<ref name="Society to review climate message">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science_and_environment/10178124.stm |title=Society to review climate message |last=Harrabin |first=Roger |publisher=BBC News |date=27 May 2010 |accessdate=9 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="SAF ''Forest Offset Projects in a Carbon Trading System''">{{citation |url=http://www.safnet.org/policyandpresspsst/offset_projections_expires12-8-2013.pdf |title=SAF ''Forest Offset Projects in a Carbon Trading System'' |year=2008}} "Forests play a significant role in offsetting {{CO2}} emissions, the primary anthropogenic GHG."</ref>

<ref name="Some excitable climate-change deniers just don't understand what science is">{{cite web |url=http://www.montrealgazette.com/news/Some+excitable+climate+change+deniersjust+understand+what+science/3128015/story.html |title=Some excitable climate-change deniers just don't understand what science is |last=Gardner |first=Dan |publisher=Montreal Gazette |date=8 June 2010 |accessdate=9 June 2010}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

<ref name="soils">[https://www.soils.org/files/science-policy/asa-cssa-sssa-climate-change-policy-statement.pdf ASA, CSSA, and SSSA Position Statement on Climate Change]</ref>

<ref name="Stanowisko Zgromadzenia Ogólnego PAN z dnia 13 grudnia 2007 r">{{cite web|url=http://www.aktualnosci.pan.pl/images/stories/pliki/stanowiska_opinie/2008/stanowisko_pan_131207.pdf|title=Stanowisko Zgromadzenia Ogólnego PAN z dnia 13 grudnia 2007 r|publisher=Polish Academy of Sciences|language=Polish|accessdate=2009-06-16}} ''Note'': As of 16 June 2009, PAS has not issued this statement in English, all citations have been translated from Polish.</ref>





<ref name="AR4-warming-unequivocal">"Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from observations of increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice and rising global average sea level." IPCC, [http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/main.html Synthesis Report], [http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/mains1.html Section 1.1: Observations of climate change], in {{Harvnb|IPCC AR4 SYR|2007}}.</ref>

<ref name="Warming 'very likely' human-made">{{cite news |title=Warming 'very likely' human-made |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6321351.stm |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=BBC |date=2007-02-01 |accessdate=2007-02-01 }}</ref>

<ref name="The Science of Climate Change">[http://royalsociety.org/Report_WF.aspx?pageid=10028 The Science of Climate Change], [[The Royal Society]]</ref>

<ref name="telegraph.co.uk">{{cite news| url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7778917/Royal-Society-to-publish-guide-on-climate-change-to-counter-claims-of-exaggeration.html | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | title=Royal Society to publish guide on climate change to counter claims of 'exaggeration' | first=Louise | last=Gray | date=May 29, 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="www">http://www.egu.eu/statements/position-statement-of-the-divisions-of-atmospheric-and-climate-sciences-7-july-2005.html</ref>

<ref name="www10">http://www.egu.eu/statements/egu-position-statement-on-ocean-acidification.html</ref>

<ref name="Wildlife Society ''Global Climate Change and Wildlife''">{{citation |url=http://joomla.wildlife.org/documents/positionstatements/35-Global%20Climate%20Change%20and%20Wildlife.pdf |title=Wildlife Society ''Global Climate Change and Wildlife''}} "Scientists throughout the world have concluded that climate research conducted in the past two decades definitively shows that rapid worldwide climate change occurred in the 20th century, and will likely continue to occur for decades to come. Although climates have varied dramatically since the Earth was formed, few scientists question the role of humans in exacerbating recent climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases. The critical issue is no longer “if” climate change is occurring, but rather how to address its effects on [[wildlife]] and [[wildlife habitat]]s." The statement goes on to assert that “evidence is accumulating that wildlife and wildlife habitats have been and will continue to be significantly affected by ongoing large-scale rapid climate change.” The statement concludes with a call for “reduction in anthropogenic (human-caused) sources of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions contributing to global climate change and the conservation of {{CO2}}- consuming [[Photosynthesis|photosynthesizers]] (i.e., plants).”</ref>
<ref name="wfpha">{{citation |url=http://www.wfpha.org/Archives/01.22%20Global%20Climate%20Change.pdf |title=World Federation of Public Health Associations resolution "Global Climate Change" |year=2001}} "Noting the conclusions of the [[United Nations|United Nations']] Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and other climatologists that anthropogenic greenhouse gases, which contribute to global climate change, have substantially increased in atmospheric concentration beyond natural processes and have increased by 28 percent since the industrial revolution….Realizing that subsequent health effects from such perturbations in the climate system would likely include an increase in: heat-related mortality and morbidity; vector-borne infectious diseases,… [[water-borne diseases]]…(and) malnutrition from threatened agriculture….the World Federation of Public Health Associations…recommends precautionary primary preventive measures to avert climate change, including reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and preservation of greenhouse gas sinks through appropriate energy and land use policies, in view of the scale of potential health impacts...."</ref>

<ref name="WHO ''Protecting health from climate change''">{{citation |url=http://www.who.int/world-health-day/toolkit/report_web.pdf |title=WHO ''Protecting health from climate change'' |year=2008 |page=2 |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref>

<ref name="Statement supporting AGU statement on human-induced climate change">{{citation |url=http://www.aas.org/governance/council/resolutions.php#climate |title=Statement supporting AGU statement on human-induced climate change |publisher=American Astronomical Society |year=2004}} "In endorsing the "Human Impacts on Climate" statement [issued by the American Geophysical Union], the AAS recognizes the collective expertise of the AGU in scientific subfields central to assessing and understanding global change, and acknowledges the strength of agreement among our AGU colleagues that the global climate is changing and human activities are contributing to that change."</ref>

<ref name="Survey Tracks Scientists' Growing Climate Concern">{{cite web |last= Lavelle |first= Marianne |url=http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/national/2008/04/23/survey-tracks-scientists-growing-climate-concern.html |title=Survey Tracks Scientists' Growing Climate Concern |publisher=U.S. News & World Report |date=2008-04-23 |accessdate=2010-01-20 }}</ref>

<ref name="The Structure of Scientific Opinion on Climate Change">{{cite web |url= http://ijpor.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2011/10/27/ijpor.edr033.short|title= The Structure of Scientific Opinion on Climate Change|author= Stephen J. Farnsworth, S. Robert Lichter|date= October 27, 2011|publisher= International Journal of Public Opinion Research |accessdate= December 2, 2011 }}</ref>


}}


* {{Citation
|year = 2001
|author = IPCC TAR SYR
|author-link = IPCC
|title = Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report
|series = Contribution of Working Groups I, II, and III to the [[IPCC Third Assessment Report|Third Assessment Report]] of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
|editor = Watson, R. T.; and the Core Writing Team
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|url = http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/tar/vol4/english/index.htm
|isbn = 0-521-80770-0
}} (pb: {{ISBNT|0-521-01507-3}}).
* {{Citation
|year = 2007
|author = IPCC AR4 WG2
|author-link = IPCC
|title = Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability
|series = Contribution of Working Group II to the [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report|Fourth Assessment Report]] of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
|editor = Parry, M.L.; Canziani, O.F.; Palutikof, J.P.; van der Linden, P.J.; and Hanson, C.E.
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|url = http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html
|isbn = 978-0-521-88010-7
}} (pb: {{ISBNT|978-0-521-70597-4}}).
* {{Citation
|year = 2007
|author = IPCC AR4 WG3
|author-link = IPCC
|title = Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change
|series = Contribution of Working Group III to the [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report|Fourth Assessment Report]] of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
|editor = Metz, B.; Davidson, O.R.; Bosch, P.R.; Dave, R.; and Meyer, L.A.
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|url = http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg3/en/contents.html
|isbn = 978-0-521-88011-4
}} (pb: {{ISBNT|978-0-521-70598-1}}).
* {{Citation
| year = 2007
| author = IPCC AR4 SYR
| author-link = IPCC
| title = Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report (SYR)
| series = Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report|Fourth Assessment Report]] (AR4) of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
| editor = Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R.K; and Reisinger, A.
| publisher = IPCC
| location=[[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]
| url = http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/contents.html
| isbn = 92-9169-122-4
}}.
*{{citation
| year=2001
| title=Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions. A report by the Committee on the Science of Climate Change, US National Research Council (NRC)
| publisher=National Academy Press
| location=Washington, D.C., USA
| author=US NRC
| url=http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10139&page=1
| isbn=0-309-07574-2
| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110605132107/http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10139&page=1
| archivedate= 5 June 2011 | deadurl= no
}}

==External links==
* {{cite web |url= http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=why-are-americans-so-ill|author= Robin Lloyd|title= Why Are Americans So Ill-Informed about Climate Change? |date= 23 February 2011|publisher= [[Scientific American]] |accessdate= 31 March 2011}}

{{global warming}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Scientific Opinion On Climate Change}}
[[Category:Climate change assessment and attribution]]
[[Category:Climate change science]]
[[Category:Consensus]]

Gelenkte Volkswirtschaft

2014-10-23T09:12:44Z

108.195.139.183: wealth

{{Economic systems sidebar |by coord}}

A '''mixed economy''' is an [[economic system]] in which both the [[private sector]] and [[State (polity)|state]] direct the [[economy]], reflecting characteristics of both [[Market economy|market economies]] and [[Planned economy|planned economies]].<ref>(NB)

*Schiller, Bradley. ''The Micro Economy Today'', McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2010, p. 15. "''Mixed ecoonomy'' - An economy that uses both market signals and government directives to allocate goods and resources." This follows immediately from a discussion on ''command economies'' and ''market mechanism''.
*Stilwell, Frank. ''Political Economy: The Contest of Economic Ideas'', 2nd ed., Oxford University Press. 2006. Stilwell
*Hendricks, Jean and Gaoreth D. Myles. ''Intermediate Public Economics'', The MIT Press, 2006, p. 4 "the mixed economy where individual decisions are respected but the government attempts to affect these through the policies it implements."
*Gorman, Tom. ''The Complete Idiots Guide to Economics'', Alpha Books (2003), p. 9"In a market economy, the private-sector businesses and consumers decide what they will produce and purchase, with little government intervention....In a command economy, also known as a planned economy, the government largely determines what is produced and in what amounts. In a mixed economy, both market forces and government decisions determine which goods and services are produced and how they are distributed."</ref> Most mixed economies can be described as [[market economy|market economies]] with strong [[regulation|regulatory]] oversight and governmental provision of [[public good]]s. Some mixed economies also feature a variety of [[State enterprise|state-run enterprises]].

In general the mixed economy is characterised by the [[Private property|private ownership]] of the [[means of production]], the dominance of markets for economic coordination, with profit-seeking enterprise and the [[accumulation of capital]] remaining the fundamental driving force behind economic activity. But unlike a free-market economy, the government would wield indirect macroeconomic influence over the economy through [[Fiscal policy|fiscal]] and [[Monetary policy|monetary policies]] designed to counteract economic downturns and capitalism's tendency toward financial crises and [[unemployment]], along with playing a role in interventions that promote [[Welfare|social welfare]].<ref>Pollin, Robert. ''Resurrection of the Rentier'', University of Massachusetts: http://www.peri.umass.edu/fileadmin/pdf/other_publication_types/NLR28008.pdf, p. 141-142: "The underlying premise behind the mixed economy was straightforward. Keynes and like-minded reformers were not willing to give up on capitalism, in particular two of its basic features: that ownership and control of the economy’s means of production would remain primarily in the hands of private capitalists; and that most economic activity would be guided by ‘market forces’, that is, the dynamic combination of material self-seeking and competition. More specifically, the driving force of the mixed economy, as with free-market capitalism, should continue to be capitalists trying to make as much profit as they can. At the same time, Keynes was clear that in maintaining a profit-driven marketplace, it was also imperative to introduce policy interventions to counteract capitalism’s inherent tendencies—demonstrated to devastating effect during the 1930s calamity—toward financial breakdowns, depressions and mass unemployment. Keynes’s framework also showed how full employment and social welfare interventions could be justified not simply on grounds of social uplift,
but could also promote the stability of capitalism."</ref> Subsequently, some mixed economies have expanded in scope to include a role for [[Indicative planning|indicative economic planning]] and/or large [[State enterprise|public enterprise]] sectors.

There is not one single definition for a mixed economy,<ref>[http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&oi=defmore&q=define:mixed+economy A variety of definitions for mixed economy.]</ref> with it defined variously as a mixture of free markets with [[state interventionism]], or as a mixture of public and private enterprise, or as a mixture between markets and [[economic planning]]. The relative strength or weakness of each component in the national economy can vary greatly between countries. Economies ranging from the [[United States]]<ref>[http://usa.usembassy.de/economy-conditions.htm U.S. Economy - Basic Conditions & Resources]. U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany. "The United States is said to have a mixed economy because privately owned businesses and government both play important roles." Accessed: October 24, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://infopedia.usembassy.or.kr/ENG/_f_030401.html (4)Outline of the U.S. Economy – (2)How the U.S. Economy Works]. U.S. Embassy Information Resource Center. "As a result, the American economy is perhaps better described as a "mixed" economy, with government playing an important role along with private enterprise. Although Americans often disagree about exactly where to draw the line between their beliefs in both free enterprise and government management, the mixed economy they have developed has been remarkably successful." Accessed: October 24, 2011.</ref> to [[Cuba]]<ref>[http://isla.igc.org/Features/Cuba/cuba1.html The Challenges of Cuba's Economy - An Interview with Dr. Antonio Romero]. Also, [[India]] has been a hub for practicing mixed economic structure since its independence. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was a strong proponent of mixed economy. In 1998 "Transformations have occurred in property ownership, employment systems, and income levels to the extent that today we have a particular kind of mixed economy."</ref> have been termed mixed economies. The term is also used to describe the economies of countries which are referred to as [[welfare state]]s, such as the [[Nordic countries]]. Governments in mixed economies often provide [[environmental protection]], maintenance of [[employment standards]], a standardized [[welfare]] system, and [[competition law|maintenance of competition]].

As an [[Political ideology|economic ideal]], mixed economies are supported by people of various political persuasions, typically [[centre-left]] and [[centre-right]], such as [[social democracy|social democrats]]<ref>"social democracy". Jason P. Abbot. Routledge Encyclopedia of International Political Economy. Ed. R. J. Barry Jones. Taylor & Francis, 2001. 1410</ref> or [[Christian democracy|Christian democrats]]. Supporters view mixed economies as a compromise between [[state socialism]] and free-market capitalism that is superior in net effect to either of those.

==Etymology==
There is no clear definition and precise meaning of the term "mixed economy".

There are generally two major definitions of "mixed economy", a political and apolitical definition. The political definition of "mixed economy" refers to the degree of [[state interventionism]] in a capitalist market economy, portraying the state as encroaching onto the market under the assumption that the market is the "natural" mechanism for allocating resources. The political definition precludes an extension to non-capitalist systems and is concerned with [[public policy]] and state influence in a capitalist market system,<ref>{{cite book |last= Brown|first= Douglas |title= Towards a Radical Democracy (Routledge Revivals): The Political Economy of the Budapest School |publisher= Routledge|date=November 11, 2011|isbn= 978-0415608794|pages = 10–11 |quote= There are in general two broad yet distinguishable definitions of 'mixed economy': a political definition and an apolitical definition. The political definition refers to the degree of state intervention in what is basically a capitalist market economy. Thus this definition 'portray[s] the phenomenon in terms of state encroaching upon market and thereby suggest[s] that market is the natural or preferable mechanism...The political definition of 'mixed economy' precludes extending it to non-capitalist systems }}</ref> whereas the apolitical definition relates to patterns of ownership and management of economic enterprises in a society. The apolitical definition of "mixed economy" refers to a mix of public and private ownership of enterprises in the economy and is unconcerned with political forms and public policy.<ref>{{cite book |last= Brown|first= Douglas |title= Towards a Radical Democracy (Routledge Revivals): The Political Economy of the Budapest School |publisher= Routledge|date=November 11, 2011|isbn= 978-0415608794|pages = 10–11 |quote= The apolitical definition of 'mixed economy' generally refers to the mix of public and private ownership forms...Here 'mixed economy' itself does not specify a political form. it means an economy characterized by a combination of public and private ownership as well as planning and markets}}</ref>

==Philosophy==
The term "mixed economy" is used to describe economic systems which stray from the ideals of either the [[Market (economics)|market]], or various [[planned economy|planned economies]], and "mix" with elements of each other. As most political-economic [[ideology|ideologies]] are defined in an idealized sense, what is described rarely—if ever—exists in practice. Most would not consider it unreasonable to label an economy that, while not being a perfect representation, very closely resembles an ideal by applying the rubric that denominates that ideal. When a system in question, however, diverges to a significant extent from an idealized [[Model (macroeconomics)|economic model]] or [[ideology]], the task of identifying it can become problematic. Hence, the term "mixed economy" was coined. As it is unlikely that an economy will contain a perfectly even mix, mixed economies are usually noted as being skewed towards either [[private ownership]] or [[public ownership]], toward [[capitalism]] or [[socialism]], or toward a [[market economy]] or [[command economy]] in varying degrees.<ref name=vn>Vuong, Quan-Hoang. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/3639233832 Financial Markets in Vietnam's Transition Economy: Facts, Insights, Implications.] ISBN 978-3-639-23383-4, [[VDM Verlag]], Feb. 2010, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany.</ref>

==History==
The term "mixed economy" arose in the context of political debate in the [[United Kingdom]] in the postwar period, although the set of policies later associated with the term had been advocated from at least the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book |author=Reisman, David A. |title=Theories of the Mixed Economy (Theories of the mixed economy) |publisher=Pickering & Chatto Ltd |location= |year= |pages= |isbn=1-85196-214-X |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> Supporters of the mixed economy, including [[R. H. Tawney]],<ref name="isbn0-04-323014-8">{{cite book |author=Tawney, R. H. |title=Equality |publisher=Allen and Unwin |location=London |year=1964 |pages= |isbn=0-04-323014-8 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> [[Anthony Crosland]],<ref name="isbn0-8371-9586-1">{{cite book |author=Crosland, A. |title=The Future of socialism |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn |year=1977 |pages= |isbn=0-8371-9586-1 |oclc= |doi=}}</ref> and [[Andrew Shonfield]] were mostly associated with the [[British Labour Party]], although similar views were expressed by [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] including [[Harold Macmillan]]. Critics of the British mixed economy, including [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich von Hayek]], argued that what is called a mixed economy is a move toward socialism and increasing the influence of the state in economic life.<ref>Gardner, Martin. ''Whys of a Philosophical Scrivener'', St. Martin's Press (1991), p. 126</ref>

==Elements of a mixed economy==
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2012}}
'''The elements of a mixed economy have been demonstrated to include a variety of [[freedom (political)|freedoms]]:'''
[[File:Tgv sud est.jpg|thumb|right|A [[TGV]] train in [[Marseille]] operated by the publicly owned [[SNCF]]. In many countries, the [[Rail transport|rail network]] is partly or completely owned or controlled by the state.]]
[[File:Small USPS Truck.jpg|thumb|right|A mail truck. Restrictions are sometimes placed on private [[mail]] systems by mixed economy governments. For example, in the U.S., the [[United States Postal Service|USPS]] enjoys a [[government monopoly]] on nonurgent letter mail as described in the [[Private Express Statutes]].]]
[[File:NHS NNUH entrance.jpg|thumb|right|This [[hospital]] run by the [[National Health Service]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. In most countries the state plays some role in the provision of [[health care]].]]
* to possess [[means of production]] (farms, factories, stores, etc.)
* to participate in managerial decisions ([[cooperative]] and [[participatory economics]])
* to [[Freedom of movement|travel]] (needed to transport all the items in commerce, to make deals in person, for workers and owners to go to where needed)
* to [[buy]] (items for personal use, for resale; buy whole enterprises to make the organization that creates wealth a form of [[wealth]] itself)
* to [[sell]] (same as buy)
* to [[Recruitment|hire]] (to create organizations that create wealth)
* to [[Termination of employment|fire]] (to maintain organizations that create wealth)
* to [[organize]] (private enterprise for profit, labor unions, workers' and professional associations, non-profit groups, religions, etc.)
* to [[communicate]] (free speech, newspapers, books, advertisements, make deals, create business partners, create markets)
* to [[protest]] peacefully (marches, petitions, sue the government, make laws friendly to profit making and workers alike, remove pointless inefficiencies to maximize wealth creation)

'''with tax-funded, [[Subsidy|subsidized]], or state-owned factors of production, infrastructure, and services:'''

* libraries and other [[information]] services
* roads and other [[transportation]] services
* schools and other [[education]] services
* hospitals and other [[health]] services
* banks and other [[financial]] services
* telephone, mail and other [[communication]] services
* electricity and other [[energy]] services (e.g. oil, gas)
* water systems for drinking, agriculture, and waste disposal
* subsidies to agriculture and other businesses
* [[government-granted monopolies]] to otherwise private businesses
* [[law|legal assistance]]
* government-funded or state-run research and development agencies

'''and providing some autonomy over personal finances but including involuntary spending and investments such as [[transfer payments]] and other cash benefits such as:'''

* [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]] for the poor
* [[social security]] for the aged and infirm
* mandatory [[insurance]] (example: automobile)

'''and restricted by various laws, regulations:'''

* [[Environmental science|environmental]] regulation (example: toxins in land, water, air)
* [[labour (economics)|labor]] regulation including minimum wage laws
* [[consumer]] regulation (example: product safety)
* [[antitrust]] laws
* [[intellectual property]] laws
* [[Incorporation (business)|incorporation]] laws
* [[protectionism]]
* import and export controls, such as tariffs and quotas

'''and [[tax]]es and fees written or enforced with manipulation of the [[economy]] in mind.'''

==Relation to forms of government and other ideas==
The mixed economy is most commonly associated with [[social democratic]] policies or governments led by social democratic parties{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}. However, given the broad range of economic systems that can be described by the term, most forms of government are consistent with some form of mixed economy. In contemporary uses, "social democracy" usually refers to a [[Social corporatism|social corporatist]] arrangement and a welfare state in the context of a developed capitalist economy.

Authors John W. Houck and Oliver F. Williams of the [[University of Notre Dame]] have argued that [[Catholic social teaching]] naturally leads to a mixed economy in terms of policy. They referred back to [[Pope Paul VI]]'s statement that government "should supply help to the members of the social body, but may never destroy or absorb them". They wrote that a socially just mixed economy involves labor, management, and the state working together through a [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralistic]] system that distributes economic power widely.<ref>{{cite book |pages=132–133|author1=John W. Houck|author2=Oliver F. Williams|title=Catholic social teaching and the United States economy: working papers for a bishops' pastoral|publisher=University Press of America|year=1984}}</ref>

==Historic examples==
The [[American School (economics)|American School]] (also known as the National System)<ref>[http://www.econlib.org/LIBRARY/YPDBooks/List/lstNPE14.html The Library of Economics and Liberty] on-line Book titled ''The National System of Political Economy'' by [[Friedrich List]]</ref> is the economic philosophy that dominated United States national policies from the time of the [[American Civil War]] until the mid-twentieth century.<ref>[http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1061.html "The Progressive Movement"]. United States History. Retrieved February 12, 2011.</ref> It consisted of three core policy initiatives: protecting industry through high tariffs (1861–1932) (changing to subsidies and reciprocity from 1932-1970s), government investment in infrastructure through [[internal improvements]], and a national [[bank]] to promote the growth of productive enterprises. During this period the United States grew into the largest economy in the world, surpassing the UK (though not the [[British Empire]]) by 1880.<ref>The Making of Modern British Politics, Martin Pugh</ref><ref>Global Political Economy, Robert O'Brien and Marc Williams</ref><ref>
*Gill: "By 1880 the United States of America had overtaken and surpassed the UK as industrial leader of the world.: (from "Trade Wars Against America: A History of United States Trade and Monetary Policy" Chapter 6 titled "America becomes Number 1" pg. 39-49 - published 1990 by Praeger Publishers in the USA - ISBN 0-275-93316-4)

*Lind: "Lincoln and his successors in the Republican party of 1865-1932, by presiding over the industrialization of the United State, foreclosed the option that the United States would remain a rural society with an agrarian economy, as so many Jeffersonians had hoped." and "...Hamiltonian side...the Federalists; the National Republicans; the Whigs, the Republicans; the Progressives." (from "Hamilton's Republic" Introduction pg. xiv-xv - published 1997 by Free Press, Simon & Schuster division in the USA - ISBN 0-684-83160-0)

*Lind: "During the nineteenth century the dominant school of American political economy was the "American School" of developmental economic nationalism...The patron saint of the American School was Alexander Hamilton, whose Report on Manufactures (1791) had called for federal government activism in sponsoring infrastructure development and industrialization behind tariff walls that would keep out British manufactured goods...The American School, elaborated in the nineteenth century by economists like Henry Carey (who advised President Lincoln), inspired the "American System" of Henry Clay and the protectionist import-substitution policies of Lincoln and his successors in the Republican party well into the twentieth century." (from "Hamilton's Republic" Part III "The American School of National Economy" pg. 229-230 published 1997 by Free Press, Simon & Schuster division in the USA - ISBN 0-684-83160-0)

*Richardson: "By 1865, the Republicans had developed a series of high tariffs and taxes that reflected the economic theories of Carey and Wayland and were designed to strengthen and benefit all parts of the American economy, raising the standard of living for everyone. As a Republican concluded..."Congress must shape its legislation as to incidentally aid all branches of industry, render the people prosperous, and enable them to pay taxes...for ordinary expenses of Government." (from "The Greatest Nation of the Earth" Chapter 4 titled "Directing the Legislation of the Country to the Improvement of the Country: Tariff and Tax Legislation" pg. 136-137 published 1997 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College in the USA - ISBN 0-674-36213-6)

*Boritt: "Lincoln thus had the pleasure of signing into law much of the program he had worked for through the better part of his political life. And this, as Leornard P. Curry, the historian of the legislation has aptly written, amounted to a "blueprint for modern America." and "The man Lincoln selected for the sensitive position of Secretary of the Treasury, Salmon P. Chase, was an ex-Democrat, but of the moderate cariety on economics, one whom Joseph Dorfman could even describe as 'a good Hamiltonian, and a western progressive of the Lincoln stamp in everything from a tariff to a national bank.'" (from "Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream" Chapter 14 titled "The Whig in the White House" pg. 196-197 published 1994 by University of Illinois Press in the USA - ISBN 0-252-06445-3</ref>

[[Dirigisme]] is an economic policy initiated under [[Charles de Gaulle]] of France designating an economy where the government exerts strong directive influence. It involved state control of a minority of the industry, such as transportation, energy and telecommunication infrastructures, as well as various incentives for private corporations to merge or engage in certain projects. Under its influence France experienced what is called "Thirty Glorious Years" of profound economic growth.<ref name="Gardner">(Gardner)</ref>

[[Social market economy]] is the economic policy of modern Germany that steers a middle path between the goals of [[social democracy]] and [[capitalism]] within the framework of a private market economy, and aims at maintaining a balance between a high rate of economic growth, low inflation, low levels of unemployment, good working conditions, public welfare and public services by using state intervention. Under its influence Germany emerged from desolation and defeat to become an industrial giant within the [[European Union]].<ref name="Gardner"/>

==Mixed socialist economies==

The concept of a mixed economy is not exclusive to capitalist economies (economies structured upon [[capital accumulation]] and privately owned, profit-seeking enterprises), and the phrase has been used to characterise some socialist economic systems. A number of proposals for socialist systems call for a mixture of different forms of enterprise ownership. For example, [[Alec Nove]]'s conception of ''feasible socialism'' provides an outline for an economic system based on a combination of state-enterprises for large industries, worker and consumer cooperatives, private enterprises for small-scale operations, and individually owned enterprises.<ref>Feasible Socialism: Market or Plan – Or Both: http://www.whatnextjournal.co.uk/Pages/Ratner/Feassoc.html</ref>

The social democratic theorist [[Eduard Bernstein]] advocated a form of mixed economy, believing that a mixed system of [[Public enterprise|public]], [[cooperative]] and [[private enterprise]] would be necessary for a long period of time before capitalism would evolve of its own accord into socialism.<ref name="Steger, Manfred B. 1997. pg. 146">Steger, Manfred B. ''The Quest for Evolutionary Socialism: Eduard Bernstein And Social Democracy''. Cambridge, England, UK; New York, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1997. pg. 146.</ref>

==See also==
{{div col |colwidth=20em}}
*[[Centrism]]
*[[Christian democracy]]
*[[Economic interventionism]]
*[[Economic system]]
*[[Fascist economics]]
*[[Keynesian economics]]
*[[Nationalization]]
*[[Political economy]]
*[[Public-private partnership]]
*[[Public sector]]
*[[Radical center (politics)|Radical center]]
*[[Regulation]]
*[[Social democracy]]
*[[Social liberalism]]
*[[Third Way (centrism)|Third Way]]
*[[Third Position]]
*[[Capitalism#Types of capitalism|Types of capitalism]]
*[[Welfare state]]
{{div col end}}
{{-}}

===Mixed economic systems===
*[[American School (economics)|American School]]
*[[Corporatism|Corporatist economy]]
*[[Dirigisme]]
*[[Distributism]]
*[[Nordic model]]
*[[Rhine capitalism]]
*[[Social corporatism]]
*[[Social market economy]]
*[[Socialist market economy]]
*[[State-sponsored capitalism]]
*[[Welfare capitalism]]

==Further reading==

{{Refbegin|2}}
*Rosin, Kirk (“Economic theory and the welfare state: a survey and interpretation.” ''Journal of Economic Literature'', 30(2): 741-803. 1992, a review essay looking at the economics literature
* Buckwitz, George D. (1991) ''America’s Welfare State: From Roosevelt to Reagan.'' The Johns Hopkins University Press.
* Buchanan, James M. (1986) ''Liberty, Market and State: Political Economy in the 1980s'' New York University Press.
* Gross, Kyle B. (1991) The Politics of State Expansion: War, State and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain. New York: Routledge.
* Derthick, Martha and Paul J. Quirk (1985) The Politics of Deregulation. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution.
* Sanford Ikeda; ''Dynamics of the Mixed Economy: Toward a Theory of Interventionism'' London: Routledge 1997
{{Refend}}

==Sources and notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mixed Economy}}
[[Category:Economies]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Economic systems]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Social democracy]]
[[Category:Welfare state]]
[[Category:Welfare economics]]
[[Category:Capitalism]]

Internierungslager in Frankreich

2014-10-23T06:09:43Z

108.195.139.183: :fr:Maurice Rajsfus

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-L13979, Frankreich, Ankleben von Aufrufen durch PK.jpg|thumb|right|250px|German soldiers posting notices for [[refugees]] and [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] in France, May 1940]]
There were [[internment camp]]s and [[concentration camp]]s in France before, during and after World War II. Beside the camps created during [[World War I]] to intern German, Austrian and [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] [[civilian]] prisoners, the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] (1871–1940) opened various internment camps for the Spanish [[political refugee|refugee]]s fleeing the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939). Following the prohibition of the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF) by the government of [[Édouard Daladier]], they were used to detain communist [[political prisoner]]s. The Third Republic also interned German [[anti-Nazi]]s (mostly members of the [[Communist Party of Germany]], KPD).

Then, after the 10 July 1940 vote of [[full powers]] to Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] and the proclamation of the '' État français'' ([[Vichy France|Vichy regime]]), these camps were used to intern [[Jew]]ish people, [[Romani people|Gypsies]], and various political prisoners ([[anti-fascist]]s from all countries). Vichy opened up so many camps that it became a full economic sector, to the extent that historian {{ill|fr|Maurice Rajsfus}} writes: "The quick opening of new camps created jobs, and the [[Gendarmerie]] never ceased to hire during this period."<ref>[[Maurice Rajsfus]], ''Drancy, un camp de concentration très ordinaire'', Cherche Midi éditeur (2005).</ref> In any case, most of these camps were closed definitively after the [[Western Front (World War II)#Liberation of France|liberation of France]] at the end of World War II. Some were however used during the [[Algerian War]] (1954–1962). Several of these were then used to intern ''[[harki]]s'' (Algerians who had fought on the French side) after the 19 March 1962 [[Évian Accords]]. Finally, the [[Camp de Rivesaltes]] in the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]] and the camp of [[Bourg-Lastic]] in the [[Puy de Dôme]] were also used to intern [[Kurds in Iraq|Kurdish]] refugees from [[Iraq]] in the 1980s.

== Before World War II ==
The first internment camps were opened during the First World War (1914–1918) to detain civilian prisoners (mainly German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman). These prisoners were detained in [[Pontmain]] in the [[French departments|department]] of [[Mayenne]], [[Fort-Barreaux]] in [[Isère]],<ref name=MB45>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |pages=145–146 }} {{fr icon}}</ref> in the military camp of [[Graveson]] ([[Bouches-du-Rhône]]),<ref name=Bern>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |pages=142–143 }} {{fr icon}}</ref> in [[Frigolet]][http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:ilqICnCRDNUJ:www.archives13.fr/archives13/CG13/cache/bypass/pid/61%3Bjsessionid%3DFE35FE92BAA56B4C0829CBDF654C7913%3FallChapters%3Dfalse%26chapter%3D525+Frigolet+prison+pendant+la+2e+guerre+mondiale&cd=3&hl=fr&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=firefox-a] near [[Tarascon]] (Bouches-du-Rhône), [[Noirlac]] (Abbey) ([[Cher (department)|Cher]]), and [[Ajain]]([[Creuse]]).<ref name=Bern/>

Other internment camps were used for [[Armenians]] in the 1920s-1930s (Mirabeau camp, Victor Hugo camp and Oddo Camp in [[Marseille]]);<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=130 }} {{fr icon}}</ref> [[Romani people|Gypsie]]s after the 1912 Act on nomadism<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=132 }} {{fr icon}}</ref> (for instance in the [[Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans]], but also in iron mines in the Manche and other disaffected industrial centers in [[Mayenne]], in the [[Manche]], in [[Loire-Atlantique]], in the [[Sarthe]], in the [[Maine-et-Loire]], etc.<ref name=MB45/>).
[[Image:RivesaltesMemorial2.jpg|thumb|Commemorative [[stele]] for survivors of the [[Spanish Civil War|retirada]] at [[Camp de Rivesaltes]].]]

But the most famous internment camps before World War II were used to receive the [[Republicanism|Republican]] [[political refugee|refugee]]s during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. These were interned mostly in the [[Roussillon]] Province, although internment camps were established in all of French territory, even in [[Brittany]], in the north-west of France. These camps were located in:

*[[Agde]] in the [[Hérault]] department (near [[Montpellier]])
*[[Argelès-sur-Mer]], between [[Perpignan]] and the border
*[[Gurs internment camp|Camp Gurs]] in the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]], which received Spanish refugees following the defeat of the [[Spanish Second Republic|Spanish Republic]]. These were distinguished by the French state into [[International Brigades|Brigadists]], ''[[Euzko Gudarostea|gudari]]s'' ([[Basque nationalist]]s) who had escaped from the [[Battle of Santander|siege of Santander]], pilots, and farmers. The latter had trades that were in low demand, and the French government, in agreement with the Francoist government, incited them to return to Spain. The great majority did so and were turned over to the Francoist authorities in [[Irún]]. From there they were transferred to the [[Miranda de Ebro]] camp for purification according to the [[Law of Political Responsibilities]].
*[[Camp Vernet]] near [[Pamiers]], in the [[Ariège]].
*[[Moisdon-la-Rivière]] and [[Juigné-des-Moutiers]] in [[Loire-Atlantique]] department (Brittany).<ref>[http://www.moisdon-la-riviere.org/articles.php?lng=fr&pg=124 Moisdon-la-Rivière - Les Espagnols Internés à Moisdon-la-Rivière] and [http://www.chateaubriant.org/SPIP-v1-8-2-d/article.php3?id_article=76#cam Le Camp de La Forge] in Moisdon-la-Rivière</ref>
* The [[Camp de Rivesaltes]], in the department of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]]. The Jewish detainees were sent to [[Drancy internment camp]], near Paris, the Gypsies to [[Saliers]] and the [[Spaniards]] to [[camp Gurs]].<ref>[http://www.apra.asso.fr/Camps/Camp-Rivesaltes.html Camp de Rivesaltes]</ref>

To these camps must be added the camps for the German prisoners in 1939 (sometimes overlapping with those above), and those of the [[French Colonial Empire|Colonial Empire]], not well known in Europe.

Furthermore, the Chilean poet [[Pablo Neruda]], who had been named Consul in Paris for Immigration, organized the transportation to Chile of 2,200 Spanish refugees who had been detained in the camps on board the ''[[Winnipeg (ship)|Winnipeg]]'', which departed on 2 August 1939, and arrived in [[Valparaíso]] at the beginning of September 1939.

== During World War II and the Vichy regime ==
{{Further|Vichy France}}
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-720-0318-36, Frankreich, Milizionär bewacht Widerstandskämpfer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|French [[Milice]] guard watching [[resistants]]]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10921, Frankreich, Paris, Registrierung verhafteter Juden.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Arrest of [[Jews]] in France, August 1941]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10922, Frankreich, Paris, festgenommene Juden.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Arrest of [[Jews]] in France, August 1941]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10813, Frankreich, Paris, Festnahme von Juden.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Arrest of a [[Jewish]] man by the [[French police]] in Paris, during the roundup of 20 August 1941]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10816, Frankreich, Paris, Judenverfolgung.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Arrest of [[Jews]] by the [[French police]] in Paris, August 1941]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10817, Frankreich, Paris, verhaftete Juden.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Jewish]] prisoners in France, August 1941]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10919, Frankreich, Paris, festgenommene Juden im Lager.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Jewish]] prisoners in France, August 1941]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10920, Frankreich, Paris, festgenommene Juden im Lager.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Jewish]] prisoners in France, August 1941]]
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S69238, Frankreich, Internierungslager Pithiviers.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[French Police]] checking new inmates in the camp [[Pithiviers]]]]
[[Image:DrancyConcentrationCamp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[internment camp]] at [[Drancy internment camp|Drancy]], outside Paris, where Jews were confined until they were deported to the [[death camps]].]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10923, Frankreich, Paris, festgenommene Juden.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Jewish]] prisoners in France, August 1941]]
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-1983-077-13A, Frankreich, Einsatz gegen die Resistance.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[communist]] [[French Resistance|Resistance]] prisoner in France, July 1944]]

As early as 1939, the existing camps were indiscriminately filled with German [[anti-Nazi]]s ([[German Communist Party|Communists]], German Jews, etc.) or pro-Nazi Germans or also Nazi [[prisoners of war]]{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}. Following the 1940 [[Battle of France|defeat]], and the 10 July 1940 vote of full powers installing the Vichy regime, these camps were filled with Jews, first with foreign Jews, then indifferently with foreign and [[French citizens|French]] Jews. The Vichy government would progressively hand them up to the [[Gestapo]], and they would all transit by [[Drancy internment camp]], the last stop before [[concentration camp]]s in the [[Third Reich]] and in [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[extermination camp]]s.

Beside Jews, Germans and Austrians were immediately rounded-up in camps, as well as Spanish refugees, who were later deported. 5,000 Spaniards thus died in [[Mauthausen concentration camp]].<ref name=Cite>[http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/index.php?lg=fr&nav=20&flash=0 Film documentary] on the website of the ''[[Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration]]'' {{fr icon}}</ref> The French colonial soldiers were interned by the Germans on French territory, instead of being deported.<ref name=Cite/>

The Third Republic and the Vichy regime would successively call these places "reception camps" ("''camps d'accueil''"), "internment camps" ("''camps d'internement''"), "sojourn camps" ("''camps de séjour''"), "guarded sojourn camps" ("''camps de séjour surveillés''"), "prisoner camps" ("''camps de prisonniers''"), etc. Another category was created by the Vichy regime: the "transit camps" (''"camps de transit''"), referring to the fact the detainees were to be deported to Germany. Such "transit camps" included [[Drancy internment camp|Drancy]], [[Pithiviers]], etc.

During the 1943 "[[Battle of Marseille]]" and urban scaping operations in the center of town, 20,000 people were expelled from their homes and interned during several months in military camps nearby [[Fréjus]] ([[La Lègue]], [[Caïs]] and [[Puget]]).<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=129 }} {{fr icon}}</ref>

There were no [[extermination camp]]s in France. However, the camp of [[Struthof]], or [[Natzweiler-Struthof]], in [[Alsace]], which is the only concentration camp created by Nazis on French territory (annexed by the Third Reich) did include a [[gas chamber]] which was used to exterminate at least 86 detainees (mostly Jewish) with the aim of constituting a collection of preserved skeletons (as this mode of execution did no damage to the skeletons themselves) for the use of Nazi professor [[August Hirt]].

== World War II camps ==
* [[Aincourt]], in [[Seine-et-Oise]], is the first internment camp in the Northern Zone. It was opened on October 5, 1940, and quickly filled with members of the [[French Communist Party]] (PCF)<ref>[http://www.aloufok.net/article.php3?id_article=551 Aincourt, camp d’internement et centre de tri]</ref>
* [[Les Alliers]], near [[Angoulême]], in [[Charente]]
* [[Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans]] (Saline royale d'Arc-et-Senans) in the [[Doubs]], used for Gypsies<ref>[http://www.cheminsdememoire.gouv.fr/page/affichelieu.php?idLang=fr&idLieu=1207 Saline royale d'Arc et Senans (25) - L'internement des Tsiganes]</ref>
* [[Avrillé-les-Ponceaux]] in [[Indre-et-Loire]], camp of the Morellerie for Gypsies
* [[Le Barcarès]] in the [[Roussillon]]
* [[Beaune-la-Rolande internment camp]] at [[Beaune-la-Rolande]] in the [[Loiret]]
* [[Bourg-Lastic]] in the [[Puy de Dôme]], a former military camp where Jews where detained ([[André Glucksmann]] was detained there during four years). The camp was used to intern [[Harki]]s in the 1960s and [[Kurds in Iraq|Kurdish]] refugees from Iraq in the 1980s (see below).
* [[Bram, Aude|Bram]] in the [[Aude]] (1939–1940)
* [[Brens, Tarn|Brens]] in the [[Tarn, France|Tarn]], near [[Gaillac]] (1939–1940)
* [[Choiseul Camp|Choiseul]], in [[Chateaubriant]] in [[Brittany]], in [[Loire-Atlantique]] (1941–1942)<ref>[http://www.apra.asso.fr/Camps/Camp-Chateaubriant.html Camp de Chateaubriant]</ref>
* [[Camp of Royallieu]] in [[Compiègne]] in [[Picardie]] (June 1941 to August 1944). It was used to intern the Jewish detainees arrested during the January 1943 [[Battle of Marseille]]. [[Robert Desnos]] (1900–1945) and famous French Resistant [[Jean Moulin]] (1899–1943) transited through this camp.
* [[Coudrecieux]] in the [[Sarthe]], used to intern Gypsies
* [[Douadic]] in the [[Indre]] department
* [[Drancy internment camp]]: On 20 August 1941, French police conducted raids throughout the 11th ''arrondissement'' (district) of Paris and arrested more than 4,000 Jews, mainly foreign or stateless Jews. French authorities interned these Jews in Drancy, marking its official opening. French police enclosed a police barrack with barbed-wire fencing and provided ''[[Gendarmerie]]'' to guard the camp. Drancy fell under the command of the Gestapo Office of Jewish Affairs in France and German SS Captain Theodor Dannecker. Five subcamps of Drancy were located throughout Paris (three of which were the Austerlitz, Lévitan and Bassano camps)<ref>United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005215&MediaId=1580 "Drancy" article] for the ''Holocaust Encyclopedia'' (accessed July 5, 2009).</ref>
* [[Fort-Barraux]] in the department of [[Isère]].<ref>[http://www.resistance-en-isere.com/Commun/docs/1/Doc155.PDF Le Centre de séjour surveillé de Fort-Barraux]</ref> It had already been used as a prison during the [[French Revolution]]; [[Antoine Barnave]] was imprisoned there.
* [[Gurs internment camp]] in the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]]), created in 1939 for the Spanish refugees. During the [[Phony War]], the Third Republic used it to intern "''indésirables''", that is Germans who were found in France, without regard to ethnicity or political orientation, as foreign citizens of an enemy power. Among them stands out a significant number of [[German Jew]]s who had fled the very [[Nazi]] regime; citizens of countries who were in the orbit of the Reich, like [[Anschluss|Austria]], [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]], [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]], or [[General Government|Poland]]; French activists of the [[Left-wing politics|left]] ([[trade unionists]], [[socialism|socialists]], [[anarchism|anarchists]], and especially, communists), following the proscription of the ''Parti Communiste Français'' (PCF) by Daladier after the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact|German-Soviet Non-aggression Pact]]; the first of these arrived 21 June 1940, and the majority were relocated in other camps before the end of the year. In Gurs were also interned during this period: [[anti-militarist]]s, representatives of the French extreme right who sympathized with the Nazi regime, ordinary prisoners evacuated from prisons in the north of the country ahead of the German advance, common criminals awaiting trial. Then, under Vichy, Camp Gurs was used to detain foreign Jews, German Jews deported by the SS from Germany, persons who had illegally crossed the border of the zone occupied by the Germans, Spaniards fleeing [[Francoist Spain]], Spaniards coming from other camps that had been condemned for being uninhabitable or due to their scarce contingent, [[Stateless person|stateless]] persons, people involved in prostitution, homosexuals, Gypsies and indigents.
* [[Jargeau]], near [[Orléans]], used for the internment of Gypsies
* [[Lalande, Yonne|Lalande]] in the [[Yonne]],
* [[Linas-Montlhéry]] in the [[Seine-et-Oise]] for Gypsies
* [[Marolles, Loir-et-Cher|Marolles]] in the [[Loir-et-Cher]]
* [[Masseube]] in the [[Gers]]
* [[Les Mazures]] in the [[Ardennes]] department, where a ''[[Judenlager]]'' was opened from July 1942 to January 1944
* [[Mérignac, Gironde|Mérignac]] in the [[Gironde]]. This is where [[Maurice Papon]] had Jews of the [[Bordeaux]] region interned before going to Drancy. Among others, [[Robert Aron]] was detained there.
* [[Meslay-du-Maine]], in [[Mayenne]] department (1939–1940) [[Leon Askin]] held here 1939}
* [[Camp des Milles]] near [[Aix-en-Provence]] in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]], which was the largest internment camp in the southeast of France. 2,500 Jews were deported from there following the [[August 1942 raids]]. Novelist [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], [[Surrealist]] artists [[Hans Bellmer]] and [[Max Ernst]] were among the most famous inmates detained in this concentration camp.<ref>[http://www.jewishtraces.org/recherche.php Listes des internés du camp des Milles 1941 ]</ref>
* [[Montceau-les-Mines]]
* [[Nexon, Haute-Vienne|Nexon]] in the [[Haute-Vienne]]
* [[Noé, Haute-Garonne|Noé]] - [[Mauzac, Haute-Garonne|Mauzac]] in the [[Haute-Garonne]]
* [[Montreuil-Bellay]] in the [[Maine-et-Loire]], created to intern Gypsies
* [[Les Tourelles]] in Paris
* [[Pithiviers transit camp]] in [[Pithiviers]]. Jewish novelist [[Irène Némirovsky]] (1903–1942) was interned there.
* [[Poitiers]] in the [[Vienne]] department to intern Gypsies
* [[Port-Louis, Morbihan|Port-Louis]], in [[Morbihan]], in the fort
* [[Recebedou]], in [[Haute-Garonne]], in the suburbs of [[Toulouse]]<ref>[http://www.jewishtraces.org/recherche.php Liste des internés transférés à Drancy]</ref>
* [[Camp of Rieucros]] in [[Lozère]] (the mathematician [[Alexander Grothendieck]] was interned there)
* The [[Camp de Rivesaltes]], in the [[Pyrénées Orientales]], "The Drancy of the zone sud";<ref>[http://www.jewishtraces.org/recherche.php Liste des internés transférés à Drancy]</ref>
* ''[[Fort de Romainville]]'' ("Fort of Romainville"), was a [[Nazi]] prison, located in the outskirts of Paris. The Fort was invested in 1940 by the German military and transformed into a prison. From there, resistance members and hostages were directed to the [[Nazi concentration camps]]: 3,900 women and 3,100 men were interned before being deported to [[Auschwitz]], [[Ravensbrück]], [[Buchenwald]] and [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]]. 152 persons were executed by firing-squad in the Fort itself. A few escaped, such as [[Pierre Georges]], alias "[[Colonel Fabien]]." From her cell, [[Danielle Casanova]], motivated and encouraged her comrades to confront their torturers.<ref>[http://www.memoresist.org/lieux.php# site de Mémoire et espoir de la Résistance]</ref> From October 1940, the Fort held only female prisoners (resistance members and hostages), who were jailed, executed or redirected to the Nazi concentration camps outside of France. At the time of the Liberation in August 1944, many abandoned corpses were found in the [[Fort de Romainville|Fort]]'s yard.
* [[Saint-Cyprien, Pyrénées-Orientales|Saint-Cyprien]] in the [[Pyrénées-Orientales]]. 90,000 Spanish refugees were interned there in March 1939, and it was officially closed on 19 December 1940 for "sanitary reasons", its occupants transferred to the [[Gurs internment camp|Camp of Gurs]].<ref>[http://www.jewishtraces.org/recherche.php Liste des internés transférés à Gurs]</ref>
* [[Saint-Maurice-aux-Riches-Hommes]] in the [[Yonne]], for Gypsies
* [[Saint-Paul d'Eyjeaux]] in the [[Haute-Vienne]]
* [[Saint-Sulpice-la-Pointe]]. Located near Toulouse, this transit camp was set up after the beginning of the [[Phony War]]. It was to house "individuals representing a danger to national security" - mostly militant communists. In June 1940, with the first German attacks on the Soviet Union, people with Russian citizenship were interned there. Later, foreign Jews who had been living in hiding in the south of France and were rounded up in the summer of 1942 were also sent to the camp. The inmates, especially the communists, organized many cultural activities, a "little university", in which each one contributed their knowledge for the collective good. From the summer of 1942 to the closing of the camp in August 1944, most of its inmates were deported to camps in Eastern Europe, to Auschwitz and Buchenwald.<ref>[http://holocaust-education.net/explore.asp?langid=1&submenu=201&id=17 Saint-Sulpice-la-Pointe Camp] (note confusion about dates concerning the Phony War) {{en icon}}</ref>
* [[Saliers concentration camp]] near [[Arles]] in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]], interned Gypsies
* [[Schirmeck]] in [[Alsace]] in the part not annexed by the Third Reich
* [[Septfonds]]
* [[Thil, Meurthe-et-Moselle|Thil]] in [[Meurthe-et-Moselle]]
* [[Camp Vernet|Le Vernet Internment Camp]] in the [[Ariège]] which concentrated 12,000 Spanish refugees as early as 1939. It was used later on for the internment of the harkis.
* [[Vittel]] in the [[Vosges (department)|Vosges]] department, where US or British citizens were interned
* [[Voves]] in the [[Eure-et-Loir]]
* [[Woippy]] in the department of [[Moselle]], created in 1943.

== Camps under foreign authorities ==

The Nazis also opened [[Struthof]] in Alsace (in the part annexed by the Reich).

The United States military police also possessed legal authority over the camp in [[Septèmes-les-Vallons]], in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=53 }} {{fr icon}}</ref>

=== Ilags ===
{{Further|Ilag}}
''Ilag'' (for ''Internierunslager'') were internment camps established by the [[German Army (1935–45)|German Army]] to hold [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] civilians, captured in areas that were occupied by the Germans. They included US citizens caught in Europe by surprise when the war was declared in December 1941 and citizens of the British Commonwealth caught in areas engulfed by the [[Blitzkrieg]].
* [[Besançon]] in the Doubs (in the [[Vauban]] barracks). Also called ''Frontstalag 142'', it was actually an [[Ilag]] (''Internierunslager''): internment camps established by the German Army to hold Allied civilians, caught in areas that were occupied by the Germans. They included United States citizens caught in Europe by surprise when the war was declared in December 1941 and citizens of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] trapped in the 1940 [[Blitzkrieg]].
At the end of 1940, 2,400 women, mostly British, were interned in the Vauban barracks and another five hundred, old and sick, in the St. Jacques hospital close by. In early 1941, many of them were released, the rest were transferred to [[Vittel]].
* [[Saint-Denis]], near Paris. Located in the barracks, the camp was opened in June 1940 and remained in use until liberated by the [[United States Army]] in August 1944. Part of the grounds were surrounded by barbed wire to provide open space for exercise. In early 1942, there were more than 1,000 male British internees in the camp. The meager food rations were augmented by the [[International Red Cross]] packages, so that overall their diet was satisfactory. Life was tolerable because there was a good library and recreation was provided by sports activities and theater<ref>[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Pris-_N82251.html New Zealand report p.146]</ref>
*[[Vittel]], ''Frontstalag 121'' was located in requisitioned hotels in this [[spa]] near [[Epinal]] in the [[Vosges (department)|Vosges]] department. Most of the British families and single women were transferred here from Saint-Denis and Besançon. In early 1942, women over sixty, men over seventy-five and children under sixteen were released. The overall population was thus reduced to about 2,400. The inmates included a number of North-American families and women.

== Colonial administration ==

Although not architecturally conceived as an internment camp, the [[Winter Velodrome|''Vel' d'Hiv'']] (Winter Velodrome) was used during the [[Vel' d'Hiv Roundup|July 1942 Roundup]]. Most internment camps, however, were not conceived as such.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 }} {{fr icon}}</ref> The ''Vel d'Hiv'' was also used during the [[Algerian War]] (''see below'').

In the colonial empire, Vichy created in [[French rule in Algeria|Algeria]] and in [[Morocco]] [[labour camp]]s ("''camps de travail''") for Jews in:<ref name="Satloff2006">{{cite book |last=Satloff |first=Robert |title=Among the Righteous: Lost Stories from the Holocausts Long Reach into Arab Lands |location=New York |publisher=Public Affairs |year=2006 |page=67 |isbn=1586483994 }}</ref>
* [[Abadla]], Algeria
* [[Ain el Ourak]]
* [[Bechar]], Algeria
* [[Berguent]]
* [[Bogari]]
* [[Bouarfa]]
* [[Djefa]]
* [[Kenadsa]]
* [[Meridja]]
* [[Missour]], Morocco
* [[Tendrara]]

== The Liberation ==

=== German prisoners of war ===
Camps were also used after the Liberation to intern German prisoners. In [[Rennes]], after [[George S. Patton|General Patton]]'s [[United States Third Army]] liberated the city on 4 August 1944, about 50,000 German prisoners were kept in four camps in a city of 100,000 inhabitants at the time.

In the [[Camp de Rivesaltes]], the German prisoners worked extensively in the reconstruction of [[Pyrénées-Orientales]], but between May 1945 and 1946, 412 German prisoners of war died in the camp{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}.

== After World War II ==

=== Indochina war ===
Internment camps were used to receive French from [[Indochina]] following the end of the [[First Indochina War|Indochina War]] in 1954,<ref name=MB125>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |pages=125–126 }} {{fr icon}}</ref> as well as approximatively 9,000 [[Hungary|Hungarian]] refugees following the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956|Budapest insurrection]] of 1956 (in [[Annecy]], [[Colmar]]—''Caserne Valter''—, in [[Gap, Hautes-Alpes|Gap]], in [[Le Havre]], in [[Metz]]—''Caserne Raffenel'', in [[Montdauphin]], in [[Montluçon]]—''Caserne de Richemond''—, in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] (''camp de Chatelleraud''), in [[Poitiers]], in [[Rennes]], in [[Rouen]], in [[Strasbourg]]—''caserne Stirn''—and in [[Valdahon]]).<ref name=MB125/> Humanitarian concerns largely intertwined with repressive aims, and internment restrictions and assistance given to populations varied widely (Hungarian refugees were better treated than French from Indochina<ref name=MB125/>).

=== Algerian war ===
Internment was also put to use during the [[Algerian War]] (1954–1962), generally under the name of "''camps de regroupement''" ("regrouping camps"). Within Algeria, the colonial administration used a form of camps as a [[counter-insurgency]] tactic, with up to 2 millions civilians being [[population transfer|internally deported]] in ''villages de regroupement''<ref>{{cite book |first=Marc |last=Bernardot |title=Camps d'étrangers |publisher=Terra |location=Paris |year=2008 |isbn=9782914968409 |page=127 }} {{fr icon}}</ref>) to prevent their falling under the influence of the opposing [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN forces]]. were brought to French metropolitan territory.

In France, some camps used under Vichy were opened again, in Paris in particular, to hold suspected FLN and other Algerian independentists.

=== The Harkis ===
Internment camps were also used to intern the [[harki]]s (Algerians who fought on the French Army's side) after the 19 March 1962 [[Évian Accords]] which put an official end to the war. Finally, the ''Camp de Rivesaltes'' in the ''Pyrénées-Orientales'', and ''Bourg-Lastic'' in the ''Puy de Dôme'', used to intern Jews, were also used to intern harkis in the 1960s, and Kurdish refugees from Iraq in the 1980s.

== See also ==

* [[The Holocaust]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
*{{cite book |title=La SNCF sous l'Occupation allemande |publisher=Institut du temps présent, [[CNRS]] |year=1996 }}
*{{cite book |authorlink=Maurice Rajsfus |last=Rajsfus |first=Maurice |title=Drancy, un camp de concentration très ordinaire, 1941–1944 |publisher=Le Cherche-midi éditeur |year=2005 |isbn=2-86274-435-2 }}
*{{cite journal |authorlink=Madeleine Steinberg |last=Steinbeck |first=Madeleine |title=Les camps de Besançon et de Vittel |journal=Le Monde Juif |volume=137 |date=January–March 1990 }}
*{{cite book |last=Fontaine |first=Thomas |title=Les oubliés de Romainville. Un camp allemand en France (1940–1944) |location=Paris |publisher=Taillandier |year=2005 |isbn=2847342176 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/france/camps.asp Concentration Camps in France] at the online exhibition '''The Holocaust in France''' at [[Yad Vashem]] website
*[http://memoire.mylinea.com/camps_en_france Camps en France]
*[http://www.souviens-toi.org/aider.html]
*[http://www.souviens-toi.org/iti_lieux.html]
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/d-d.natanson/carte_des_camps_en_France.htm Map]
*[http://www.apra.asso.fr/Camps/Fr/Carte-Camps.html Map]
*[http://www.exilordinaire.org/recherche.php]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Concentration Camps In France}}
[[Category:Concentration camps in France| ]]
[[Category:20th century in France]]
[[Category:Nazi concentration camps in France|*]]